FrathWiki:Upload log

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  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Upload log</title>
    <id>1</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3365</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-29T16:17:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>uploaded &quot;Qanao_Abugida.png&quot;: Oops, misspelling...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of the most recent file uploads.
All times shown are server time (UTC).
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;16:17, 29 Mar 2005 [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Qanao_Abugida.png|Qanao_Abugida.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Oops, misspelling...)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;16:16, 29 Mar 2005 [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png|Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Oops, misspelling...)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:21, 29 Mar 2005 [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Qanao_Abugida.png|Qanao_Abugida.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Qana&amp;#39;öžjinatos native script)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:18, 29 Mar 2005 [[User:Zhen Lin|Zhen Lin]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png|Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Qana&amp;#39;öžjinaet written in native script)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;06:56, 29 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Grammar_of_Saxon_English.pdf|Grammar_of_Saxon_English.pdf]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(PDF of &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Grammar of Saxon English]], as of 28 January 2005.  )&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;05:28, 20 Nov 2004 [[User:Bicoherent|Bicoherent]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Patsi.gif|Patsi.gif]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Add society, views on Earth)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;18:59, 8 Nov 2004 [[User:Bicoherent|Bicoherent]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Patsi.gif|Patsi.gif]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Updated 2004-11-08)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;04:50, 1 Nov 2004 [[User:Bicoherent|Bicoherent]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Patsi.gif|Patsi.gif]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Description of Tilawa language, Patsi alphabet, etc.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;17:12, 16 Oct 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Kirumb-small-letter-angma.png|Kirumb-small-letter-angma.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Kirumb small letter aŋma)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;16:49, 16 Oct 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Kirumb-small-letter-pee.png|Kirumb-small-letter-pee.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Kirumb small letter pē)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;16:12, 16 Oct 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Kirumb-small-letter-saadi.png|Kirumb-small-letter-saadi.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Kirumb small letter śādī)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;16:08, 16 Oct 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Kirumb-capital-letter-saadi.png|Kirumb-capital-letter-saadi.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Kirumb capital letter śādī.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;00:31, 24 Sep 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Conflag_med.png|Conflag_med.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Conlang Flag)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;16:22, 28 Jun 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] uploaded &quot;[[:Image:Trentish-tlambda.png|Trentish-tlambda.png]]&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Trentish letter tlambda)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;/ul&gt;
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Deletion log</title>
    <id>2</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3366</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-30T18:18:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>deleted &quot;Romance languages&quot;: [Spam]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of the most recent deletions.
All times shown are server time (UTC).
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;18:18, 30 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Romance languages&quot; &lt;em&gt;(&amp;#91;Spam])&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:40, 16 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Qanaer language&quot; &lt;em&gt;(deleted on request of creator)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:40, 16 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Qanaer grammar&quot; &lt;em&gt;(deleted on request of creator)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:39, 16 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Qanaer lexicon&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Deleted on request of creator)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;12:39, 13 Sep 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Av.definition&quot; &lt;em&gt;(off-topic contribution by anonymous user (what&amp;#39;s the relevance?))&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;12:38, 13 Sep 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Php.definition&quot; &lt;em&gt;(off-topic contribution by anonymous user (what&amp;#39;s the relevance?))&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;12:38, 13 Sep 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Linux.definition&quot; &lt;em&gt;(off-topic contribution by anonymous user (what&amp;#39;s the relevance?))&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;00:52, 16 Aug 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Image:Trentish-tlambda.png&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Don&amp;#39;t need this anymore.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;03:39, 11 Aug 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;User talk:Talk:Atlanliŋwa&quot; &lt;em&gt;(Mistaken URL)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;20:45, 29 Jul 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] restored &quot;FrathWiki:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License&quot;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;19:42, 30 Jun 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Sirius/Lexicon&quot; &lt;em&gt;(content was: &amp;#39;#REDIRECT &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Sirius_Lexicon]]&amp;#39;)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;17:02, 25 Jun 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Trentish/Morphology&quot; &lt;em&gt;(moved to &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Trentish_Morphology]])&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;17:02, 25 Jun 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;Trentish/Lexicon&quot; &lt;em&gt;(moved to &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Trentish_Lexicon]])&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;21:14, 12 May 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] deleted &quot;FrathWiki:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License&quot; &lt;em&gt;(changing from GFDL to CC)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;/ul&gt;
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Protection log</title>
    <id>3</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3367</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-31T19:54:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>protected [[FrathWiki:Copyrights]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;19:54, 31 May 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] protected [[FrathWiki:Copyrights]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;19:32, 12 May 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] protected [[FrathWiki:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License]]&lt;/li&gt;
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Block log</title>
    <id>4</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3368</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-15T15:29:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>blocked &quot;82.194.62.9&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours: Spamming [[Trentish Phonology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;15:29, 15 Mar 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;82.194.62.9&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Spamming &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Trentish Phonology]])&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;18:19, 30 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;213.227.245.99&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Blocked for spamming porn on &amp;#91;&amp;#91;Romance languages]])&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;15:08, 24 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;80.68.242.97&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Spamming the front page.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;22:56, 17 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;221.192.169.230&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Spammage.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;23:29, 7 Jan 2005 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;60.55.58.50&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Spammage.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;14:13, 27 Dec 2004 [[User:Muke|Muke]] blocked &quot;60.55.58.64&quot; with an expiry time of 1000 hours &lt;em&gt;(Spammage.)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Main Page</title>
    <id>5</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48136</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T15:18:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jim Henry</username>
        <id>180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add [[Conlang terminology]] link (migrating it from the increasingly annoying Conlang Wikia)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;center&gt;{{CURRENTDAYNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}. Support:
[[Help:Free Unicode fonts|Fonts]] • [[Help:Editing|Editing a Page]] • [[FrathWiki:Naming conventions|Article Naming Conventions]] • [[Help:How does one start a page|Starting a Page]] • [[Help:Contents|General Help]]&lt;/center&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCFF; font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #8888AA;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
{{:Main Page/News banner}}


&lt;center&gt;
&lt;!--

START OF THE TWO-COLUMN PART

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| style=&quot;width: 50%; vertical-align: top; border:1px solid #8898BF; background-color: #F0F5FF&quot; |
&lt;!--

Introduction

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{{:Main Page/Introduction}}
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&lt;div style=&quot;background-color:#FAD97D; font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #D8BC6C;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin:5px; margin-top:5px&quot;&gt;[[Image:Crystal Clear app wp.png|48px]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font: 13pt Verdana; font-weight:bold; padding:5px; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;&quot;&gt;Topics&lt;/div&gt;
:[[:Category:Linguistics|Natural languages]]
:[[:Category:Conlangs|Conlangs]]
:[[:Category:Conscripts|Conscripts]]
:[[:Category:Conworlds|Conworlds]]
:[[Conlang comparison]]
:[[Conlang terminology]]
:[[Our Father|Lord's Prayer translations]]
:[[:Category:Conlang relays|Conlang relays]]
:[[List of mailing lists|Mailing lists]]
:[[Learners_shortlist|Conlang Learners Project]]
:[[FrathWiki:Templates|Templates for use in articles]]
:[http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/frathwiki/ FrathWiki @ Yahoo]
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:9pt; padding:4px; margin:1px 4px;&quot;&gt;

&lt;/div&gt;
|-
&lt;!-- 

FrathWiki in other languages 

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&lt;div style=&quot;background-color:#AADDAA; font-size:1px; height:8px; border-bottom:1px solid #97BF87;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
{{:Main Page/Other languages}}
|-
&lt;!--</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Aboutpage</title>
    <id>8</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3372</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:24:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ns:4}}:About</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Aboutwikipedia</title>
    <id>9</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3373</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:27:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">About {{SITENAME}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Addedwatchtext</title>
    <id>14</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3378</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:28:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The page &quot;$1&quot; has been added to your [[{{ns:-1}}:Watchlist|watchlist]]. Future changes to this page and its associated Talk page will be listed there, and the page will appear '''bolded''' in the [[Special:Recentchanges|list of recent changes]] to make it easier to pick out. &lt;p&gt;If you want to remove the page from your watchlist later, click &quot;Stop watching&quot; in the sidebar.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Administrators</title>
    <id>15</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3379</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:31:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ns:4}}:Administrators</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Allmessages</title>
    <id>18</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3382</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">All messages</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Copyrightwarning</title>
    <id>89</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25262</id>
      <timestamp>2007-09-09T06:59:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Modularizing special character insertion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{FrathWiki:Special character insertion}}

&lt;hr&gt;
==== Copyright ====
Please note that all contributions to FrathWiki are considered to be released under the Creative Commons &quot;by-sa&quot; license (see $1 for details).
If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed
at will, then don't submit it here.&lt;br&gt;
You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a
public domain or similar free resource.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;strong&gt;DO NOT SUBMIT COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!&lt;/strong&gt;
__NOTOC__
__NOEDITSECTION__</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Edithelppage</title>
    <id>130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3494</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{ns:12}}:Editing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ns:12}}:Editing</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Emailforlost</title>
    <id>136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3500</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-07T01:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>++</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Fields marked with a star (*) are optional. Storing an email address enables people to contact you through the website without you having to reveal your email address to them, and it can be used to send you a new password if you forget it.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Your real name, if you choose to provide it, will be used for giving you attribution for your work.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Fileuploaded</title>
    <id>169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3533</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-07T01:02:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>++</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">File uploaded successfully. Please follow this link: $2 to the description page and fill in information about the file, such as where it came from, when it was created and by whom, and anything else you may know about it. If this is an image, you can insert it like this: &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:$1|thumb|Description]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Fromwikipedia</title>
    <id>171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3535</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-11T22:49:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not a free encyclopedia yet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">From FrathWiki.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Gnunote</title>
    <id>173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3537</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-31T19:50:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm nc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;br&gt;
&lt;!-- Creative Commons License --&gt;
Article texts are licensed under a &lt;a rel=&quot;license&quot; href=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/&quot;&gt;Creative Commons License&lt;/a&gt;.
&lt;!-- /Creative Commons License --&gt;


&lt;!--

&lt;rdf:RDF xmlns=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/&quot;
    xmlns:dc=&quot;http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/&quot;
    xmlns:rdf=&quot;http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#&quot;&gt;
&lt;Work rdf:about=&quot;&quot;&gt;
   &lt;license rdf:resource=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/Work&gt;

&lt;License rdf:about=&quot;http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/&quot;&gt;
   &lt;permits rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/Reproduction&quot; /&gt;
   &lt;permits rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/Distribution&quot; /&gt;
   &lt;requires rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/Notice&quot; /&gt;
   &lt;requires rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/Attribution&quot; /&gt;
   &lt;permits rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/DerivativeWorks&quot; /&gt;
   &lt;requires rdf:resource=&quot;http://web.resource.org/cc/ShareAlike&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/License&gt;

&lt;/rdf:RDF&gt;

--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Helppage</title>
    <id>180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3544</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:05:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{ns:12}}:Contents</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ns:12}}:Contents</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Histlegend</title>
    <id>184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3548</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-07T01:03:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>++</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Diff selection: mark the radio boxes of the versions to compare and hit enter or the button at the bottom.&lt;br/&gt; Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Login</title>
    <id>241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3605</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-26T18:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>log in → log in / create account</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Log in / Create account</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Newarticletext</title>
    <id>315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3679</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-07T01:08:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">You've followed a link to a page that doesn't exist yet.
To create the page, start typing in the box below 
(see the [[Help:Editing|help page]] for more info).
If you are here by mistake, just click your browser's '''back''' button.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Nogomatch</title>
    <id>338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5222</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-09T20:52:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>wikimarkup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">No page with this exact title exists, trying full text search.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Do you want to &lt;b&gt;[[$1|create an article with this title]]&lt;/b&gt;?</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Sitesupport</title>
    <id>480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3844</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-19T16:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Donations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Donations</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Uploadtext</title>
    <id>554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3918</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-23T21:03:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''STOP!''' Before you upload here, make sure to read and follow the [[Project:Image use policy|image use policy]]. To view or search previously uploaded images, go to the [[Special:Imagelist|list of uploaded images]]. Uploads and deletions are logged on the [[Project:Upload log|upload log]]. Use the form below to upload new image files for use in illustrating your pages. On most browsers, you will see a &quot;Browse...&quot; button, which will bring up your operating system's standard file open dialog. Choosing a file will fill the name of that file into the text field next to the button. You must also check the box affirming that you are not violating any copyrights by uploading the file. Press the &quot;Upload&quot; button to finish the upload. This may take some time if you have a slow internet connection. The preferred formats are JPEG for photographic images, PNG for drawings and other iconic images, and OGG for sounds. Please name your files descriptively to avoid confusion. To include the image in a page, use a link in the form '''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:file.jpg]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' or '''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:file.png|alt text]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' or '''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Media:file.ogg]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' for sounds. Please note that as with wiki pages, others may edit or delete your uploads if they think it serves the project, and you may be blocked from uploading if you abuse the system.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Userlogin</title>
    <id>557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3921</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-14T03:48:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Log in -&gt; Create an account or log in</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Create an account or log in</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:!Most wanted articles</title>
    <id>603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3968</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-05T05:17:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ol start=1&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Indo-European_languages&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Indo-European languages&quot;&gt;Indo-European languages&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Indo-European_languages&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;6 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Mood&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Mood&quot;&gt;Mood&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Mood&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;4 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Spanish&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Spanish&quot;&gt;Spanish&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Spanish&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;4 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Linguistics&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Linguistics&quot;&gt;Linguistics&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Linguistics&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;4 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Noun&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Noun&quot;&gt;Noun&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Noun&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Ancient Greek&quot;&gt;Ancient Greek&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Ancient_Greek&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Kirumb&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Kirumb&quot;&gt;Kirumb&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Kirumb&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=French&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;French&quot;&gt;French&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=French&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Germanic_languages&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Germanic languages&quot;&gt;Germanic languages&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Germanic_languages&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=List_of_language_families&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;List of language families&quot;&gt;List of language families&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=List_of_language_families&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Grammar&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Grammar&quot;&gt;Grammar&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Grammar&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;3 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Satem&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Satem&quot;&gt;Satem&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Satem&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Nother&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Nother&quot;&gt;Nother&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Nother&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Japanese&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Japanese&quot;&gt;Japanese&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Japanese&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Language&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Language&quot;&gt;Language&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Language&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Language_families_and_languages&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Language families and languages&quot;&gt;Language families and languages&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Language_families_and_languages&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Atlantia&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Atlantia&quot;&gt;Atlantia&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Atlantia&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Gender&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Gender&quot;&gt;Gender&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Gender&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Chinese&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Chinese&quot;&gt;Chinese&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Chinese&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Hadwan_languages&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Hadwan languages&quot;&gt;Hadwan languages&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Hadwan_languages&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Voice&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Voice&quot;&gt;Voice&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Voice&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Conjugation&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Conjugation&quot;&gt;Conjugation&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Conjugation&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Russian&amp;amp;action=edit&quot; class='new' title =&quot;Russian&quot;&gt;Russian&lt;/a&gt; (&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;amp;target=Russian&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Whatlinkshere&quot;&gt;2 links&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:All pages by title</title>
    <id>604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3969</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-29T21:23:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Special:Allpages&amp;amp;from=Arda&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Special:Allpages&quot;&gt;Arda&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; to &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;Âdlantki Lexicon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nother/Atlantic</title>
    <id>605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46380</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T21:44:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Examples */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantic''' (''Ədlantkɛ,'' /ə̀dlɑnkɛ́/) is an Indo-European language spoken primarily by the demihumans of Atlantia (''Ədləntɛ''), a Mediterranean island in the [[Nother]] happentrack.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Atlantic (''Ədlantkɛ'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
|[[Atlantia]] (''Ədləntɛ'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timespan:
| Modern day
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| —
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of language families|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of language families|classification]]:
|''[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;''[[Satem]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Hadwan languages|Hadwan]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Kirumb]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Âdlantki]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Atlantic'''
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
|}

==History==
''Atlantic'' is the name given to the [[Âdlantki]] language after about the late 1500s.  The division is largely arbitrary, as the difference between the two stages of the language is not substantial.  The largest difference is in the smoothing of original diphthongs; the most noticeable difference is the lowering of final vowels.  

==Classification and influences==
Atlantic is a [[Hadwan languages|Hadwan]] language in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family.  Besides its inherited lexicon, Atlantic derives borrowed vocabulary for acrolectal terms from [[Ancient Greek]], modern terms from [[Spanish]], and newer technical terms from [[Modern English]].

==Geographic distribution==
The original homeland of the Atlantic-speakers is [[Atlantia]], though in later years overcrowding of the island led to the formation of substantial communities in nearby countries (Spain, Morocco, and Algeria), and later in the United States and Canada.

==Sounds==
The Atlantic language has twelve vowels: eight short and four long. 
{| cellpadding=5
! !! front !! central !! back	
|-
! high 
| i || || u 
|-
! close-mid 
| e ee || || o oo
|-
! open-mid 
| ɛ ɛɛ || ə || ɔ ɔɔ
|-
! low 
| || a /ɑ/
|}

Consonants are as follows: 

{|  cellpadding=5
! nasal 
| m 
|colspan=4 align=center| n
| ŋ 
|-
! vl stop
| p
|colspan=4 align=center| t
| k
|-
! vd stop
|       
|colspan=4 align=center| d
| g
|-
! vl fric
| f || θ || s || ʃ || sy /ç/ || x	
|-
! vd fric 
| v b /v/ || || z || ʒ y /ʒ/
|-
! sonorant
| || l || r /ɾ/ || y /j/ 
|}

''H'' is silent.  ''Y'' is pronounced as /ʒ/ after a consonant or before /i/ and /u/.

Accentuation consists of a high or low pitch accent on the first mora of a word. 
:''ont'' /ònt/ &quot;eye&quot; 
:''sɔrrɛ'' /sɔ́ɾɾə/ &quot;curse&quot; 

For historical reasons, most verbs have high pitch.

==Grammar==
===Nouns===
Atlantic nouns inflect only for number.  

The singular is the unmarked form.

For words ending in ''-ɛ'', the plural is formed by adding ''-s'', thus ''-ɛs''.   For words ending in ''-e'', the plural is formed by removing the ''-e'' and adding ''-ɔs''.  The plural of all other words is formed by appending ''-ɔs'' to the singular.  

Exceptions exist, such as words in original long ''-ee'':  ''vee'' &quot;hand&quot;, whose plural is ''veeos''.  Words whose ''-ee'' is secondary, such as ''ree'' &quot;matter, affair&quot;, (earlier ''roye'') have a regular plural such as ''reɔs''.

A few words, mainly body parts, have a special dual in ''-o''.

===Verbs===

Conjugating Atlantic verbs isn't too difficult: the endings are added regularly, with little change. The hard part is in remembering what conjugation a form takes, as well as the different stems each verb has. 

The finite forms of the verb belong to one of three different stems: the progressive, the aorist, and the durative. 

The '''progressive''' refers to an action in progress, and usually translates English plain or progressive verbs, such as ''enter'' or ''are eating.'' '''Aorist''' forms refer to an event as a whole, usually a completed one, and generally translates English past forms, like ''walked,'' or forms used in series of verbs: for example, in ''wants to go,'' &quot;go&quot; would be translated by the aorist. The '''durative''' is mostly falling out of use, except in verbs concerning thoughts and opinions: ''think, believe, know, want, like'' are usually represented by duratives in Atlantic. 

The conjugations are labelled by characteristic consonants in the first person singular: '''votic''' have ''v'', and '''kappatic''' have ''k''.

====Progressive endings====
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
! ''v / k'' !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1st
| -vɛ &lt;br&gt; -kɛ || -bdə || -(ə)ndə	
|-
! 2nd
| -rɛ || || -bɛ
|-
! 3rd 
| -tɛ || || -(ə)ŋtɛ
|}
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
! ''simple'' !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1st
| ''0'' || -bdə || -ndə
|-
! 2nd
| -r || || -b
|-
! 3rd
| -t || || -ŋt	
|}

====Aorist endings====
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
! ''v / k'' !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1st
| -va &lt;br&gt; -k || -bdə || -(ə)ndə
|-
! 2nd
| -rɔ || || -dɔ
|-
! 3rd
| -tɔ || || -(ə)ŋtɔ
|}
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
! ''simple'' !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1st
| ''0'' || -bdə || -ndə
|-
! 2nd 
| -r || || -d
|-
! 3rd
| -t || || -ŋt
|}

====An example====
“fisvɛ” — to write.
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
!colspan=4 style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;| Progressive stem ''fis-''
|-
!colspan=4| 
|- bgcolor=lightgrey 
! !! sg. !! du. !! pl.
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
| fisvɛ
| fisbdə
| fisəndə
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
| fisrɛ
| —
| fisbe
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
| fistɛ
| —
| fisəŋtɛ
|-
!colspan=4 style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;| Aorist stem ''fes-''
|- bgcolor=lightgrey 
! !! sg. !! du. !! pl.
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
| fesva
| fesbdə
| fesəndə
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
| fesrɔ
| —
| fesdɔ
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
| festɔ
| —
| fesəŋtɔ
|}

==Vocabulary==
*''Main article: [[Atlantic Lexicon]]''
*[http://frath.net/pdf/atl-lex5.pdf The lexicon as a PDF file, 176K], dated 2 May 2004

==Writing system==
The Atlantic alphabet is descended from a variety of the [http://www.frath.net/pdf/krmb-alphabet.pdf Kirumb alphabet] (PDF, 117K).  As this is not convenient for computer entry, various transliterations exist, the most common being the IPA-influenced one used on this page, and a Windows-character-set-friendly one that is used over email.

==Examples==
*[http://www.quandary.org/~langs/relays/relay9/ring3/atlantic/ Atlantic leg of CONLANG relay 9]
**[http://frath.net/pdf/atl-relay9.pdf Relay 9 with Atlantic alphabet] (PDF, 97K)

[[Category:Atlantic]]
[[Category:Nother]]
[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Copyrights</title>
    <id>607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3987</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-05T22:54:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unless otherwise stated,...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0/ http://creativecommons.org/images/public/somerights20.gif]
&lt;br&gt;Unless otherwise stated, this work is licensed under a [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ Creative Commons License].


You are free:
*to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work
*to make derivative works
*to make commercial use of the work

Under the following conditions:
*'''Attribution.''' You must give the original author credit.
*'''Share Alike.''' If you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute the resulting work only under a license identical to this one.

For any reuse or distribution, you must make clear to others the license terms of this work.

Any of these conditions can be waived if you get permission from the author.

&lt;small&gt;Simple-language explanation of license is by [http://creativecommons.org Creative Commons]&lt;/small&gt;.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran</title>
    <id>608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29122</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T19:56:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ibran''' (Paysan: ''Ivrană'', Roesan: ''Івріанъ''), a Romance language still in progress.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Ibran (''Ivrană / Івріанъ'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
| [[New Ibria]]; France
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Region:
| Southeast France
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| —
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Language families and languages|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[Language families and languages|classification]]:
|[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Italic languages|Italic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Romance languages|Romance]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Western Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Langues d'oc&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Ibran'''
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 
|}

==Classification==
Ibran is a western Romance language.  It was originally conceived as a sort of truncated [[Spanish]], but further revisions pushed it further towards [[French]], so now it is somewhere in between.

==Geographic distribution==
Originally spoken in southeast France, Ibran migrated to the New World where it is now more widely spoken than in its homeland.

===Dialects===
Ibran has two main dialects: ''Roesan,'' the dialect of [[New Royce]] (''Noif Roes'') and ''paysan,'' the European dialect.  The language in New Ibria is not monolithic, though Roesan is the basis of “standard” language.

==Writing system==
Sometime recently a [[Cyrillic]] orthography (''cirilizal'') was officially instituted in New Royce, though the old [[Latin]] orthography (''latinizal'') is still found in common use (and is the only script used in Europe).

The mapping of Cyrillic American Ibran to Latin European Ibran is not 1:1; the phonemic inventories are different and spellings differ.

==Subpages==
*[[Ibran sound changes]]
*[[Ibran/Paternoster|Paternoster]]
*[[Ibran/Swadesh list|Swadesh list]]

==External links==
''The information on these pages may be out of date.''
*[http://frath.net/language/nuif.shtml Ibran homepage] (old)
*[http://www.langmaker.com/db/mdl_ibran.htm  Ibran profile on langmaker.com]
*[http://nik_taylor.tripod.com/relay/ibran.html Ibran leg of the Sixth CONLANG Translation Relay]

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Muke</title>
    <id>609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22680</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-01T22:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ph7Vnt|Ph7Vnt]] ([[User_talk:Ph7Vnt|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Non-admin Muke|Non-admin Muke]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Muke Tever,''' ''[mailto:wikimaster@frath.net wikimaster@frath.net]''
&lt;br&gt;(or the less imposing [mailto:muke@frath.net muke@frath.net])

http://www.frath.net/ 

My conlangs:
*[[Âdlantki]]
*[[Atlantic]]
*[[Dunamy]]
*[[Henaudute]]
*[[Ibran]]
*[[Kirumb]]
*[[Rami]]
*[[Sirius]]
*[[Skeskatai]]
*[[Trentish]]

[[User:Muke/Spelling|Semiserious notes on a spelling reform]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nother/Atlantic/Lexicon</title>
    <id>610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43990</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-10T03:02:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Ʃ */ oop.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#Ɛ|Ɛ]] [[#Ə|Ə]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#X|X]] [[#I|I]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#Ŋ|Ŋ]] [[#O|O]] [[#Ɔ|Ɔ]] [[#P|P]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#Ʃ|Ʃ]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]] [[#Ʒ|Ʒ]]
|}

===A===
*'''abɛ''' [ɑ̀.və] ''adj. indecl.'' second; other.
*'''absɛ''' [ɑ́p.sə] ''n.'' the depths of the sea; the most intense or profound part. —Greek ἀβυσσός.
*'''adə''' [ɑ.də] ''postp.'' to, towards.
*'''afɔrivɛ''' [ɑ̀.fə.ɾí.və] ''v.'' uncover. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''afrere''' [ɑ́f.ɾə.ɾe] ''n.'' uncovering, revelation.
*'''afʃɛr''' [ɑ́f.ʃəɾ] ''adj.'' after, farther.  '''aftam''' ''adj.'' last, farthest.
*'''afɔ''' [ɑ.fə] ''postp.'' from.
*'''afɔlivɛ''' [ɑ̀.fə.lí.və] ''v.'' unfold, open.  (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''agməvɛ''' [ɑ̀ŋ.mə.vɛ́] ''v.'' arrive. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''agməre''' ''n.'' arrival.
*'''Alpes''' [ôː.pəs] ''n.'' the Alps.
*'''Amerika''' [ɑ̀.mə.ɾí.kə] ''n.'' America.  '''Amerikɛk''' ''adj.'' American.
*'''amne''' [ɑ́m.nə] ''n.'' name.  '''amnifisre''' ''n.'' autograph, signature.
*'''an-''' [ɑ̀n] ''pref.'' again, re-.
*'''aŋɛʒʒɛsvɛ''' [ɑ̀.ŋəʒ.ʒɛ́s.və] ''v.'' adapt. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''aŋɛʒʒɛsre''' ''n.'' adaptation.
*'''arklɛ''' [ɑ́rk.lə] ''n.'' farmer.
*'''aʃɛnkre''' [ɑ̀.ʃən.kɾé] ''n.'' accident.
*'''aʃvɛ''' [ɑ́ʃ.və] ''v.'' eat.  (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''aʃre''' ''n.'' eating, meal.
*'''aθɔŋtivɛ''' [ɑ̀θ.əŋ.tí.və] ''v.'' direct, aim, address.  '''aθɔŋtire''' ''n.'' address, direction.
*'''Australia''' [ɑ̌u̯s.tɾə.li.ə] ''n.'' Australia.  —Spanish ''Australia.''
*'''autɔbus''' [ɑ̂u̯.tə.bus] ''n.'' bus.  —Spanish ''autobús.''

===B===
*'''balkonɛ''' [vɑ̀l.kə.nɛ́] ''n.'' balcony.  —Italian ''balcone.''
*'''banana''' [vɑ̀.nə.nɑ] ''n.'' banana. —Spanish ''banana.''
*'''baŋkɔ''' [vɑ́ŋ.kə] ''n.'' bank.  —Spanish ''banco.''
*'''beevɛ''' [vêːv] ''v.'' proclaim.  (''aor:'' '''bok''')
*'''bɛr''' [vɛ́ɾ] ''v.'' carry. (''aor:'' '''bɛss''')  '''bərtɛ''' ''ppl.'' carried, borne.
*'''bɛkəglɛ''' [vɛ̀.kəɡ.lɛ́] ''n.'' bicycle.
*'''bɛsɔrt''' [vɛ̀.sɔɾt] ''n.'' cracker.
*'''bəble''' [və̀v.lə] ''n.'' book.  —Greek βύβλος.
*'''bərkʃɛ''' [və̀ɾk.ʃə] ''adj.'' sharp.
*'''bəʃʃe''' [və́ʃ.ʃə] ''n.'' nature, habit, custom.
*'''bisikleta''' [ví.sək.le.tə] ''n.'' bicycle.  —Spanish ''bicicleta.''
*'''blɛvɛ''' [vlɛ̀.və] ''n.'' flower.
*'''bləgrɛ''' [vlə̀ɡ.əɾ] ''adj.'' shiny.
*'''bləŋne''' [vlə́ŋ.nə] ''n.'' blight.  '''bləŋdrɛ''' ''adj.'' blighted.
*'''blɔkivɛ''' [vlɔ́.kə.vɛ] ''v.'' shine. (''aor:'' '''bɔɔkisva''')  '''blɔkʃɔʃʃ''' ''adj.'' shining.
*'''blukɛ''' [vlù.kə] ''n.'' shine, incandescence.
*'''boonʒe''' [vôːnd.ʒə] ''n.'' bathroom, restroom.
*'''bɔŋɛ''' [vɔ̀.ŋə] ''n.'' sick person.
*'''briʃvɛ''' [vɾíʃ.və] ''v.'' do, fashion, make.  (''aor:'' '''brɛʃva''')  '''əstɛ''' ''ppl.'' done, made.  '''briʃʃe''' ''n.'' creator.
*'''brostər''' [vròs.təɾ] ''n.'' brother.  '''brotre''' ''n.'' fraternity, brotherhood.

===D===
*'''dənnɛ''' [də̀n.nə] ''n.'' bench.
*'''dɔmɛ''' [dɔ̀.mə] ''n.'' house.
*'''dɔɔlɛ''' [dɔ̌ːl] ''n.'' window.
*'''dɔɔnɛ''' [dɔ̌ːn] ''n.'' thing.
*'''dɔrt''' ''ppl. of'' '''ʃkreevɛ.'''
*'''dɔrʒo''' [dɔ́ɾ.ʒə] ''n.'' door.  '''dɔrʒɔs''' ''pl.''
*'''dramte''' [dɾɑ́mp.tə] ''n.'' drama, play.  —Greek δρᾶμα.
*'''dveegvɛ''' [dvêː.ɡvə] ''v.'' include. (''aor:'' '''-va''')

===E===
*'''eene''' [êːn] ''n.'' morning.
*'''eevɛ''' [êːv] ''v.'' praise.  (''aor:'' '''ogva''')
*'''exne''' [éx.nə] ''n.'' shame.  —Greek αἰσχύνη.
*'''elektrɔnik''' [é.lək.tɾɔ.nək] ''adj.'' electronic.  —Spanish ''electrónico.''
*'''ellɛ''' [él.lə] ''n.'' cat, feline.  —Greek αἴλουρος.
*'''emne''' [ém.nə] ''n.'' anger, wrath.
*'''ensalada''' [ént.sə.lɑ.də] ''n.'' salad.  —Spanish ''ensalada.''

===Ɛ===
*'''ɛɛʒ''' [ɛ̂ʒ] ''adj.'' profound, deep.
*'''ɛgʒɛsvɛ''' [ɛ́ɡ.ʒəs.vɛ] ''v.'' terminate. (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''ɛxrəstɔ''' [ɛ́x.ɾəs.tɔ] ''interj.'' thanks, thank you.  —Greek εὐχαριστέω.
*'''ɛliʒoo''' [ɛ́.lə.ʒoː] ''v.'' be gracious, show mercy.  —Greek ἔλεος.
*'''ɛlpsvɛ''' [ɛ́lp.svə] ''v.'' hope for, expect. (''aor:'' '''ɛlps''') —Greek ἐλπίζω.
*'''ɛlvɛ''' [ɛ́l.və] ''n.'' oil.  —Greek ἔλαιϝον.
*'''ɛmʒɛn''' [ɛ́m.ʒən] ''n.'' arrangement, order.
*'''ɛnsvɛ''' [ɛ́ns.və] ''v.'' reach. (''aor:'' '''ɛnst''')
*'''Ɛŋglɛk''' [ɛ́ŋ.ɡlɛk] ''adj.'' English.
*'''ɛr''' [ɛɾ] ''v.'' am.
{| cellpadding=5 align=center
! !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1p
| ɛr || ɛsvɛdə || ɛmmɛdə
|-
! 2p
|  ɛsɛ || || ɛzvɛ
|-
! 3p
|  ɛst ||  || ɛrtɛ
|}
*'''ɛʃ''' [ɛ́ʃ] ''v.'' say.  (''aor:'' '''ɛst''')  
{| cellpadding=5 align=center
! !! sg !! du !! pl
|-
! 1p
| ɛʃ ||  iʃvɛdə  ||  iʃmɛdə
|-
! 2p
|  ɛst  || ||  izvɛ
|-
! 3p
|  ɛst ||  || istɛ
|}
*'''ɛtʃɛsvɛ''' [ɛ́t.ʃəs.vɛ] ''v.'' supply. (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''Ɛvrupɛ''' [ɛ́v.ɾə.pɛ] ''n.'' Europe.  '''Ɛvrupɛk''' ''adj.'' European.  —Greek Εὐρώπη.

===Ə===
*'''əbbɛrvɛ''' [ə̀v.vər.vɛ́] ''v.'' discard, leave behind, drop.  (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''Ədləntɛ''' [ə́d.lən.tɛ] ''n.'' Atlantia.  —Greek Ἄτλας.
*'''əfkerʒe''' [ə̀f.kəɾ.ʒé] ''n.'' due and proper time.  —Greek εὐκαιρία.
*'''əxrɛstʃe''' [ə́x.ɾəst.ʃe] ''n.'' thanksgiving. —Greek εὐχαριστία.
*'''əlve''' [ə̀l.və] ''n.'' overcast sky.
*'''əmbɔ''' [ə̀m.və] ''adj.'' both.
*'''əmres''' [ə̀mb.ɾəs] ''adv.'' daily.
*'''ənde''' [ə̀n.də] ''n.'' water.
*'''əntɛ''' [ə̀n.tə] ''n.'' year.
*'''əŋgeevɛ''' [ə̀ŋ.ɡe.vɛ́] ''v.'' attempt.  (aor: '''əŋgoosa''')
*'''əŋkɛ''' [ə̀ŋ.kə] ''n.'' hook.
*'''əpveevɛ''' [ə̀p.ve.vɛ́] ''v.'' sprout. (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''ərrɛ''' [ə̀ɾ.ɾə] ''n.'' field, farm.
*'''əʃgɛmvɛ''' [ə̀ʃ.ɡəm.vɛ́] ''v.'' overstep, transgress, trespass. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''əʃgəʃʃe''' ''n.'' transgress, trespass.
*'''əŋʃɛ''' [ə̀ŋk.ʃə] ''n.'' goal, target, destination.
*'''əstɛ''' ''ppl. of'' '''briʃvɛ.'''

===F===
*'''’f''' ''suff.'' genitive marker.
*'''fɛlʒe''' [fɛ́l.ʒə] ''v.'' fill. (''aor:'' '''plɛk, pli-''')
*'''fɛrɛ''' [fɛ̀.ɾə] ''adj.'' close, nigh. (''comp:'' '''fɛrɔʃrɛ''', ''sup:'' '''fɛrɔtmɛ''')
*'''fɛrfooʃre''' [fɛ́ɾ.foʃ.ɾe] ''n.'' perfection. '''fɛrfooʃras''' ''adv.'' perfectly.
*'''fɛtɛ''' [fɛ̀.tə] ''n.'' bread.  '''fɛtivɛ''' ''v.'' bake. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''fɛtostər''' ''n.'' baker.
*'''fəŋtɛ''' [fə̀ŋk.tə] ''adj.'' all.
*'''fəssɛ''' [fə̀s.sə] ''adj.'' beautiful.
*'''fəstre''' [fə̀s.təɾ] ''n.'' father.
*'''filvɛ''' [fíl.və] ''v.'' read. (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''firvɛ''' [fíɾ.və] ''v.'' try. (''aor:'' '''fɛrva''')  '''fire''' ''n.'' try, attempt.
*'''fisvɛ''' [fís.və] ''v.'' write. (''aor:'' '''fesva''')  '''fisre''' ''n.'' writing, inscription.  '''fistre''' ''n.'' author.
*'''foobɛ''' [fôːv] ''adj.'' many.
*'''fool''' [fôːl] ''n.'' plain, field.
*'''footam''' [fôː.təm] ''adj.'' most.
*'''fostər''' [fós.təɾ] ''n.'' food.
*'''fɔɔdɔ''' [fɔ̂.də] ''n.'' estate.  —Spanish ''feudo.''
*'''fɔɔlɛ''' [fɔ̌ːl] ''n.'' bottle, flask.
*'''furtmɛ''' [fúɾ.mə] ''adj.'' first; earliest.

===G===
*'''gɛdvɛ''' [ɡɛ́d.və] ''v.'' want. (''aor:'' '''gest''')
*'''gɛmvɛ''' [ɡɛ́m.və] ''v.'' come. (''aor:'' '''-va''')  '''gatɛ''' ''ppl.'' come, arrived.
*'''gəfʃe''' [ɡə́f.ʃə] ''n.'' host.  '''gəftɔʃʃ''' ''n.'' hosting, booking.  '''gəftɛt''' ''ppl. of'' '''gɔftivɛ.'''
*'''gəʃʃe''' [ɡə́ʃ.ʃə] ''n.'' stranger.
*'''gəʃʃe''' [ɡə́ʃ.ʃə] ''n.'' step.
*'''glumɛ''' [ɡlù.mə] ''n.'' joy.  '''glumkɛ''' ''adj.'' happy, joyful.
*'''goone''' [gôːn] ''n.'' woe, grief.
*'''gɔdʒɛl''' [ɡɔ́d.ʒəl] ''n.'' measure, quality.
*'''gɔftive''' [ɡɔ́f.tə.vɛ] ''v.'' be a host, entertain. (''aor:'' '''gɔftos''')  '''gəftɛt''' ''ppl.'' hosted, booked.  '''gɔfteere''' ''n.'' entertainment.
*'''-gve''' ''suff.'' place name suffix.

===H===
*'''halɛɛ''' [ɑ́.lɛ]  ''interj.''  hello!
*'''hamartʃe''' [ɑ̀.məɾt.ʃé] ''n.'' sin. —Greek ἁμαρτία.
*'''he''' [e] ''pron. pers. 3p.''  '''həs''' ''gen.''
*'''hɛkrɛ''' [ɛ́k.əɾ] ''n.'' law.
*'''hɛnɛ''' [ɛ̀.nə] ''n.'' old.
*'''hɛʃvɛ''' [ɛ́ʃ.və] ''v.'' have, own. (''aor:'' '''hɛst''')  '''hɛʃre''' ''n.'' possession, ownership.
*'''hɛθ''' [ɛθ] ''adj.'' such.
*'''həmmɛ''' [ə̀m.mə] ''n.'' setup.
*'''hmerɛ''' [mé.ɾə] ''adj.'' wonderful.
*'''hoone''' [ɔ̂ːn] ''n.'' sun.
*'''hɔdne''' [ɔ́d.nə] ''n.'' office, post.  '''hɔdnor''' ''n.'' office, study.
*'''hɔmlodʒe''' [ɔ́mb.ləd.ʒe] ''n.'' confession, acknowledgement.  —Greek ὁμολογία.
*'''hɔmɛ''' [ɔ̀.mə] ''adj.'' same.
*'''hɔŋtivɛ''' [ɔ́ŋ.tə.vɛ] ''v.'' send. (''aor:'' '''hɛrʃva''')  '''hɔŋtire''' ''n.'' mission.  '''hɔŋʃte''' ''n.'' mail, post.
*'''hɔɔlɛ''' [ɔ̌ːl] ''n.'' seat, chair.
*'''hurləgɛɛ''' [úɾ.lə.gɛː] ''n.'' clock.  —Greek ὡρολόγιον.

===X===
*'''xɔle''' [xɔ̀.lə] ''n.'' school.  —Greek σχολή.

===I===
*'''idʒuvɛ''' [íd.ʒə.vɛ] ''v.'' kythe, communicate telepathically. (''aor:'' '''vodva''')
*'''ifʃɛ''' [íf.ʃə] ''adj.'' social, friendly.
*'''ikɛ''' [ì.kə] ''n.'' cure, remedy.  '''ikstre''' ''n.'' healer, doctor.
*'''igivɛ''' [í.ɡə.vɛ] ''v.'' heal. (''aor:'' '''ikva''')
*'''imfekʃɔn''' [ím.fək.ʃɔn] ''n.'' infection. —Spanish ''infección.''
*'''imne''' [ím.nə] ''n.'' spirit.
*'''inɛ''' [ì.nə] ''adj. num.'' one.  '''inɔθ''' [ì.nəθ] ''adv.'' only.
*'''Iroland''' [ì.ɾə.lɑ́nd] ''n.'' Ireland.
*'''irvɛ''' [íɾ.və] ''v.'' revere. (''aor:'' '''is''', ''part:'' '''irʃe''')
*'''isvɛ''' [ís.və] ''v.'' bring. (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''Italia''' [ì.tə.lí.ə] ''n.'' Italy.

===K===
*'''kaʃɛs''' [kɑ̀.ʃəs] ''pron. interrog.'' how much?
*'''katlɛmte''' [kɑ́t.ləmp.te] ''n.'' hotel, inn.  —Greek κατάλυμα.
*'''kɛ''' [kɛ] ''conj.'' and (between nouns).
*'''kɛdə''' [kɛ́.də] ''pron. interrog.'' what?
*'''kɛg''' [kɛ́ɡ] ''pron. interrog.'' why?
*'''kɛrʒɛ''' [kɛ́ɾ.ʒə] ''n.'' mister, sir.  '''kr.''' ''abbrev.''  —Greek κύριος.
*'''kɛs''' [kɛ́s] ''pron. interrog.'' who?
*'''kəg''' [kəɡ] ''postp.'' among, with, between.
*'''kəglɛ''' [kə̀ɡ.lə] ''n.'' wheel.
*'''kəmmɛ''' [kə̀m.mə] ''n.'' cat.
*'''kəmpɛ''' [kə̀m.pə] ''n.'' corner.
*'''kəŋkɛg''' [kə̀ŋ.kəɡ] ''pron.'' whyever.
*'''kəŋkɔg''' [kə̀ŋ.kəɡ] ''pron.'' when, whenever.
*'''kəskɛs''' [kə̀s.kəs] ''pron.'' who, whoever.
*'''kətxɛdə''' [kə̀t.xə.də́] ''pron.'' what, whatever.
*'''kəʒʒɛ''' [kə̀ʒ.ʒə] ''pron. interrog.'' where?
*'''kəʒʒɛʒkɛ''' [kə̀ʒ.ʒəʒ.kɛ́] ''v.'' total, put together.
*'''kikɛ''' [kì.kə] ''pron.'' where, wherever.
*'''kilɛ''' [kì.lə] ''adj.'' far, distant.
*'''kiyɔθ''' [kì.jəθ] ''pron. interrog.'' how?
*'''koonʒe''' [kôːnd.ʒə] ''n.'' hill.
*'''kɔg''' [kɔ́ɡ] ''pron. interrog.''  when?
*'''kɔgmɛr''' [kɔ́ŋ.məɾ] ''n.'' gathering, convention.
*'''kɔle''' [kɔ̀.lə] ''n.'' the distance; the dreamtime.
*'''kɔnʃertɔ''' [kɔ̀nt.ʃəɾ.tɔ́], [kən.ʃéɾ.tə] ''n.'' concert.  —Spanish ''concierto.''
*'''kɔŋidʒuvɛ''' [kɔ̀.ŋəd.ʒú.və] ''v.'' commune.  (''aor:'' '''kɔvodva''')  '''kɔŋidore''' ''n.'' communion.
*'''kɔŋŋɔdne''' [kɔ̀ŋ.ŋəd.né] ''n.'' organization, company.
*'''kɔɔnɛ''' [kɔ̂ːn] ''n.'' artist, artisan, maker.
*'''kɔtsye''' [kɔ́t.çə] ''n.'' car.  —Spanish ''coche.''
*'''kr.''' ''abbrev. for'' '''kɛrʒɛ.'''
*'''kθɛmtɛ''' [kθɛ́mp.tə] ''n.'' creature.  —Greek κτίσμα.
*'''kufre''' [kú.fəɾ] ''n.'' kitchen.

===L===
*'''laxɛ''' [lɑ̀.xə] ''n.'' lake.
*'''latɛn''' [lɑ̀.tən] ''adj.'' Hispanic.
*'''ləknɛ''' [lə̀k.nə] ''n.'' lamp.  —Greek λύχνος.
*'''ləmde''' [lə̀m.də] ''n.'' light, torch.  —Greek λαμπάς.
*'''ləŋkʃe''' [lə́ŋk.ʃə] ''n.'' doorbell.
*'''lihne''' [lîːn] ''n.'' moss, lichen.  —Greek λειχήν.
*'''livɛ''' [lí.və] ''v.'' get, acquire. (''aor:'' '''lɛk, li-''')
*'''liʒɔnt''' [lì.ʒənt] ''n.'' lion  —Greek λέων.
*'''lunn''' [lún] ''n.'' lantern.

===M===
*'''martruvɛ''' [mɑ́ɾ.tɾə.vɛ] ''v.'' testify. (''aor:'' '''marts-''')  —Greek μαρτυρέω.
*'''meevɛ''' [mêːv] ''v.'' can, know how (''aor:'' '''mass''')
*'''mɛltɛ''' [mɛ́l.tə] ''n.'' honey.
*'''mɛŋʒvɛ''' [mɛ́ŋɡ.ʒvə] ''v.'' pay attention, mind.  (''aor:'' '''mɛst, mist-''')  '''məŋʒre''' ''n.'' attention.
*'''mɛʃɛ''' [mɛ̀.ʃə] ''adj.'' large.
*'''mɛθa''' [mɛ̀.θə] ''postp.'' with.
*'''məŋtɛ''' [mə̀ŋk.tə] ''adj.'' certain, particular, individual.
*'''məʃrɛ''' [mə́ʃ.əɾ] ''adj.'' main, principal.
*'''məʃve''' [mə́ʃ.və] ''adj.'' short.
*'''miyoŋt''' [mì.jəŋt] ''n.'' cat, kitty.
*'''morɛ''' [mò.ɾə] ''adj.'' proper.
*'''mɔre''' [mɔ̀.ɾə] ''n.'' moss.
*'''mɔrʒe''' [mɔ́ɾ.ʒə] ''n.'' sea.
*'''mɔst''' [mɔ́st] ''adv.'' soon, quickly.

===N===
*'''nadur''' [nɑ̀.dəɾ] ''n.'' nature.  —Latin ''natura.''
*'''nənne''' [nə̀n.nə] ''n.'' language.
*'''ne''' [ne] ''adv.'' not.
*'''nɛ''' [nɛ] ''postp.'' in, within.
*'''nɛbre''' [nɛ́.vəɾ] ''n.'' heaven.
*'''nɛktxɛdə''' [nɛ́k.txə.də] ''adj.'' none whatever.
*'''nɛgməvɛ''' [nɛ́ŋ.mə.vɛ] ''v.'' enter.  '''nɛgmɛr''' ''n.'' entry, admission.
*'''nɛmvɛ''' [nɛ́m.və] ''v.'' distribute, give out. (''aor:'' '''nis''') '''nɛmʃe''' ''n.'' part, portion.
*'''nɛvɛ''' [nɛ̀.və] ''conj.'' nor.
*'''nəlle''' [nə̀l.lə] ''n.'' claw.
*'''nəs''' [nəs] ''pron. 1pl.;''  ''adj.'' our.
*'''nəʃʃe''' [nə̀ʃ.ʃə] ''n.'' night.
*'''ninsvɛ''' [níns.və] ''v.'' approach. (''aor:'' '''ninst''')
*'''niŋʃe''' [níŋk.ʃə] ''adv.'' none.
*'''noɛ''' [nò.ə] ''adj.'' new.
*'''nortɛ''' [nóɾ.tə] ''n.'' smell, scent.
*'''noʃvɛ''' [nóʃ.və] ''v.'' smell, sniff. (''aor:'' '''norva''')
*'''nurivɛ''' [nú.ɾə.vɛ] ''v.'' scent. (''aor:'' '''nɛndrəva''')

===Ŋ===
*'''ŋɛʒʒɛsvɛ''' [ŋɛ́ʒ.ʒəs.vɛ] ''v.'' fit. (''aor:'' '''-va''')

===O===
*'''oge''' [ò.ɡə] ''n.'' prayer.  '''ogive''' ''v.'' pray. (''aor:'' '''ogs''')
*'''ogre''' [óg.ɾə] ''n.'' praise.
*'''ole''' [ò.lə] ''n.'' hall.  —Greek αὐλή.
*'''omər''' [ó.mər] ''n.'' day.
*'''ont''' [ònt] ''n.'' eye.  '''ontʃo''' ''du.''
*'''ookoo''' [ôː.ko] ''n.'' alcohol.  —Arabic الكحل.
*'''ooʒəbər''' [ǒː.ʒə.vəɾ] ''n.'' algebra.  —Arabic الجبر.

===Ɔ===
*'''ɔfrɔt''' [ɔ́f.ɾət] ''adj.'' elegant, choice, select.
*'''ɔkʃɛr''' [ɔ́k.ʃəɾ] ''n.'' wisdom.
*'''ɔpera''' [ɔ́.pə.ɾɑ] ''n.'' opera.  —Spanish ''ópera.''
*'''ɔrbɛ''' [ɔ̀ɾ.və] ''n.'' ceiling.
*'''ɔrivɛ''' [ɔ́.ɾə.vɛ] ''v.'' buy. (''aor:'' '''vorva''')
*'''ɔsɛ''' [ɔ̀.sə] ''n.'' hook.
*'''ɔsiʃʃe''' [ɔ̀.səʃ.ʃé] ''n.'' death.
*'''ɔʃivɛ''' [ɔ́.ʃə.vɛ] ''v.'' revive, refresh, enliven. (''aor:'' '''voʃva''')
*'''ɔʃlɛ''' [ɔ́ʃ.lə] ''n.'' alley.

===P===
*'''pədre''' [pə̀d.ɾə] ''n.'' rock.  —Greek πέτρη.
*'''pərgɛ''' [pə̀ɾ.ɡə] ''n.'' castle.  —Greek πύργος.
*'''plantʃoo''' [plɑ́nt.ʃo] ''v.'' wander.  (''aor:'' '''plantos''')  —Greek πλάνης.
*'''pləmme''' [plə̀m.mə] ''n.'' down, feathers.
*'''pləmmɛ''' [plə̀m.mə] ''n.'' pen.
*'''prəʃʃɛ''' [pɾə̀ʃ.ʃə] ''postp.'' around, about.
*'''primabera''' [prí.mə.vɛ.ɾə] ''n.'' spring.  —Spanish ''primavera.''
*'''prisvɛ''' [pɾís.və] ''v.'' ask. (''aor:'' '''prɛsva''')
*'''prɔ''' [pɾɔ] ''postp.'' through.
*'''prɔsɛ''' [pɾɔ̀.sə] ''n.'' petition, request.
*'''pθənne''' [pθə̀n.nə] ''n.'' trail, footstep.  —Greek πτέρνη.

===R===
*'''ree''' [ɾêː] ''n.'' matter, affair.  '''reɔs''' ''pl.''
*'''reeʒ''' [ɾêːʒ] ''n.'' source, fount.
*'''restaurante''' [ɾés.təu̯.ɾɑn.tə] ''n.'' restaurant.  —Spanish ''restaurante.''
*'''rɛʃe''' [ɾɛ̀.ʃə] ''n.'' king.
*'''rore''' [ɾó.ɾə] ''n.'' space, room.
*'''rɔgat''' [ɾɔ̀.ɡət] ''n.'' welcome.
*'''rɔmɔm''' [ɾɔ̀.məm] ''n.'' good favor, good will.
*'''rɔte''' [ɾɔ̀.tə] ''n.'' ball.  '''rɔtaʃʃ''' ''n.'' balloon.
*'''rumkɛ''' [ɾúm.kə] ''adj.'' roomy, spacious.

===S===
*'''sɛlfivɛ''' [sɛ́l.fə.vɛ] ''v.'' help.  (''aor:'' '''sɛlfva''')
*'''sɛŋɔ''' [sɛ̀.ŋə] ''adv.'' now.
*'''səŋtɛ''' [sə̀ŋk.tə] ''adj.'' holy.
*'''sərʒe''' [sə̀ɾ.ʒə] ''n.'' heart.
*'''səʒʒe''' [sə̀ʒ.ʒə] ''n.'' rank.
*'''sikvɛ''' [sík.və] ''v.'' rain. (''aor:'' '''sis''')  '''sikre''' ''n.'' rain.
*'''sire''' [sí.rə] ''adj.'' blue-green. 
*'''sivɛ''' [sí.və] ''v.'' control. (''aor:'' '''ʃɛss''')
*'''skɔtɛ''' [skɔ̀.tə] ''n.'' darkness, shade.
*'''slore''' [sló.ɾə] ''n.'' report, fame, news.
*'''sneevɛ''' [snêːv] ''v.'' know, be acquainted with.  (''aor:'' '''snɔs, snus-''')
*'''sɔfre''' [sɔ́f.əɾ] ''n.'' bedroom.
*'''sɔme''' [sɔ̀.mə] ''n.'' land, earth, ground.
*'''sɔne''' [sɔ̀.nə] ''n.'' dog.
*'''sɔɔmɛ''' [sɔ̂ːm] ''n.'' psalm.  —Greek ψαλμός.
*'''sɔɔmste''' [sɔ̂ːmste] ''n.'' psalmist.
*'''sɔrrɛ''' [sɔ́ɾ.ɾə] ''n.'' curse.
*'''sɔrt''' [sɔ́ɾt] ''n.'' loaf; dough.
*'''stəʃʃe''' [stə̀ʃ.ʃə] ''n.'' status, standing.
*'''stɔle''' [stɔ̀.lə] ''n.'' shirt.  —Greek στολή.
*'''strɛfʒe''' [stɾɛ́f.ʒə] ''n.'' table.
*'''strɛŋgvɛ''' [stɾɛ́ŋɡ.və] ''v.'' stop motion, arrest.  (''aor:'' '''stregva''')
*'''strɔbɛ''' [stɾɔ̀.və] ''n.'' building.
*'''syel''' [çèl] ''n.'' creature.

===Ʃ===
*'''ʃe''' [ʃe] ''pron. pers. 2sg.'' you. '''ʃəs''' ''gen.'' your.
*'''ʃɛlle''' [ʃɛ́l.lə] ''n.'' smile.
*'''ʃɛmbivɛ''' [ʃɛ́m.və.vɛ] ''v.'' bite.  (''aor:'' '''-va''')
*'''ʃend''' [ʃénd] ''n.'' winter.
*'''ʃɛŋkɛ''' [ʃɛ́ŋ.kə] ''v.'' happen; become. (''aor:'' '''-ka''')  '''ʃɛnkɛr''' ''n.'' birth.  '''ʃɛnkre''' ''n.'' event. 
*'''ʃɛrivɛ''' [ʃɛ́.ɾə.vɛ] ''v.'' rot. (''aor:'' '''ʃɛrsva''')  '''ʃɛre''' ''n.'' rot, decay.
*'''ʃɛstvɛ''' [ʃɛ́st.və] ''v.'' stand. (''aor:'' '''stok''')
*'''ʃəmbɛ''' [ʃə̀m.və] ''n.'' tooth.
*'''ʃəŋtɛ''' [ʃə̀ŋk.tə] ''adj.'' stressed, strained.
*'''ʃəŋgʒɛ''' [ʃə́ŋɡ.ʒə] ''n.'' ensign.
*'''ʃərtɛ''' [ʃə̀ɾ.tə] ''n.'' yard, garden.
*'''ʃire''' [ʃì.ɾə] ''n.'' hunger.
*'''ʃivɛ''' [ʃí.və] ''v.'' speak. (''aor:'' '''gest''')
*'''ʃkreevɛ''' [ʃkɾêːv] ''v.'' do, perform. (''aor:'' '''ʃkro''')  '''dɔrt''' ''ppl.'' done, performed.
*'''ʃonɛ''' [ʃò.nə] ''n.'' song, music.
*'''ʃɔg''' [ʃɔ́ɡ] ''pron. pers. 1sg. nom.'' I. '''me''' ''acc.'' me. '''məs''' ''gen.'' my.
*'''ʃɔgɛ''' [ʃɔ̀.ɡə] ''n.'' soldier.
*'''ʃɔlive''' [ʃɔ́.lə.vɛ] ''v.'' gladden, make happy. (''aor:'' '''ʃɛlva''')
*'''ʃuyivε''' [ʃú.jə.vɛ] ''v.'' sing.  (''aor:'' '''ʃɛʃɛɛos''')

===T===
*'''taksi''' [tɑ́k.sə] ''n.'' taxi.  —Spanish ''taxi.''
*'''telefɔnɔ''' [tè.lə.fɔ́.nə], [tə.lé.fə.nɔ] ''n.'' telephone.  —Spanish ''teléfono.''
*'''tɛg''' [tɛɡ] ''pron. dem.'' therefore
*'''təmme''' [tə̀m.mə] ''pro. dem.'' this, that. (''pl:'' '''toos''', ''gen:'' '''tɔs''', ''gen. pl.'' '''tirog''')
*'''tərfʒe''' [tə̀ɾf.ʒə] ''n.'' animal.
*'''təstɛs''' [tə̀s.təs] ''pron. dem.'' anyone.
*'''tren''' [tɾén] ''n.'' train, locomotive.  —Spanish ''tren.''

===U===
*'''une''' [ù.nə] ''n.'' hnau, person, sapient creature
*'''unɛ''' [ù.nə] ''adj.'' empty.
*'''urive''' [ú.ɾə.vɛ] ''v.'' preach, lecture.  '''ureere''' ''n.'' lecture, sermon.

===V===
*'''vee''' [vêː] ''n.'' hand.  '''veeo''' ''du.''  '''veeos''' ''pl.''
*'''veevɛ''' [vêːv] ''v.'' lack. (''aor:'' '''ɔɔs''')  '''veeʃʃe''' ''n.'' lack, need.
*'''veivɛ''' [vêjv] ''v.'' hunt. (''aor:'' '''voisa''')  '''veivor''' ''n.'' the hunt.
*'''vɛ''' [vɛ] ''conj.'' or.
*'''vɛlrɔθ''' [vɛ́ld.ɾəθ] ''adv.'' rather.
*'''vɛntɛ''' [vɛ́n.tə] ''n.'' friend.
*'''vɛrve''' [vɛ́ɾ.və] ''adj.'' good.  (''comp:'' '''vəʒrɛ''', ''sup:'' '''vəʒmɛ''')  '''vɛrʒiʃʃe''' ''n.'' benefit.  '''vɛrvomər''' ''interj.'' hello, good day.  '''vɛrveene''' ''interj.''  hello, good morning.
*'''vɛʃrɛ''' [vɛ́ʃ.ɾə] ''adj.'' strong, intense.
*'''vɛʒʒivɛ''' [vɛ́ʒ.ʒə.vɛ] ''v.'' look at. (''aor:'' '''voʒis''')
*'''vərdɛ''' [və̀ɾ.də] ''n.'' word.
*'''viknɛ''' [vík.nə] ''adj.'' hunting.
*'''vinɛ''' [vì.nə] ''n.'' wine.
*'''viŋe''' [vì.ŋə] ''n.'' love.

===Y===
*'''yagvɛ''' [jɑ́ɡ.və] ''v.'' worship. (''aor:'' '''yast''', ''part:'' '''yagʃe''')  '''yakθɛ''' ''ppl.'' worshipped.  '''yagre''' ''n.'' worship.
*'''yeevɛ''' [jêːv] ''v.'' live. (''aor:'' '''gɛgsva''', ''part:'' '''yeeʃʃe''')
*'''yəmmuθ''' [jə̀m.məθ] ''conj.'' so as to, in order to, because
*'''yəʃʃo''' [jə̀ʃ.ʃə] ''conj.'' like.  '''yəʃʃeenɛ''' ''adv.'' alike.
*'''yəʒʒɛ''' [jə̀ʒ.ʒə] ''pro. dem.'' here.
*'''Yoonɛ''' [jôːn] ''pr. n.'' John.  —Greek Ιωαννης.
*'''yoosɛ''' [jôːs] ''n.'' child, youth, young person. 
*'''yɔbivɛ''' [jɔ́.və.vɛ] ''v.'' fuck.  '''yɔbe''' ''interj.'' fuck!
*'''yɔθɛ''' [jɔ̀.θə] ''n.'' life.
*'''yɔʒrə''' [jɔ́ʒ.ɾə] ''adj.'' free, public.
*'''yure''' [ʒù.ɾə] ''n.'' time, hour; season.  '''yuros''' [ʒù.ɾəs] ''conj.'' until.

===Z===
*'''zvodve''' [zvód.və] ''n.'' sweet.
*'''zvoftɛ''' [zvóf.tə] ''n.'' pastry.
*'''zvosɔlle''' [zvò.səl.lé] ''n.'' cookie.
*'''zvosɔrt''' [zvò.səɾt] ''n.'' cake.

===Ʒ===
*'''ʒeʃɛ''' [ʒè.ʃə] ''n.'' wall.  '''ʒeʃʃɛ''' ''adj.'' walled.  '''ʒeʃivɛ''' ''v.'' to wall.  '''ʒeʃrɛ''' ''adj.'' walled, enclosed. 
*'''ʒevɛ''' [ʒé.və] ''n.'' God.
*'''ʒɛdkɛ''' [ʒɛ́d.kə] ''v.'' give. (''aor:'' '''dɔk, du-''')
*'''ʒɛstivɛ''' [ʒɛ́s.tə.vɛ] ''v.'' greet. (''aor:'' '''ʒɛstsa''')
*'''ʒɛʒkɛ''' [ʒɛ́ʒ.kə] ''v.'' put.  (''aor:'' '''ʒɛk, ʒi-''')
*'''ʒifʃe''' [ʒíf.ʃə] ''n.'' master, sir, Mr.  '''ʒfʃ.''' ''abbrev.''
*'''ʒike''' [ʒì.kə] ''n.'' place, location.
*'''ʒinte''' [ʒín.tə] ''n.'' miss, lady, Mrs.  '''ʒnt.''' abbrev.
*'''ʒomb''' [ʒómb] ''adj.'' deep.

[[Category:Atlantic]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henaudute</title>
    <id>611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29119</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T19:54:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Description==
Henaudute (''Ἡναυδυτε'') is a [[Dele]] language, spoken on [[Arda]].

*Timespan: beginning from 1400s ''anno mundi'' ≈ classical times
*Setting: [[Arda:Yellow Empire|Yellow Empire]] (''Ῥαυραρ Ἡνατε'')

*Author: [[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]

===Subpages===
*[[Henaudute Lexicon]]
*[[Henaudute texts]]
*[[Henaudute ceremonial calendar]]
*[[List of rulers of the Yellow Empire]]

==Phonology==
The phonology of Henaudute is very similar to that of Ancient Greek, and for convenience is spelled with the same alphabet.  For convenience it is transliterated to Latin characters in the Roman manner, with one exception, in that ''k'' is used for ''κ''.

===Consonants===
{|
! || Bilabial || Dental || Velar || Glottal
|-
! Voiceless stop 
| '''π''' /p/ || '''τ''' /t/ || '''κ''' /k/ ||
|-
! Aspirated stop
| '''φ''' /pʰ/ || '''θ''' /tʰ/ || '''χ''' /kʰ/ || 
|-
! Voiced stop
| '''β''' /b/ || '''δ''' /d/ || '''γ''' /ɡ/ ||
|-
! Voiceless fricative
|       || '''σ'''/'''ς''' /s/ ||  || '''῾''' /h/
|-
! Voiced fricative
|       || '''ζ''' /z/ ||  ||
|-
! Nasal
|  '''μ''' /m/ || '''ν''' /n/ || ('''γ''' [ŋ]) ||
|-
! Liquid
|         || '''λ''' /l/ || || 
|-
! Tap 
|         || '''ρ''' /ɾ/ || ||
|}


==Morphology==
===Adjectives===
There are few if any true adjectives; most are participial forms.

Comparison of adjectives is formed by prefixation.

{|
| || ''ου'' || ''-θα'' || = '''ουθα'''
|-
| || old ||  &lt;small&gt;PART:T&lt;/small&gt; || :  &quot;old&quot;
|-
|-
| ''ἀμ-'' || ''ου'' || ''-θα'' || =  '''ἀμουθα'''
|-
| &lt;small&gt;COMP&lt;/small&gt; || old || &lt;small&gt;PART:T&lt;/small&gt;  || : &quot;older&quot;
|-
|-
| ''ἰσ-'' || ''ου'' || ''PART:T'' || = '''ἰσουθα'''
|-
| &lt;small&gt;SUP&lt;/small&gt; || old || &lt;small&gt;ADJ:TAN&lt;/small&gt; || : &quot;oldest&quot;
|}

===Gender===
There are three genders, '''ταν''' (''tan'', fire), '''λῡε''' (''lūe'', water), and '''γαρη''' (''garē'', earth). 

*'''Ταν''' is, broadly, all terms of high animacy; this class includes people, animals, ''σταφθα'' (''staphtha'', self-propelled) processes such as fire, and complex systems, where &quot;complex systems&quot; are symptoms comprising simpler systems.  An example is ''λαν'' (''lan'', the hand), which comprises ''νοθι'' (''nothi'', fingers).
*'''Λῡε,''' terms of low animacy, including simple systems, plants, collectives, verbal nouns, parts of ''ταν'' things, and ''ὑνταφθε'' (''huntaphthe'', non-propelled) processes such as rivers.
*'''Γαρη,''' inanimate terms, including parts of ''λῡε'' things, diminutives, augmentatives, mass nouns, words and letters.

[[Category:Dele languages]]
[[Category:Arda]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Stub</title>
    <id>612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T04:31:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 12px 0px; padding: 12px 16px; border: 1pt solid #aaaaaa; width: 600&quot;&gt;''This article is a [[FrathWiki:Find or fix a stub|stub]].  If you can contribute to its content, feel free to do so.''&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:About</title>
    <id>613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-03T02:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leon math</username>
        <id>270</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What FrathWiki shouldn't be */  added 2 points</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This page is a work in progress.  For more suggestions on what we could or shouldn't be, leave a note on the [[FrathWiki talk:About|talk page]].''

==What FrathWiki is==
Welcome to FrathWiki.  FrathWiki is a free encyclopedia for descriptions of constructed languages (''conlangs'') and cultures (''concultures'').  Here are a few ways ''you'' can contribute:

* '''Present creations.''' Whether you have a detailed grammar or ethnography, a simple lexicon or guidebook, or just a short description and a link to a website, you can post it here.  

* '''Work together.''' The WikiWiki format allows anyone to edit any page, meaning anyone can help, whether in all-out collaborative creation or just proofreading your text.  Every page has its own ‘talk’ page where people can leave comments and constructive criticism.

* '''Teach others.'''  FrathWiki also wants to be a resource for conlangers, conculturers, and worldbuilders.  For this, we need people to contribute descriptions of topics in linguistics and worldbuilding for a creator's perspective.

Our models are sites like [[Wikipedia:Main page|Wikipedia]] and [[Wikibooks:Main page|Wikibooks]].

==What FrathWiki could be==
* ''A repository for conlang texts.'' (Is this practical?)
* ''A place to describe well-known creations such as Esperanto or Tolkien's worlds.'' (If there's a way to do this without transgressing copyright and trademark laws...)
::''See http://lambengolmor.wikicities.com/ for Tolkien''

==What FrathWiki Isn't==
*a whole site devoted to a particular person's conlangs and concultures
*a place to promote your auxlang (auxiliary language, meant for worldwide use)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arda</title>
    <id>614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:26:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arda''' is the name of the planet (or, in one model, the solar system) where [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s [[Middle-Earth]] is located.  Actually, it is to be understood to be ''our'' world in a fictional mythological past. 

===Links===
* [[Wikipedia:Arda|Arda]] — Wikipedia

----

'''Arda''' is also the name of a collaborative world project begun in August 2001 by members of the [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html CONLANG mailing list], and was named after Tolkien's Arda.  The group is now mostly dormant.

===Languages of Arda===
* [[Aèndelan]] by  ''[[User:vornskr|Paul Sherrill]]''
* [[Dele]] (protolanguage) by ''Aidan Grey''
* [[Fanglutsen]] by ''[[User:Dedalvs|David Peterson]]''
* [[Gedheql]] by ''Tristan McLeay''
* [[Gotidospran]] by ''Basilius''
* [[Ha Bok]] by ''Mathias''
* [[Henaudute]] by ''[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]]''
* [[Miradéugë]] ''Elliott Lash''
* [[Seinundjé]] by ''Shreyas Sampat''
* [[Tannaamaadaadeele]] by ''Amber''
* [[Taxa]] (protolanguage) by ''Aidan Grey''
* [[Thishedharha]] by ''Damon M. Lord''
* [[Tiwu]] by ''Amanda Babcock''
* [[Xshashrandi]] by ''Dan Jones''

===Links===
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Arda-Lang/ Arda-Lang Yahoogroup]

----
{{msg:stub}}

[[Category:Collaborations]]
[[Category:Arda|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sirius</title>
    <id>615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29241</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T10:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Description==
A sort of interlang intended for furries.
*Homepage: [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Siriuslang Siriuslang] — Yahoo! Group

*Author: [[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]

===Subpages===
*[[Sirius Lexicon]]
*[[Sirius Texts: Aesop]]

==Pronunciation and Spelling==
*The accent goes on the first syllable of the word.

===Vowels===
There are five vowels:
'''a e i o u'''
These may be pronounced as in Spanish or Italian, with the exception that ''a'' is a schwa ([[IPA]]: /ə/), as in the English word ''cut''.

''E'' and ''o'' may also be pronounced as /æ/ and /ɑ/ respectively (the vowels of American English &quot;cat&quot; and &quot;paw&quot;).

===Consonants===
f h j k l m n ng p r s sh t th tz w y z

These are all pronounced with their English values, with two exceptions:

*''j'' is /ʒ/ as in “A''si''a”, (the same as in French)
*''tz'' is pronounced like /ts/, (the same as in German), but can also be pronounced as /z/ in “zoo”.

Sometimes consonants are written double: ''ff, ck, ll, rr, tt'' etc.  This is generally just a reminder of the pronunciation; the letters are not pronounced double.  

[I hope I can phase the double letters out.  It may make it harder to spell if it is not regular.]

==Grammar==
===Question words===
The most important thing to be able to do is ask questions.  

The basic question words are —

{|
| '''her?''' || ''who?''
|-
| '''het?''' || ''what?''
|-
| '''hoj?''' || ''where?''
|-
| '''ho?''' || ''when?''
|-
| '''he?''' || ''why?''
|- 
| '''hiyu?''' || ''how?''
|- 
| '''hashar?''' || ''how much?''
|}

Example:
*'''Het atsha?''' ''What's that?''

(You can use ''esti'' &quot;to be&quot; here, thus ''Het esti atsha?'' — but it isn't necessary to.)

===Articles===
Sirius does not use words for ''an'' or ''the''.  This may be confusing at first; it may be easier to think of it as sounding like newspaper headlines (''Man dies in fire'').

===Pronouns===
Like Japanese, Sirius does not require [[pronoun]]s in most places, especially when context is enough.  Instead you can use a name, species, title, or whatever.  

Like English, Sirius pronouns have different forms for subject and object, but unlike English they are not marked for [[number]]; thus there is no difference between &quot;I&quot; and &quot;we&quot;; ''mi'' is used for either. 

However, a distinction ''is'' made between character (IC) and out-of-character (OOC) pronouns.  There are also possessive forms.

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
! !! I/we !! mine/ours !! you !! yours
|-
! IC
| meaw || morru || yeu || yorru
|-
! OOC
| me || mor || ye || yor
|}

==Lexicon==
===Basic words===
*''see'' [[Sirius Lexicon]]

===Technical words===
Sirius gets technical terms from Greek and Latin, just like English does.

Examples:
* &quot;illuminate&quot;: Latin ''illuminare'' → Sirius '''illumin'''
* &quot;universe&quot;: Latin ''universum'' → Sirius '''uniwers'''
* &quot;dinosaur&quot;: Greek ''δεινοσαυρος'' (deinosauros) → Sirius '''dinsor''' (or ''tinsor'')
* &quot;metamorphose&quot;: Greek ''μεταμορφόω'' (metamorphoō) → Sirius '''metamorf'''

Basic rules for deriving technical terms:  
# drop off any grammatical endings at the end of the word, like the ''-us, -um, -a'' at the end of Latin nouns, or the -o- in Greek compounds
# there are several sounds that are not in Sirius, so the spelling should be changed: &lt;!-- #*Greek and Latin ''b, d, g'' to '''p, t, k''' --&gt;
#*Latin ''c'' to '''k''', and ''v'' to '''w'''.
#*Greek ''z, ph, th, kh'' to '''tz, f, th, h/k''' ('''h''' before a vowel, '''k''' elsewhere).
#*Greek ''ai, oi'' and Latin ''ae, oe'' to '''e'''.
#*Greek and Latin ''au'' to '''o'''.
#*Greek ''ei'' to '''i''' and ''ou'' to '''u'''.
#*Greek ''y'' to '''i'''.

[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Person</title>
    <id>616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-14T20:56:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Additional persons */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Grammatical person''', in [[linguistics]], is used for the [[grammar|grammatical]] categories a [[language]] uses to describe the relationship between the speaker and the persons or things she is talking about.   Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal [[pronoun]]s.  It also frequently affects [[verb]]s, sometimes [[noun]]s, and [[genitive|possessive]] relationships as well.   

[[English]] traditionally distinguishes three grammatical persons:

The personal [[pronoun]]s &quot;''I''&quot; and &quot;''we''&quot; are said to be in the '''first person'''.  The speaker uses this in the singular to refer to himself; in the plural, to speak of a group of people of which he is a member.

The personal pronoun &quot;''you''&quot; is the '''second person''' pronoun. It refers to the person spoken to.  ''You'' is used in both the singular and plural; the old second person singular pronoun, ''thou'', is archaic in modern English.

All other pronouns and all nouns are in the '''third person'''. This person is traditionally defined to be what is spoken of or anything that is not first or second person.  People who are neither the speaker nor the person spoken to, and any inanimate objects, are referred to in the third person.

In [[Indo-European languages]], first, second, and third person pronouns are all marked for [[singular]] and [[plural]] forms, and perhaps [[dual]] forms as well.  Some languages, especially in Western Europe, distinguish degrees of formality and informality.  Common ways of doing this include using the second person plural pronoun as a singular in formal situations (as in [[French]]); or using an old third person noun, with its third person verb forms, as a second person form of address (as in [[Spanish]] with the word ''usted'').  European languages that exhibit these features of contrasting formality and informality have a [[T-V distinction]], named for ''tu'' and ''vous'', the informal and formal second person pronouns in French.  (Compare ''thou'' for archaic T-V distinctions in English).

Other languages use different classifying schemes, especially in the plural pronouns.  One frequently found difference not present in most Indo-European languages is a contrast between ''inclusive &quot;we&quot;'', a first person plural pronoun which includes the person addressed in the group of &quot;us,&quot; and ''exclusive &quot;we&quot;'', which excludes the person addressed.  These languages would use different pronouns, verb forms, or both to translate these two sentences:

*''We can go into the forest and have adventures.''
*''We mean to stop your evil scheme, Doctor Doom!''

Many of the [[Dravidian languages]] use these distinctions in grammatical person; they exist elsewhere as well.

Other languages have much more elaborate systems of formality that go well beyond the T-V distinction, and use many different pronouns and verb forms that express the speaker's relationship with the people she addresses.  The [[Japanese|Japanese language]] has one well known such system; many [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] have them as well.  

In many languages, the [[verb]] takes a form dependent on this ''person'' and whether it is singular or [[number|plural]]. In [[English]], this happens with the verb &quot;''to be''&quot;.

*I am (first-person singular)
*You are (second-person)
*He, she or it is (third-person singular)
*We are (first-person plural)
*They are (third-person plural)

When &quot;first person&quot;, &quot;second person&quot;, and &quot;third person&quot; are used as adjectives, they should be hyphenated.

==Additional persons==

The grammars of some languages divide the semantic space into more than three persons.  The extra categories may be termed ''fourth person, fifth person,'' etc.  Terms such as &quot;fourth person&quot; are not absolute but can refer depending on context to any of several phenomena.

Some languages, the most well-known examples being [[Wikipedia:Algonquian languages|Algonquian languages]], divide the category of third person into two parts: ''proximate'' for a more topical third person and ''[[Wikipedia:obviative|obviative]]'' for a less topical third person.  The obviative is sometimes called the fourth person.   

The term ''fourth person'' is also sometimes used for the category of indefinite or generic referents, that work like ''one'' in English phrases such as &quot;one should be prepared&quot;, when the grammar treats them differently from ordinary third person forms.


See also [[conjugation]], [[grammar]].

----
{{msg:Wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Grammatical person|Grammatical person]]


[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Number</title>
    <id>617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48951</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T16:19:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link specific numbers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''number''' is a [[grammar|grammatical]] category that specifies the quantity of a [[noun]] or affects the form of a [[verb]] or other part of speech depending on the quantity of the noun to which it refers. Grammatical number is distinct from the use of [[numeral]]s to specify the exact quantify of a noun; number is usually vague. The most common scheme is '''[[singular]]''' (one thing) contrasted with '''[[plural]]''' (many things). Other possibilities are '''[[dual]]''' number, expressing the existence of precisely two instances of the noun, '''[[trial]]''' number for three of a noun, '''[[paucal]]''' number for few but not one of a noun, or a '''[[collective]]''' number that expresses the whole class of the nouns (e.g., ''mankind'').

Languages that distinguish grammatical number commonly do so by [[inflection]]. Verbs and other parts of speech may be inflected to agree with the noun. English does this in a limited way: &quot;he sleeps&quot; but &quot;I sleep&quot;; &quot;this chair&quot; but &quot;these chairs&quot;. Even in languages such as [[Mandarin|Mandarin Chinese]] that do not mark common nouns for grammatical number, [[pronoun]]s usually have distinct singular and plural forms. Arguably this is not quite the same concept as grammatical number, since ''we'' is not the same as multiple instances of ''I''.

== English examples ==

[[Modern English]] is typical of languages that have singular and plural number. An English plural can correspond to a dual, trial, paucal, or plural in other languages. Here are some examples of irregular singular-plural pairs:

* ''foot'' (singular), ''feet'' (plural) 
* ''mouse'' (singular), ''mice'' (plural)
* ''I'' (singular), ''we'' (plural)

And one regular example:

* ''encyclopedia'' (singular), ''encyclopedias'' (plural)

Non-borrowed English irregular nouns come in several forms:

Some voice a final fricative when in plural: 
* ''knife'', ''knives'' (/f/ &gt; /v/)
* ''mouth'', ''mouths'' (/T/ &gt; /D/)
* ''house'', ''houses'', (unique plural, /s/ &gt; /z/)
These plurals are distinct in pronunciation from the possessive. There is also a trend in some areas to regularize some of these nouns.

Survivors of the [[Old English]] weak masculine declination add ''-en'':
* ''ox'', ''oxen''
* ''auroch'', ''aurochen'' (archaic)

Other ''-en'' adders are irregular for different reasons:

* ''child'', ''children''
* ''eye'', ''eyen'' (rare)
* ''cow'', ''kine'' (rare)
* ''brother'', ''brethren'' (or ''brothers'')

Some nouns have no plural, or are identical when plural and singular:

* ''moose''
* ''sheep''
* ''fish'' (or ''fishes'')
* ''species''

Pronouns are irregular precisely because they are so common:
* ''I'', ''we''
* ''you''
* ''he she it'', ''they''

Some nouns are rather ''transparently irregular'' because they undergo the process of [[umlaut]]:

*''man'', ''men''
*''foot'', ''feet''
*''mouse'', ''mice''

There are several different kinds depending in the starting and ending vowel, but generally, they converge on /i/.

Most of these nouns are also umlauted in the other [[Germanic languages]].

The (regular) English noun plural marker, -s, has three variants:
* -/s/ next to a voiceless consonant other than a fricative
* -/z/ next to a voiced sound other than a fricative, or a vowel
* -/@z/ or -/Iz/ next to /s/, /z/, /S/, /Z/, /tS/ and /dZ/ (the choice of vowel depending on dialect)

== Other languages ==

[[Slovene]] is more complicated:

* ''babarija'' (''old wives tale'') (singular), ''babariji'' (two ''old wives tales'') (dual), ''babarije'' (three ''old wives tales'')
* ''hi&amp;#353;a'' (''house'') (singular), ''hi&amp;#353;i'' (two ''houses'') (dual), ''tri hi&amp;#353;e'' (''three houses'') (plural), ''&amp;#353;est hi&amp;#353;'' (''six houses'') (plural)
* ''mi&amp;#353;'' (''mouse'') (singular), ''mi&amp;#353;i'' (two or three ''mice'') (dual := plural)
* ''jaz'' (''I'') (singular), ''midva/midve'' (''we'') (dual + [Masculine/Feminine [[gender]]), ''mi/me'' (''we'') (plural [Ma/Fe gender])
* ''vrata'' (one ''door'') (singular), ''dvoje vrat'' (two ''doors'' (dual), ''tri vrata'' (three ''doors'' (plural), ['''plural noun''' with different or same form]
* ''babine'' (''afterbirth period'') (archaic meaning) (singular), ''babini'' (two ''afterbirth periods'') (dual), ''babine'' (three ''afterbirth periods''), ['''plural noun''' with different or same form]
* ''&amp;#269;love&amp;#353;tvo'' (''mankind'') (singular), ''&amp;#269;love&amp;#353;tvi'' (two ''mankind'') (dual), ''&amp;#269;love&amp;#353;tva'' (three ''mankind''), ['''collective noun''' with different form]
** These and similar examples are very often used incorrectly, even in published or electronic dictionaries.

In [[Hebrew]], one can similarly say:

* ''sefer'' (''book'') (singular), ''sfarim'' (''books'') (plural)
* ''yom'' (''day'') (singular), ''yamim'' (''days'') (plural), but ''yomaim'' (two ''days'') (dual)

In terms of pronunciation, however, the majority of nouns (and adjectives) in [[French]] are not actually declined for number. The -s [[suffix]] is not actually pronounced unless the next word starts with a vowel (this is called [[liaison]]) and thus does not really show anything; the plural article or other word is the real indicator of plurality. However, plurals still exist in French because irregular nouns, such as those that end in -l such as ''cheval'' (horse) form plurals in a different way. ''Cheval'' is pronounced [S@val], ''chevaux'' is pronounced [S@vo], and this really shows number differences. The same is true for adjectives.

== Effect of number on verbs and other parts of speech ==

Not only nouns can be [[declension|declined]] by number. In many languages, adjectives are declined according to the number of the noun they modify. For example, in [[French]], one may say ''un arbre vert'' (a green tree), and ''des arbres verts'' ([some] green trees). The word ''vert'' (green), in the singular, becomes ''verts'' for the plural (unlike English ''green'', which remains ''green'').

In many languages, verbs are [[conjugation|conjugated]] by number as well. Using French as an example again, one says ''je vois'' (I see), but ''nous voyons'' (we see). The verb ''voir'' (to see) in the first person changes from ''vois'' in singular, to ''voyons'' in plural. In English this occurs in the third [[person]] (she runs, they run) but not first or second.

Normally verbs agree with their subject noun in number. But in [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]] [[gender|neuter]] plurals took a singular verb. In English, or at least British English, singular nouns collectively referring to people may take plural verbs, as ''the committee are meeting''; use of this varies by dialect and level of formality.

Other qualifiers may also agree in number. The English article ''the'' does not, the demonstratives ''this, that'' do, becoming ''these, those'', and the article ''a, an'' is omitted or changed to ''some'' in the plural. In French and German, the definite [[article]]s have gender distinctions in the singular but not the plural. In [[Portuguese]], the indefinite article ''um, uma'' has plural forms ''uns, umas''.

== See also ==

* [[grammar]]
* [[mass noun]]
* [[collective noun]]
* [[measure word]]

----
{{msg:Wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Grammatical number|Grammatical number]]

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Swadesh list</title>
    <id>618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47564</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:22:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Swadesh list is a list of about 207 words originally drawn up by [[Wikipedia:Morris Swadesh|Morris Swadesh]] for the purpose of [[Wikipedia:Glottochronology|glottochronology]].


* [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Swadesh template|Wiktionary:Swadesh template]] can be used to demonstrate the vocabulary of a conlang.

===List of conlang Swadesh lists===
*[[Ibran/Swadesh list|Ibran]]

----

{{msg:stub}}
[[Category:Lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Find or fix a stub</title>
    <id>619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22370</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:26:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A stub is a page whose content is not fully fleshed out yet.  

To mark a stub as a stub, add ''&lt;nowiki&gt;{{msg:stub}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' to the page. It will display the following message—

{{msg:stub}}  

—where '''stub''' will be a link to this page.  

To find stubs to fix by adding content to them, see [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere&amp;target=MediaWiki:Stub list of pages bearing the stub message].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Editing</title>
    <id>620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34839</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-02T12:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>about categories, since someone asked.  This page could use cleanup...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Basic formatting==

* For more advanced formatting help see [[Wikipedia:m:MediaWiki User's Guide: Editing overview|m:MediaWiki User's Guide: Editing overview]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|width=50%| For ''italics'' enclose in two single quotes:
  &lt;nowiki&gt;''italic words''&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| ''italic words''
|-
| For '''bold''' enclose in three single quotes:  
  &lt;nowiki&gt;'''bold words'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| '''bold words'''
|-
| For bulleted lists, add an asterisk * at the beginning of each line:
  *Bullet one
  *Bullet two
  *Bullet three
|
*Bullet one
*Bullet two
*Bullet three
|-
| For a numbered list, add a # at the beginning of each line:
  #Item one
  #Item two
  #Item three
| 
#Item one
#Item two
#Item three
|-
| To make a link within the wiki (or to certain other wikis such as Wikipedia), enclose it in double brackets.  Use a pipe to link to a different page than what is displayed.

  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [[Esperanto]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [[User:Muke]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [[User:Muke|Muke]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [[Wikipedia:Lingua Franca Nova]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
* [[Esperanto]]
* [[User:Muke]]
* [[User:Muke|Muke]]
* [[Wikipedia:Lingua Franca Nova]]
(Red links are to nonexistent pages, blue links are to pages on other wikis.)
|-
| To add a page to a category, just add an ordinary link to the category anywhere on the page.  The link will not be displayed inline—it'll show at the bottom of the page—and the page will appear in the category listing.

  &lt;nowiki&gt;[[Category:Conlangs]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

If you actually want to link to the category, and not just put the page into it, add a colon to the beginning of the link:

  &lt;nowiki&gt;[[:Category:Conlangs]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|

|-
| To make a link to a website, enclose it in single brackets.  It will be automatically numbered.  To title a link instead, add the title after a space.

  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [http://www.google.com]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
  &lt;nowiki&gt;* [http://www.google.com Google]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
* [http://www.google.com]
* [http://www.google.com Google]
|}
----

==Tables==

Table formatting: 
*'''&lt;nowiki&gt;{|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' begins a table
*'''&lt;nowiki&gt;|}&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ends it.  
*Standard cells begin with '''|''' 
*heading cells with '''!''' 
*format options go at the beginning of the cell, separated by '''|'''
*'''|-''' starts a new row

Example table:
  &lt;nowiki&gt;
  {| border=1
  ! heading cell
  |align=center| centered entry
  | third column
  |-
  ! second row heading
  | entry two, noncentered
  | third column, second row
  |}
  &lt;/nowiki&gt;
It looks like this:

{| border=1
! heading cell
|align=center| centered entry
| third column
|-
! second row heading
| entry two, noncentered
| third column, second row
|}

The wiki format can also be entered with a whole row at once, allowing for example easy interlinears:
  &lt;nowiki&gt;
  {| 
  ! nemšé || javmb || morjé-'f
  |-
  | part  || deep  || sea-GEN
  |}
  &lt;/nowiki&gt;
displaying:

{| 
! nemšé || javmb || morjé-'f
|-
| part  || deep  || sea-GEN
|}

The double pipes '''||''' delimit cells or headings (whether it will be one or the other inherits from the first cell on the line; start a new line to change types).

----

==Interwiki links==
You can make links to other wikis just like you make links to pages on this wiki.  To make a link to another wiki, prefix the destination with the Wiki's keyword and a colon (:).

===Useful prefixes===
*Link to [[Wikipedia:Main page|Wikipedia]] with the prefix '''Wikipedia:''' (example: [[Wikipedia:Solresol]])
*Link to [[IBWiki:Ill Bethisad Wiki|Ill Bethisad Wiki]] with the prefix '''IBWiki:''' (example: [[IBWiki:Brithenig]])
*Link to [[ConlangWiki:ConlangWiki|ConlangWiki]] with the prefix '''ConlangWiki:''' (example: [[ConlangWiki:Khangathyagon]])

''(To suggest a new wiki to link to, contact [[User:Muke|Muke]].)''

{{msg:stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:!Popular articles</title>
    <id>621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3978</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-23T04:09:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ol start=1&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Main_Page&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Main Page&quot;&gt;Main Page&lt;/a&gt; (601 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Kosi&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Kosi&quot;&gt;Kosi&lt;/a&gt; (265 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Sisiw%C3%B6n&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Sisiwön&quot;&gt;Sisiwön&lt;/a&gt; (174 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Atlantic&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Atlantic&quot;&gt;Atlantic&lt;/a&gt; (134 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Henaudute&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Henaudute&quot;&gt;Henaudute&lt;/a&gt; (126 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Ibran/Swadesh_list&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Ibran/Swadesh list&quot;&gt;Ibran/Swadesh list&lt;/a&gt; (113 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Sirius&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Sirius&quot;&gt;Sirius&lt;/a&gt; (104 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Trentish&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Trentish&quot;&gt;Trentish&lt;/a&gt; (101 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Sirius_Lexicon&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Sirius Lexicon&quot;&gt;Sirius Lexicon&lt;/a&gt; (99 views)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Ch-m-_Tlondor&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Ch-m- Tlondor&quot;&gt;Ch-m- Tlondor&lt;/a&gt; (92 views)&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Swadesh list for Ibran</title>
    <id>622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ ibran</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Description==
[[Swadesh list]] for the [[Ibran]] language.

{| border=1 cellpadding=2
|-
| 
|
!colspan=3| ''Roesan''
!colspan=2| ''Paysan''
|-
|i=No|  №
!c=en|  English
!c=01|  [[IPA]] 
!c=02|  Latinizal
!c=03|  Cirilizal
!c=04|  IPA
!c=05|  Orthography
|-
|i=No| 1
|c=en| I
|c=01| ˈʝɛ
|c=02| ye
|c=03| ё
| ˈjɛ
| ye
|-
|i=No| 2
|c=en| you&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(singular)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈty
|c=02| tu
|c=03| тү
| ˈty
| tu
|-
|i=No| 3
|c=en| he
|c=01| ˈiː
|c=02| ill
|c=03| ī
| ˈiː
| ij
|-
|i=No| 4
|c=en| we
|c=01| nɔˈzoːtrs
|c=02| nosautrs
|c=03| нозѡ̄търс
| nəˈzoːtrəs
| nosautrăs
|-
|i=No| 5
|c=en| you&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(plural)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| vɔˈzoːtrs
|c=02| vosautrs
|c=03| возѡ̄търс
| vəˈzoːtrəs
| vosautrăs
|-
|i=No| 6
|c=en| they
|c=01| ˈiːh
|c=02| ills
|c=03| і̄с
| ˈijəs
| ijăs
|-
|i=No| 7
|c=en| this
|c=01| ˈçeht
|c=02| cétt
|c=03| шитт
| ˈçɛt
| cêt
|-
|i=No| 8
|c=en| that
|c=01| ˈçiː
|c=02| cill
|c=03| ші̄
| ˈçiː
| cij
|-
|i=No| 9
|c=en| here
|c=01| ˈçe
|c=02| cé
|c=03| ши
| ˈçe
| cé
|-
|i=No| 10
|c=en| there
|c=01| ˈaj
|c=02| aill
|c=03| яј
| ˈaj
| àj
|-
|i=No| 11
|c=en| who
|c=01| ˈcçɛ̃
|c=02| chen
|c=03| чен
| ˈcçɛ̃
| chen
|-
|i=No| 12
|c=en| what
|c=01| ˈcçe
|c=02| ché
|c=03| чи
| ˈcçe
| ché
|-
|i=No| 13
|c=en| where
|c=01| ˈũt
|c=02| uont
|c=03| унт
| ˈɔ̃d
| ond
|-
|i=No| 14
|c=en| when
|c=01| ˈkʲɐ̃t
|c=02| cant
|c=03| ќант
| ˈkæ̃d
| quànd
|-
|i=No| 15
|c=en| how
|c=01| ˈkõt
|c=02| cónt
|c=03| кѡнт
| ˈkɔ̃d
| quond
|-
|i=No| 16
|c=en| not
|c=01| ˈnõ
|c=02| nón
|c=03| нѡн
| ˈnɔ̃
| non
|-
|i=No| 17
|c=en| all
|c=01| ˈtuːl
|c=02| tuol
|c=03| тӯл
| ˈtuːl
| tuol
|-
|i=No| 18
|c=en| many
|c=01| ˈmɔːts
|c=02| moets
|c=03| мо̄тс
| ˈmɔjtəs
| moetăs
|-
|i=No| 19
|c=en| some
|c=01| ˈkʲajcç
|c=02| caich
|c=03| ќяјч
| ˈkajcç
| càich
|-
|i=No| 20
|c=en| few
|c=01| ˈpuːks
|c=02| puocs
|c=03| пӯкс
| ˈpuːxəs
| puogăs
|-
|i=No| 21
|c=en| other
|c=01| ˈoːtr
|c=02| autr
|c=03| ѡ̄тър
| ˈoːtrə
| autră
|-
|i=No| 22
|c=en| one
|c=01| ˈỹ
|c=02| un
|c=03| үн
| ˈœ̃
| un
|-
|i=No| 23
|c=en| two
|c=01| ˈduːh
|c=02| duos
|c=03| дӯс
| ˈduːs
| duos
|-
|i=No| 24
|c=en| three
|c=01| ˈtreh
|c=02| trés
|c=03| трис
| ˈtres
| trés
|-
|i=No| 25
|c=en| four
|c=01| ˈkʲatr
|c=02| catr
|c=03| ќятър
| ˈkætrə
| càtră
|-
|i=No| 26
|c=en| five
|c=01| ˈçĩcç
|c=02| cinch
|c=03| шіњч
| ˈçɛ̃cç
| cinch
|-
|i=No| 27
|c=en| big
|c=01| ˈɡrɐ̃t
|c=02| grant
|c=03| грант
| ˈxræ̃d
| grànd
|-
|i=No| 28
|c=en| long
|c=01| ˈlɔ̃k
|c=02| loenc
|c=03| ло̄нк
| ˈlɔ̃ːx
| loeng
|-
|i=No| 29
|c=en| wide
|c=01| ˈlɑrk
|c=02| larc
|c=03| ларк
| ˈlɑrx
| larg
|-
|i=No| 30
|c=en| thick
|c=01| ˈʰpes
|c=02| spéss
|c=03| ’пиз
| ˈspes
| spéss
|-
|i=No| 31
|c=en| heavy
|c=01| pɛˈzɑl
|c=02| pesal
|c=03| пезал
| pəˈzɑl
| pesal
|-
|i=No| 32
|c=en| small
|c=01| pɛˈtit
|c=02| petit
|c=03| петіт
| pəˈtit
| petit
|-
|i=No| 33
|c=en| short
|c=01| ˈkʲort
|c=02| córt
|c=03| ќѡрт
| ˈkort
| córt
|-
|i=No| 34
|c=en| narrow
|c=01| ˈʰtrɛjt
|c=02| streit
|c=03| ’трејт
| ˈstrɛjt
| streit
|-
|i=No| 35
|c=en| thin
|c=01| ˈmɑɡr
|c=02| magr
|c=03| магър
| ˈmɑxrə
| magră
|-
|i=No| 36
|c=en| woman
|c=01| ˈvʲyːn
|c=02| fiun’
|c=03| вү̈̄нъ
| ˈvyːnə
| fună
|-
|i=No| 37
|c=en| man&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (male)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| œːn
|c=02| heun’
|c=03| ө̄нъ
| ˈœːnə
| eună
|-
|i=No| 38
|c=en| person
|c=01| pɛrˈzuːn
|c=02| persuon’
|c=03| перзӯнъ
| pərˈzuːnə
| persuonă
|-
|i=No| 39
|c=en| child&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a youth)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| œːˈvɐ̃t
|c=02| eufant
|c=03| ө̄вант
| œːˈvɑ̃t
| eufant
|-
|i=No| 40
|c=en| wife
|c=01| maˈjer
|c=02| maillér
|c=03| мяјир
| məˈjer
| màjér
|-
|i=No| 41
|c=en| husband
|c=01| mɑˈril
|c=02| maril
|c=03| маріл
| məˈril
| maril
|-
|i=No| 42
|c=en| mother
|c=01| ˈmɑdr
|c=02| madr
|c=03| мадър
| ˈmɑdrə
| madră
|-
|i=No| 43
|c=en| father
|c=01| ˈpɑdr
|c=02| padr
|c=03| падър
| ˈpɑdrə
| padră
|-
|i=No| 44
|c=en| animal
|c=01| bɛˈcçuːl
|c=02| bechuol
|c=03| бечӯл
| bəˈcçuːlə
| bêchuolă
|-
|i=No| 45
|c=en| fish
|c=01| ˈpʲicç
|c=02| pÿch
|c=03| пїч
| ˈpjɛcç
| piêch
|-
|i=No| 46
|c=en| bird
|c=01| ɔːˈʝiː
|c=02| oegill
|c=03| о̄жі̄
| əjˈʝijə
| oegijă
|-
|i=No| 47
|c=en| dog
|c=01| ˈcçɐ̃
|c=02| chan
|c=03| чан
| ˈcçæ̃
| chàn
|-
|i=No| 48
|c=en| louse
|c=01| pɛˈjil
|c=02| peïl
|c=03| пејіл
| pəˈjillə
| peïllă
|-
|i=No| 49
|c=en| snake
|c=01| zɛrˈpjɛ̃t
|c=02| serpient
|c=03| зерпёнт
| zərˈpjɛ̃t
| serpient
|-
|i=No| 50
|c=en| worm
|c=01| ˈvjɛrm
|c=02| vierm
|c=03| вёрм
| ˈvjɛrm
| vierm
|-
|i=No| 51
|c=en| tree
|c=01| ˈɑrbr
|c=02| arbr
|c=03| арбър
| ˈɑrbrə
| arbră
|-
|i=No| 52
|c=en| forest
|c=01| ˈboʰk
|c=02| bósc
|c=03| бѡкк
| ˈbɔk
| bôc
|-
|i=No| 53
|c=en| stick&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of wood)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| bɑˈʰtũː
|c=02| battuon
|c=03| баттӯн
| bəˈtuːn
| bâtuon
|-
|i=No| 54
|c=en| fruit
|c=01| ˈvrœjt
|c=02| vroit
|c=03| врөјт
| ˈvrɔjt
| vroit
|-
|i=No| 55
|c=en| seed
|c=01| ˈʝyːn
|c=02| siun’
|c=03| жү̄нъ
| ˈʒyːnə
| siună
|-
|i=No| 56
|c=en| leaf
|c=01| ˈœj
|c=02| hoill
|c=03| өј
| ˈhœjə
| heujă
|-
|i=No| 57
|c=en| root
|c=01| raˈjiç
|c=02| raïz
|c=03| ряїш
| rəˈjiç
| raïz
|-
|i=No| 58
|c=en| bark&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of tree)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈkwɛrç
|c=02| querz
|c=03| кўерш
| ˈkwɛrç
| querz
|-
|i=No| 59
|c=en| flower
|c=01| ˈvluːr
|c=02| vluor
|c=03| влӯр
| ˈvluːr
| vluor
|-
|i=No| 60
|c=en| grass
|c=01| ˈʝɛrb
|c=02| yerb
|c=03| жерб
| ˈjɛrbə
| yerbă
|-
|i=No| 61
|c=en| rope
|c=01| ˈkwɛrd
|c=02| querd
|c=03| кўерд
| ˈkwɛrdə
| querdă
|-
|i=No| 62
|c=en| skin&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of a person)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈpiː
|c=02| pill
|c=03| пі̄
| ˈpiː
| pij
|-
|i=No| 63
|c=en| meat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in flesh)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈcçarn
|c=02| charn
|c=03| чярн
| ˈcçærn
| chàrn
|-
|i=No| 64
|c=en| blood
|c=01| ˈzãːcç
|c=02| saench
|c=03| зя̄њч
| ˈzæ̃ːɟʝ
| saenģ
|-
|i=No| 65
|c=en| bone
|c=01| ˈœjs
|c=02| oiss
|c=03| өјз
| ˈɔjs
| oiss
|-
|i=No| 66
|c=en| fat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (noun)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈɡraːç
|c=02| graez
|c=03| гря̄ш
| ˈxræːçə
| gràză
|-
|i=No| 67
|c=en| egg
|c=01| ˈœjf
|c=02| oif
|c=03| өјв
| ˈɔjvə
| oivă
|-
|i=No| 68
|c=en| horn
|c=01| ˈkwɛrn
|c=02| quern
|c=03| кўерн
| ˈkwɛrn
| quern
|-
|i=No| 69
|c=en| tail
|c=01| ˈkʲuː
|c=02| cuo
|c=03| ќӯ
| ˈkuːə
| cuoă
|-
|i=No| 70
|c=en| feather&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not down)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈplym
|c=02| plum’
|c=03| плүмъ
| ˈplymə
| plumă
|-
|i=No| 71
|c=en| hair
|c=01| ˈpʲil
|c=02| pÿl
|c=03| пїл
| ˈpil
| pil
|-
|i=No| 72
|c=en| head
|c=01| ˈcçap
|c=02| chap
|c=03| чяп
| ˈcçap
| chàp
|-
|i=No| 73
|c=en| ear
|c=01| aˈrʲil
|c=02| arÿl
|c=03| ярїл
| əˈrillə
| àrillă
|-
|i=No| 74
|c=en| eye
|c=01| ˈœjl
|c=02| oil
|c=03| өјл
| ˈɔjllə
| oillà
|-
|i=No| 75
|c=en| nose
|c=01| ˈnɑs
|c=02| nass
|c=03| наз
| ˈnɑz
| nas
|-
|i=No| 76
|c=en| mouth
|c=01| ˈbuːcç
|c=02| buoch
|c=03| бӯч
| ˈbuːcçə
| buochă
|-
|i=No| 77
|c=en| tooth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not molar)
|c=01| ˈɟʝɛ̃t
|c=02| dient
|c=03| дёнт
| ˈdʒɛ̃t
| dient
|-
|i=No| 78
|c=en| tongue
|c=01| ˈlĩɡ
|c=02| ling
|c=03| лінг
| ˈlɛ̃xə
| lingă
|-
|i=No| 79
|c=en| fingernail
|c=01| ˈɔ̃ːɡl
|c=02| oengl
|c=03| о̄нгъл
| ˈɔ̃ːxlə
| oenglă
|-
|i=No| 80
|c=en| foot
|c=01| ˈpɛj
|c=02| pey
|c=03| пеј
| ˈpɛj
| pej
|-
|i=No| 81
|c=en| leg
|c=01| ˈcçoːb
|c=02| chaub
|c=03| чѡ̄б
| ˈcçoːbə
| chaubă
|-
|i=No| 82
|c=en| knee
|c=01| ʝɐˈnyl
|c=02| genul
|c=03| жънүл
| ʝəˈnullə
| jănullă
|-
|i=No| 83
|c=en| hand
|c=01| ˈmɐ̃
|c=02| man
|c=03| ман
| ˈmɑ̃
| man
|-
|i=No| 84
|c=en| wing
|c=01| ˈɑl
|c=02| al
|c=03| ал
| ˈɑlə
| ală
|-
|i=No| 85
|c=en| belly
|c=01| ˈvjɛ̃tr
|c=02| vientr
|c=03| вёнтър
| ˈvjɛ̃trə
| vientră
|-
|i=No| 86
|c=en| guts
|c=01| ˈtrip
|c=02| trip
|c=03| тріп
| ˈtripə
| tripă
|-
|i=No| 87
|c=en| neck
|c=01| ˈkʲœj
|c=02| coil
|c=03| ќөјл
| ˈkœj
| queuj
|-
|i=No| 88
|c=en| back
|c=01| ˈʰcçin
|c=02| schin’
|c=03| ’чінъ
| ˈscçinə
| schină
|-
|i=No| 89
|c=en| breast
|c=01| ˈpɛjt
|c=02| peit
|c=03| пејт
| ˈpɛjt
| peit
|-
|i=No| 90
|c=en| heart
|c=01| ˈkwɛrt
|c=02| quert
|c=03| кўерт
| ˈkwɛrd
| querd
|-
|i=No| 91
|c=en| liver
|c=01| viˈɟʝal
|c=02| figial
|c=03| віџял
| vəˈdʒɑl
| figiàl
|-
|i=No| 92
|c=en| to drink
|c=01| bɛˈvʲir
|c=02| bevÿr
|c=03| бевїр
| bəˈvir
| bevir
|-
|i=No| 93
|c=en| to eat
|c=01| mɐ̃ˈɟʝɑr
|c=02| mangiar
|c=03| манџар
| mə̃ˈdʒɑr
| mangiar
|-
|i=No| 94
|c=en| to bite
|c=01| mɔrˈɟʝir
|c=02| mordÿr
|c=03| мордїр
| mərˈdir
| mordir
|-
|i=No| 95
|c=en| to suck
|c=01| çyˈcçɑr
|c=02| zuchar
|c=03| шүчар
| çəˈcçɑr
| zuchar
|-
|i=No| 96
|c=en| to spit
|c=01| ʰkʲœˈpir
|c=02| squeupir
|c=03| ’ќөпір
| skəˈpir
| squeupir
|-
|i=No| 97
|c=en| to vomit
|c=01| vaˈmʲir
|c=02| vamÿr
|c=03| вямїр
| vəˈmir
| vàmir
|-
|i=No| 98
|c=en| to blow&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as wind)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| byˈvɑr
|c=02| bufar
|c=03| бүвар
| bəˈvɑr
| bufar
|-
|i=No| 99
|c=en| to breathe
|c=01| ɑlɛˈnɑr
|c=02| alenar
|c=03| аленар
| ɑləˈnɑr
| alenar
|-
|i=No| 100
|c=en| to laugh
|c=01| riˈjir
|c=02| riÿr
|c=03| ріїр
| riˈjir
| riïr
|-
|i=No| 101
|c=en| to see
|c=01| ˈvɛjr
|c=02| veir
|c=03| вејр
| ˈvɛjr
| veir
|-
|i=No| 102
|c=en| to hear
|c=01| ˈœjr
|c=02| oir
|c=03| өјр
| ˈɔjr
| oir
|-
|i=No| 103
|c=en| to know&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a fact)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| zɑˈbʲir
|c=02| sabÿr
|c=03| забїр
| zəˈbir
| sabir
|-
|i=No| 104
|c=en| to think
|c=01| pɛ̃ˈzɑr
|c=02| pensar
|c=03| пензар
| pə̃ˈzɑr
| pensar
|-
|i=No| 105
|c=en| to smell&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (sense odor)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ɔlɔˈrɑr
|c=02| olorar
|c=03| олорар
| ɔləˈrɑr
| olorar
|-
|i=No| 106
|c=en| to fear
|c=01| krɛˈmʲir
|c=02| cremÿr
|c=03| кремїр
| krəˈmir
| cremir
|-
|i=No| 107
|c=en| to sleep
|c=01| dɔrˈmir
|c=02| dormir
|c=03| дормір
| dərˈmir
| dormir
|-
|i=No| 108
|c=en| to live
|c=01| viˈvʲir
|c=02| vivÿr
|c=03| вівїр
| vəˈvir
| vivir
|-
|i=No| 109
|c=en| to die
|c=01| maˈrir
|c=02| marir
|c=03| мярір
| məˈrir
| màrir
|-
|i=No| 110
|c=en| to kill
|c=01| tyˈlɑr
|c=02| tular
|c=03| түлар
| təˈlɑr
| tular
|-
|i=No| 111
|c=en| to fight
|c=01| bɑˈcçir
|c=02| batÿr
|c=03| батїр
| bəˈtir
| batir
|-
|i=No| 112
|c=en| to hunt&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (transitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| cçaˈcçɑr
|c=02| chachar
|c=03| чячар
| cçəˈcçɑr
| chàchar
|-
|i=No| 113
|c=en| to hit
|c=01| tryˈcçɑr
|c=02| truchar
|c=03| трүчар
| trəˈcçɑr
| truchar
|-
|i=No| 114
|c=en| to cut
|c=01| taˈjɑr
|c=02| taillar
|c=03| тяјар
| təˈjɑr
| tàjar
|-
|i=No| 115
|c=en| to split
|c=01| vɛ̃ˈɟʝir
|c=02| fendÿr
|c=03| вендїр
| və̃ˈdir
| fendir
|-
|i=No| 116
|c=en| to stab&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (or stick)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ʰtɔˈkʲɑr
|c=02| stocar
|c=03| ’тоќар
| stəˈkɑr
| stocar
|-
|i=No| 117
|c=en| to scratch&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (an itch)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| rɑˈcçɑr
|c=02| rachar
|c=03| рачар
| rəˈcçɑr
| râchar
|-
|i=No| 118
|c=en| to dig
|c=01| cçaˈvɑr
|c=02| chavar
|c=03| чявар
| cçəˈvɑr
| chàvar
|-
|i=No| 119
|c=en| to swim
|c=01| nɑˈlɑr
|c=02| nalar
|c=03| налар
| nəˈlɑr
| nalar
|-
|i=No| 120
|c=en| to fly
|c=01| vɔˈlɑr
|c=02| volar
|c=03| волар
| vəˈlɑr
| volar
|-
|i=No| 121
|c=en| to walk
|c=01| mɑrˈkʲɑr
|c=02| marcar
|c=03| марќар
| mərˈkar
| marcar
|-
|i=No| 122
|c=en| to come
|c=01| vɛˈnir
|c=02| venir
|c=03| венір
| vəˈnir
| venir
|-
|i=No| 123
|c=en| to lie&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as on one's side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ʝaːˈʝir
|c=02| yaegir
|c=03| жя̄жір
| jəjˈʝir
| yaezir
|-
|i=No| 124
|c=en| to sit
|c=01| ˈzɛjr
|c=02| seir
|c=03| зејр
| zɛjr
| seir
|-
|i=No| 125
|c=en| to stand
|c=01| ˈʰtɑr dɛˈrɛjt
|c=02| star dereit
|c=03| ’тар дерејт
| ˈstɑr dəˈrɛjt
| star dereit
|-
|i=No| 126
|c=en| to turn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (change direction)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| viˈrɑr
|c=02| virar
|c=03| вірар
| vəˈrɑr
| virar
|-
|i=No| 127
|c=en| to fall&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in drop)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈçɛjr
|c=02| ceir
|c=03| шејр
| ˈçɛjr
| ceir
|-
|i=No| 128
|c=en| to give
|c=01| ˈdɑr
|c=02| dar
|c=03| дар
| ˈdɑr
| dar
|-
|i=No| 129
|c=en| to hold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (in one's hand)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| tɛˈnʲir
|c=02| tenÿr
|c=03| тенїр
| təˈnir
| tenir
|-
|i=No| 130
|c=en| to squeeze
|c=01| prɛˈmʲir
|c=02| premÿr
|c=03| премїр
| prəˈmir
| premir
|-
|i=No| 131
|c=en| to rub
|c=01| vrɛˈtɑr
|c=02| vretar
|c=03| вретар
| vrəˈtɑr
| vretar
|-
|i=No| 132
|c=en| to wash
|c=01| lɑˈvɑr
|c=02| lavar
|c=03| лавар
| ləˈvɑr
| lavar
|-
|i=No| 133
|c=en| to wipe
|c=01| ɛçyˈɟʝɑr
|c=02| ezugiar
|c=03| ешүџар
| ɛçəˈdʒɑr
| ezugiar
|-
|i=No| 134
|c=en| to pull
|c=01| tiˈrɑr
|c=02| tirar
|c=03| тірар
| təˈrɑr
| tirar
|-
|i=No| 135
|c=en| to push
|c=01| bɔˈtɑr
|c=02| botar
|c=03| ботар
| bəˈtɑr
| botar
|-
|i=No| 136
|c=en| to throw
|c=01| lɐ̃ˈçɑr
|c=02| lanzar
|c=03| ланшар
| lə̃ˈçar
| lanzar
|-
|i=No| 137
|c=en| to tie
|c=01| ʰtɑˈkʲɑr
|c=02| stacar
|c=03| ’таќар
| stəˈkɑr
| stacar
|-
|i=No| 138
|c=en| to sew
|c=01| kʲaˈʝir
|c=02| casÿr
|c=03| ќязїр
| kəˈzir
| càsir
|-
|i=No| 139
|c=en| to count
|c=01| kʲoːˈplɑr
|c=02| cauplar
|c=03| ќѡ̄плар
| koːˈplɑr
| cauplar
|-
|i=No| 140
|c=en| to say
|c=01| diˈçir
|c=02| dicÿr
|c=03| дішїр
| dəˈçir
| dicir
|-
|i=No| 141
|c=en| to sing
|c=01| cçɐ̃ˈtɑr
|c=02| chantar
|c=03| чантар
| cçə̃ˈtɑr
| chantar
|-
|i=No| 142
|c=en| to play
|c=01| ʝɔˈɟʝɑr
|c=02| jogiar
|c=03| жоџар
| ʝəˈdʒɑr
| jogiar
|-
|i=No| 143
|c=en| to float
|c=01| vlɔːˈtɑr
|c=02| vloetar
|c=03| вло̄тар
| vləjˈtɑr
| vloetar
|-
|i=No| 144
|c=en| to flow
|c=01| kʲɔˈlɑr
|c=02| colar
|c=03| ќолар
| kəˈlɑr
| colar
|-
|i=No| 145
|c=en| to freeze
|c=01| ʝɛˈlɑr
|c=02| gelar
|c=03| желар
| ʝəˈlɑr
| gelar
|-
|i=No| 146
|c=en| to swell
|c=01| kʲɔˈvlɑr
|c=02| covlar
|c=03| ќовлар
| kəˈvlɑr
| covlar
|-
|i=No| 147
|c=en| sun
|c=01| zaˈdiː
|c=02| sadill
|c=03| зяді̄
| zəˈdiː
| sadij
|-
|i=No| 148
|c=en| moon
|c=01| ˈlyn
|c=02| lun’
|c=03| лүнъ
| ˈlynə
| lună
|-
|i=No| 149
|c=en| star
|c=01| ˈʰtiː
|c=02| still
|c=03| ’ті̄
| ˈstijə
| stijă
|-
|i=No| 150
|c=en| water
|c=01| ˈɑk
|c=02| ac
|c=03| ак
| ˈɑx
| ag
|-
|i=No| 151
|c=en| to rain
|c=01| plyˈvjɑr
|c=02| pluviar
|c=03| плүвјар
| pləˈvjɑr
| pluviar
|-
|i=No| 152
|c=en| river
|c=01| ˈrif
|c=02| rif
|c=03| рів
| ˈriv
| rif
|-
|i=No| 153
|c=en| lake
|c=01| ˈlɑk
|c=02| lac
|c=03| лак
| ˈlɑx
| lag
|-
|i=No| 154
|c=en| sea&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in ocean)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈmɑr
|c=02| mar
|c=03| мар
| ˈmɑr
| mar
|-
|i=No| 155
|c=en| salt
|c=01| ˈzɑl
|c=02| sal
|c=03| зал
| ˈzɑl
| sal
|-
|i=No| 156
|c=en| stone
|c=01| ˈpjɛdr
|c=02| piedr
|c=03| пёдър
| ˈpjɛdrə
| piedră
|-
|i=No| 157
|c=en| sand
|c=01| ˈzɑvl
|c=02| savl
|c=03| завъл
| ˈzɑvlə
| savlă
|-
|i=No| 158
|c=en| dust
|c=01| ˈporbr
|c=02| pórbr
|c=03| пѡрбър
| ˈporvrə
| pórbră
|-
|i=No| 159
|c=en| earth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in soil)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈcçɛr
|c=02| tier
|c=03| тёр
| ˈtʃɛr
| tier
|-
|i=No| 160
|c=en| cloud
|c=01| ˈnyvl
|c=02| nuvl
|c=03| нүвъл
| ˈnyvlə
| nuvlă
|-
|i=No| 161
|c=en| fog
|c=01| ˈbrym
|c=02| brum’
|c=03| брүмъ
| ˈbrymə
| brumă
|-
|i=No| 162
|c=en| sky
|c=01| ˈçɛl
|c=02| cel
|c=03| шел
| ˈçɛl
| cel
|-
|i=No| 163
|c=en| wind&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in breeze)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈvjɛ̃t
|c=02| vient
|c=03| вёнт
| ˈvjɛ̃t
| vient
|-
|i=No| 164
|c=en| snow
|c=01| ˈnʲif
|c=02| nÿf
|c=03| нїв
| ˈniv
| nif
|-
|i=No| 165
|c=en| ice
|c=01| ˈɡlɑç
|c=02| glaz
|c=03| глаш
| ˈxlɑç
| glaz
|-
|i=No| 166
|c=en| smoke
|c=01| ˈỹ
|c=02| hum
|c=03| ум
| ˈhœ̃
| hum
|-
|i=No| 167
|c=en| fire
|c=01| ˈœjk
|c=02| hoic
|c=03| өјк
| ˈhɔjx
| hoig
|-
|i=No| 168
|c=en| ash
|c=01| ˈçɛ̃dr
|c=02| cendr
|c=03| шендър
| ˈçɛ̃drə
| cendră
|-
|i=No| 169
|c=en| to burn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (intransitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| krɛˈmɑr
|c=02| cremar
|c=03| кремар
| krəˈmɑr
| cremar
|-
|i=No| 170
|c=en| road
|c=01| cçaˈmĩ
|c=02| chamin
|c=03| чямін
| cçəˈmɛ̃
| chàmin
|-
|i=No| 171
|c=en| mountain
|c=01| mɔ̃ˈtaɲ
|c=02| montanh
|c=03| монтяњ
| mə̃ˈtæɲə
| montànhă
|-
|i=No| 172
|c=en| red
|c=01| ˈroʝ
|c=02| rój
|c=03| рѡж
| ˈroʝ
| rój
|-
|i=No| 173
|c=en| green
|c=01| ˈvʲirt
|c=02| vÿrt
|c=03| вїрт
| ˈvird
| vird
|-
|i=No| 174
|c=en| yellow
|c=01| ˈɟʝõː
|c=02| giaun
|c=03| џѡ̄н
| ˈdʒɔ̃ː
| giaun
|-
|i=No| 175
|c=en| white
|c=01| ˈblɐ̃k
|c=02| blanc
|c=03| бланк
| ˈblɑ̃k
| blanc
|-
|i=No| 176
|c=en| black
|c=01| ˈnʲir
|c=02| nÿr
|c=03| нїр
| ˈnir
| nir
|-
|i=No| 177
|c=en| night
|c=01| ˈnɔːt
|c=02| noet
|c=03| но̄т
| ˈnɔjt
| noet
|-
|i=No| 178
|c=en| day&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (daytime)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈʝɔrn
|c=02| jorn
|c=03| жорн
| ˈʝɔrn
| jorn
|-
|i=No| 179
|c=en| year
|c=01| ˈaɲ
|c=02| anh
|c=03| яњ
| ˈæ̃
| ành
|-
|i=No| 180
|c=en| warm&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈcçoːt
|c=02| chaut
|c=03| чѡ̄т
| ˈcçoːd
| chaud
|-
|i=No| 181
|c=en| cold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈvrɛjt
|c=02| vreit
|c=03| врејт
| ˈvrɛjd
| vreid
|-
|i=No| 182
|c=en| full
|c=01| ˈplɛ̃
|c=02| plen
|c=03| плен
| ˈplɛ̃
| plen
|-
|i=No| 183
|c=en| new
|c=01| ˈnœjf
|c=02| noif
|c=03| нөјв
| ˈnɔjv
| noif
|-
|i=No| 184
|c=en| old
|c=01| ˈvjɛç
|c=02| viez
|c=03| вёш
| ˈvjɛç
| viez
|-
|i=No| 185
|c=en| good
|c=01| ˈbœjn
|c=02| boin
|c=03| бөјн
| ˈbɔjn
| boin
|-
|i=No| 186
|c=en| bad
|c=01| mɑˈril
|c=02| maril
|c=03| маріл
| məˈril
| maril
|-
|i=No| 187
|c=en| rotten&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as, a log)
|c=01| ˈpydr
|c=02| pudr
|c=03| пүдър
| ˈpydrə
| pudră
|-
|i=No| 188
|c=en| dirty
|c=01| ˈlyrt
|c=02| lurt
|c=03| лүрт
| ˈlyrd
| lurd
|-
|i=No| 189
|c=en| straight
|c=01| dɛˈrɛjt
|c=02| dereit
|c=03| дерејт
| dəˈrɛjt
| dereit
|-
|i=No| 190
|c=en| round
|c=01| rɔˈlõt
|c=02| rolónt
|c=03| ролѡнт
| rəˈlɔ̃d
| rolond
|-
|i=No| 191
|c=en| sharp&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ɑˈɡʲyl
|c=02| agul
|c=03| аѓүл
| əˈxyl
| agul
|-
|i=No| 192
|c=en| dull&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ɛjhmyˈʝɑl
|c=02| eimmujal
|c=03| ејммүжал
| ˌɛməˈçal
| êmuzal
|-
|i=No| 193
|c=en| smooth
|c=01| ˈdœːç
|c=02| deuz
|c=03| дө̄ш
| ˈdœːç
| deuz
|-
|i=No| 194
|c=en| wet
|c=01| mœˈjɑl
|c=02| meuillal
|c=03| мөјал
| məˈjɑl
| meujal
|-
|i=No| 195
|c=en| dry&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (adjective)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈʝek
|c=02| siéc
|c=03| жик
| ˈʃik
| şic
|-
|i=No| 196
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (correct)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| kʲaˈrɛjt
|c=02| careit
|c=03| ќярејт
| kəˈrɛjt
| càreit
|-
|i=No| 197
|c=en| near
|c=01| ˈprɔːç
|c=02| proez
|c=03| про̄ш
| ˈprɔjʃ
| proez
|-
|i=No| 198
|c=en| far
|c=01| ˈlwɛ̃ʝ
|c=02| luenj
|c=03| лўенж
| ˈlwɛ̃ʝ
| luenj
|-
|i=No| 199
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| dɛˈrɛjt
|c=02| dereit
|c=03| дерејт
| dəˈrɛjtə
| dereită
|-
|i=No| 200
|c=en| left&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈʰcçɛr
|c=02| scher
|c=03| ’чер
| ˈscçɛrrə
| scherră
|-
|i=No| 201
|c=en| at
|c=01| ˈɑ
|c=02| a
|c=03| а
| ˈɑ
| a
|-
|i=No| 202
|c=en| in
|c=01| ˈɟʝĩs
|c=02| dÿns
|c=03| дїнс
| ˈdʒɛ̃s
| diens
|-
|i=No| 203
|c=en| with&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (accompanying)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ˈdɐ̃p
|c=02| damp
|c=03| дамп
| ˈdɑ̃
| dam
|-
|i=No| 204
|c=en| and
|c=01| ˈɛ
|c=02| e
|c=03| е
| ˈɛ
| e
|-
|i=No| 205
|c=en| if
|c=01| ˈzɛ
|c=02| se
|c=03| зе
| ˈzɛ
| se
|-
|i=No| 206
|c=en| because
|c=01| pɔrˈcçɛ
|c=02| porche
|c=03| порче
| pərˈcçɛ
| porche
|-
|i=No| 207
|c=en| name
|c=01| ˈnwɛ̃
|c=02| nuém
|c=03| нўим
| ˈnwɛ̃
| nuém¹
|}

# could be ''nuem'' but the plural would still be ''nuémăs'' /ˈnweməs/ (opening the syllable allowing the full quality of the non-nasalized vowel).  Alternatively could be ''nuem, nuems'' (/ˈnwɛ̃/, /ˈnwɛ̃s/).

[[Category:Swadesh lists|Ibran]]
[[Category:Ibran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tense</title>
    <id>623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-14T20:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tense''' is a method for dividing up the temporal space.  The common categories are '''present''', '''past''', and '''future''', although sometimes more or fewer categories are expressed.  Different tenses are not always formed in the same way as each other; for example English only distinguishes past and present morphologically, and uses auxiliary [[verb]]s such as ''will'' for the future.

Examples of tenses and tense systems:
*past/nonpast (English) 
*past-present-future (Romance languages)
*distant past / within the past year / the past month / the past day / now / soon / later  (Yagua)

----
{{msg:stub}}

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:!Orphaned articles</title>
    <id>624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3990</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-04T01:49:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ol start=1&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Main_Page&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Main Page&quot;&gt;Main Page&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:!Long articles</title>
    <id>625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3991</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-04T01:49:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ol start=1&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Atlantic_Lexicon&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Atlantic Lexicon&quot;&gt;Atlantic Lexicon&lt;/a&gt; (22532 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Ibran/Swadesh_list&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Ibran/Swadesh list&quot;&gt;Ibran/Swadesh list&lt;/a&gt; (17727 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Henaudute&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Henaudute&quot;&gt;Henaudute&lt;/a&gt; (13769 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Atlantic&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Atlantic&quot;&gt;Atlantic&lt;/a&gt; (3772 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Sirius&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Sirius&quot;&gt;Sirius&lt;/a&gt; (1593 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Main_Page&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Main Page&quot;&gt;Main Page&lt;/a&gt; (1024 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Person&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Person&quot;&gt;Person&lt;/a&gt; (855 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Tense&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Tense&quot;&gt;Tense&lt;/a&gt; (627 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Number&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Number&quot;&gt;Number&lt;/a&gt; (448 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Swadesh_list&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Swadesh list&quot;&gt;Swadesh list&lt;/a&gt; (381 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Arda&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Arda&quot;&gt;Arda&lt;/a&gt; (280 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Ibran&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Ibran&quot;&gt;Ibran&lt;/a&gt; (196 bytes)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:!Dead-end pages</title>
    <id>626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3992</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-05T15:40:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;ol start=1&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Henaudute_Lexicon&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Henaudute Lexicon&quot;&gt;Henaudute Lexicon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Kasin&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Kasin&quot;&gt;Kasin&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Kel&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Kel&quot;&gt;Kel&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Kosi&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Kosi&quot;&gt;Kosi&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Sisiw%C3%B6n&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Sisiwön&quot;&gt;Sisiwön&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Somian&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Somian&quot;&gt;Somian&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=Trentish_Phonology&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Trentish Phonology&quot;&gt;Trentish Phonology&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;/index.php?title=%C3%82dlantki_Lexicon&quot; class='internal' title =&quot;Âdlantki Lexicon&quot;&gt;Âdlantki Lexicon&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPA</title>
    <id>627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48175</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T21:50:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' is an alphabet designed to represent the sounds of various languages.  See [[Wikipedia:International Phonetic Alphabet]]. 

'''Pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
! !! colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Labial consonant|Labial]] !! colspan=&quot;4&quot;| [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] !! colspan=&quot;3&quot;| [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] !! colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Radical consonant|Radical]] !!
|-
| || [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] || [[Labiodental consonant|Labiodental]] || [[Dental consonant|Dental]] || [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] || [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]] || [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]  || [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] || [[Velar consonant|Velar]] || [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] || [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]] || [[Epiglottal consonant|Epiglottal]] || [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] 
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Nasal
| [[Bilabial nasal|m]] || [[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]] || [[Dental nasal|n̪]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] || [[Postalveolar nasal|n̠]] || [[Retroflex nasal|ɳ]] || [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || [[Uvular nasal|ɴ]]
| style=&quot;color:#888888;background:#F8F8F8&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| N/A
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Plosive
| [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]] || [[Voiceless labiodental stop|p̪]] [[Voiced labiodental stop|b̪]] || [[Voiceless dental stop|t̪]] [[Voiced dental stop|d̪]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar stop|t̠]] [[Voiced postalveolar stop|d̠]] || [[Voiceless retroflex stop|ʈ]] [[Voiced retroflex stop|ɖ]] || [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]] [[Voiced palatal stop|ɟ]] || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] || [[Voiceless uvular stop|q]] [[Voiced uvular stop|ɢ]] || style=&quot;color:#888888;background:#F8F8F8&quot;| N/A || [[Epiglottal stop|ʡ]] || [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Affricate
| [[Voiceless bilabial affricate|pɸ]] [[Voiced bilabial affricate|bβ]] || [[Voiceless labiodental affricate|pf]] [[Voiced labiodental affricate|bv]] || [[Voiceless interdental affricate|tθ]] [[Voiced interdental affricate|dð]] || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ts]] [[ Voiced alveolar affricate|dz]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]] [[Voiced postalveolar affricate|ʤ]] || [[Voiceless retroflex affricate|ʈʂ]] [[Voiced retroflex affricate|ɖʐ]] || [[Voiceless palatal affricate|cç]] [[Voiced palatal affricate|ɟʝ]] || [[Voiceless velar affricate|kx]] &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiceless uvular affricate|qχ]] &amp;nbsp;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Fricative
| [[Voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]] [[Voiced bilabial fricative|β]] || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]  [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || [[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]  [[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]  || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]  [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]  [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]] || [[Voiceless retroflex fricative|ʂ]]  [[Voiced retroflex fricative|ʐ]]  || [[Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]]  [[Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]] || [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]  [[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] || [[Voiceless uvular fricative|χ]] [[Voiced uvular fricative|ʁ]] || [[Voiceless pharyngeal fricative|ħ]] [[Voiced pharyngeal fricative|ʕ]] || [[Voiceless epiglottal fricative|ʜ]] [[Voiced epiglottal fricative|ʢ]] || [[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] [[Voiced glottal fricative|ɦ]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Approximant
| [[Bilabial approximant|β̞]] || [[Labiodental approximant|ʋ]] || [[Dental approximant|ɹ̪]] || [[Alveolar approximant|ɹ]] || [[Postalveolar approximant|ɹ̠]] || [[Retroflex approximant|ɻ]] || [[Palatal approximant|j]] || [[Velar approximant|ɰ]] || [[Uvular approximant|ʁ̞]] || [[Pharyngeal approximant|ʕ̞]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Trill
| [[Bilabial trill|ʙ]] || || [[Dental trill|r̪]] || [[Alveolar trill|r]] || [[Postalveolar trill|r̠]] ||
| style=&quot;color:#888888;background:#F8F8F8&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;center&quot;| N/A
| [[Uvular trill|ʀ]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Tap or Flap
| || [[Labiodental flap|{{b\}}]] || [[Dental flap|ɾ̪]] || [[Alveolar flap|ɾ]] || [[Postalveolar flap|ɾ̠]] || [[Retroflex flap|ɽ]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Lateral affricate
| style=&quot;color:#888888;background:#F8F8F8&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;center&quot;| N/A
| || [[Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|tɬ]] [[Voiced alveolar lateral affricate|dɮ]] || || || || ||
| style=&quot;color:#888888;background:#F8F8F8&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;center&quot;| N/A
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Lateral fricative
| [[Voiceless dental lateral fricative|ɬ̪]] [[Voiced dental lateral fricative|ɮ̪]] || [[Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|ɬ]] [[Voiced alveolar lateral fricative|ɮ]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar lateral fricative|ɬ̠]] [[Voiced postalveolar lateral fricative|ɮ̠]] || [[Voiced retroflex lateral fricative|ɭ̝]] || [[Voiced palatal lateral fricative|ʎ̝]] || [[Voiced velar lateral fricative|ʟ̝]] ||
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot;| Lateral approximant
| [[Dental lateral approximant|l̪]] || [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] || [[Postalveolar lateral approximant|l̠]] || [[Retroflex lateral approximant|ɭ]] || [[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]] || [[Velar lateral approximant|ʟ]] ||
|}

'''Non-pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
| Clicks || Voiced Implosives || Ejectives
|-
| [[Bilabial click|ʘ]] Bilabial || [[Bilabial implosive|ɓ]] Bilabial || ʼ as in:
|-
| [[Dental click|ǀ]] Dental || [[Alveolar implosive|ɗ]] Dental/alveolar || [[Bilabial ejective|pʼ]] Bilabial
|-
| [[Alveolar click|ǃ]] (Post)alveolar || [[Palatal implosive|ʄ]] Palatal || [[Alveolar ejective|tʼ]] Dental/alveolar
|-
| ǂ Palatoalveolar &lt;!-- palatoalveolar=alveolo-palatal? --&gt; || [[Velar implosive|ɠ]] Velar || [[Velar ejective|kʼ]] Velar
|-
| [[Lateral alveolar click|ǁ]] Lateral alveolar || [[Uvular implosive|ʛ]] Uvular || [[Alveolar ejective fricative|sʼ]] Alveolar fricative
|}

'''Vowels'''
{|
| || Front || || Central || || Back
|-
| Close || i · y || || ɨ · ʉ || || ɯ · u
|-
| || || ɪ · ʏ || || ʊ
|-
| Close-mid || e · ø || || ɘ · ɵ || || ɤ · o
|-
| || || || ə
|-
| Open-mid || ɛ · œ || || ɜ · ɞ || || ʌ · ɔ
|-
| || æ || || ɐ
|-
| Open || a · ɶ || || || || ɑ · ɒ
|}

'''Other Symbols'''
{|
| [[Voiceless labial-velar approximant|ʍ]] Voiceless labial-velar fricative (approximant)
|-
| w Voiced [[labial-velar approximant]]
|-
| ɥ Voiced [[labial-palatal approximant]]
|-
| [[Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|ɕ]] [[Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|ʑ]] Alveolo-palatal fricatives
|-
| ɺ [[Lateral alveolar flap]]
|-
| [[Voiceless postalveolar-velar fricative|ɧ]] Simultaneous [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]] and [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]].
|-
| Affricates and double articulations can be represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar if necessary.

[[Voiceless labial-velar stop|k͡p]] [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|t͡s]]
|}

'''Suprasegmentals'''
{|
| ˈ || Primary stress || ˌfoʊnəˈtɪʃən
|-
| ˌ || Secondary stress
|-
| ː || Long || eː
|-
| ˑ || Half-long || eˑ
|-
| ˘ || Extra short || ĕ
|-
| . || Syllable break || ɹi.ækt
|-
| || Minor (foot) group
|-
| || Major (intonation) group
|-
| ‿ || Linking (absence of a break)
|}

'''Tones &amp; Word Accents'''
{|
! Level !! Contour
|-
| e̋ or ˥
|-
| é    ˦
|-
| ē    ˧
|-
| è    ˨
|-
| ȅ    ˩
|}

'''Diacritics'''
{|
|  ̥ || Voiceless n̥ [[Voiceless alveolar stop|d̥]] ||  ̤ || Breathy voiced b̤ a̤ ||  ̪ || Dental [[Voiceless dental stop|t̪]] [[Voiced dental stop|d̪]]
|-
|  ̬ || Voiced [[Voiced alveolar fricative|s̬]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|t̬]] ||  ̰ || Creaky voiced b̰ a̰ ||  ̺ || Apical t̺ d̺
|-
| ʰ || Aspirated tʰ dʰ ||  ̼ || Linguolabial [[Voiceless linguolabial stop|t̼]] [[Voiced linguolabial stop|d̼]] ||  ̻ || Laminal t̻ d̻
|-
| ˒ || More rounded ɔ̜ || ʷ || Labialized tʷ dʷ || ~ || Nasalized ẽ
|-
| ˓ || Less rounded ɔ̹ || ʲ || Palatalized tʲ dʲ
|-
| ˖ || Advanced [[Close back-central rounded vowel|u̟]] || ˠ || Velarized tˠ dˠ || ˡ || Lateral release [[Voiced lateral alveolar stop|dˡ]]
|-
| ˗ || Retracted [[Close front-central vowel|i̠]] || ˤ || Pharyngealized tˤ dˤ ||  ̚ || No audible release d̚
|-
| ¨ || Centralized ë ||  ̴ || Velarized or pharyngealized [[ɫ]]
|-
| ̽ || Mid-centralized e̽ || ˔ || Raised e̝ (ɹ̝ = [[Voiced alveolar fricative]])
|}

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sirius Lexicon</title>
    <id>628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3997</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-04T13:26:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edit of 218.80.208.18, changed back to last version by Muke</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;&lt; [[Sirius]]&lt;/small&gt;

===Thematic Vocabulary===
====Bodily Actions====
*'''ash''' eat
*'''fi''' drink
*'''finktz''' walk
*'''fru''' jump, leap
*'''herf''' crawl
*'''het''' sit
*'''hish''' hold, grasp
*'''ikoi''' dance
*'''jestu''' gesture
*'''kasiar''' shave
*'''kin''' kill
*'''kiyu''' live
*'''kol''' lie (recline)
*'''kush''' kiss
*'''miartzi''' die
*'''no''' swim
*'''pli''' cry, weep
*'''pritzu''' wrestle
*'''rot''' shout, cry out, yell
*'''sfyutz''' spit
*'''shelra''' smile
*'''shemp''' bite
*'''sheck''' run
*'''shoff''' squat
*'''shosh''' taste
*'''skenj''' drown
*'''skish''' kick
*'''snowu''' breathe
*'''sortu''' laugh
*'''sternu''' sneeze
*'''sto''' stand
*'''strenk''' catch
*'''stresh''' climb
*'''strip''' swallow
*'''swif''' throw
*'''tzank''' touch
*'''tzush''' feel
*'''wemi''' vomit
*'''wiyu''' hunt, pursue
*'''yoff''' yiff

====Body parts and substances====
*'''ansh''' forehead
*'''anshir''' thumb, dewclaw
*'''eckan''' liver
*'''falma''' palm of hand, sole of foot, pawpad
*'''feji''' foot
*'''felna''' fur, skin, hair
*'''fern''' heel
*'''feski''' a hair
*'''finma''' fist
*'''flep''' blood vessel, vein
*'''flom''' feather
*'''foktz''' wound
*'''frust''' anus
*'''gen''' (or ''ken'') gene
*'''hafsha''' head
*'''harf''' wrist
*'''himatz''' fetus, embryo
*'''hofra''' feces
*'''horsku''' wing
*'''host''' bone
*'''hurf''' body
*'''i''' egg
*'''iarta''' iris
*'''iri''' ear
*'''jerni''' finger, toe; digit
*'''keni''' chin
*'''kowi''' paw ('''far-kowi''' hand, forepaw; '''feji-kowi''' footpaw)
*'''lapi''' lip
*'''miar''' meat, flesh
*'''moni''' neck
*'''mosht''' breast
*'''musk''' muscle
*'''mutz''' penis
*'''neckar''' kidney(s)
*'''nora''' nerve
*'''nost''' nose
*'''nuk''' claw, nail, talon
*'''nutz''' back ('''nutz-host''' backbone)
*'''ombla''' navel
*'''ontzi''' eye
*'''orkna''' organ
*'''ori''' buttocks
*'''orshi''' testicle(s)
*'''ostrack''' shell
*'''part''' beard, mane, secondary facial fur
*'''prakina''' arm
*'''preshna''' brain
*'''romna''' throat
*'''rotz''' abdomen, belly
*'''run''' waist
*'''runi''' leg
*'''rutz''' blood
*'''shenu''' cheek
*'''shnu''' knee
*'''shomp''' tooth
*'''shur''' intestines
*'''shwip''' vagina
*'''skelza''' skeleton
*'''skoftz''' shoulder
*'''snomna''' lung(s)
*'''sorj''' heart
*'''sorman''' urine
*'''sorn''' horn
*'''sost''' hip
*'''stomack''' stomach
*'''suji''' sweat, perspiration
*'''tackur''' tear
*'''tashu''' tongue
*'''thurok''' chest
*'''tomna''' tail
*'''uf''' face
*'''ur''' mouth

====Body terms====
*'''arik''' male (adj.), masculine
*'''ari-koni''' hermaphrodite
*'''ihik''' healthy
*'''klum''' pleasure
*'''kolna''' pain
*'''konik''' female (adj.), feminine
*'''mortz''' dead
*'''neshra''' neuter
*'''osh''' awake; be awake
*'''oshtza''' refreshed, zesty, perky
*'''poni''' disease, illness, sickness
*'''poshu''' fat, plump
*'''poktza''' mature, adult
*'''shenkar''' birth
*'''shenra''' sex, gender
*'''skreshi''' fever
*'''sof''' sleep
*'''strod''' tired, weary
*'''tzush''' sense, feel
*'''yuisha''' alive

====Buildings and institutions====
*'''ackar''' farm
*'''ambari''' stairs, staircase
*'''anaki''' prison, jail
*'''fonori''' fireplace
*'''ekliri''' church
*'''etra''' store, shop (n.)
*'''etra-shortz''' market, marketplace (literally shop-yard)
*'''fiark''' tower, castle
*'''hafili''' bar, tavern, pub
*'''hatzki''' cellar, basement
*'''hatzlomtze''' hotel, inn
*'''hefru''' attic
*'''jesh''' wall
*'''kefir''' bridge
*'''matra''' university
*'''molori''' mill
*'''orjistri''' elevator
*'''orp''' ceiling
*'''peplithi''' library
*'''proshori''' factory
*'''ruri''' room
*'''salp''' chimney
*'''shol''' school
*'''shortz''' yard, garden, park
*'''stekoni''' roof
*'''strop''' building
*'''thiyotzar''' theater
*'''tom''' house
*'''torl''' window
*'''toryu''' door
*'''uti''' floor
*'''yuhori''' hospital

====Colors, light, and seeing====
*'''afsfi''' reveal, uncover
*'''fens''' beautiful
*'''fersha''' display, show, exhibit
*'''forji''' inspect, examine
*'''ikna''' image, picture
*'''metu''' blemish, blot
*'''mormron''' ugly
*'''plock''' light
*'''plocki''' shine, radiate light
*'''plonk''' bright, vivid
*'''pluckow''' color
*'''skotz''' shade, shadow
*'''skontz''' dark, dim
*'''sorron''' ornament, decoration
*'''tzofi''' hide, conceal
*'''weji''' to see

*'''fi''' gray
*'''foffar''' purple
*'''hin''' dark blue
*'''horn''' black
*'''luk''' white
*'''narj''' orange
*'''ror''' red
*'''sath''' brown
*'''siar''' green
*'''sol''' yellow

To indicate a lighter color, add '''fol''' &quot;pale&quot; before, thus ''fol ror'' &quot;pink&quot;, ''fol hin'' &quot;light blue&quot;, etc.

====Communication====
*'''alfpetz''' alphabet
*'''antzeri''' an address 
*'''esroy''' announce, proclaim
*'''esroyri''' an advertisement, announcement
*'''homloki''' admit, confess
*'''isti''' say

====Forms of matter====
*'''toln''' thing, object

====Function words====
*'''asha''' this
*'''atsha''' that
*'''e''' if
*'''esti''' to be
*'''etz''' (marks past tense)
*'''fantzi''' every, each
*'''hashar''' how much?, how many?
*'''he''' that (as in &quot;I know that you are right&quot;); why? for what reason?
*'''her''' who?
*'''hesh''' to have
*'''het''' what?
*'''hetzak''' any
*'''hi''' and
*'''hiyu''' how?
*'''ho''' together; when? at what time?
*'''hoj''' where? at/to what place?
*'''inu''' only, solely, exclusively
*'''maki''' to be able to, can
*'''ne''' not
*'''offaru''' to exist
*'''she''' also, too
*'''shen''' to become
*'''shkroy''' to do
*'''skul''' should, ought to
*'''teck''' apart, separately
*'''we''' or
*'''welraz''' but, however
*'''wishar''' maybe, perhaps, possibly
*'''tzo''' then (at this time)
*'''tzoj''' there (at/to this place)
*'''yoj''' here (in/to this place)
*'''yomza''' to cause, to make (as in &quot;make someone happy&quot;)

====Matter-related actions====
*'''yoshoi''' dig

====Numbers====
* '''asifar''' zero (0)
* '''him''' half (½)

#'''in''' 
#'''tu''' 
#'''stri''' 
#'''hetz''' 
#'''fick''' 
#'''west'''
#'''heft'''
#'''ust''' 
#'''nyu''' 
#'''jest''' 

* 20 '''tuar''', 30 '''striar''', 40 '''hetzar''', 50 '''fickar''', 60 '''westar''', 70 '''heftar''', 80 '''ustar''', 90 '''nyuar'''

* '''satz''' hundred (100)
* '''ashal''' thousand (1,000)
* '''ashal-ashal''' million (1,000,000)

e.g., 357 = ''stri-satz fickar heft''

====People====
*'''ari''' man, adult male
*'''festra''' father
*'''fet''' boy, young male
*'''hafsha''' chief, leader
*'''hun''' son
*'''huarla''' girl, young female
*'''jishi''' master
*'''kam''' marriage
*'''kon''' woman, adult female
*'''krep''' baby, infant
*'''meal''' member (of a group)
*'''mostra''' mother
*'''nemfi''' spouse, husband or wife
*'''nenitz''' enemy
*'''prostra''' brother
*'''resh''' monarch, king
*'''rishna''' queen
*'''shonki''' soldier
*'''swerra''' sister
*'''thearm''' person, sapient being
*'''tokstra''' daughter
*'''tual''' slave
*'''wenitz''' friend
*'''wiri''' family
*'''yowiar''' child, young person

====[[Preposition]]s====
*'''a''' to, towards
*'''af''' about, on the topic of; from, out of, away from
*'''afshar''' after, later than; farther than, beyond
*'''es''' outside of
*'''fa''' on, on top of
*'''far''' in front of, before
*'''fe''' at
*'''fershar''' near, close to
*'''for''' before, earlier than
*'''frosh''' around
*'''fru''' through
*'''furo''' across, at/to the other side of
*'''ho''' between, among, amid
*'''hock''' during, while
*'''metz''' with, using, by means of
*'''na''' in, located inside of
*'''ne''' for, in exchange for
*'''nef''' instead of, rather than
*'''nemetz''' without
*'''of''' of 
*'''offar''' above, over
*'''ofshar''' under, below, beneath
*'''ofjatz''' behind, in back of
*'''tzashar''' than, compared to
*'''welratz''' except for, besides, other than
*'''yommu''' because of; for, for the purpose of
*'''yusho''' like, similar to

====Species and types of animals====
*'''anki''' snake
*'''arna''' spider
*'''arta''' grasshopper
*'''aska''' lobster
*'''esa''' horse
*'''ewi''' sheep
*'''fasi''' butterfly
*'''fethik''' monkey, ape
*'''hafar''' goat
*'''harfna''' reptile
*'''hitz''' whale
*'''horkrak''' chicken
*'''hormi''' worm
*'''huck''' pig, swine
*'''ili''' virus
*'''iwi''' bird
*'''kow''' cow
*'''lintz''' lion
*'''mantzi''' mantis
*'''matz''' mosquito
*'''mintz''' cat
*'''molshna''' mammal
*'''muar''' mouse
*'''muri''' ant
*'''muwi''' fly (insect)
*'''olf''' fox
*'''ollu''' wolf
*'''or''' otter ('''riw-or''', river otter; '''mori-or''', sea otter)
*'''orna''' donkey
*'''ortz''' bear
*'''peshla''' bee
*'''prank''' frog
*'''pushi''' insect
*'''samna''' human
*'''sani''' rabbit, hare
*'''self''' cockroach
*'''sertza''' deer
*'''scorristar''' kangaroo
*'''shel''' turtle, tortoise
*'''shu''' fish
*'''skyura''' squirrel
*'''son''' dog
*'''sor''' lizard
*'''trontz''' dragon
*'''tweffij''' anthro or biped (including humans)
*'''tzeckar''' tiger
*'''tzorfsha''' animal (as in not plant)

====Species and types of plants====
*'''arent''' peanut
*'''batot''' potato
*'''eliwa''' olive
*'''erini''' banana
*'''fack''' lentil
*'''fear''' pea
*'''feark''' oak
*'''fel''' cork
*'''fefri''' pepper (black; i.e., not salt)
*'''fetzi''' pine
*'''fihi''' kelp, seaweed
*'''for''' onion
*'''frun''' plum
*'''halm''' bamboo
*'''hampet''' hemp, cannabis
*'''hial''' cabbage
*'''holith''' gourd (e.g. squash)
*'''hormar''' garlic
*'''kave''' coffee
*'''len''' flax
*'''mantrik''' tangerine, mandarin orange
*'''meshi''' grass
*'''meth''' mint
*'''mith''' corn (maize)
*'''mitza''' mushroom
*'''mol''' apple
*'''mork''' carrot
*'''narj''' orange
*'''pampsha''' cotton
*'''pap''' bean
*'''paprick''' pepper (hot/sweet/bell)
*'''potzri''' grape
*'''rimperi''' ginger
*'''rinshin''' ginseng
*'''sehi''' cucumber
*'''senofi''' mustard
*'''sik''' fig
*'''tatzil''' date (fruit)
*'''thretka''' lettuce
*'''uarn''' oat

====Time and sequence====
*'''most''' soon, quickly

====Tools and implements====
*'''rifta''' fan</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Paternoster in Ibran</title>
    <id>629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:41:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category ibran; texts</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Ibran]] &gt;&gt; Paternoster&lt;/small&gt;

==Roesan==
===Latinizal===
''Matie 6:9-13''
*Padre noistr ché dĳns les cels stas, sanctifegial sĳ tu nuém.
*Vĳnģ tu rein. Faet sĳ tu vontal, dĳns les cels cónt sor le tier.
*Da-nos oy noistr pan cotidian.
*E remĳt-nos noistr diuts, cónt nosautrs anch noistr deutuérs remetiux.
*E ne nos mĳt a tentación, meis deliur-nos de maril.

===Cirilizal===
''Матё 6:9-13''
*Падър нојттър чи дїнс лъ’шелс ’тас, занктівеџал зї тү нўим.
*Вїнџ тү рејн. Вя̄т зї тү вонтал, дїнс лъ’шелс кѡнт зор лъ тёр.
*Да-нос ој нојттър пан котіџан.
*Е ремїт-нос нојттър дү̈̄тс, кѡнт нозѡ̄търс ањч нојттър дөтўирс реметү̈̄с.
*Е не нос мїт а тенташѡн, мејс делү̄р-нос де маріл.

==Paysan==
''Matie 6:9-13''
* Padră noîtră ché diens lăs celăs stas, sanctifegiàl siă tu nuém.
* Vingiă tu rein. Faet siă tu vodăntal, diens lăs celăs quónd sobră lă tier.
* Da-nos hoy noîtră pan cotidian.
* E remit-nos noîtră dutăs, quónd nosautrăs anch noîtră deutuérs remetux.
* E ne nos mit a tentacion, meis deliură-nos de maril.

[[Category:Ibran]]
[[Category:Texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Muke</title>
    <id>630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47677</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-24T11:07:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Spambot invasion */ new section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Muke, I have my own alphabet and a font that I created myself. Is there any way to use this font on Frathwiki pages (for native names)? (I am aware that, should there be a way to do this, many would not see it - but for those who have the font, it would be great, in addition to transliterations.)[[User Talk:Pisceesumsprecan]]

Thanks, Muke. Your advice on the above works perfectly! Just one more thing: how do you change the font size? Sorry to bother you again.
----

Muke, I don't get how to use the combining diacratics. How do they combine with other letters?
Still struggling. I'm trying to combine ◌̄ with an æ ligature and, after following yor advice - placing the combining diacratic after the æ, it still does not combine. What could I be doing wrong? I use Internet Explorer 7, if this helps.
[[User Talk:Pisceesumsprecan]]

UPDATE: I've found that the character I want exists anyway. When I use diacratics, I put, for instance, æ◌̄, but the ◌̄ seems to be treated as a letter in its own right. I can't delete the o without first deleting the diacratic (refuses to put cursor between them), which beats the object. Like I said, I've found the right character anyway, so it's no longer a problem, but you may be interested in the behaviour of the software.
----

Muke, This is Elliott from Conlang. I've been working on a Silindion wiki, I was wondering if you would have the time to comment on it, and maybe provide any formatting and or other advice? thanks. 

----
==Trebor/Tables etc.==

LOL. This is Trebor Jung of Conlang. Is this Wiki for your own personal use or can anyone post stuff on their conlangs and/or conworlds? You can reply to me at treborjung at free dot fr.
Thanks.

:Anyone can feel free to post here.  :x)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 11:32, 24 Jun 2004 (PDT)

Trebor again. How do you make tables in Wikipedia? I've seen examples but they look complicated... Thanks. 28 June 2004 14:55 EST

:If you know how, you can use HTML to make tables.  Otherwise, there is a simpler wiki table markup described in brief at [[FrathWiki:How does one edit a page]], and a detailed description of a the table formats the wiki understands at [[Wikipedia:m:MediaWiki User's Guide: Using tables|MediaWiki User's Guide: Using tables]].  If that's still not clear, you could mark what needs tabulated, and I could give working on it a shot.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 13:16, 28 Jun 2004 (PDT)

Thanks. Please make tables at [[Kasin]] for consonants and vowels (please add place of articulation; you can delete the X-Sampa representation), and at [[Kosi]] for these: Consonants, Vowels, (again please add POA),
Cases, Possession, Demonstratives, Aspects, Moods, Voices, Derivation, and Lexicon
. Much appreciated!

----

I tried creating a table for [[Kosi|Kosi's]] vowels. How does it look? (Because I'm visually impaired I can't actually check it myself.) --Trebor, 29 June 2004, 18:00 EST

:It looks all right, except the purpose of the rounded / unrounded line confuses me — the way it lines up it shows &quot;Unrounded&quot; in the same column as &quot;Mid&quot;, and &quot;Rounded&quot; in the same column as &quot;Front&quot; (so that i and e seem to be classed as front rounded vowels).  I'd fix it now but I can't quite make out which cells &quot;Rounded&quot; and &quot;Unrounded&quot; are intended to head (it might need a little more reformatting).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:30, 29 Jun 2004 (PDT)

Whoops. Here are [[Kosi|Kosi's]] vowels and their X-Sampa equivalents: i /i/, ü /y/, û /M/, u /u/, e /e/, ö /2/, y /@/, jo /jo/, ô /7/, o /o/, a /a/, ja /ja/. And could you also help me with tables for Kosi Cases, Possession, Demonstratives, Aspects, Moods, Voices, Derivation, and Lexicon (Lexicon headings: Kosi, Etymology, English; you can remove the brackets and &lt; for the etymology. Also, could you make a vowel table and grammatical structures table at [[Kasin]]. Thanks! Or if you like, I'll try making tables and you can check them? --Trebor, 12:27 EST, 30 June 2004

:I'm working on them by and by.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 11:53, 30 Jun 2004 (PDT)

Oh, I see.

How come when I enter in an accent with Alt codes (e.g. o-trema alt+0246), the page goes out of forms mode without having saved my changes? Annoying. --Trebor, 19:24, 30 June 2004

:My guess is your number lock is off, thus instead of the alt-46 at the end it's reading it as alt-left and alt-right (go back a page, then go forward again) — if I do that in IE it will erase changes that I've made.  If that's not the problem, I'm not sure offhand what else it could be.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 17:51, 30 Jun 2004 (PDT)

That's strange, I just tried alt+0246 and it worked. But my numb lock was on when I noticed this problem yesterday too (AFAIK)... --Trebor, 08:57 EST, 1 July 2004

== The wrong version loads ==
The [[Sisiwön]] article mentions it is a collaborative conlang. In the group for discussing it, Alex Fink mentioned he added to it, but he additions aren't on the page. I thot maybe the Recent Changes page might give a link to the new version, but it doesn't work. On the Recent Changes page I also noticed you added a Lexicon table to [[Kosi]], but it's not on that page. I went to edit the page, but the table formatting exists in the Edit This Page box, so why not in the actual article? This is very puzzling. --Trebor, 09:52 EST, 2 July 2004

:My guess is that your browser is loading from its cache instead of the server.  Try a hard reload (usually shift-F5) when you view a page, and see if that helps.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:08, 2 Jul 2004 (PDT)

Even more puzzling, I edited [[Sisiwön]] and [[Kosi]], and the changes appeared in the articles :O --Trebor, 11:04, 2 July 2004 EST

== Problem with Table ==
[[Sisiwön]] has a consonant table but it won't show up properly in the article. Why won't it work? --Trebor, 21:17, 2 July 2004 EST

:It should be fixed now.  The table had been begun with pipe then open-brace &quot;|{&quot;, instead of open-brace then pipe &quot;{|&quot;, so it wasn't interpreting it as a table.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 18:25, 2 Jul 2004 (PDT)


Hi Muke, I have a small request: Would you mind please deleting my [[User:Trebor|Trebor]] page as well as the [[Kasin]] page? Thanks. --Trebor

== Question ==

Hi Muke, here's a question to you...

A few days ago, I asked Grzegorz Jagodziński to comment on the Slavic soundchanges discussion on [[Talk:Slevan]]. However, when he tried to register (or to make an edit), he got the following answer: '''&lt;nowiki&gt;Your IP address is listed as an open proxy in the [http://www.sorbs.net SORBS] DNSBL. You cannot create an account.&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' As he assured me, his IP address is not an open proxy at all. His Internet connection is of such kind that his IP is hidden, and that instead the IP of his provider is shown. There's nothing he can do about that, and obviously he has nothing in common with disseminating spam. Is there anything that can be done? Oddly enough, he had no problem at all registering at Wikipedia.

Cheers, [[User:IJzeren Jan|IJzeren Jan]] 11:38, 22 Aug 2005 (PDT)

:Hi!  This is a feature I didn't know about, but apparently [[Wikipedia:m:Proxy blocking|Proxy blocking]] is on by default.  I shut it off so Grzegorz should be able to login or make edits now.  Any further problems, let me know.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 17:19, 22 Aug 2005 (PDT)

::Thank you! --[[User:167.202.196.71|167.202.196.71]] 21:52, 22 Aug 2005 (PDT)

== The Longman Defining Vocabulary ==

I sent this to you by email, but got no answer.  Perhaps my 
spam filter ate it?

Hi Muke,

Do you think  [[User:Melroch/Longman_Defining_Vocabulary]]
would be OK on FrathWiki?  Wordlists aren't copyrightable as
such, but this is based on some research obviously!  I can
of course write to Longman and ask, but it should be noted
that it is cited in respectable academic pages like 
[http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~kbarker/working_notes/ldoce-vocab.html this] and 
[http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/kbarker/working_notes/roget-actions.html this] 
(these are actually the same site). Note that the version of
the vocabulary at that page is put into an HTML table,
meaning that if you select-copy it the alphabetic order will
be destroyed...

To increase the usefulness of the vocabulary, and
the amount of independent work and so the fair-
use-factor I have added a version of the
vocabulary sorted by frequency.

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 14:31, 26 April 2006 (PDT)

:It can probably stand.  (I got your mail but it appears that I neglected to respond.) —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 17:25, 26 April 2006 (PDT)

::OK, then I'll move it from my user space to a regular page.
Do you think there is any category it would fit under? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:03, 27 April 2006 (PDT)

:I suppose [[:Category:Lexica]] unless something more ''à propos'' emerges. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:12, 27 April 2006 (PDT)

== The new Langmaker wiki ==

What about adding an interwiki link to the new Langmaker wiki
(and linking to it on the frontpage among the other wikis)?
http://www.langmaker.com/db/Main_Page

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 14:10, 30 April 2006 (PDT)

== Thanks ==
Just wanted to say thanks.

== Deletion please ==

Please delete [[Moynna ethnographical qestionnaire|this]] page. There is a typo in its title. --'''[[User:Zlatiborica|George D. Bozovic]]''' &lt;small&gt;''([[User talk:Zlatiborica|talk]])''&lt;/small&gt; 08:32, 12 July 2006 (PDT)

== Latin Pinyin ==

Hi!  I've dropped some suggestions at [[Talk:Latin Pinyin]].  I ''really'' should get those Vulgar Latin pages I'm planning underway... [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 07:38, 15 July 2006 (PDT)

== Unicode display again ==

Would it be possible to put a 

 body {
    font-family: ''list of fonts from IPA class'';
    font-family /**/:inherit;
    }

definition into [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] to make things more generally readable to MSIE users, or would it ruin other aspects of the main definition of &lt;tt&gt;body&lt;/tt&gt;?  I think it would be a Good Thing if it worked.

FWIW I think [[Template:IPA]] is still a good idea, not least 'coz I would like to have the main body in a serif font but IPA in sans in [[User:Melroch/monobook.css|my own style sheet]], though I haven't implemented it just yet, since I've abused [[Template:IPA]] in my [[Kijeb]] page to make sure {{IPA|ŋ}} is readable &amp;mdash; something I hope to be able to remove.  Besides the Vulgar latin page(s) I'm planning will be gibberish unless Unicode is clearly visible throughout, since there will of course be macrons, breves, underdots and &quot;ogoneks&quot; all over the place...
[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 14:56, 15 July 2006 (PDT)

:Sure, go ahead and try it.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:03, 15 July 2006 (PDT)

::I did, and it seems to work &amp;mdash; i.e. [User:Melroch/sandbox] looks OK in MSIE when I'm not logged in &amp;mdash; but it begs the question in what order we should have the fonts in the list, as that order is the order of preference picked by browsers.  May I suggest DejaVu Sans as first choice, as it is a relatively neutral sans that renders reasonably crisply, and AFAIK sans is the default choice of MediaWiki?

::BTW when not using my own style sheet FrathWiki shows in a rather small font size on my machine in all of Firefox, MSIE and Opera.  Is that due to some setting in the wiki, or to some weirdness on my system?  

::Would it be possible to make some kind of poll among registered users as to the default/common.css style issues?, as we don't want to scare new users or visitors away with poor readability.

::[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:48, 16 July 2006 (PDT)

::: Well, I'm not sure whether there's enough community among the users to gather enough to answer polls.  What one could do is set up a page with snippets of CSS that people who might be interested in making particular changes can copy into their user stylesheet.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:30, 28 July 2006 (PDT)

== IPA character entry. ==

Have a look at this:
 http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Helferlein/IPA_Typewriter/Versionen/0.1_release

I wonder if there might be a way to make it into a real wiki page?
As is you have to copy-paste it into a local file.  Also it should of course have its labels translated into English -- I can do *that*, but I suck at JavaScript.  I wonder if it could replace the current IPA character entry system on the edit page?  It would take too much place probably, above the save/preview buttons and all! 

To provide one 'phonemic' and one 'phonetic' version of the IPA template insertionlink seems a good idea to me, but the slashes/brackets should go inside the template:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{IPA|/.../}}, {{IPA|[...]}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

which IMHO looks best if the IPA is displayed in another font than the surrounding text.
[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:06, 28 July 2006 (PDT)

:It might be feasible to set up such a thing with the &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;charinsert&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; tag currently used, in conjunction with the &quot;editintro&quot; extension (i think it's in [[metawikipedia:Inputbox]]) to create a keyboard _above_ the edit box.  As for making it a wiki page in itself, that would take a bit of engineering: as javascript isn't allowed in wiki pages itself, its function would have to be divided so that all the actual javascript would site in the site's js file.  (But I, too, suck at Javascript, and couldn't implement this.) As for the other thing, the character inserts are put in from [[Mediawiki:Copyrightwarning]]  and as a sysop you can feel free to improve it; as only I have touched the page so far I consider it rough and provisional. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:27, 28 July 2006 (PDT)

==Request for deletion==

Hi Muke; I'd appreciate it if you'd please delete [[Kosi_grammar]]. Thanks. [[User:Trebor|Trebor]] 19:01, 8 August 2006 (PDT)

== Screwed up pages by trying to rename one ==

Hi, Muke -- I think I've made a mess. I was trying to update the page &quot;Neo-Khitanese&quot; to reflect that I've given the lingo a proper name now and not just a placeholder. In trying to update the link to it on the &quot;League of Lost Languages Page&quot; I managed to create a page &quot;Kilda Kelen&quot; with no content; that's the name I want to rename the old &quot;Neo-Khitanese&quot; page. But since this blank &quot;Kilda Kelen&quot; now exists, I can't use the &quot;move&quot; command. And I don't know how to delete the rotten thing. Could you unbollux this for me when you get a chance? All I think needs to be done is to rename the page now listed as &quot;Neo-Khitanese&quot; as &quot;Kilda Kelen&quot;. Many apologies!
-- Kuroda, 24 August '06

==Deleting categories==

Hi Muke -- due to my stupidity I erroneously created two wrong categories, but I seem to be unable to delete them. Is that supposed to be, or is there some special step that has to be taken to delete categories (as opposed to normal articles, which I can delete pretty easily)? Thanks -[[User:Denihilonihil|Denihilonihil]] 20:09, 24 November 2006 (PST)

== Infobox ==

Hi, Muke. I have a problem. On my page: [http://wiki.frath.net/Tauro-Piscean_Republic Tauro-Piscean Republic] the Infobox won't work properly and all of its elements are scattered across the page.

What have I done wrong?--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 07:46, 23 March 2008 (PDT)

== References and Quoting ==

I can't seem to get the referencing and footnote techniques to work for [[High German]].  Am I missing something?
[[User:Blackkdark]] June 3rd, 2008

:Somehow the extension that allows those hadn't been installed yet. (Just fixed that.)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 00:48, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

:: Thanks for fixing it, but now I don't know exactly how to use it for the site.  At the end I have two direct quotes from a site, and I can't seem to get it to go down to references and insert them.  Any ideas or such? --[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 00:11, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

::: It looks like [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=High_German&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=32335 your syntax may be wrong].  See [[wikipedia:Help:Footnotes]] for the way the tags are to be used.   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 04:16, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

== Front page update ==

Hi. Me again!

Well, I had an idea to change the main page quite significantly, but I think it would make the site more efficient to use and more attractive.

It might take me a while to put my ideas together and pick the best design. I will do it as a separate page first to demonstrate, but how would you feel about this?

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 20:19, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

:Hi, feel free to make improvements.  It is a wiki, after all.  I'd suggest you post proposed changes to [[Talk:Main Page]] though so discussion can happen if anyone else is interested.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 21:33, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

:Check out [[New Main Page Demo|my demo page]]. I finished it, but I can of course make alterations. What do you think?--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 17:48, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

== Editing of Pages ==

Hi,

I am wondering if I can rename and/or delete entire pages? '''Ilya''', one of my categories has undergone quite a few revisions and I would like to do some intense editing. Thanks. - [[User:Qang|Qang]]

== FrathWiki logo ==
For a bit of fun, I tried to create an alternative FrathWiki logo.

[[Image:Frathwiki2.png]]

I'm not ordering you to use it, but if you like it, I thought I'd offer it to you. If you're interested in it, but there are bits you don't like, tell me and I'll do my best to change it. I can also send you the original Photoshop file with layers.

It is based on the pyramid in the conlang flag. Part of it is deliberately missing (revealing a gold glow beneath to represent insight) akin to the Wikipedia puzzle piece. I thought the texture looked a bit Gothic (relating to the word 'Frath', which is Gothic in origin).

I have created the image in its entirety by myself, so there are no copyright issues.

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 15:37, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

:Interesting ideas.  How about putting together a vote, to see what other people think?  There may be others with ideas floating around as well that could be considered.  Could probably start [[FrathWiki:Logo]] for the discussion.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 10:18, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

----

Mine is not the only logo. Somebody submitted this one to me:

http://anj8ca.blu.livefilestore.com/y1pklH7A_1mj7ZLEd1Dg5t5eGlB7QKWi6uc42uoKMWVxJrGLeO8vexLB20ciFWjBYwMlfRybvdME1M/frathwiki_logo%20copy.jpg

I really like it for its simplicity.

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 06:27, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

----

As you probably know, I've made quite a few changes round here recently. So I've made an article about why I made them and what I might be able to do in the future. There is a link to it on the Main Page. I hope you've liked all of the changes and that you don't think I'm getting too big for my boots. I do enjoy working on FrathWiki.

Also, I'm altering the version of my logo, so we should see that discussion resparked some time soon.

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 16:46, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

== Charinsert ==
You may have noticed Wikipedia has updated its charinsert box - divided into segments choosable from a drop-down. Is it possible to install that (or a suitable tweak of it) here? Each segment also has an updated glyph order that I find to be much more useful than the Unicode default.

Also, did you ever notice IPA is included twice, first at the top &amp; then within the Latin range (this time with all the outdated/unofficial letters too)?
--[[User:Tropylium|John Vertical]] 10:34, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

:Well, the character edit box is included from [[FrathWiki:Special character insertion]] and should be editable, if you can put together a better character arrangement... as far as the dropdown, that doesn't require installation... it's just a bit of javascript for [[Mediawiki:Monobook.js]].  The code depends on what the character sections end up being though, so if you want to make any changes it might be best to do that first (for now anyway; it ''can'' always be changed).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:01, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

==Melroch and Common CSS==
Hi, Muke. The Common CSS has been changed by Melroch and everything is big. Also, I've checked out Melroch's sandbox and it contains the following strange messages: 

-yes yes sir Melroch-

-yes no way Melroch-

-no no way Philip-

I'm concerned that the account has been hacked.

On a different note, there is a consensus that the logo should be replaced by Cedh Audmanh's plain version (second on this page: [[FrathWiki:Logo]]).

Thanks

--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|S.C. Anderson]] 19:14, 6 November 2008 (UTC)

:As far as the sandbox, it just seems to be a test of conditional templates.  Not sure about the change to common.css; it seems to have had a greater effect in some browsers than others, so it might just have been insufficient testing.   I've put the new logo in place.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:21, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

== Common CSS blooper ==

What have you done to the Common CSS? Everything's big!--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|S.C. Anderson]] 19:09, 6 November 2008 (UTC)
: Sorry about that. My user CSS caused me not to see the real effect of what I had done!  One million apologies! [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 07:06, 7 November 2008 (UTC)

==Spammer alert==

:User: [[User:Dampen]]
:Page: [[Lamasery]]

----

:User: [[User:Infiltrations]] 
:Page: [[McVeigh]]

----

:User: [[User:Shelvings]] 
:Page: [[Bulkheads]]

----

:User: [[User:Partakers]] 
:Page: [[Beautified]]


'''Page/Picture Deletion'''
----

Can you delete this page?

http://wiki.frath.net/Winvid

And these pictures?

http://wiki.frath.net/Image:Ni_kun_glai_di!.jpg

http://wiki.frath.net/Image:Untitled2.jpg

http://wiki.frath.net/Image:Winvid_Consonants.jpg

Thank you. - David

:I've deleted them. I hope you will offer more of your content to FrathWiki in the future. Good luck with your conlanging. --[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|S.C. Anderson]] 23:30, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

== Account Deletion ==

Hi there, again. This is a really good site. And I have had a lot of fun on it with me and my friends. I have always been interested in conlanguages and always will, but for now I don't really feel it's my thing (making them, I mean, I love to read about them though). So for now I think I need my account deleted. I will definitely still visit this site even after I do so. Maybe one day later I will make an account on this site again when I have more time. Thanks alot! --David 02:07, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

== I'm sure about deleting my account ==

Yes, I'm sure I want to delete my account. I meant I intend to look at things on the site. And if one day I decide to make a new account, I will. However now, I am trying to minimize my computer use. And I think for me the best way is to eliminate the cause. So, I'm sorry that I seem so insistent, because it's never a nice day when someone wants to delete their account, and it's nothing about the site itself, I am just trying really hard to spend more time doing other things...so, at that, I'm sorry for leaving, but I think for now this is what I need to do (sounds like I'm about to kill myself xD). Thanks for understanding. Good-bye. --David 03:12, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

== Merge needed ==

I've been organizing things a little, and found the pages [[A priori conlang]] and [[A priori]], which should probably be merged.

There is also [[A posteriori]], but the page [[A posteriori conlang]] has not yet been written. --[[User:Tropylium|&lt;span class=&quot;IPA&quot;&gt;Trɔpʏliʊm&lt;/span&gt;]] • [[User talk:Tropylium|blah]] 12:40, 23 June 2009 (UTC)

== Spambot invasion ==

Check the user creation log... --[[User:Tropylium|&lt;span class=&quot;IPA&quot;&gt;Trɔpʏliʊm&lt;/span&gt;]] • [[User talk:Tropylium|blah]] 11:07, 24 July 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Trentish</title>
    <id>631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29251</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''A priori'' conlang for a race of [[ent]]like creatures (''trents'', Trentish: ''qlumeu'') in [[Nother]].  Polysynthetic.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;| Trentish (Nyalohn-sha)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
| USA
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Region:
| Pacific Northwest
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| —
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Language families and languages|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[Language families and languages|classification]]:
|[[Language isolate]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author: 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
|}

==History==
Not recorded before 1800s.  

==Geographic distribution==
North America; largest populations in Pacific Northwest.

==Sounds==
''Main article: [[Trentish Phonology]]'' 

==Grammar==
''Main article: [[Trentish Morphology]]''

==Vocabulary==
''Main article: [[Trentish Lexicon]]''

==Writing system==
Trentish is written in a variant of the [[Latin alphabet]].

===Alphabet===
{|
| A || B || D || Dʼ || E || G || I || K || L || Λ̅ || M || N || NG || NY || O || Ö || P || Q || R || S || T || Tʼ || U || Ü || W || X || Y
|-
| a || b || d || dʼ || e || g || i || k || l || ƛ || m || n || ng || ny || o || ö || p || q || r || s || t || tʼ || u || ü || w || x || y
|}

The digraphs ''ng'' and ''ny'' are sometimes written with single characters, and are considered individual &quot;letters&quot; for the purposes of sorting.  Other digraphs such as ''tʼh'' and ''sh'' are not counted as letters.

The capital of letter ''ƛ'' is supposed to be &lt;small&gt;CAPITAL LETTER LAMBDA WITH OVERLINE&lt;/small&gt;.

==Examples==
*[http://frath.net/pdf/trent-relay7.pdf Trentish leg of the 7th CONLANG Translation Relay] (PDF, 49K)
*:The text is that which is was in the official relay, but the interlinear and the English translation are new, the originals being lost (at least until the full 7th Relay gets put online).  The Trentish text has been respelled to match current orthography, but not otherwise corrected.

==External links==
* [http://frath.net/language/trentish.shtml Old website]

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pronoun</title>
    <id>632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36003</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-20T10:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rivendale</username>
        <id>279</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''pronoun''' is a noun with a specific type of reference, but without a fixed referent.  For example, &quot;I&quot; means specifically the person speaking, which is true whoever happens to ''be'' speaking, but the actual person &quot;I&quot; refers to depends on context.

There are several kinds of pronouns:
*'''personal''' pronouns: I, you, we
*'''possessive''' pronouns: mine, yours, ours (as opposed to possessive adjectives: my, your, our)
*'''demonstrative''' pronouns: this, that, those (as opposed to demonstrative adjectives: this car, that house, those people).
*'''reflexive''' pronouns: myself, herself, themselves
*'''relative''' pronouns: that, which, who
*'''interogative''' pronouns: who, when, what
*'''indefinate''' pronouns: some, a few, many

'''Personal pronouns'''

Personal pronouns are most commonly used to replace proper nouns. If you imagine a sentence without pronouns, it could sound cluttered.Compare these two sentences: 

'''I saw ''John'' today and asked ''John'' if ''John'' prefers sugar in ''John's'' tea.'''&lt;br/&gt;'''I saw John today and asked ''him'' if ''he'' prefers sugar in ''his'' tea.'''

The latter sounds much more natural. But notice that there are 3 different forms relating to '''John'''. The first, '''him''' is ''objective'' or ''accusative'' form, since '''John''' is the object of the verb ''ask''. The second is ''nominative'', since '''if''' introduces a new clause, therefore John is the ''subject'', and the third, '''his''' is simply possessive.

Many personal pronouns change their form according to where they are in the sentence, commonly known as '''Case'''. This differs from language to language. However, some retain their form no matter where. A good comparison is the pronoun '''you''', in German (familiar form) and English:

*Nominative/subjective: '''you-du'''
*Accusative/objective: '''you-dich'''
*Dative: '''to you/dir'''

Example sentences:

*'''''You'' are beautiful. ''Du'' bist schön.'''
*'''I saw ''you''. Ich sah ''dich'''''.
*'''I gave it ''to you''. Ich gab es ''dir'''''.

   
----

{{msg:stub}}

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nother/Trentish lexicon</title>
    <id>633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46128</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-18T03:15:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Trentish Lexicon]] moved to [[Nother/Trentish lexicon]]: sheer caprice</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;small&gt;[[Trentish]] &gt;&gt; Lexicon&lt;/small&gt;

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#G|G]] [[#I|I]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#Λ|Λ]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#NG|NG]] [[#NY|NY]] [[#O|O]] [[#Ö|Ö]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#Tʼ|Tʼ]] [[#U|U]] [[#Ü|Ü]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]]
|}

==A==
*'''an-bol''' ''n.'' the sun
*'''ang''' ''pos.'' within, inside
*'''a-pen''' ''n.'' possessions, inventory (used for alienable possession)
*'''a-phel''' ''v.'' be divided on one end; be fringed; fork

==B==
*'''ba''' ''mk. for n.'' topic: ''ingohba'' &quot;as for trout&quot;
*'''ble-uhn''' ''adj.sc.'' brown [from English]
*'''blu''' ''adj.sc.'' blue [from English]
*'''boh''' ''mk. for v.'' perfect aspect: ''bohguƛan'' &quot;have found&quot;

==D==
*'''dü''' ''fv.'' causative

==E==
*'''e''' ''pos.'' with (instrumental)
*'''e-ƛin''' ''adj.'' whole, entire
*'''en-kà''' ''n.'' a row of teeth

==G==
*'''ga-te''' ''n.'' house
*'''gitw''' ''mk. for n.'' collective: ''gitwingoh'' &quot;school of trout&quot;
*'''gle''' ''adj.sc.'' gray [from English]
*'''glin''' ''adj.sc.'' green [from English]
*'''gr̀''' ''pron.pers.'' (third person, short or low things; informal; near speaker)
*'''grq''' ''mk. for v.'' disapprobative mood: ''grqguƛan'' &quot;find in a way I don't like&quot;; cf. ''phli''
*'''gu-ƛan''' ''v.'' find, discover

==I==
*'''i''' ''mk. for v.'' fictive (irrealis, infinitive) ''ilamen'' &quot;to color&quot;/&quot;may color&quot;
*'''i-ka-ƛi''' ''v.'' trade, barter, exchange
*'''i-loh''' ''adj.sc.'' yellow  [from English ''yellow''.]
*'''i-ngoh''' ''n.'' trout
*'''ix''' ''mk. for adj.'' lesser positive (''ixüsli'' &quot;a little bit red, just barely red&quot;)
*'''i-xli-`''' ''mk. for v.'' to do the opposite of or reverse the effects of: ''ixliiƛan'' &quot;misplace&quot;

==K==
*'''ka-she''' ''n.'' event, happening
*'''kha-men''' ''adj.sc.'' black
*'''khe-o-qloh''' ''v.'' win, gain, acquire, claim
*'''khe-pwu''' ''v.'' travel 
*'''khe-sli''' ''n.'' claw
*'''khi-lu''' ''v.'' pay
*'''khle-de''' ''v.'' rise, ascend
*'''khle-uht''' ''n.'' crowd [from English]
*'''khli-smrs''' ''n.'' Christmas [from English].
*'''khu''' ''pos.'' for the use of
*'''ki-she''' ''fv.'' how?
*'''ki-swoh''' ''fv.'' (imperative)
*'''koh''' ''mk. for v.'' negative: ''kohguƛan'' &quot;not find&quot;
*'''koh-qe-ƛa''' ''adv.'' exceedingly much, a great many, to a great degree
*'''koh-rl''' ''v.'' have trouble, a problem, difficulty
*'''koh-ta''' ''v.'' design, plan
*'''koh-twü-lr''' ''pron.pers.'' (third person: tall or high things; also formal; near hearer)
*'''krr-ngoh-nyoh''' ''v.'' increase, add to
*'''kshi'''  ''n.'' characteristic Trentish garment
*'''kshi-nyi''' ''v.'' be angry (for disappointment, or things going contrary to expectations)
*'''ku-she''' ''n.'' foot
*'''kü-pe-qyi''' ''v.'' take a long time, endure, last
*'''kwa''' ''pos.'' in front of
*'''kwr''' ''v.'' to do, engage in; to be.  '''kwrkwr''' ''n.'' existence, being; action, doing

==L==
*'''la''' ''v.'' run
*'''la-men''' ''v.'' paint, color
*'''la-tha''' ''v.'' ruin, mess up, sabotage, disorder
*'''le-phuh-te''' ''fv.'' wonder (question particle)
*'''liish''' ''n.'' leash [from English]
*'''loh''' ''mk. for adj.'' (negative: ''lohüsli'' &quot;not red&quot;)
*'''loh-a''' ''v.'' put, place
*'''loh-no''' ''v./fv.'' must, have to (be obligated to do something)
*'''lr̀'''₁ ''n.'' place, location
*'''lr̀'''₂ ''mk. for v.'' converts to noun of location or target: ''lrguƛan'' &quot;place of discovery; thing sought&quot;; hence also, participial adjective: ''lrguƛan'' &quot;found&quot;
*'''lr̀'''₃ ''pron.pers.'' (third person: short or low things; informal; near hearer)
*'''lu''' ''n.'' throat
*'''lu-loh''' ''v.'' prefer
*'''lu-phi''' ''v.'' climb
*'''lu-pr''' ''v.'' cough
*'''lu-syi''' ''pron.pers.'' you (second person)
*'''lut''' ''pos.'' towards
*'''lu-tʼhi''' ''n.'' egg

==Λ==
*'''ƛap''' ''n.'' the world
*'''ƛi''' ''mk. for v.'' unergative voice: ''ƛiguƛan'' &quot;invent (intr.)&quot;
*'''ƛi-khi''' ''n.'' mouse
*'''ƛoh''' ''v.'' worry
*'''ƛoh-kha''' ''n.'' wife
*'''ƛoh-mu-pu''' ''v.'' chip at, whittle away
*'''ƛoh-psha''' ''adj.bin.'' pregnant

==M==
*'''ma-khe''' ''n.'' table (furniture)
*'''me''' ''mk. for n.'' paucal aggregate: ''meingoh'' &quot;a few trout together&quot;
*'''me-na''' ''v.'' be hysterical, delirious, frenzied
*'''mi-myi-no''' ''n.'' medicine, medical treatment
*'''mi-na''' ''adj.bin.'' two
*'''moh-sa''' ''mk. for adj.'' (excessively, too much: ''mohsaüsli'' &quot;too red&quot;)
*'''mu-lwr-li''' ''v.'' pump
*'''myi-ƛa''' ''v.'' tear, rip
*'''myi-ngye''' ''n.'' tail

==N==
*'''ne-moh-khe''' ''adj.sc.'' heavy
*'''ni-sya''' ''fv.'' want to know which [not quna?]
*'''no''' ''mk. for v. or n.'' occupational noun: ''noguƛan'' &quot;inventor&quot;, ''noingoh'' &quot;trout-fisherman&quot;
*'''noh-ku''' ''v.'' be silent.  ''adj.sc.'' silent
*'''noh-trr''' ''v.'' rent, be loaned; borrow for a price
*'''no-ngu-pshe''' ''n.'' hunter [no-ngupshe]
*'''no-qu-kwa''' ''n.'' president [no-qu-kwa]
*'''nö-lo''' ''v.'' ache, hurt
*'''nu-ma''' ''mk. for n. or adj.'' converts to privative adjectives: ''numaingoh'' &quot;troutless&quot;; ''numaüsli'' &quot;without redness&quot; (cf. ''loh'')
*'''nu-ma-goh-da-koh-ta''' ''adj. bin.'' random; lit. without design [numa-kohta²]

==NG==
*'''nga-swu-ƛoh''' ''fv.'' need, have to have or have done
*'''nga-ƛu''' ''pos.'' against, next to (touching) [error for nyaƛu]
*'''ngoh-lu-ngoh-ƛu-she-ya''' ''n.'' award, prize [ngoƛu²-sheya]
*'''ngoh-ƛu''' ''v.'' merit, be worth or worthy
*'''ngrr-mwu''' ''v.'' forget
*'''ngu''' ''mk. for adj.'' exceptionally, very, to a great degree (''nguüsli'' &quot;very red&quot;)
*'''nguh-ngwoh''' ''n.'' son or daughter
*'''ngu-pshe''' ''v.'' hunt
*'''ngwoh''' ''pos.'' with (comitative)
*'''ngwoh-la''' ''n.'' building not used as a residence
*'''ngwu-ngwa''' ''n.'' day


==NY==
*'''nya-la-le''' ''n.'' cat
*'''nya-loh-ni''' ''n.'' manner, way, method
*'''nya-ƛoh''' ''v.'' be cruel, mean, unkind
*'''nya-ƛu''' ''pos.'' against, next to (touching)
*'''nya-tha''' ''adj.sc.'' big
*'''nye''' ''pos.'' from, out of
*'''nyi''' ''v.'' categorize, [stereo]type, classify
*'''nyi-nyi''' ''n.'' kind, type, sort
*'''nyi-qoh''' ''v.'' surprise, startle
*'''nyoh-nü''' ''v.'' see. '''nyohnünyohnü''' ''n.'' sight, vision, seeing
*'''nyr-sya''' ''n.'' price
*'''nyȕ''' ''pron.pers.'' (first person)

==O==
*'''oh-loh''' ''adv.'' now
*'''o-lrn-shr̀''' ''adj.sc.'' orange  [from English]
*'''os''' ''pos.'' on the topic of, about
*'''o-xa-lü''' ''adj.bin.'' dead

==Ö==
*'''öt''' ''pron.pers.'' third person, near speaker; neutral

==P==
*'''pa-lakh''' ''v.'' hate
*'''pha''' ''n.'' tool
*'''phaib''' ''n.'' pipe [from English]
*'''phing-kr̀''' ''adj.sc.'' pink
*'''phli-`''' ''mk. for v.'' effrenative: ''phliguƛan'' &quot;had no qualms in finding&quot;
*'''phö-phrl''' ''adj.sc'' purple [from English]
*'''pi''' ''adj.sc.'' little, weak, ineffective; ''mk. for adj.'' to a slight degree, small amount: ''piüsli'' &quot;slightly red&quot;
*'''pnyr''' ''pron.pers.'' third person neutral, near hearer
*'''poh''' ''adv.'' in the past
*'''pshi-phe''' ''v.'' trap

==Q==
*'''qe-mè''' ''adj.bin.'' the same; in common, shared
*'''qli''' ''v.'' tell
*'''qlis''' ''v.'' describe [qli-s]
*'''qli-shi''' ''v.'' study, read
*'''qloh-lu''' ''mk. for adj.'' as much as, equally much: ''qlohluüsli'' &quot;just as red&quot;
*'''qlu''' ''mk. for v.'' converts to participial adjective: ''qluguƛan'' &quot;finding&quot; (''X''ive, ''X''y, etc.)
*'''qlu-la''' ''adj.sc.'' fast, quick
*'''qlu-me-u''' ''n. plur.'' people (in general)
*'''qoh''' ''mk. for adj.'' (positive degree: ''qohüsli'' &quot;red, some red&quot;)
*'''qoh-noh-gòh''' ''pron.'' (third person, tall or high things; formal; near the speaker)
*'''qoh-nye''' ''v.'' to become famous, well-known, popular
*'''qu''' ''v.'' stand up
*'''qu-na''' ''fv.'' want to know whose/which [not nisya?]
*'''quu''' ''mk. for v.'' passive: ''quuguƛan'' &quot;be found&quot;
*'''qwa-moh''' ''v.'' blame or use as scapegoat
*'''qwoh-la''' ''adj.bin.'' lead (Pb)
*'''qya''' ''fv.'' accuse

==R==
*'''r''' ''mk. for n.'' possessive: ''ringoh'' &quot;trout's&quot;
*'''r-la''' ''v.'' think.  '''rlrla''' ''n.'' idea.
*'''r-le''' ''n.'' moon; month
*'''r-le-nge''' ''conj.'' therefore, for this reason
*'''r-lr-swu''' ''n.'' dish, plate
*'''r̀-lu-sr''' ''adj.sc.'' yellow/green ([[Berlin &amp; Kay]] &lt;small&gt;GREEN&lt;/small&gt;)

==S==
*'''s''' ''pos.'' on the topic of, about
*'''san''' ''adv.'' during, while
*'''se-pu-qr''' ''v.'' heal
*'''se-pu-qe-pha''' ''v.'' (medical) operate [sepuqr-e-pha]
*'''se-te''' ''v.'' kill
*'''sha''' ''v.'' speak, say
*'''sha-no''' ''v.'' have (be characterized by, i.e. have allergies)
*'''sha-ƛu-moh''' ''n.'' hnau, person (in general; cf. ''u'')
*'''sha-qsha''' ''adv.'' so, thus
*'''sha-twoh''' ''n.'' dog
*'''sha-uh''' ''adj.bin.'' flat
*'''she-ya''' ''n.'' thing, something
*'''she-si''' ''n.'' wall
*'''shi''' ''n.'' piece
*'''shoh-la''' ''n.'' set, group
*'''shoh-li''' ''mk. for n.'' convert to adjective: ''shohliingoh'' &quot;trout-shaped, trout-like&quot; (sholingoh?)
*'''shol-lu-tʼhi''' ''adj.bin.'' oval [sholi-lutʼhi]
*'''shr-loh-nga''' ''v.'' have a duty or responsibility
*'''shr-loh-ngal-lr''' ''n.'' office [shrlohnga-lr]
*'''shü''' ''v.'' try, test the value of, prove
*'''shüg''' ''v.'' scratch; write
*'''slu-she''' ''n.'' balances, a scale (for weighing)
*'''soh-poh-ne''' ''v.'' lead
*'''su''' ''fv.'' know how
*'''su-mwu''' ''n.'' property, belongings
*'''sya''' ''mk. for v. or n.'' tool-forming: ''syaguƛan'' &quot;finding-tool&quot;, ''syaingoh'' &quot;tool for preparing trout&quot;
*'''sya-ngwa''' ''adj.bin.'' empty
*'''sya-pshi-phe''' ''n.'' trap [sya-pshiphe]
*'''sye'''₁ ''n.'' field
*'''sye'''₂ ''pos.'' on, upon
*'''sye-ku-shr-xa''' ''adv.'' upright [sye₂-kushe-r-xa]

==T==
*'''ta''' ''v.'' use
*'''ta-ke''' ''fv.'' swear or affirm to be true
*'''tè''' ''mk. for adj.'' convert to noun: ''tüsli'' &quot;redness&quot;
*'''te-ngwa-loh''' ''fv.'' how much?
*'''tha-bal''' ''v.'' walk
*'''tha-pwu''' ''adv.'' five (adv? — ''thapwungwungwa'' &quot;the 5th&quot;)
*'''thag''' ''v.'' wear
*'''tha-tha-e''' ''n.'' burden, load
*'''the''' ''conj.'' and
*'''thi-ni''' ''adj.sc.'' slow
*'''thol''' ''pos.'' upon, atop
*'''thö''' ''mk. for v.'' iterative aspect: ''thöguƛan'' &quot;keep finding&quot;
*'''toh-ƛe''' ''adv.'' only
*'''töü''' ''pos.'' near; ''adj.bin.'' previous
*'''tsha-sr-lrl''' ''n.'' snail
*'''tu-pwa''' ''n.'' body
*'''tu-wu''' ''fv., v.'' think
*'''tü-qu''' ''n.'' friend
*'''twa-r''' ''adv.'' every, each
*'''twe-na''' ''adj.bin.'' forked
*'''twe-srl–u''' ''n.'' terras person
*'''twil''' ''adj.sc.'' white
*'''twoh-si''' ''v.'' owe
*'''twu-mya''' ''v.'' live; ''adj.bin.'' alive


==Tʼ==
*'''tʼhe-le''' ''n.'' old woman
*'''tʼhi-nya''' ''n.'' scale (fish or reptile)
*'''tʼwe''' ''v.'' go, come, move from one place to another.  '''tʼwetʼwe''' ''n.'' motion, moving
*'''tʼwal''' ''v.'' flow

==U==
*'''u''' ''n.'' person, especially a trent; someone
*'''uhg''' ''mk. for v.'' middle voice ''uuhguƛan'' &quot;find oneself&quot;
*'''uh-kr-loh''' ''v.'' prepare
*'''u-lal''' ''v.'' miscarry
*'''u-ma-lòh''' ''adj.'' fluffy, fuzzy

==Ü==
*'''ü-kös''' ''v.'' inhabit, dwell in
*'''ü-sli''' ''adj.sc.'' red

==W==
*'''win''' ''v.'' win [from English]

==X==
*'''xa'''₁ ''pron.pers.'' reflexive
*'''xa'''₂ ''n.'' earth
*'''xan''' ''pron.pers.'' third person distant: formal; high or tall things
*'''xa-tr''' ''n.'' hat [from English]
*'''xe''' ''adj.bin.'' all
*'''xi-la''' ''v.'' be made out of
*'''xi-ni''' ''pron.pers.'' third person distant; neutral
*'''xi-she''' ''adj.bin.'' one
*'''xlog''' ''adj.sc.'' washed clean
*'''xoh''' ''v.'' help
*'''xr̀''' ''pron.pers.'' third person distant: informal; short or low things
*'''xth''' ''mk. for v.'' causative of external source: ''thguƛan'' &quot;make find&quot;
*'''xtʼhoh''' ''v.'' have a sharp point

==Y==
*'''ya''' ''pron.dem.'' when, then
*'''ye-tshe''' ''v.'' steal
*'''yi-noh''' ''n.'' child, youth

[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Trentish Morphology</title>
    <id>634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4000</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-24T17:35:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>a couple spelling/gramm errors.  Can't really work on this well until I organize my old notes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Morphological typology==
Trentish is a highly [[polysynthesis|polysynthetic]] language.  The verb word itself can have up to eight components, some of which themselves may comprise multiple [[morpheme]]s:

{|
| § || '''imenggrrnoqukwauhglathanxyr'''
|-
| || i-mel-grq-''noqukwa''-uhg-''latha''-ny-xr
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;FICT&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;CUMUL&lt;/small&gt;-&lt;small&gt;DIS&lt;/small&gt;-''president''-&lt;small&gt;MIDD&lt;/small&gt;-''mess:up''-1-3
|-
| || &quot;for the president to continue making himself worse (in a way I don't approve of)&quot;
|}

It is predominantly [[agglutination|agglutinative]], as morphemes can generally be easily isolated.  

===Morphological processes===
*''Infixation,'' ''stem modification'' (such as [[ablaut]]), and ''suprasegmental modification'' do not play roles in Trentish morphology.

====Prefixation====
Trentish is predominantly prefixing.  Most derivation is formed by prefixes, and most verbal morphology is prefixed.

{|
| § || '''noikaƛi''' 
|-
| || ''no''-ikaƛi
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;OCCUPATION&lt;/small&gt;-trade 
|-
| || &quot;trader&quot; 
|}

Some prefixes, which may have once had a strong stress accent, cause a following vowel to drop, and appropriate assimilations to be carried out:

{|
| § || '''ixliiƛan'''
|-
| || ''ixli''-gùƛan
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;REVERSE&lt;/small&gt;-find
|-
| || &quot;misplace&quot;
|}

====Suffixation====
Some grammatical operations are carried out with suffixes.

{| 
| § 
|colspan=2| '''rlrswum yetshenlyu'''
|-
| || rlrswu-''m'' || yetshe-''ny-lu''
|-
| || dish-&lt;small&gt;PAT&lt;/small&gt; || steal-1-2
|-
| 
|colspan=2| (I know) &quot;you are stealing a plate&quot;
|}

====Reduplication====
Reduplication is used to produce resultative nouns from verbal roots.

{|
| § || '''malimali''' 
|-
| || mali-mali 
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;REDUP&lt;/small&gt;-speak 
|-
| || &quot;speech, message&quot; 
|}

In reduplication, no more than the first two syllables are reduplicated.   Also, some complex segments are subject to simplification: ejective stops become plain stops, and ''ƛ'' becomes ''l''.

{|
| § || '''igaikaƛi''' 
|-
| || iga-ikaƛi
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;REDUP&lt;/small&gt;-trade 
|-
| || &quot;transaction&quot;
|}

{|
| § || '''lohƛoh'''
|-
| || loh-ƛoh
|-
| || &lt;small&gt;REDUP&lt;/small&gt;-worry
|-
| || &quot;concern&quot;
|}

===Head/dependent marking===
Trentish is mainly head-marking.

====Possession====
Possession is head-marking: a noun is marked for whether it is possessed, and by whom. 

{|
| § || '''gatrnyü''' || '''gatrlusyi'''
|-
| || ''gate''-r-nyü || ''gate''-r-lusyi
|-
| || ''house''-&lt;small&gt;POSS&lt;/small&gt;-1 || ''house''-&lt;small&gt;POSS&lt;/small&gt;-2
|-
| || &quot;my house&quot; || &quot;your house&quot;
|}

====Nouns with adjectives====
Dependent-marking: adjectives cannot stand alone, but are either compounded to a noun, or to a verb such as ''kwr'' &quot;be&quot;, which does not mark the head noun as being modified. ''[Perhaps it should?]''

{|
| § || '''oxalüu''' || '''u oxalükwr ''
|-
| || oxalü-u || u oxalü-kwr 
|-
| || dead-man || man dead-be 
|-
| || &quot;a dead man&quot; || &quot;a man who is dead&quot;
|}

====Prepositional phrases====
Head-marking: in many cases the preposition is compounded to the noun, thus '''anglu''' &quot;in the throat&quot;.  In longer words (including all words formed by reduplication), a different construction:

{|
| § 
|colspan=2| '''ngohlungohƛusheya  exr''' 
|-
|  || ngohlungohƛusheya || e-xr
|-
| || award || with-3
|-
| 
|colspan=2| &quot;with an award&quot;
|}

====Verb phrases====
Head-marking: the verb takes markers for agent and patient, as well as the observer (or ''frame'').  A verb can thus stand on its own as a full sentence.

{|
| § || '''xinisetenxyr'''
|-
| || xini-sete-ny-xr
|-
| || 3-kill-1-3
|-
| || &quot;(I know) she's killing him&quot;
|}

==Nouns==
Prototypical Trentish nouns refer to concrete entities with implied or bounded quantity.  They are found as the subjects of clauses, and incorporate with verbs as objects.  They can take number and topic/second marking.

''Complex nouns'' (a category including proper names, reduplicated terms, and words longer than three syllables) do not normally participate in incorporation.

===The noun word===
The structure of the noun word is currently:

* (prepositional)-(number)-(incorporated adjective)-(reduplication)-'''stem'''-(topic/second)

===Possessability===
Trentish has a class of words which are inherently possessed, that is, that must appear with a possessive, and a class of words which are optionally possessed, which may or may not appear with a possessive.

Optionally possessed things are called '''apen'''.

The possessive marker for inherently possessed words is '''-r-''' between the owned and the owner, while ''apen'' words are supposed to use a different construction. 

''The information on this section is incomplete because it is lost.  I may need to reinvent it, or get rid of the distinction [until recently I had forgotten entirely that possessability was a factor, and later translations may ignore this]...''

===Number===
Trentish nouns are by default unmarked for [[number]].  There is, however, optional number marking, along two axes, paucal vs. plural and separate vs. aggregate&lt;sup&gt;? congregate?&lt;/sup&gt; (physically grouped together).  The singular may be overtly marked with '''sr̀-''' /s(ʌ)-/.  

{| cellpadding=5
| '''shatwoh''' || “dog/dogs” || || '''srshatwoh''' || “one dog/a dog”
|-
| '''meshatwoh''' || “a few dogs” &lt;br&gt; (in different places) || || '''qlumeshatwoh''' || “many dogs” &lt;br&gt; (in different places)
|-
| '''enshatwoh''' || “a few dogs” &lt;br&gt; (in one place) || || '''qlenshatwoh''' || “many dogs” &lt;br&gt; (in one place)
|}

The markers are:
{| 
! !! paucal !! plural
|-
! separate 
| /me-/ || /ʔlu-me-/
|-
! aggregate 
| /el-/ || /ʔl-el-/
|}

===Topic/second===
Trentish nouns mark for “topic” and “second”.  Roughly, topic is the most important argument of the verb (subject or direct object), and second is the other; indirect objects not being marked.  The topic marker is '''-ba''' /-pa/, and the second marker '''-òm''' /-(ɔ)m/.

{|
| § 
|colspan=3| '''shatwohba shaƛumohm ungupshixr'''
|-
| || shatwoh-ba || shaƛumoh-m || u-ngupshe-i-xr
|-
| || dog-&lt;small&gt;TOP&lt;/small&gt; || person-&lt;small&gt;SEC&lt;/small&gt; || person-hunt-1-3
|-
|
|colspan=3| &quot;The dog(s) hunt(s) a person/people&quot;
|}

{|
| § 
|colspan=3| '''shaƛumohba shatwohm ungupshixr'''
|-
| || shaƛumoh-ba || shatwoh-m || u-ngupshe-i-xr
|-
| || person-&lt;small&gt;TOP&lt;/small&gt; || dog-&lt;small&gt;SEC&lt;/small&gt; || person-hunt-1-3
|-
|
|colspan=3| &quot;The person/people was/were hunted by dog(s).&quot;
|}


==Voice==
Trentish verbs are marked for [[voice]].  

There are five voices, '''active''', '''unergative''', '''unaccusative''', '''passive''', and '''middle'''.  Their use depends on the presence of and importance given to the agent and patient.

{| cellpadding=5
! agent !! patient !! voice !! marker
|-
| high || low || ''active'' / ''middle'' || ∅ / /ʊk-/
|-
| high || none || ''unergative'' || /tɬi-/
|-
| low || high || ''passive'' / ''middle'' || ∅ / /ʊk-/
|-
| none || high || ''unaccusative'' || /ʔuu-/
|}

The middle voice is used if the agent and patient refer to the same entity (''me'' and ''myself'') or an entity and a part of itself (''me'' and ''my nose'').

The ''high'' agent or patient is marked with the topic marker /-pɑ/.
The ''low'' agent or patient is marked with /-(ɔ)m/.

==Aspect==
There are at least six [[aspect]]s, which are focuses on the status of the event.

{| cellpadding=5
! aspect !! description !! marker
|-
| imperfective ||  seen as in progress || ∅
|-
| perfective ||  seen as completed || /po-/
|-
| iterative || seen as happening many times together || /tʰø-/
|-
| cumulative || iterative with cumulative effect  || /mel-/
|-
| reluctative || seen as happening with reluctance || /ɑk-/
|-
| effrenative&lt;sup&gt;?&lt;/sup&gt; || seen as happening without reluctance &lt;br&gt; (either in a good or bad way) || /pʰli-/
|}

==Mood==

{| cellpadding=5
! [[mood]] !! description !! marker
|-
| indicative || seen as real || ∅
|-
| probable || seen as expected or inevitable; &lt;br&gt; future || /tʷo-/
|-
| fictive || seen as hypothetical; &lt;br&gt;subjunctive, infinitive, (negative) || /i-/
|}

==Adjectives==
There are two types of adjective in Trentish, ''scalar'' and ''binary''.  Scalar adjectives are always marked for degree (the simplest form is the positive /ʔo-/).  Adjectives can be used nominally.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kosi</title>
    <id>635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29128</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:03:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A grammar sketch of Kosi is available [http://r0ry.co.uk/kosigrammar.php here] and a lexicon [http://r0ry.co.uk/kosilex.php here].

==[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Power The Rings of Power poem]==

{|
| Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, || Rihu bülatu mara edlis kotsülemdroha, || Three rings owned by the happy forest people kings under the sky,
|-
| Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, || Su bülatu harühau lanau mara rihkulemdroha, || Seven rings owned by the stone halls-dwelling short gold man kings,
|-
| Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die, || Kru bülatu bohadvasak om, || Nine rings owned by the death-fated humans,
|-
| One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne || Üsu bulatu saudab drohülab sauddroha || One ring owned by the Evil King on his dark throne
|-
| In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. || Vaibsojau hasakau Bulatmotjokau. || In the shadow-dwelling Ring-Destruction-Place.
|-
| One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, || Üs bulat, maremab ukra, öt maremt srih, || One ring, it will rule everyone, it will find everyone,
|-
| One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them || Öt maremt deh, öt maremt örau endar || It will unify everyone, it will bind them at night
|-
| In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. || Vaibsojau hasakau Bulatmotjokau. || In the shadow-dwelling Ring-Destruction-Place.
|}

==Assorted sentences==

{|
| We are sitting in the night, and like the night, we are silent. || Usut hlis ül, örai kras. || group-PROX.DEM night.sky-SUB sit, night-ADV silent || This group is sitting under the night sky, and, like the night, is silent.
|-
| The clouds floated over the sea. || Vai omik sokab osmi. || many cloud sea-SUP fly || Clouds flew above the sea.
|-
| John is taller than he (John) thinks. || Jan hnehai jera; at maur lan. || John incorrect-ADV believe; he more tall || John has an incorrect belief; he is taller.
|-
| John is taller than he (someone else) thinks. || Üs Janü hnehai jera; ket maur lan. || 1 John-ASS incorrect-ADV believe; 2 more tall || He1 has an incorrect belief about John; he2 is taller.
|-
| The parents named their child something strange. || Amta neki laskai kajos. || parents child.ACC strange-ADV CAUS-carry || They strangely named the child.
|-
| The man swept the floor (such that the floor was) clean. || Man dönt lantalini tisri. || man floor-ACC broom-INS clean || The man cleaned the floor using a broom.
|-
| I prefer to swim across the river. || Serem beski makul. || I river-INS COM-swim || I want to swim using the river.
|-
| Give him his money back. || Mara sömjot ndandima. || all money-ACC IMP-give.back || Give back the money.
|-
| How cold is it outside? || Kim smin kaut sülau neb? || what amount coldness forest-INE exist || How cold is it outside?
|-
| I haven't found my socks yet, but I will if I keep searching. || Kelem ken dreklt ntovar, kelem dasahau dadsreh, kelem likös. || I two.ACC sock-ACC NEG-know.location.of, I future-INE but-SJBV-search, I RESUL-succeed || I don't know where my two socks are, but if I keep looking, I will succeed.
|-
| These chocolates are for the girl who helped me with math. || Kelem ljekkranumo lana makhrai, ket samelnü mhal miloseh. || I chocolate-piece-OBV.DEM girl-DAT COM-give, 2 mathematics-ASS me help || I want to give these chocolates to a girl; she helped me with mathematics.
|-
| Your parents are brothers (of each other)! || Amtü kelauk ds&amp;#xF6;k ndos! || parents-ASS you younger.brother older.brother || Your parents are brothers!
|-
| Would you like the black one or the white one? || Kelauk ört tint makjat, skovt tint emakjat? || you black-ACC thing-ACC COM-see, white-ACC thing-ACC either/or-COM-see || Do you want the black one or want the white one?
|-
| The tank is full. || Miktekhas num. || tank full || The tank is full.
|-
| The tank filled. || Miktekhas menum. || tank INC-full || The tank began to be full.
|-
| John filled the tank. || Jan miktekhes kanum. || John tank.ACC CAUS-full || John caused the tank to be full.
|-
| The water filled the tank. || Mara miktekhas kömri menum. || all tank water\PL-INS INC-full || The tank filled using water.
|-
| I am not going to wed one of my daughters to such a daft boy. || Üs lanü kelem lomast mahat jamal, kelem dorom. || one daughter-ASS I daft-ACC boy.ACC-OBV.DEM marry, I forbid || I forbid that one daughter of mine will marry that daft boy.
|-
| I need some explanations. || Kelem rün kelöst ndahal. || I few explanation-ACC IMP-hear || I must hear a few explanations.
|-
| I'm not a linguist. || Kelem hnaumt ntül. || I language-ACC NEG-study || I don't study language.
|-
| Can you speak Kosi? || Kelauk elsai Kosi kel? || you know.how.to Kosi-INS speak || Do you know how to speak using Kosi?
|-
| I ceased to behave like my former self. || Kelem barai mevukreh. || I new-ADV INC-behave || I began to behave newly.
|-
| I will lay waste the rebellious districts. || Kelem mara vistobakt ohi taban. || I all disobey-ACT.PTCP-ACC person\PL.ACC vanquish || I will vanquish the disobedient people.
|-
| Where is the book? ||  Hava kimau lok? || book what-INE be.located || The book is located where?
|-
| What is the name of that city? || Suradat kimi kajosah? || city-OBV.DEM what-INS CAUS-carry-PASS || That city is called by what?
|-
| The Kosi people are those who form words with voices. || Kosi kelak om sault hulari lük. || Kosi-INS speak-ACT.PTCP person\PL word\PL-ACC voice-INS create || The Kosi-speaking people form words using the voice.
|-
| Red is a colour. || Saun jamhok. || red AOR-colour || Red is a colour.
|-
| My family went to Disneyland yesterday. || Tjöl Disnikavt löt tenau. || family Disneyland-ACC visit yesterday || The family visited Disneyland yesterday.
|-
| Elizabeth wants to marry a Norwegian. || Elis Norskavö ehi makjamal. || Elizabeth Norway-ABL person.ACC COM-marry || Elizabeth wants to marry a Norwegian person.
|-
| I thought (wrongly, on an uncontrolled and not necessarily rational level) that I saw Tarja. || Kelem Tarjat lat, kelem mivos. || I Tarja-ACC see, I wrongly.believe || I wrongly believed that I saw Tarja.
|-
| I saw a horse from my place at the door. || Kelem josnehi sokjat kelem barjavau soksneh. || I horse.ACC SIMUL-see I door-INE SIMUL-stand || I saw a horse while I stood at the door.
|-
| I saw a horse coming from the door. || Kelem josnehi sokjat at barjavi sokdno. || I horse.ACC see it door-INS walk || I saw a horse while it walked through the door.
|-
| Three men longed to fabricate idols in honour of two goddesses. || Rih man Jadjeraukt keta jadnüma sminösai makkül. || three man idol-ACC two-DAT goddess-DAT much-ADV COM-create || Three men really wanted to create idols on behalf of two goddesses.
|-
| Tarja hates for Christopher to be kind. || Kristov koteh, Tarja desal. || Christopher be.kind, Tarja hate || Tarja hates that Christopher is kind.
|-
| Tarja wants Christopher to be alive. || Kristov bahad, Tarja makjat. || Christopher breathe, Tarja COM-see || Tarja wants to see Christopher alive.
|-
| There seems to be a thunderstorm. || Sivra latahai. || thunderstorm happen-apparently || A storm apparently happens.
|-
| For Christopher to eat upsets Tarja. || Kristov stab, Tarja lisreh. || Christopher SJBV-eat, Tarja RESUL-be.upset || If Christopher eats, then Tarja is upset.
|-
| I don't know whether I'll go. || Kelem kom, kelem ntek. || I go, I NEG-know.a.fact || I don't know that I will go.
|-
| I saw a picture of me. || Kelem tobekin&amp;#xFC;li lateh. || I picture-INS see-REFL || I looked at myself using a picture.
|-
| The apples, having fallen from the tree, ripened. || Vai elma udsö som, at limemat. || many red.apple tree-ABL fall, they RESUL-INC-edible || The apples fell from the tree, and then they became edible.
|-
| The dog with the man I saw was green. || Kelem men nüsehakt hümt salt lat. || I man.ACC accompany-ACT.PTCP-ACC green-ACC dog-ACC see || I saw a man and an accompanying green dog.
|-
| Tarja likes homework about as much as I do. || Tarja kelem mralakai jalmös hasaudolost ser. || Tarja I equal-ACT.PTCP-ADV enjoy homework-ACC write || Tarja and I equally enjoy doing homework.
|-
| Tarja, who I thought liked homework about as much as I did, actually didn't. || Tarja kelem mralakai njalmösalu hasaudolost ser. || Tarja I equal-ACT.PTCP-ADV NEG-enjoy-contrary.to.expectations homework-ACC write || Tarja and I unexpectedly do not equally enjoy doing homework.
|-
| They say everyone was born free. || Durau marem mta, at laskah, kai. || back-INE everyone give.birth.PASS, they free, say\PASS || It is said that after everyone is born, they are free.
|-
| John kept his eyes closed. || Jan nbodsem. || John NEG-COMPL-close.the.eyes || John did not cease closing his eyes.
|-
| This bed has clearly been jumped on. || Em nturutab sota, kelem kümrüm. || person bed-PROX.DEM-SUP jump, I be.sure || I'm sure that someone has jumped on this bed.
|-
| Tarja had suggested I take a walk in the park. || Kelem humau kom, Tarja kibnüm. || I park-INE walk, Tarja suggest || Tarja suggested that I take a walk in the park.
|-
| The man who they tried to arrest escaped. || Kas truvülan man laskeh. || try arrest-PASS.PTCP man escape || The man that was tried to be arrested escaped.
|-
| John's playing the guitar at midnight bugs me. || Jan vrastin kolühau örau tonika, kelem el lahev. || John guitar-ACC centre-ASS-INE night-INE HAB-play.an.instrument, I this.ACC be.irritated || John plays the guitar in the middle of the night; I am bugged by that.
|-
| After the people had succumbed to the knock-out gas, our agents secured the area. || Durau marem bokas lihukjobak bahadbas, vai sko mravt kavilna. || back-INE everyone give.up RESUL-knock.out-ACT.PTCP gas, many assistant area-ACC CAUS-safe || After everyone gave up to the knocking-out gas, the assistants secured the area.
|-
| Instead of you going to the store, let's have me order the television off the Net. || Kelauk sadrhes telotakai löt, kelem Marjoki h&amp;#xF6;vjatint tüb. || you store-ACC replace-ACT.PTCP-ADV visit, I Net-INS television-ACC buy || Instead of you visiting the store, I'll buy the television using the Net.
|-
| -I quite agree with you, said the Duchess; and the moral of that is-’Be what you would seem to be’-or, if you’d like it put more simply-’Never imagine yourself not to be otherwise than what it might appear to others that what you were or might have been was not otherwise than what you had been would have appeared to them to be otherwise.’ || &quot;Kelem kelauk bönt mkivt sminösai lat,&quot; Nobjaled kel; &quot;ol ndatülah: marem karavanai ndaukreh. Boski sauli ukai: marem kümri boska, el ndankavrah.&quot; || &quot;I you same\PL-ACC face-ACC much-ADV see,&quot; duchess say; &quot;this.ACC IMP-learn-PASS: everyone perceive-PASS.PTCP-ADV IMP-behave. different-INS word\PL-INS and/or-speak.PASS: everyone reality-INS be.different, that.ACC IMP-NEG-imagine-PASS.&quot; || &quot;I and you very much agree,&quot; the duchess said; &quot;and this should be learnt: everyone should act as they are perceived. Or, said using different words: everyone should not imagine that they are different from reality.&quot;
|-
| The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones. || Kelem mairit smakdekm, kelem malau vai srit harit lindatari. || I mountain-ACC SBJV-COM-undo, I beginning-INE many small-ACC stone-ACC RESUL-IMP-remove || If I want to undo a mountain, then I must at the beginning remove small stones.
|-
| John saw the boy to whom Tarja gave an apple which she purchased at the store. || Tarja sadrhasau tübant elmat masa hrai, Jan ken lat. || Tarja store-INE buy-PASS.PTCP-ACC red.apple-ACC boy-DAT give, John 2.ACC see || Tarja gave a store-bought apple to a boy, and John saw him.
|-
| I tried to find out where (or, for that matter, whether) the group was meeting. || Vih hnaumeh, kelem kas metek, lokü hnaumeh. || group.of.people meet, I try find.out, location-ASS meeting || I tried to find out that the group will meet, and the location of the meeting.
|-
| It is good that you remembered to turn off the stove, since otherwise the food would have been being cooked for a few hours. || Kelauk naral tolatint tsö, kelem bosreh; kelauk saral el tsin, tab rün barau lenau lilanmat. || you NEG-forget cook-ACC turn.off, I be.relieved; you SJBV-forget that.ACC do, food few extra-INE hour\PL-INE RESUL-cook || I'm relieved that you didn't forget to turn off the stove; if you forgot to do that, the food would have cooked during a few extra hours.
|-
| That someone could allow this to happen is despicable. || At maltarivandai ndoromah latah. || that despicable-ADV allow-PASS happen || Someone despicably allowed this to happen.
|-
| That that someone could allow this to happen is despicable is common sense. || Maltarivandai at ndoromah latah, marem el ndatek. || despicable-ADV that allow-PASS happen, everyone that.ACC IMP-know.a.fact || The despicableness of that being allowed to happen is something everyone should know.
|-
| That that that someone could allow this to happen is despicable is common sense is subject to debate. || Maltarivandai at ndoromah latah, marem el ndantek; at lekah. || despicable-ADV that allow-PASS happen, everyone that.ACC IMP-NEG-know.a.fact; that debatable || The despicableness of that being allowed to happen is not something everyone should know; that is debatable.
|-
| That that that that someone could allow this to happen is despicable is common sense is subject to debate is simply absurd. || Maltarivandai at ndoromah latah, marem el ndantek, at nlekah; kelem harit tab ljat. || despicable-ADV that allow-PASS happen, everyone that.ACC IMP-NEG-know.a.fact, that NEG-debatable; I stone-ACC ingest RESUL-that || The despicableness of that being allowed to happen is not something everyone should know, and that is not debatable; that is absurd.
|-
| This priceless artifact is not worth risking losing. || Kelem kulöst srihut nmaksbolat. || I priceless-ACC artifact-PROX.DEM NEG-COM-SJBV-misplace || I do not want to possibly lose this priceless artifact.
|-
| You must go. || Kelauk ndakom. || you IMP-go || You must go.
|-
| You must not go. || Kelauk ndankom. || you IMP-NEG-go || You must not go.
|-
| You don't have to go. || Kelauk nmdakom. || you NEG-IMP-go || You don't have to go.
|-
| How drunk or high do you have to be to be so confused as to momentarily believe that today is half a year away from when it actually is? || Kelem kim smin lünkömrt ndatab, lünvenkat endatab, ol vanrihau mivos: stinut sölühi dni boska? || I what amount glass.of.alcohol-ACC IMP-ingest, drug-ACC either/or-IMP-ingest, this.ACC minute-INE RESUL-wrongly.believe: today half-ASS-INS year-INS be.different, I minute-INE wrongly.believe || What amount of alcohol or a drug must I ingest in order to wrongly believe that today is actually different by half a year?
|-
| If I say &quot;You are a couple of anarchists wearing bidets as hats,&quot; how many anarchists are there? || &quot;Ket makukreh, kevab tisrehümjo jaskat telok,&quot; kelem el skel, kim smin makukrehem lineb? || &quot;two believe.in.anarchism, head-SUP bidet hat.worn.during.rain-ACC replace,&quot; I that.ACC SJBV-say, what amount anarchist RESUL-exist? || If I say that &quot;Two are anarchists, and on the head a bidet replaces a hat,&quot; then how many anarchists exist?
|-
| It’s a good idea to try and be careful about not copying Finnish's idiosyncrasies. || Kelem ndakas kunkra likovri Sivi laskatravat mirna. || I IMP-try be.careful RESUL-avoid Finnish.language-INS idiosyncracy-ACC imitate.a.thing || I should try to be careful in order to avoid copying the idiosyncrasies in the Finnish language.
|-
| I want to become the person I would have become had I been born in Norway. || Kelem Norskavau mta, kelem makjat. || I Norway-INE give.birth.to.PASS, I COM-see || I wish that I were born in Norway.
|-
| Were you seconding what I said or saying what you thought I didn't? || Serauk serem bönt mkivt lat, serauk jerani nkelani marsauli ehnaum? || you I same\PL-ACC face-ACC see, you believe-PASS.PTCP-INS NEG-say-PASS.PTCP-INS what.was.said-INS exclusive.or-discuss || Were you agreeing with me, or were you discussing that which you believed to be unspoken (by me)?
|-
| I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure you realize that what you heard was not what I meant. || Kelauk mhal ndareh, kelauk jera, kelem tek; kelem atü dankümrüm: kelauk mhal darehalu, kelauk baus. || you me NEG-misunderstand, you believe, I know; I that-ASS but-NEG-certain: you me misunderstand-actually, you realize || I know that you believe that you did not misunderstand me; but I am not certain that you realize that you actually misunderstood me.
|-
| I've had it with these motherfucking snakes on this motherfucking plane! || Kelem Davanühau osmautau nakut uhodrakt mara darjanohi ndamot! || I Satan-ASSOCIATIVE-INESSIVE airplane-INESSIVE child-GENITIVE-ACC be.bloodthirsty-ACTIVE.PARTICIPLE-ACC all snake.PL.ACC IMP-kill || I must kill the snakes who are bloodthirsty for children on this Satanic plane!
|}

==&lt;u&gt;Disneyland Hostage&lt;/u&gt; (&lt;u&gt;Disnikavau lekahem&lt;/u&gt;)==
Below is the first chapter in Kosi of [http://www.amazon.ca/gp/product/061329596X/702-3864971-8992063?v=glance&amp;n=916520 &lt;u&gt;Disneyland Hostage&lt;/u&gt;] by [http://members.shaw.ca/ericwilsonweb/index.html Eric Wilson], translated with permission from the author.

===Bna msanu: Chapter One===
Serauk rausmaut, aut mtai limoteh?

Have you ever been flying in an airplane when it's just about to crash?

Serem &amp;#xFC;lkadsat katsemra, serem vilnamhar&amp;#xFC;mhav&amp;#xFC;m&amp;#xFC;t osmautdolorust libukbuk. Serem ken katakt tand&amp;#xF6;nt litisreh&amp;#xFC;m, sreh&amp;#xFC;mt ohi bakri lilat.

I tightened my seat belt, then re-read the airplane company's safety instruction booklet. Then I wiped my sweating palms, and looked out the window at the totally calm people.

Osmaut nm&amp;#xF6;smaut, serem kovr&amp;#xFC;m smehat vast lat.

The plane hadn't even taken off, and I was prepared to meet my unfortunate fate.

Seremain &amp;#xFC;lak n&amp;#xFC;m lauht taum&amp;#xF6;s. &quot;Maks&amp;#xFC;t&amp;#xFC;m, Elisain. Kelauk osmot&amp;#xFC; mhokdeht vai seleh?&quot;

The woman sitting next to me squeezed my hand. &quot;Calm down, Liz. Don't you like the colour scheme of the plane a lot?&quot;

At em Vels Meladi. At marsel sneh, beska hruvi omi. Ljarai, kabnut: &quot;&amp;#xDC;lstevat Ndekadolos Liv&amp;#xFC;l&quot;.

That's Aunt Melody. She's always optimistic, unlike other people. For instance, the sign that said, &quot;Use Seat Cushion to Float&quot;.

&quot;Kelauk el ndareh, Vels Meladain? Osmaut Sitrabintau moteh, marem &amp;#xFC;lstevi s&amp;#xF6;dain lindaul. Saudrasva sont ul mekovr&amp;#xFC;m, kelem dnava; at maremi dnava s&amp;#xF6;t&amp;#xFC;hau bn&amp;#xFC;mau lil&amp;#xF6;t.&quot;

&quot;Do you understand this, Aunt Melody? The plane will crash into the Pacific Ocean, then everyone will have to swim to land with a seat cushion. I expect that Jaws is preparing his teeth; he's waiting for everyone to visit at dinnertime.&quot;

Vels Meladi sol. &quot;Osmaut kevau Sitrabintau ndno.&quot;

Aunt Melody laughed. &quot;The plane won't be traveling over the Pacific.&quot;

&quot;At soktsin, hautem autbesa ndaj&amp;#xF6;ts mkivau askaribosmaut.&quot;

&quot;That will happen, when the pilot has to discard the fuel before the emergency landing.&quot;

&quot;Maks&amp;#xFC;t&amp;#xFC;m, Elisain. Kelauk osmauti radno.&quot;

&quot;Calm down, Liz. You've traveled by plane before.&quot;

&quot;Kelem el tek, kelem osmot dajades. Kelem saun tint maktsanja, dehnot limakdno.&quot;

&quot;I know that, but I still hate planes. I want to leave this evil thing and then travel by train.&quot;

&quot;Durau lat&amp;#xFC; Tam, dehnaut tombat, kelauk njera, kelem libo.&quot;

&quot;After Tom's experience, I'm surprised you don't believe trains are dangerous.&quot;

Serem ret trebori Vels&amp;#xFC; Melad&amp;#xFC; k&amp;#xF6;s, serem ket liv&amp;#xFC;l, kast soklihal njeki soksom. H&amp;#xF6;vak serem sok&amp;#xFC;l, Vels Meladi &lt;u&gt;Boska&lt;/u&gt;t sitrai tebuk; Kanjaukjarem Jadhavt sbuk, kaltankmorvaidolorus&amp;#xFC; em &lt;u&gt;Boska&lt;/u&gt;t libuk. Vels maremi ret, at h&amp;#xF6;vjati nlatah; at Minjetlisau misnikmordolorusi dakadolosah. At ndesel smin&amp;#xF6;sai bna, at maremt kel; at lak&amp;#xFC;t hulart smin&amp;#xF6;sai jalm&amp;#xF6;s, serem ata liksiva.

I don't know how to win an argument with Aunt Melody, so I sat back, listening to sweat as it fell from my forehead. Sitting beside me, Aunt Melody returned to reading &quot;Variety&quot;, which is, for a person in the entertainment industry, akin to the Bible for Christians. My aunt isn't a star, and she isn't on TV, but she does work for a Minneapolis opera company. She tells everyone she'll never be really significant, but she really enjoys using her voice, and I'm happy for her.

At seremt kit&amp;#xF6;m taseht litab, serem misnikmort lilat. Serem el n&amp;#xFC;seh Disnikavau litsamaua. Serem ret dnava Kalisornaim dno, serem vai dr&amp;#xFC;t lilat. S&amp;#xF6;tau, serem dn&amp;#xFC;t Lasandjelest makbahad, serem &amp;#xFC;sai elsai el &amp;#xF6;len.

She invited me to visit her, and to see an opera performance. I was now accompanying her on a vacation in Disneyland. I was very excited about going to California, and I experienced goosebumps. At the moment, I could only think about how I wanted to survive the trip to Los Angeles.

Osmaut laskai mekom.

The plane suddenly began to move.

Maur barjav sokbsemah, hari soksom. Mara autnitra svenjanai sokmedos sokmemis&amp;#xFC;m. &quot;Kelem nmakbohad, lidribara,&quot; kelem &amp;#xF6;len&amp;#xF6;len.

The big door was closed with a thump. All the engines began to roar and whistle, and this scared me. &quot;I don't want to die, because I'm too young,&quot; I thought over and over.

Vai osmautemsko kamt kisolt tsin, at kalat askaribahadhnemkivt jos. osmaut osmautnau smin&amp;#xF6;sai hlam limedno. Mara autnitra osmot smin&amp;#xF6;sai kaslah, osmaut kevain edli medno. Mara hru hautauk seremain lisom, serem hlam jera. Eski meder&amp;#xFC;m, osmaut ket limerjoka.

Many flight attendants made a sick joke; they demonstrated the use of emergency oxygen masks. The plane then began to travel very quickly on the runway. The engines hugely energised the plane, and the plane began traveling up into the sky. I thought for a little while that the other passengers would fall towards me. My heart began to pound, but fortunately the plane then became horizontal.

&quot;Sai! M&amp;#xF6;smaut tnela!&quot; serem dor&amp;#xFC;m.

&quot;Hurrah! The takeoff has ended!&quot; I exclaimed.

&quot;Kelauk k&amp;#xFC;mr. Osmaut &amp;#xFC;sai ndabosmaut.&quot;

&quot;You're right. The plane just has to land now.&quot;

&quot;Lah! Kelem botek.&quot;

&quot;Thanks a lot. I'd completely forgotten.&quot;

Harutau, serem vai srit sauthos lat; serem vai vilnakt smin&amp;#xFC;mt djolkat lat, vai srit ot; at sabdni sr&amp;#xF6;bas&amp;#xFC;mi ul dno. Serem el sokmikjat, tani mb&amp;#xF6;t soktebsa.

On Earth, I saw tiny farm houses; I saw tiny sparkling lakes, and toy cars; the last were traveling on a six-lane sliver of road. As I stared at them, someone's hand touched my arm.

Serem kevt katom, serem njat men lilat; kulamhok sul, vai edl s&amp;#xFC;m; tseld&amp;#xFC;mi latan kulatinkads njolt maslat besk&amp;#xFC;m. Man seremt ul kel, serem el mtai nbaus.

I turned my head, and saw a perfect man; he had gold-coloured hair and very blue eyes; a gold chain, seen through his shirt, crossed his hairy chest. I didn't realize immediately that the man was talking to me.

&quot;Oja?&quot; serem maktel. &quot;Kelauk kim kel?&quot;

&quot;Pardon?&quot; I stammered. &quot;What did you say?&quot;

&quot;Kelauk Lisi H&amp;#xFC;viti kajosah, Rikmnd&amp;#xF6;?&quot;

&quot;Are you called Lisa Hewitt, from Richmond?&quot;

&quot;Kelem ntsin,&quot; serem raiha, vai sibri vadimai likajosah. &quot;Kelem Elisi Astni kajosah, kelem Viniteka d&amp;#xF6;s.&quot; Man tsulau &amp;#xFC;l, serem tekel, &quot;Senlorankavau.&quot;

&quot;No,&quot; I admitted, very disappointed because I was called differently. &quot;I'm called Liz Austen, and I come from Winnipeg.&quot; He looked confused, so I continued, &quot;In Canada.&quot;

&quot;Kelem el tek.&quot; Man rjokomeh. &quot;Kelem taseht Lisi soktab, kelem njem sokmaknaum; Lisa kelauk &amp;#xFC;lemt h&amp;#xF6;v&amp;#xF6;s! B&amp;#xF6;n j&amp;#xF6;n &amp;#xF6;rai sul s&amp;#xFC;m.&quot;

&quot;I know that.&quot; The man shook his head. &quot;When I visit Lisa, I'm going to mention you; Lisa and you look like twins. The same pretty dark hair and eyes.&quot;

Man metsanja, Vels Meladi mbatjot dados. &quot;Mak&amp;#xFC;l,&quot; vels kel, sormt h&amp;#xF6;v&amp;#xF6;sak n&amp;#xF6;main &amp;#xFC;lain dos. &quot;Kelauk mhal tsokjat skel, ket limekot.&quot;

The man was starting to leave, but Aunt Melody threw a weapon. &quot;Please sit down,&quot; she said, and glanced at the empty seat beside her. &quot;My niece and I would enjoy it talking to you.&quot;

J&amp;#xF6;b&amp;#xF6; man &amp;#xFC;l, serem el libolat. Serem ken har&amp;#xFC;mt nj&amp;#xFC;mt melat, at tanisimt h&amp;#xF6;v; ndem danja, serem ret kost jera. Serem bnat duksat ul &amp;#xF6;len, Vels Meladi seremain sotevt dalidos.

The man from a dream sat down, and I took a good look at him. I noticed two tiny scars, which were near his right eye; but no one is perfect, and I couldn't believe the luck. I was in the middle of thinking about what to say first, but then Aunt Melody threw an obstacle at me.

&quot;Marem nhreh, kelem jera.&quot;

&quot;I believe that we haven't identified ourselves.&quot;

&quot;Oja?&quot; j&amp;#xF6;b&amp;#xF6; man kel.

&quot;What?&quot; the man from a dream said.

&quot;Marem nkaskeh. Kelem Meladi Saimndsi kajosah.&quot;

&quot;We haven't introduced ourselves. I'm called Melody Symons.&quot;

&quot;Kelem Kindsli Kotvas kajosah. Kelauk Sanlorankava d&amp;#xF6;s, N&amp;#xFC; Saimnaim, kelem jer&amp;#xFC;m, kelauk ljelsai bosrai hnaum.&quot;

&quot;I'm called Kingsley Fortune. I suspected that you were from Canada, Ms. Symons, because you can speak so coherently.&quot;

&quot;Kelem usamah. Kelem Meladi makkajosah.&quot;

&quot;Thank you. I wish to be called Melody.&quot;

&quot;Elisi makkajosah,&quot; serem el kel. &quot;Kelauk...&quot;

&quot;I'd like to be called Liz,&quot; I said to him. &quot;You...&quot;

Vels Meladi lirut datsin, ildar limikandelah. Durau r&amp;#xFC;n j&amp;#xF6;sk&amp;#xFC; serem venrih, Kindsli skot&amp;#xF6;k njem, serem krasai raiha. Vels Meladi Kindslit skasel; serem el makjat, serem vels Lasandjelesau Kindslain liv&amp;#xFC;l. Taua!

Aunt Melody asked a question, and then my mouth was left agape. After a few minutes of me being naive, I silently admitted that Kingsley might be too old for me. Aunt Melody might make an impression on Kingsley; I hoped for this, because then we might hang out with Kingsley in Los Angeles. Wow!

Vels Meladit makmiloseh, serem hrai limekel. &quot;Vels smin&amp;#xF6;st kavt radno, Kindslain, at misnikmort tsin maremi elsai.&quot;

Wanting to help Aunt Melody, I also began to talk. &quot;My aunt has traveled to many countries, Kingsley, and she is a famous opera star.&quot;

Kindsli kaselah, serem mkivi jera, Vels Meladi tant likat&amp;#xF6;v. &quot;Kelem maremi ret. Kelem sitrai mbetadsau dolos.&quot;

I gathered from his face that Kingsley was impressed, but Aunt Melody raised her hand. &quot;I'm not a star. I just sing for fun.&quot;

Kindsli sol. &quot;Kelauk bosrai mis, kelem dnava.&quot;

Kingsley laughed. &quot;I bet that you sing beautifully.&quot;

&quot;Vels tsin! Kelauk haslok&amp;#xFC;t Minjetlist ndakabausah, kelauk surat ndadno misnikmort lilat.&quot; Ket durau misnikmori bn&amp;#xFC;meh, serem mtai kibn&amp;#xFC;m; Vels Meladi s&amp;#xFC;tehai seremt dalat.

&quot;My aunt does! You should find out her Minneapolis address, and you should travel to the city to see a performance.&quot; I was about to suggest dinner after the performance, but Aunt Melody looked at me angrily.

&quot;Elismetain, kelauk makbuk, kelem jera.&quot; Vels seremt Elismeti sokkajos at &lt;i&gt;soks&amp;#xFC;teh&lt;/i&gt;. &quot;Man Kotvas ndamorah aksi elni, kelem njera.&quot;

&quot;Elizabeth, I think you should read your book.&quot; My aunt only calls me Elizabeth when she's &lt;i&gt;furious&lt;/i&gt;. &quot;I don't believe that Mr. Fortune needs help to organise his way of life.&quot;

J&amp;#xF6;b&amp;#xF6; man kot Vels Meladain. &quot;Kelem Kindsli makkajosah.&quot;

The man from a dream smiled at Aunt Melody. &quot;I wish to be called Kingsley.&quot;

Serem ol dos: sokhal, mara sorm ul sokkom, ket sokmekeleh. Serem Velst Meladit hlam tolat; martin nja, serem &amp;#xFC;len. Har&amp;#xF6;s &amp;#xF6;rai s&amp;#xFC;m, sk&amp;#xFC;r kormkivdjesn, skov mohinak&amp;#xFC; lantselda, s&amp;#xFC;lai h&amp;#xFC;m donjan, ket raut&amp;#xFC; tsukbulat--at djesnaukt ben.

I promise this: I heard her eyelashes moving while the two began to talk. I quickly inspected Aunt Melody; I concluded that everything was perfect. The huge dark eyes, exactly enough makeup, a white silk blouse, a forest-green pants, two silver bracelets--she resembled a model.

osmautemsko marema n&amp;#xFC;ramt vimdelt hnehmled&amp;#xFC;t saul&amp;#xFC;mt melirutari. &quot;Vai osmautemsko bn&amp;#xFC;mt hlam mahrai,&quot; at kel, mtai serem der&amp;#xFC;mt lihal.

A flight attendant began offering a soft drink and a packet of peanuts to everyone. &quot;Flight attendants will be distributing dinner soon,&quot; she said, and immediately I then heard the nervousness.

&quot;Tsul kim?&quot;

&quot;What's the problem?&quot;

At makkot, at dastamka. &quot;Nde tsul neb. Kelauk kimraun liru?&quot;

She tried to smile, but it was crooked. &quot;There aren't any problems. Why do you ask?&quot;

&quot;Kelem der&amp;#xFC;mt hal. Tsul&amp;#xFC; osmaut?&quot;

&quot;I hear nervousness. Is there a problem with the plane?&quot;

At s&amp;#xFC;mt tolat, mtai kel, Vels Meladi damekel. &quot;Tsonjat nmdakunkra. At der&amp;#xFC;m osmaut.&quot;

She studied my eyes, and was about to speak, but Aunt Melody started talking. &quot;Pay no attention to my niece. She is nervous about flying.&quot;

osmautemsko snehkomeh liksan. Hnehmled&amp;#xFC;t saul&amp;#xFC;mt ul andel, serem jateh, serem osmautemskot sokjat, at hru osmautemskot soknok, ket seremain lilat. Tsul neb, serem k&amp;#xFC;mr, serem kim tsin? Mtak tardno naib, serem ret somjask&amp;#xF6;st kadolos, serem jera, bahad &amp;#xF6;l dsteno. At datsin. Vai kast metsin, ds&amp;#xF6;k Tam&amp;#xF6; hukandjobulast hlam metani. At d&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xFC;t alumt bulat, neluskavsmadi.

The flight attendant nodded and walked away. I was pretending to open the package of peanuts, but while I watching the flight attendant, she whispered to another flight attendant, and the latter looked my way. I was certain that something was wrong, but what could I do? There was no such thing as the next stop, and I believed I couldn't use a parachute if my life depended on it. But it did. I began to sweat a lot, and I quickly began to hold the key ring from my brother Tom. It includes a rabbit's foot, and a four-leaf clover.

Kindsli rjokat &amp;#xF6;lent krasai kaultin. &quot;&amp;#xDC;s hukandjobulat! Kelauk vast j&amp;#xF6;ska, Elisain?&quot;

Kingsley, with his deep voice, interrupted my pessimistic thoughts. &quot;A key ring! Do you believe in fate, Liz?&quot;

&quot;Kelem? Ndesel.&quot;

&quot;Me? Never.&quot;

Vels Meladi sol. &quot;Ndasota, Elisain. Ndabek.&quot;

Aunt Melody laughed. &quot;Come on, Liz. Be honest.&quot;

&quot;osmaut kelemt smin&amp;#xF6;sai svenja, kelem raiha. Bohadkimr&amp;#xF6;s vaisaulau sneb, ul dnava bohan. Takintsul&amp;#xFC; autnitra smentsemra. Autnitra snt&amp;#xFC;l, osmaut harutain hlam lisom, osmaut ul luhara, marem ul dos, marem...&quot;

&quot;Flying scares me a lot, I admit. A bomb might exist in the luggage, waiting to explode. A bolt from the engine might become loose. The engine might fall off, then the plane will fall quickly towards Earth, the plane will be spinning, everyone will be screaming, everyone...&quot;

&quot;Bokel!&quot; Kindsli kel, lisol. &quot;&lt;i&gt;Kelem&lt;/i&gt; svenjah. D&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xFC;t alumt ndatebsatebsa, kelem jera.&quot;

&quot;Stop!&quot; Kingsley said, then laughed. &quot;Now &lt;i&gt;I'm&lt;/i&gt; terrified. I think you should stroke the rabbit's foot again.&quot;

Vels Meladi manaim kot. &quot;El nmdakibna, Kindslain.&quot;

Aunt Melody smiled towards him. &quot;Don't encourage her, Kingsley.&quot;

&quot;A, kelem smin&amp;#xFC;mai ben. Kelauk ol tek? &lt;u&gt;Mekbet&lt;/u&gt;, at maur smeha kaltankmor mara kaltankmori, mara kaltankmorem jera, Mis&amp;#xFC; Mara Saudn&amp;#xFC;m lineb. Marem kaltankmorem &quot;D&amp;#xF6;n ndabn&amp;#xFC;&quot;-i mkivau bnakalati jakeleh. Marem &quot;Kot vas&quot;-i jankeleh, at drobrikah.&quot;

&quot;Well, I'm a bit the same. Did you know this? &lt;u&gt;Macbeth&lt;/u&gt;, it's the unluckiest play, actors believe, because of the Witches' Song. Actors always say &quot;Break a leg&quot; before the first performance. We never say &quot;Good luck&quot; although that's what is meant.&quot;

&quot;Kelauk kaltankmor?&quot;

&quot;You act?&quot;

At mekot, kontin talbaihau t&amp;#xFC;l. &quot;Kelauk k&amp;#xFC;mr.&quot;

He began to smile, and dimples appeared on the cheeks. &quot;You're correct.&quot;

&quot;Kelauk smin&amp;#xF6;sai bna?&quot;

&quot;Are you really important?&quot;

At mesol. &quot;Kelauk el skel.&quot;

He began to laugh. &quot;You might say that.&quot;

&quot;Makkel&amp;#xF6;s.&quot;

&quot;Please explain.&quot;

&quot;A, kelem barai Lomesa Ha h&amp;#xF6;vakau Minjetlisau ketdolos. Kelem el smin&amp;#xFC;mai sko, kelem ontja.&quot;

&quot;Well, I've been working near Minneapolis with Lomas Shaw. I believe it to be likely that you're familiar with him a little.&quot;

Serem ntsin, lisoldan. Kindsli el nmelat, serem ontja.

I wasn't, and shrugged. I don't think Kingsley noticed.

&quot;H&amp;#xF6;vjat&amp;#xF6;skmor vai bna, kaltankmoremsko svara dolos Haliv&amp;#xF6;dau. Kelem Lasandjelesain hlam ljabas.&quot;

&quot;The movie will be very important, and my agent is working for me in Hollywood. Therefore I'm quickly returning to Los Angeles.&quot;

&quot;Kelauk marsel kaltankmor?&quot;

&quot;Have you always acted?&quot;

&quot;Marsel. Kelem &amp;#xFC;sai elsai ati k&amp;#xF6;s.&quot;

&quot;Always. I only know how to succeed at that.&quot;

Serem edlt s&amp;#xFC;mt tolat, Kalisornau sol&amp;#xFC; kul&amp;#xFC;mlaskahalmhok mdaja. Serem kajossert marai makrem, serem ndat&amp;#xFC;l obsiv, Vels Meladi likel, serem ontja. Lauhtan&amp;#xFC;t Kindslit tolat, jamaitsabulast lisreh. &amp;#xDC;s naib, vai dasal&amp;#xFC;t ardamt tsin. Serem sokmikjat, Kindsli limelat, limesneh.

I inspected the blue eyes, and the bronze skin from the sun in California. I totally wanted to be given an autograph, but Aunt Melody, I believed to be likely, would then say I must learn to be tactful. I looked at Kingsley's hands to look for a wedding ring. He didn't have one, but he did have calluses. Kingsley noticed that I was staring, and stood up.

&quot;Kelem makhebsi,&quot; at kel, litrisn.

&quot;I'd like to come back,&quot; he said, and then walked away.

&quot;Smin kotvas?&quot; serem Vels Meladit nok.

&quot;How much luck?&quot; I whispered to Aunt Melody.

&quot;Elismetain, s&amp;#xFC;mah!&quot;

&quot;Elizabeth, please!&quot;

&quot;Kelauk lauhtant tolat?&quot;

&quot;Did you inspect his hands?&quot;

&quot;Kelem tsin. Kimi kaltankmor vai ardamt hrai, kelem maktek? Kindsli svadim em.&quot;

&quot;I did. I want to know how acting can result in calluses? Kingsley might be a different person.&quot;

Knolan man! Serem nhnaum&amp;#xFC;t Kindslit sbaus? Serem limerkot. &quot;At Lasandjelesau snkaltankmor, ket el ndesel dasahau snkeleh.&quot;

An unknown man! Might I figure out Kingsley's secret? Then I became unhappy. &quot;If he doesn't act in L.A., then we might never converse with him in the future.&quot;

Vels Meladi sol. &quot;Ket ndebsen?&quot;

Aunt Melody laughed. &quot;Must we cry?&quot;

&quot;A, at koteh. Kelem sndoromah, serem ljalm&amp;#xF6;s j&amp;#xF6;na Kindsla Haliv&amp;#xF6;dau hibja. Lauhtani tuvis, kelem makjateh.&quot;

&quot;Well, he's nice. If I were allowed, I would enjoy hanging out with handsome Kingsley in Hollywood. I'd like to pretend that his hands are normal.&quot;

Lauhtan&amp;#xFC;, at&amp;#xFC; osmautemsko sokkomeh, n&amp;#xFC;m bn&amp;#xFC;m&amp;#xFC;t hraikaumt svara sokhrai. Tsul osmaut&amp;#xFC; neb, serem k&amp;#xFC;mr, serem dahautah. Serem mara tabjot talinksurt&amp;#xF6; tari, tan litolat.

About hands, those of a flight attendant were trembling as the woman gave a dinner tray to me. A problem existed with the plane, but I was only being driven. I took the utensils from a paper napkin, and studied the food.

Mara tab hraikaumau lok; hul srend bulatah, Jadoltor. Serem ken srend tab, kitr&amp;#xF6; oltintab&amp;#xF6; &amp;#xF6;rt Alinbjek hlam litab. Delan irid&amp;#xFC;m, serem hrat srend Jadoltort litab.

All the food was located in the tray; some cookies were included, and a chunk of fudge. I ate two cookies, then quickly ate a black olive from an unappetizing salad. The beef was mediocre, so I ate the cookies and fudge.

Osmaut d&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xF6;s, serem bakri lat. osmaut tsintsin, obani solt sminai barja, sol vilna drolatah. Serem sitrai ul &amp;#xFC;l, hautem askari mehnaum.

The plane turned, and I looked out the window. The plane did this again, and a wing blocked the sun to some extent, but yellow light was nevertheless seen. I was sitting peacefully, but the pilot began to discuss a disaster.

&quot;Tsul autnitr&amp;#xFC; neb,&quot; at kel, litarkel; marem mekel, at ontjai. At k&amp;#xFC;mr. Jaru menah, osmautemsko atu dakis&amp;#xFC;t&amp;#xFC;m. Serem tan&amp;#xFC;t Vels Meladit sokbaksa, d&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xFC;t alumt vai tsemrai soktaum&amp;#xF6;s. Eski ul vai lihadai der&amp;#xFC;m.

&quot;A problem exists with the engine,&quot; she said, then paused; she apparently believed it likely that everyone would begin to talk. She was right. One guy began to swear, but a flight attendant calmed him down. I grabbed hold of Aunt Melody's hand, and squeezed the rabbit's foot very tightly. My heart was pounding very loudly.

&quot;Vai maknder&amp;#xFC;m,&quot; at tekel. &quot;Mara kobol bahat katebsah, at bosmau snt&amp;#xFC;l. Vai askaraut dnava, kelem vilnaukrehusi hnaum.&quot;

&quot;Please don't be very nervous,&quot; she continued. &quot;The wheels have been made to touch the air, but they might collapse during landing. Ambulances will be waiting, and I will be discussing safety behaviour.&quot;

At bokel, marem limedos. Mara osmautemsko sitr&amp;#xFC; sokadso, serem bakri mat&amp;#xF6;sain t&amp;#xFC;sbosolain sokjat. Sol ul bohad, serem keleh; katsau tin limetsemra.

She stopped talking, then everyone began to shout. As the flight attendants worked hard for calm, I looked out the window at a wonderful orange sunset. The sun is dying, I said to myself; then a thing in my stomach became tight.

Vels Meladi tanikevt tebsa, serem slahai kot. &quot;Kelem k&amp;#xFC;mr, kelem jera.&quot;

Aunt Melody patted the back of my hand, and I weakly smiled. &quot;I think I was right.&quot;

&quot;Kim hnaum&amp;#xFC;, Elisain?&quot;

&quot;Regarding what topic, Liz?&quot;

&quot;osmautemsko der&amp;#xFC;m. At tsult elsai.&quot;

&quot;The flight attendant was nervous. She knew about the problem.&quot;

&quot;Kelauk k&amp;#xFC;mr, kelem ol ontja: mara osmautemsko amhar&amp;#xFC;mah sitrai ukreh bn&amp;#xFC;mt mahrai mkivau hautem tsuli hnaum mkivau bosmaut.&quot;

&quot;I believe it likely that you're right, and that the flight attendants were instructed to act calmly and distribute dinner before the pilot discussed the problem before landing.&quot;

&quot;Bosmaut.&quot; Serem ret kot. &quot;Vels Meladain, kelem svenjah.&quot;

&quot;The landing.&quot; I couldn't smile. &quot;Aunt Melody, I'm scared.&quot;

&quot;Kelem hruvai tsin, tsoksi.&quot;

&quot;I am also, my dear niece.&quot;

Kindsli hebsi, Vels Meladain &amp;#xFC;l. At bainjat ben, hautemi limekel. &quot;Kelauk sauk?&quot;

Kingsley came back, and sat down beside Aunt Melody. He resembled a ghost because of the pilot's announcement. &quot;How do you feel?&quot;

&quot;Mat&amp;#xF6;s, Kindslain. Kelauk?&quot;

&quot;Very good, Kingsley! You?&quot;

&quot;Kelem nja! Dehanmejalkau, osmautdolorusut maur mat mara hri. Mara hautauk vilna.&quot;

&quot;I'm perfect! In the United States, this airplane company is the best quality compared to all the others. All the passengers will be safe.&quot;

osmautemsko bn&amp;#xFC;m&amp;#xFC;t hraikaumt memrebn; lauhtani bokomeh, serem lat. At svenjani kabausteki hnaum, at dsreh. At seremain kot, serem tsobnai limekot.

A flight attendant began taking back the dinner trays; I noticed that her hands had stopped shaking. She might have worried that she would discuss the frightening information. She smiled at me, and that oddly made me happy.

&quot;Mnara?&quot; Vels Meladi el kel. &quot;Osmaut salau nbosmaut, telotakai dausmi mkivau Lasandjelesi; kimraun&amp;#xFC;?&quot;

&quot;Excuse me,&quot; Aunt Melody said to her. &quot;We didn't land earlier, but will instead fly until Los Angeles; why?&quot;

&quot;Vai lateko askaraut atau neb.&quot;

&quot;A lot of available ambulances exist there.&quot;

&quot;Lmka.&quot;

&quot;I see.&quot;

Kim sv&amp;#xF6; at&amp;#xFC; neb? Serem el ul lat, serem nmakjera; serem Disnikavau martint limik&amp;#xF6;len, vadimau hibau har&amp;#xFC;mau tsin, serem ontja.

What answer exists for that? I did not want to believe that I was experiencing this; so I thought for a long time about everything at Disneyland, which I did, I believe likely, for approximately eight seconds.

&quot;Kelem askar&amp;#xFC; k&amp;#xFC;mr,&quot; serem Kindslit kel. &quot;Autnitra nmt&amp;#xFC;l, ut el smeh&amp;#xFC; damrali.&quot;

&quot;I was right about a disaster,&quot; I said to Kingsley. &quot;The engine did not fall off, but this equals that in unfortunateness.&quot;

Kindsli slahai mekot. &quot;At l&amp;#xFC;t, Elisain. Durau r&amp;#xFC;n venrihi, osmaut Lasandjelesau bosmaut, svenjan lat bolatah.&quot;

Kingsley weakly smiled. &quot;That's nonsense, Liz. After a few minutes, the plane will land in Los Angeles, and this scary experience will cease happening.&quot;

&quot;Kelem el tek&amp;#xFC;m. Vanrih&amp;#xFC;hau bosmau, mara kobol soknt&amp;#xFC;l osmaut osmautnot soktebsa. Osmaut mkivain sokkimr, vai vilnaktin marokain sokkom. Mara autbesanitra libohan, autbesa met&amp;#xFC;s, har&amp;#xF6;s bohan latah. &amp;#xDC;sau vanrihau, osmaut neb; mtakau vanrihau, bjek&amp;#xFC; t&amp;#xFC;s el telot! Marem osmautau lint&amp;#xFC;l, Kindslain! Kula ndosah, marem bohad! Bahan ndanotl!&quot;

&quot;I doubt it. The minute of landing, the wheels will collapse as the plane touches the runway. The plane will slide forward, sparks moving everywhere. The fuel tanks will pop, the fuel will become fire, and a huge explosion will happen. One minute, a plane exists; the next minute, a ball of fire replaces it! Everyone in the plane will vanish, Kingsley! Gold will not be thrown, and we will all die! Say goodbye to life!&quot;

Serem ol laskai melat: vai em seremain melat, hul omat ul bsen. Serem kortab, serem baus, likas kot. &quot;Kelemain ndankunkra, maremain. Kelem lan.&quot;

I suddenly began to notice that people were looking in my direction and some were crying. I realized that I had eaten too much, and then tried to smile. &quot;Don't listen to me, everyone. I'm a girl.&quot;

&quot;Nuram lan,&quot; Vels Meladi hnaum. &quot;Osmaut&amp;#xFC;, marsel tojoska lan. Tojoska smehai dahm lilat&amp;#xFC; lanut, kelem jera.&quot;

&quot;A remarkable girl,&quot; Aunt Melody said. &quot;Pertaining to flying, an always paranoid girl. I believe that unfortunately the paranoia will stay the same because of the current experience.&quot;

Hautem tekel. &quot;Osmaut Lasandjelesain m&amp;#xF6;r. Mara osmautemsko srit hneht sault ul mahrai. Mara kularauten saulau makkal&amp;#xF6;nka, mara jol tin; kajost saulab limakser.&quot;

The pilot resumed speaking. &quot;At the moment, flight attendants are distributing small brown bags. Please put jewellery into a bag, and all sharp things; then please write your name on the bag.&quot;

Mara saul m&amp;#xF6;ka d&amp;#xF6;s? Saulat mara osmautau neb likovr&amp;#xFC;m moteh? Serem sok&amp;#xF6;len, serem eds&amp;#xF6;d&amp;#xFC;t njokat saunt duksat bakri sokmelat. Edlau, serem ulak mondak &amp;#xFC;rvit lat, osmautis bulat &amp;#xF6;rai.

Where did the bags come from? Did all planes have them in order to be ready for a crash? While I was thinking, I looked out the window at a horizon-associated thin red line. In the sky I saw a quarter-moon in the process of waking up, and total darkness below the plane.

Osmautemsko stevat mahrai. &quot;El stamksirjokab makbaus. Osmaut mtolakai bosmaut, mara hautauk askarimahani ndaul, hautem amhar&amp;#xFC;m.&quot;

A flight attendant distributed pillows. &quot;Put this in the lap. Just before the plane lands, the pilot will instruct that all passengers sit in the emergency pose.&quot;

&quot;El kim?&quot;

&quot;What's that?&quot;

&quot;Lauhtani bokevt taum&amp;#xF6;s, mkiv stevat h&amp;#xF6;v&amp;#xF6;s. El ndatsin mkivau osmaut osmautnau bodno.&quot;

&quot;The hands squeeze the back of the head, and the face borders the pillow. Do that until the plane has stopped moving.&quot;

Osmaut vilnai bosmaut, serem keleh, durau tneli s&amp;#xF6;dain nmakjat. Serem laskahai jat Disnikavau jalm&amp;#xF6;s!

The plane will land safely, I said to myself, and I don't want to look at the ground after the end. I really intended to have a good time at Disneyland!

&quot;Makvilna,&quot; osmautemsko hnaum. &quot;Kelauk nmdasreh.&quot;

&quot;Be safe,&quot; the flight attendant said. &quot;You need not worry.&quot;

Serem bakri lat, edl laskai sokmev&amp;#xF6;r osmaut Lasandjelesain soksom. Mara sr&amp;#xFC; surad viln&amp;#xF6;s, at bulatai. Serem har&amp;#xF6;st kors&amp;#xF6;t vilat; vadin&amp;#xFC;m van sr&amp;#xF6;duksa neb. Osmaut lid&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xF6;s, serem nvilnakt hos vai vilnakt sr&amp;#xF6;t saunu bintu versa.

I looked out the window, and the sky suddenly became dark as the plane descended towards Los Angeles. The city streets were very bright, and they apparently never ended. I glimpsed a huge highway; at least twenty lanes existed. Then the plane turned, and I looked past dusky houses and bright streets to the red ocean.

Om mars&amp;#xF6;dau osmot ul lat? Osmaut h&amp;#xF6;vjati sal, serem ontja; mara latahtobekjo edlain sokkasal mara kobol osmautnaim s&amp;#xF6;di. Durau ati, kim latah?

Were people on the ground watching the plane? I believed it likely that the plane was being watched on television; all the video cameras were being caused to look into the sky as the wheels descended towards the runway. After that, what would happen?

Vilnak kabna sokvidsem eski sokhal&amp;#xF6;s, sauv dat&amp;#xFC;l mkiv limek&amp;#xFC;m. Osmaut s&amp;#xF6;di merih, mara autnitra laskai sokmevidos osmaut sokmesneh.

A neon sign was flashing while my heart was working, but fog appeared because my face became wet. The plane became low in relation to the ground, and the engines suddenly began to briefly roar as the plane began to be vertical.

&quot;Maremain, askarimahani ndaul!&quot; hautem dos.

&quot;Everyone, sit in the emergency pose!&quot; the pilot shouted.

Steva mekevbsenjokt, serem Vels Meladain lilat. &quot;Ks&amp;#xFC; kelem bulse,&quot; serem sokkel sokbsen.

The pillow became a head grave, then I looked at Aunt Melody. &quot;I love you,&quot; I said while crying.

At kot. &quot;Ks&amp;#xFC; kelem hruvai bulse, Elisain. Marem bohad.&quot;

She smiled. &quot;I love you too, Liz. Everyone will live.&quot;

Serem kas tekel, osmaut daborjoka. Serem bokevt baksa stevat ati viskad.

I tried to continue speaking, but the plane ceased being horizontal. I grabbed the back of my head and jammed the pillow with it.

Mara kobol osmautnau lihan som&amp;#xFC;lit tsin mara autnitra lihanai dos. Serem sokvibohad sokmikmkob&amp;#xF6;s, sokdnava svenjan&amp;#xFC;t hal&amp;#xFC;t nt&amp;#xFC;lakt takint hal, nde benak latah datsin. Osmautau marem &amp;#xFC;sau vanrihau vunkel, marem l&amp;#xFC;tai damedos, mesol, mesel.

The wheels on the runway made a loud thump and the engines loudly roared. I held my breath and prayed for a long time, waiting to hear the frightening sound associated with collapsing metal, but no similar event happened. In fact everyone in the plane did not talk during one minute, but then everyone began to hysterically shout, began to laugh, and began to clap.

Serem edlain lat, ket om dnaim jalm&amp;#xF6;seh. Serem el sokmurai, Vels Meladit mbi vai tsemrai sokkol; at libohan, serem ontja. Durau ati, serem Kindslit tesek, serem tab&amp;#xF6;st rem, serem baus, at ol bulat: serem Kindsla jalm&amp;#xF6;s. Serem atain dasokjat, serem masvirat tint soksrih.

I looked up, and two people in the aisle were hugging each other. I imitated them, surrounding Aunt Melody with my arms very tightly; I thought she'd pop. After that, I remembered Kingsley, and realised that I had a golden opportunity which included me hugging Kingsley. But when I looked in his direction, I found a stunning thing.

Kindsli vijob.

Kingsley had fainted.

===Hru msanu: Chapter Two===
At latah, serem ret jera

I couldn't believe that this had happened.

Kindsli Kotvas maur nja man mara hri Dehanmejalkau, serem ontja, at ravijob. S&amp;#xFC;m ket andel. &quot;Marem bahad?&quot; at Vels Melada lir&amp;#xFC;m.

Kingsley Fortune was probably the perfect man compared to all others in the United States, and he had fainted. The eyes quickly opened. &quot;Is everyone alive?&quot; he asked Aunt Melody in a whisper.

&quot;Marem bahad, marem vunja,&quot; Vels Meladi ardamai ldasa. &quot;Kelauk sokk&amp;#xFC;mr kelauk ol sokkel: osmautdolorust kavutau mivad. Hautem takinoltort oltor.&quot;

&quot;Everyone is alive, in fact everyone is perfect,&quot; Aunt Melody answered energetically. &quot;You were right, when you said that this airplane company is of the highest quality in the country. The pilot deserves a medal.&quot;

Kindsli &amp;#xFC;lain sokbosneh ardamai sokbahad. At mhal &amp;#xF6;ri edli s&amp;#xFC;mi lilat. &quot;Kelem ol ndaraiha: kelem nmakbateh, Elisain. Ks&amp;#xFC; kelem drevna.&quot;

Kingsley leaned back in his seat and breathed difficultly. He then looked at me using the deep blue eyes. &quot;I must admit that I'm not brave, Liz. I apologize to you.&quot;

&quot;Kelem srend maktab, Kindslain! Marem smin&amp;#xF6;sai svenjah; sid lint&amp;#xFC;l, kelem vuvontja. Kelem ol k&amp;#xFC;mr&amp;#xFC;m: kelem Vinitekain doni makabas.&quot;

&quot;I'd like to eat a cookie, Kingsley! Everyone was very scared, and in fact I believed it likely that my nose would disappear. I'm sure about this: I want to go back to Winnipeg by the feet.&quot;

At kot. &quot;Kelem ken skel mkivau ket hrab. Ket jat kim tsin?&quot;

He smiled. &quot;I might talk to you two before you return home. What do you intend to do?&quot;

Vels Meladi mesneh. &quot;Ket at&amp;#xFC; n&amp;#xFC;len.&quot;

Aunt Melody stood up. &quot;We haven't decided about that.&quot;

&quot;Ket kimlokau vihas?&quot;

&quot;Where are you two staying?&quot;

&quot;Anahaimau vihas. Kelem kajost botek.&quot;

&quot;A motel in Anaheim. I forget the name.&quot;

&lt;i&gt;Desma?&lt;/i&gt; Vels Meladi kajost sadmau jos, at dakas andelut j&amp;#xF6;ts; serem Kindslit ndesel stekel. Serem el mikjat, istnksurt&amp;#xFC; seremt ket lisrih, Kindslit lildasa. &quot;Ket kant&amp;#xFC; komtobekjokmort daimi l&amp;#xF6;t, Bn&amp;#xF6;sau Suradau,&quot; serem makmilosehakai tekel.

&lt;i&gt;What?&lt;/i&gt; Aunt Melody was carrying the name in the pocket, but she was trying to discard this opportunity; I might never talk to Kingsley again. I stared at her, then quickly found &lt;i&gt;my&lt;/i&gt; itinerary and answered Kingsley. &quot;We'll visit the movie studio tomorrow, at Universal City,&quot; I continued helpfully.

&quot;Mat&amp;#xF6;s lok. Kelem ken ndan&amp;#xFC;seh, kelem makdos.&quot;

&quot;A wonderful place. I insist that I must accompany you.&quot;

&quot;At vai kot! Laskahai ket &amp;#xF6;lent sel.&quot;

&quot;That's very good! We absolutely support the idea.&quot;

Vels Meladi seremt s&amp;#xF6;tehai lat; serem el nlat, serem dajateh. Vels Meladi Kindsli lenutau huktomahai, daimi at Kindslit damakkelkel, serem ontja. Kotai, serem mbatjot dos.

Aunt Melody angrily looked at me, but I pretended that I did not see it. Aunt Melody was apparently disinterested by Kingsley at the hour, but tomorrow I believed it likely she'd want to talk to Kingsley. Luckily, I threw a weapon.

Osmauthasau, laskah oltin neb. Vai tj&amp;#xF6;lerhauv&amp;#xFC; osmautau om mverja, vai kabausem ohi liruldasa, marem hukdoseh, at likas mara &quot;bahademt&quot; matai lat. Serem bnai bseh, serem smin&amp;#xF6;sai makliruldasah, Vels Meladi ket omtsemri dakom, l&amp;#xF6;nkjokt litsanja.

Inside the airport, total chaos existed. Many family members associated with the people on the plane cried because of joy, journalists interviewed people, and everyone was pushing each other because they were trying to see the &quot;survivors&quot; well. I felt important, and I really wanted to be interviewed, but Aunt Melody quickly walked through the crowd and then left the terminal.

Kindsli seremt Vels Meladit vihasain haut, serem mkob, man daulen liruldasah; mkivau Kindsla bolat, kulamhok sul vai ndakvilbjeki sokkavilna, at osmautau tneli soti sokhnaum.

I hoped that Kingsley would drive me and Aunt Melody to the motel, but the man decided to be interviewed; before losing sight of Kingsley, his gold-coloured hair was being lit by strobe lights while he described the final time on the airplane.

Ket aut&amp;#xF6;si drondahaut, serem istnt vihasain jalm&amp;#xF6;s. Lasandjeles har&amp;#xF6;s; aut&amp;#xF6;s vadin&amp;#xFC;mau lanau haut Anahaimt lik&amp;#xf6;m--Disnikav atau kerai lok--aut&amp;#xF6;s vadim hibi korsi hrai haut, serem ontja. Serem srend maktab, serem lilanvaisreh: serem mara ot bakri mikjat, serem masviri vilnaki vai vilni ket&amp;#xFC;hau h&amp;#xF6;v&amp;#xFC;hau srau kajalm&amp;#xF6;sah.

Although we had to travel by bus, I still enjoyed the trip to the motel. Los Angeles is huge; I believe that the bus traveled at least an hour to arrive at Anaheim--Disneyland is located there, by the way--and that the bus also traveled using approximately eight freeways. I wanted to eat cookies, because I was too busy with: I stared out the window at all the cars, and I was entertained by the incredible neon signs at the sides of the road.

Serem smin&amp;#xF6;sai sokmekaslah, serem vai bnat kabnut melat: &lt;i&gt;Vihas&amp;#xFC; Disnikav&lt;/i&gt;. Serem Muntasmahalhes bni kaulenah; serem snehai sok&amp;#xFC;l mb&amp;#xF6;h&amp;#xFC;t Vels Meladit sokbaksa.

I became very excited when I noticed this very important sign: &lt;i&gt;Disneyland Hotel&lt;/i&gt;. It reminded me of the Taj Mahal in importance; I sat vertically while grabbing Aunt Melody's arm.

&quot;Bakri makjat! Ket mrav&amp;#xFC;hau Disnikavau lok!&quot;

&quot;Please look out the window! We're near Disneyland!&quot;

Aut&amp;#xF6;s h&amp;#xF6;vakau mkivau hrabjoki haut, durau r&amp;#xFC;ni har&amp;#xFC;mi V&amp;#xF6;trtal t&amp;#xFC;l, kevau aut&amp;#xF6;si litarhaut. &amp;#xD6;t joldisjokh&amp;#xF6;vjat&amp;#xF6;skmor&amp;#xFC;t tint ben: lan rautamhok umal, vai ndak r&amp;#xFC;nmhok vilbjek; serem hauti &amp;#xFC;sau makhaut.

The bus traveled near to the front of the driveway, and after a few seconds a monorail appeared, and paused traveling above the bus. It resembled a thing associated with a space movie: a long silver-coloured body, and flashing multi-colour lights; I totally wanted to travel by it one time.

&quot;Ket Vihas&amp;#xFC;hau Disnikavau svihas, Vels Meladain? &amp;#xDC;sau &amp;#xF6;rau? Kelem ks&amp;#xFC; makrem&amp;#xFC; miloseh, kelem dos.&quot;

&quot;Might we stay at the Disneyland Hotel, Aunt Melody? During one night? I promise that I will help with the cost.&quot;

Vels Meladi kot. &quot;Dris&amp;#xF6;mjo neb talinjosr&amp;#xFC;mt livis&amp;#xF6;m atau. Ket los sl&amp;#xF6;t.&quot;

Aunt Melody smiled. &quot;Too little money exists to rent a broom closet here. We might visit the place.&quot;

&quot;Ket el ndatsin! Djolk&amp;#xFC;mt lokutau neb, r&amp;#xFC;n bat svara kel.&quot;

&quot;We must do that! A lagoon exists here, a few friends told me.&quot;

Vihasak vihasau om V&amp;#xF6;trtali h&amp;#xF6;vakain Disnikavain haut, hautem&amp;#xFC; aut&amp;#xF6;s kel&amp;#xF6;s. Smehai, ket Disnikavt nlat liv&amp;#xF6;r, ket vailokauti h&amp;#xF6;vakain vihasain lihaut. Korai, serem mara Lasandjeles&amp;#xFC;t h&amp;#xF6;vjatjodnot melat; serem ds&amp;#xF6;rt bahad&amp;#xFC;t &amp;#xF6;rt bahadsrau lisokjat, serem maurt lauhrasuskavt sokvadek.

People staying at the hotel traveled by monorail to nearby Disneyland, the bus driver explained. Unfortunately, we didn't see Disneyland because of the darkness, so we traveled by taxi to our nearby motel. Soon I was trying out all the Los Angeles television channels; then as I experienced the warm night air on the balcony, I listened to the palm tree leaves rattling in the wind.

Mlan ndesel k&amp;#xF6;m, serem jera.

I believed that the morning would never come.

Roki! At datsin. Serem Vels Meladi drikorai ond, bahadsrau sneh. Serem sr&amp;#xF6;t sokjat, vai Kalisorn&amp;#xFC;t om Katelarjoksri sokhaut: durau k&amp;#xF6;mrdnim josak &amp;#xF6;kau umnitrautau j&amp;#xF6;n jaru; kedinelmamhokau ketkolau Saudjok&amp;#xFC; Njakbausem; korautau j&amp;#xF6;n&amp;#xF6;s n&amp;#xFC;m. Ba lan&amp;#xFC;hau sol&amp;#xF6;s&amp;#xFC;hau sul&amp;#xFC;hau n&amp;#xFC;mau jat, at kantain haut, serem smin&amp;#xF6;sai ontja.

Thank goodness! But it did. I woke up early compared to Aunt Melody, and stood on the balcony. As I watched the road, many California people drove using Katella Avenue: a handsome guy in an old hearse with a surfboard in the back; a Hell-associated Angel on a candy apple-colour bicycle; and a gorgeous woman in a sports car. The wind was playing with the long blonde hair of that woman, and I believe it very likely that she was driving to the studio.

Serem Vels Meladi Deldsar&amp;#xFC; Hasau tab, Vels Meladi dalven deldsar&amp;#xFC;t seremt s&amp;#xF6;m. Kindsli smin&amp;#xFC;mai kul&amp;#xFC;mai &amp;#xF6;ki ohli Hevrolauti lik&amp;#xF6;m. Serem edlau nhas, serem lant &amp;#xF6;rt lannurot dakavr, solb&amp;#xFC;lat josak miva hautem, r&amp;#xFC;n lsav&amp;#xFC; marem missandjo. Serem kovr&amp;#xFC;m lannurot tobekjo, serem Vels Melada limrasa seremt Kindslit tobekjo. Serem smin&amp;#xFC;mai mekot durau Kindsli serema mbasa!

Me and Aunt Melody ate at the Hamburger House, but Aunt Melody refused to buy my hamburger. Then Kingsley arrived somewhat disappointingly by an old battered Chevrolet. I don't live in the sky, but I was envisioning a long black limousine, a sunglasses-wearing cute chauffeur, and a few buttons associated with everyone stereo. I was ready to take a picture of the limousine, so I asked Aunt Melody to take a picture of me and Kingsley. I became very happy after Kingsley put his arm around me!

Marem autau l&amp;#xF6;nka, Kindsli Santa Ana Korsain lihaut. Vai Svani kajos Kalisornau neb, Kindsli raunt kel&amp;#xF6;s, serem mrala. At mrahim, el kel: droh&amp;#xFC; Svanikav s&amp;#xF6;dit jaltakau salau mikelsai; surad mekajosah &quot;el pueblo de nuestra señora la reina de los angeles&quot;-i (at &quot;Surad&amp;#xFC; am&amp;#xFC; Jad, nobjal&amp;#xFC; mara njakbausem&quot;-i mrali).

Everyone entered the car, and Kingsley drove towards the Santa Ana Freeway. I requested that Kingsley explain the reason that many Spanish names are present in California. He granted the favour, and said this: the Spanish king owned the land in the distant past; the city was founded as &quot;el pueblo de nuestra señora la reina de los angeles&quot; (that means &quot;City of the mother of God, queen of the angels&quot;).

Serem vai j&amp;#xF6;nt maurit tanau lat; serem ret kovri sol durau Kindsli dehin&amp;#xFC;hi bintsri haut, at beski likajos. Vai kali &quot;beska&quot; radeh, at maurt kimr&amp;#xF6;st rahrai, vai bintsr&amp;#xF6; likadehinah, Kindsli kel. Serem daret ol kavr: kimr&amp;#xF6;s hneht kimr&amp;#xFC;mt ratelok.

I saw pretty mountains in the north; I didn't how to avoid laughing after Kingsley drove using a concrete channel and called it a river. A lot of rainwater could join the &quot;rivers&quot; and that could result in big floods, so the channels were paved, Kingsley said. But I couldn't imagine that a flood could replace the brown trickle.

Slaksai mara istnau, Vels Meladi smin&amp;#xFC;mai kel, serem raunt datek. Kindsli kas el kaund, mara bnat tint kalat, ljarai kabn&amp;#xFC; Haliv&amp;#xF6;d, bnasrau besk&amp;#xFC;m kulamhok hisk&amp;#xFC; vihas; man dakas.

Strangely during the whole trip, Aunt Melody spoke very little, but I didn't know why. Kingsley tried to wake her up, and showed all the important things, such as the sign associated with Hollywood, and a gold-coloured glass hotel with a stream in the lobby; but the man failed.

&quot;Jadsolau, kelem Kanjaukhes&amp;#xFC; ost l&amp;#xF6;t,&quot; at kel. &quot;Ket kustah?&quot;

&quot;On Sunday, I'll attend a church associated with cars,&quot; he said. &quot;Are the two interested?&quot;

&quot;Kanjaukhas&amp;#xFC; ot, at kim?&quot;

&quot;A church associated with cars, what's that?&quot;

&quot;Hisk&amp;#xFC; b&amp;#xFC; l&amp;#xFC;kah, at autsitant h&amp;#xF6;v. Marem jontavt sokralat at honvaht Kanjaukhasau sokkel. Autsitanau marem jontavt vai lihanhalini rajedsan.&quot;

&quot;A glass wall has been built, and it's near the parking lot. Everyone can see the priest while he's talking to the congregation in the church. Everyone in the parking lot can hear the priest by loudspeakers.&quot;

Vels Meladi sormt Kindslain lat. &quot;Kelauk Kanjaukhes tol&amp;#xF6;t?&quot;

Aunt Melody glanced at Kingsley. &quot;Do you regularly attend church?&quot;

&quot;Kelem tsin.&quot;

&quot;I do.&quot;

Vels Meladi ntekel, at Kindsl&amp;#xFC; damekot, serem k&amp;#xFC;mr&amp;#xFC;m, at smin&amp;#xF6;sai likalam. Vels Meladi irit tab, serem nmakbojat, serem likisol.

Aunt Melody didn't resume talking, but I was sure that she became happy about Kingsley, because she's very religiously devout. I did not want to see Aunt Melody stop being in a good mood, so I made a joke.

&quot;Kindslain, kelauk tsibmdai d&amp;#xFC;ksi tolahev?&quot;

&quot;Kingsley, do you eat chicken meat with your fingers?&quot;

&quot;Kelem tsin.&quot;

&quot;I do.&quot;

&quot;Kelem dokar&amp;#xF6;sah. Mar&amp;#xFC;m om tsibmdai &amp;#xFC;sai lahev.&quot;

&quot;I'm disgusted. Most people only eat the chicken meat.&quot;

Kindsli sol&amp;#xF6;s, Vels Meladi hrai tsin, ket r&amp;#xFC;n s&amp;#xF6;tau drorakilosah. Mat&amp;#xF6;s! Serem eljamt sreh hrat kisolt lisrih, aut korsr&amp;#xF6;t datsanja, at edlt mekit limek&amp;#xF6;v.

Kingsley laughed heartily, and Aunt Melody did too, although she had heard the joke a few times before. Excellent! I searched my mind to find other jokes, but the car left the highway, and it began to ascend a green hill.

&quot;Aut Mara Bn&amp;#xF6;st Kant m&amp;#xF6;r,&quot; Kindsli kel. &quot;Vai h&amp;#xF6;vjat&amp;#xF6;skmor utau kim, vai bna em slatah. Kelem doromah halmravt sokl&amp;#xF6;t komtobekjo sokandel, kelem dailsai Dursitant sr&amp;#xF6; sr&amp;#xF6;dehnauti l&amp;#xF6;t. Nuram ten kalatah, ljarai H&amp;#xFC;msok andel.&quot;

&quot;The car approaches Universal Studios,&quot; Kingsley said. &quot;Movies are done here, so famous people might be seen. I am forbidden from visiting the sound area while video cameras are turned on, but you can visit the Back Lot by tram. Special things are shown, such as the Red Sea parting.&quot;

&quot;Marem Saudrasvat lat?&quot;

&quot;Will we see Jaws?&quot;

&quot;Jala! Miktekhasa nmdalanjamal; kelauk betri mikali likajosah.&quot;

&quot;Yes! Don't move too close to the tank; you'll be called the headless kid.&quot;

Vels Meladi Kindslit lat. &quot;Bat mhal ati kel: vai l&amp;#xF6;tem tuslah, at msan&amp;#xFC;t &lt;u&gt;Osmauthes&lt;/u&gt; h&amp;#xF6;vjat&amp;#xF6;skmort lisokmurai vai om sokjat.&quot;

Aunt Melody looked at Kingsley. &quot;A friend told me that visitors are chosen to act out scenes of the movie &lt;u&gt;Airport&lt;/u&gt; while many people watch.&quot;

&quot;Jala!&quot; at hnaum. &quot;Marem hrai ndoromah r&amp;#xFC;n hra tent lat. &amp;#xDC;sau, vai komtobekjo &lt;u&gt;Osmauthes&lt;/u&gt; ksurta; &lt;u&gt;Vaidelkatomakmankamasviraktsinlatah&lt;/u&gt;au, vai delkatomakman lanjok&amp;#xF6; stausom.&quot;

&quot;That's right,&quot; he said. &quot;Everyone is also allowed to watch a few other shows. In one, cameras record &lt;u&gt;Airport&lt;/u&gt;; in the &lt;u&gt;Cowboy Stunt Show&lt;/u&gt;, cowboys fall from buildings, among other things.&quot;

&quot;Kelauk kim tint marai jalm&amp;#xF6;s, Kindslain?&quot;

&quot;What thing do you totally enjoy, Kingsley?&quot;

&quot;Harhas&amp;#xFC; Stokrsaunman.&quot;

&quot;The Castle of Dracula.&quot;

&quot;Bo! El kim?&quot;

&quot;Wow! What's that?&quot;

&quot;Kelem ks&amp;#xFC; durau kori s&amp;#xF6;ti ldasa,&quot; Kindsli sokkel, at aust ardamkom el likaul. Serem r&amp;#xFC;n maurt autsitan hrai ralat, serem ontja; smin&amp;#xF6;s ot&amp;#xF6;su tohaut atau kaulah. Marem ksurts&amp;#xF6;mjokantain sokdno, serem Albert&amp;#xF6; aut&amp;#xF6;t sokjat, el&amp;#xFC; Senlorankav&amp;#xFC; kabna. Serem mekot, serem smin&amp;#xFC;mai livarat; durai kori s&amp;#xF6;ti, serem tovelsai josant kaimiskavtehemt lat, tanid&amp;#xF6;n, lntah. S&amp;#xF6;l kavom&amp;#xFC; Senlorankav los sel l&amp;#xF6;t, serem ontja.

&quot;I'll reply to you soon,&quot; Kingsley said, as he maneuvered the car in order to park it. I believe it to be likely that I've only seen a few bigger parking lots; many tour buses were parked there. While everyone was walking to the ticket office, I saw a bus from Alberta, and on it a sign about Canada. I became happy because I was feeling a bit homesick; soon afterwards, I became accustomed to seeing maple-leaf pins being worn, and badges, and hats. I believe it likely that half the population of Canada visited the place during the day.

Mtai durau marem barjavi dno, serem Kindslit mesas Harhas&amp;#xFC;hi Stokrsaunmani lihnaum. &quot;At k&amp;#xFC;mr? At ramakels&amp;#xFC;lah?&quot;

As soon as everyone walked through the gate, I began to bother Kingsley to discuss Castle Dracula. &quot;Is it real? Can it be explored?&quot;

Man sol. &quot;Harhasain makdno. Kaltankmor durau mbaki venrihi melatah.&quot;

The man laughed. &quot;Let's walk to the castle. A show will begin to be seen after ten minutes.&quot;

Marem hr&amp;#xFC;t kaltankmor&amp;#xFC;t barjavt hlam sokdno, Kindsli ol kel&amp;#xF6;s: marem lan&amp;#xFC;hau tab&amp;#xF6;sau &amp;#xFC;l, atau Stokrsaunman terat kajalm&amp;#xF6;s. &quot;Kelauk hul slakst nohi lat, Elisain. Kelauk makbateh?&quot;

As we hurried past the entrances to other shows, Kingsley explained that everyone would sit in a banquet hall, and there Dracula would entertain the guests. &quot;You'll see some pretty strange creatures, Liz. Are you brave?&quot;

&quot;Jala! Kelem ret dnava.&quot;

&quot;That's right! I can't wait.&quot;

Marem Harhas&amp;#xFC;hau Stokrsaunmanau har&amp;#xFC;hi stamkandeli l&amp;#xF6;nka, liv&amp;#xFC;l. Serem sitrai limikjat. Serem sri smin&amp;#xF6;sai svenjah. Troksi bohadhetsai nikah; vauma mara bakrt kavilna. Starah mkivau seremi lok, at tab&amp;#xF6;si dnava; serem vai raun&amp;#xFC;t vilnjokt lat, skov starahjaska; damin ken mbatemkabn&amp;#xFC;hu Stokrsaunmanu kanuraman. Serem &amp;#xFC;st torat danlat.

We entered Castle Dracula through a stone archway, and sat down. Then I simply stared. An organ was being mournfully played; lightning lit up the windows. A table was located in front of me, and it was ready for a feast; I saw many silver candlesticks, and a white tablecloth; a sewing needle decorated the latter with Dracula's coat of arms. But I did not see one guest.

Vai harjamman lihad, har&amp;#xF6;s lotamhas vai har&amp;#xFC;t b&amp;#xFC;t tebsatebsa. Marokau, vai viln&amp;#xF6;s viln&amp;#xFC;m; s&amp;#xFC;tak ibjasnom &amp;#xFC;l&amp;#xFC;m. Stokrsaunman kimau dalok? Serem Vels Meladit menok, serem &amp;#xF6;l dahal.

Werewolves howled, and giant spider webs rubbed the stone walls. Everywhere, torches flickered; angry gargoyles crouched. But where was Dracula? I began to whisper to Aunt Melody, but I heard him.

&quot;Ndakras, bohadvas om!&quot; at svenjakai kel. &quot;Kat! Kelauk vilnjok&amp;#xFC;t Sauddrohat l&amp;#xF6;nka.&quot;

&quot;Be silent, mortals!&quot; he scarily said. &quot;Damn it! You have entered the Sanctuary of the Evil King.&quot;

Serem Stokrsaunmen nlat; serem ken &amp;#xFC;sai hal. D&amp;#xF6;nau dasanbarjav sok&amp;#xF6;t sokandelah, bauko jaru ati t&amp;#xFC;l; at duks&amp;#xFC;t tseldonjam&amp;#xFC;t hukhes jos.

I didn't see Dracula; I only heard him. A trap door creaked while being opened, and a strange guy appeared from it; he wore a striped prison outfit.

&quot;makbohademut&amp;#xFC; kelem, Rensild,&quot; Stokrsaunman kel. &quot;At l&amp;#xF6;tsinehi tokab, ljarai slahau rjoka irid.&quot;

&quot;This is my minion, Renfield,&quot; Dracula said. &quot;He eats insects, such as the fat good-tasting thing in his hand.&quot;

Rensild tombat&amp;#xFC;makt njolt lotamalt tani. Laskai l&amp;#xFC;tehem dehar, at seremain lisokslat lotamalt sokjos! Serem lihad, serem ksm&amp;#xFC;t Vels Meladit stevai likadolos.

Renfield held a wriggling hairy tarantula. Suddenly the maniac cackled, and then he ran towards me while carrying the tarantula! I screamed, then used Aunt Melody's side as a pillow.

Marem sol; Vels Meladi seremt drojalm&amp;#xF6;s, serem kevt vinkatom. Rensild &amp;#xFC;lab &amp;#xFC;l&amp;#xFC;m starahain; lotamal nt&amp;#xFC;l. At tabah?

Everyone laughed; although Aunt Melody hugged me, I did not move my head momentarily. Renfield squatted on a chair near the table; the tarantula had disappeared. Was it eaten?

Serem Vels Meladit lat. &quot;Kelem kelauk lokut ndatsanja? Mara lotam mhal smin&amp;#xF6;sai svenja, jarat.&quot;

I looked at Aunt Melody. &quot;Should you and I leave this place? Spiders scare me a lot, and that guy.&quot;

Vels Meladi kot. &quot;Kelauk kamasvira, dnava saunt dos, kelem jera.&quot;

Aunt Melody smiled. &quot;I believed that you were brave and ready to defend yourself.&quot;

&quot;Jala. Saunat umalt tsanja, kelem nmakjat.&quot;

&quot;That's right. I don't want to see that blood leave the body.&quot;

Kindsli sol. &quot;Kelem ks&amp;#xFC; makbat, Elisain.&quot;

Kingsley laughed. &quot;I'll protect you, Liz.&quot;

Laskai, serem Stokrsaunmen sokjat, at har&amp;#xFC;hain rjokain k&amp;#xFC;sain soksneh. At daulan drobara, smin&amp;#xF6;s droj&amp;#xF6;n--serem lent &amp;#xF6;rt sult lat, j&amp;#xF6;n &amp;#xF6;rai s&amp;#xFC;m--serem soklihad&amp;#xFC;m, d&amp;#xFC;r&amp;#xFC; Stokrsaunman navart sokmelat, saunman k&amp;#xFC;s&amp;#xF6; mridai soksom.

Suddenly, I saw Dracula while he stood near a flight of wide stone stairs. Although he was unexpectedly young, and very handsome--I saw long black hair, and beautiful dark eyes--I shuddered as Dracula's shoulder began to see the cape, and the vampire slowly descended the staircase.

&quot;Mara om kima d&amp;#xF6;s? At tab&amp;#xF6;st kaultin; kelauk el ndorom likim?&quot;

&quot;Where have the people come from? They have intruded upon the feast; why did you allow that?&quot;
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Trentish Phonology</title>
    <id>638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4004</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-15T15:28:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edit of 82.194.62.9, changed back to last version by Muke</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;&lt; [[Trentish]]

===Phonemic Inventory===
====Consonants====
{| cellpadding=5
! !! labial !! alveolar !! palatal !! velar !! glottal
|-
! plosive
| p pʼ pʰ (pʷ?) || tʼ tʰ tʷ || c cʰ cʷ || k kʼ kʰ kʷ || ʔ
|-
! nasal
| m || n || ɲ || ŋ
|-
! lateral
| || l tɬ
|-
! fricative
| || s ʃ || || x 
|}

====Vowels====
{| cellpadding=5
| i y || ʊ u
|-
| e ø || o
|-
|   ||  ʌ ɔ  
|-
| || ɑ
|}

====Orthography====
Orthography is phonemic.  

{| style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #88a; background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
!colspan=10| ''Vowels''
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| a || e || i || o || oh || ö || r || u || uh || ü 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| /ɑ/ || /e/ || /i/ || /ɔ/ || /o/ || /ø/ || /ʌ/ || /u/ || /ʊ/ || /y/ 
|}

{| style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #88a; background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
!colspan=13| ''Consonants''
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| b || p || ph || pw || m || d || t || th || tw || n || s || sh || x
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| /p/ || /pʼ/ || /pʰ/ || /pʷ/ || /m/ || /t/ || /tʼ/ || /tʰ/ || /tʷ/ || /n/ || /s/ || /ʃ/ || /x/
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| dʼ || tʼ || tʼh || tʼw || ny || g || k || kh || kw || ng || l || ƛ || q
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| /c/ || /cʼ/ || /cʰ/ || /cʷ/ || /ɲ/ || /k/ || /kʼ/ || /kʰ/ || /kʷ/ || /ŋ/ || /l/ || /tɬ/ || /ʔ/
|}

Spelling changes to reflect changes in pronunciation such as internal [[sandhi]].  [[Geminate]]d vowels and consonants are spelled double; in digraphs the first letter is doubled (e.g., ssh, nny, uuh).

The letter ''r'' is strictly vocalic and has no consonantal value.

''W'' is mainly used as in digraphs as a sign of labialization, but does occur in some loanwords by itself; by those unfamiliar with [w] proper it is pronounced [ʔʷ].

===Internal [[Sandhi]]===
====Word-level====
* Trentish words can only end in a vowel or a nasal. Stops and /l/ occurring at the end of a word are nasalized, thus /thɑk/ &quot;wear&quot; becomes [thɑŋ].  /ʔ/ and the other consonants are dropped.

====Syllable-level====
=====Syllable-final=====
* Plain voiceless consonants disappear, lengthening the previous vowel: 
*:/xlɔʔ/ &quot;washed, clean&quot; &amp;rarr; [xlɔɔkʷʌ] &quot;be washed&quot;. 
* Ejectives and /l/ turn to nasals as at the word level:
*:/tʰɔl/ &quot;upon&quot; &amp;rarr; [tʰɔŋkʷʌ] &quot;be on top of&quot;. 
* Labialized consonants reduce to [w]:
*:/kitʷ/ &lt;small&gt;COLL&lt;/small&gt; &amp;rarr; [kiwcʷecʷe] &quot;set of journeys&quot;. 
* Aspirated consonants fricativize:
*:/pʼɑlɑkʰ/ &quot;hate&quot; &amp;rarr; [pʼɑlɑxpʼɑlɑŋ] &quot;grudge&quot;.

=====Syllable-initial after a nasal=====
* Aspirated stops are ejectivized by a preceding original nasal: 
*:/tʰɑŋ/ &quot;wear&quot; &amp;rarr; [xɑntʼɑŋ] &quot;wear that&quot; 
* Labialized stops inherit preceding nasality: 
*:/cʷe/ &quot;go&quot; &amp;rarr; [xɑnɲʷe] &quot;go up yonder&quot;. 
* Plain stops are aspirated by a preceding nasal: 
*:/pɑ/ &lt;small&gt;TOP&lt;/small&gt; &amp;rarr; [xɑnpʰɑ] &quot;yonder&quot; 
* Ejective stops geminate a preceding nasal: 
*:/pʼɑlɑŋ/ &quot;hate&quot; &amp;rarr; [xɑmmɑlɑŋ] &quot;hate that&quot;

=====Syllable-inital after /ɲ/=====
* /ɲl/ &gt; [ɲʎ]
* /ɲx/ &gt; [ɲç]
* /ɲm/ &gt; [ɲmʲ]   ''etc.''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspect</title>
    <id>639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5936</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:22:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categ. grammar, categ. wikipedia import</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Grammatical aspect''' in [[linguistics]] is a property of a verb that defines the temporal flow of the described event or state. The typical contrasts of aspect in many languages can be shown using phrases in English. Here are some of the many aspects found in the world's languages:

* Habitual: 'I walk home from work.' (every day)
: 'I would/used to walk home from work.' (past habit)
* Perfect: 'I have/had gone to the cinema.'
* Imperfect: 'I went to the cinema.'
* Imperfective: 'I'm going home.' (the action is in progress)
* Perfective: 'I went home.' (the action is finished)
* Progressive: 'I am eating.'
* Prospective: 'I am about to eat.'
* Inceptive: 'I am beginning to eat.'
* Continuative: 'I am continuing to eat.'
* Terminative: 'I am finishing my meal.'
* Inchoative: 'My nose is turning red.' (from the cold)
* Cessative: 'I am quitting smoking.'
* Pausative: 'I stopped working for a while.'
* Resumptive: 'I resumed sleeping.'
* Punctual: 'I slept.'
* Durative: 'I slept for an hour.'
* Delimitative: 'I slept for a while.'
* Protractive: 'The argument went on and on.'
* Iterative: 'I read the same books again and again.'
* Frequentative: 'I go to school a lot.'
* Experiential: 'I have gone to school many times.'
* Intentional: 'I listened carefully.'
* Accidental: 'I knocked over the chair.'
* Generic: 'Mangos grow on trees.'
* Intensive: 'It glared.'
* Moderative: 'It shined.'
* Attenuative: 'It glimmered.'

In some languages, such as [[Russian]], aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like others, marks aspect using special morphology on the verb instead of periphrasis (auxiliaries, adverbs, etc.) as in English. [[Arabic]] shows a contrast between dynamic and static aspect (the concepts 'ride' and 'mount' are shown by the same verb, rukubun, static in the former case and dynamic in the latter).

It is important to note that linguistic aspect is distinct from [[tense]],
which pinpoints the ''time'' at which an action takes place, and is not
related to its ''degree of completion'' (which might be a good way to describe
aspect in layman's terms).  Unfortunately, English (which, like most [[Indo-European languages]], hopelessly muddles tense and aspect
in its verb system) is not ideal when attempting to underscore this
distinction.

{| border=1 style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:1em&quot;
|[[English]]||[[Serbian]]
|-
|I was eating||Ja sam jeo
|-
|I have eaten||Ja sam pojeo
|-
|I will eat||Ja ću jesti
|-
|[I will (intend to) have eaten]||Ja ću pojesti
|-
|I have been eating||Ja sam bio jeo
|-
|[I have eaten (a long time ago)]||Ja sam bio pojeo
|}
An example will be made of the verb &quot;to eat&quot; in [[Serbian]]. In Serbian, the verb exists in perfective and imperfective aspects; it could be translated either as &quot;jesti&quot; (imperfective) or &quot;pojesti&quot; (perfective). Now, each aspect could be used with each tense of Serbian (except present tense). Notice that, in first two examples, what in English language is expressed in two different tenses, in Serbian is expressed in the same tense, but with two different aspects. The second and third pair of examples show how aspects are combined with other tenses.

English is generally considered to have two tenses, present and past, and these are then modified by two aspects, progessive/continuous and perfect. Tenses are then named according to the combination of aspects they posses. 
So we have for the present tense:
*Present Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect)
*Present Continuous (progressive, not perfect)
*Present perfect (not progressive, perfect)
*Present Perfect Continuous (progressive, perfect)
It is to be stressed that these are the structural expressions of aspect and can convey meanings that would be expressed by separate and different aspects in other languages.

As well as the two tenses, English has a certain number of auxiliary verbs called modals and these are combined with the infinitive to convey a variety of meanings, including those normally expressed in other European languages by the future and conditional tenses:
*I will see you tomorrow.
*I can swim.

When combined with the modal auxiliaries the infinitive form changes to accommodate the same combinations of aspect available for the two tenses:
*He can/will/might do  (not progressive, not perfect)
*He can/will/might be doing (progressive, not perfect)
*He can/will/might have done (not progressive,  perfect)
*He can/will/might have been doing (progressive, perfect)

In some languages, aspect and tense are very clearly separated, making them
more distinct to their speakers.

There are also a number of languages which care much more about aspect than
tense.  Prominent in this category is [[Chinese]], which differentiates a whole
slew of aspects but relies exclusively on (optional) time-words to temporally
pinpoint an action.

----

{{msg:Wikipedia}} [[wikipedia:Grammatical aspect|Grammatical aspect]]

[[Category:Imported from Wikipedia]][[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sisiwön</title>
    <id>643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28854</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-13T23:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category:collaborations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;Sisiwön&quot; is the provisional name of a collaborative Conlang, started in June 2004, by a small group of members of the Conlang list: Paul Bennett, Alex Fink, Rob Haden, Joe, and Robert &quot;Trebor&quot; Jung.

The name itself, while phonologically compatible with the language, doesn't actually ''mean'' anything (yet).

This page is essentially a public repository of information on Sisiwön.  Work on the language is conducted in the Yahoo group [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conlangcollaboration ConlangCollaboration]. If you'd like to participate, feel free to join the group (as opposed to changing this page directly).

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===
{|
! !! Labial !! Labiodental !! Alveolar !! Lateral !! Postalveolar !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
! Plosives
| p, p_h, p_&gt; || - || t, t_h, t_&gt; || - || - || k, k_h, k_&gt;, k_w, k_w_h, k_w_&gt; || q, q_w || -
|-
! Affricates
| - || - || ts), ts)_&gt;, ts)_w, ts)_j || tK), tK)_&gt; || tS), tS)_&gt; tS)_w || - || - || - || -
|-
! Fricatives
| - || f || s, s_w, s_j || K || S [Why not S_w too? --Trebor] || x, x_w || - || - || h
|-
! Nasals
| m || - || n, n_j || - || - || N, N_w || - || - || -
|-
! Liquids
| - || - || r, r_j || l, l_j || - || - || - || - || - || -
|-
! Semivowels
| - || - || - || - || j || w || - || -
|}

There may be a restriction preventing labialized and palatalized consonants from occurring before [u] and [i], respectively.

=== Vowels ===
There are a total of twenty phonetic vowels: i [I], ii [i:], ü [Y], üü [y:], ï [U_c], ïï [M:], u [U], uu [u:], e [E], ee [e:], ö [9], öö [2:], ë [V], ëë [7:], o [O], oo [o:], ä [a], ää [a:], a [A], aa [A:]. However, due to vowel harmony, any given word will only contain a subset of these, either the front series (i, ii, ü, üü, e, ee, ö, öö, ä, ää) or the back series (ï, ïï, u, uu, ë, ëë, o, oo, a, aa). It makes sense to think of Sisiwön as having five basic vowel phonemes (i, ü, e, ö, ä), plus two suprasegmental phonemes, [+long] and [+back], the latter occuring zero or one times in each word, affecting all the vowels in it.

=== Syllable Structure ===
It seems the consensus is CV(N) with N being any non-stop, non-affricate, or alternatively the aforementioned vowel-lengthening suprasegmental [+long]. The symbol C may also stand for a word-initial 0-, allowing vowel-initial words.

=== Word Structure ===
Any number of syllables, as defined above, with no other constraints known at this time.

== Grammar ==

=== Verbal Morphology ===
Verbs are marked agglutinatively for person and number of subject and objects (both direct and indirect), tense (past vs non-past), mood (indicative vs irrealis vs imperative), aspect (imperfect vs perfect) and evidentiality (probably as clitics, meanings as yet undecided). 

Inchoative and completive will probably be derivational and independent of the aspectual system. 

There are a small class of valence-increasing derivational operations that take f(x,y) -&gt; g(z,f(x,y)), where g is &quot;want&quot;, &quot;cause&quot;, &quot;allow&quot;, &quot;prevent&quot;, or &quot;fear&quot;, and maybe a small number of others.

=== Syntax ===

Syntax is overwhelmingly, perhaps exclusively, head-final.  

== Lexicon ==

=== Swadesh List ===

#hand		/p_hi:kE/
#left (hand)	-/K9/ (/p_hi:kEK9/)
#right (hand)	-/rE/ (/p_hi:kErE/)
#leg		/N_wAtS)U/
##left leg	/N_wAtS)UKO/
#foot		/x_wi:pa/
#to walk	/x_wIxpE/
#tooth          /mAtAn/

=== Other ===

#baby           /pElE/
#carry          /k_wAnV/
#snail          /q9lm9s/

[[Category:Collaborations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:PaulBennett</title>
    <id>644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4007</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-02T03:32:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hi!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi!  You mentioned you might need help editing.  The only help page around here at the moment is [[FrathWiki:How does one edit a page]] which is a little incomplete.  (Dang wiki software, not coming with its own help pages, grumble. I'll redirect that link to something.)  There is a full guide to wiki syntax and whatnot at [[Wikipedia:m:MediaWiki User's Guide: Editing overview]].  

As for stuff like the general format and layout of pages, that's not quite set, 
so there's leeway.  If you have questions you can ask me.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:32, 1 Jul 2004 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Language questions</title>
    <id>645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22376</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:38:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverted to fuller and unspammed description, almost missed this one too!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Form for discussing language-related questions.  Also try [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html CONLANG mailing list].
----
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;big&gt;'''[http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=FrathWiki:Language_questions&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Add a new question]&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;/center&gt;

== Ideas for Handling Four Specific Verb Constructions ==

I'm looking for help with [[Kosi]]. [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0407a&amp;L=conlang&amp;F=&amp;S=&amp;P=10683 This Conlang post] gives the four verb constructions I'm having trouble with. I'd like some ideas so Kosi can express these constructions differently from English. Thanks. --Trebor, 12:21, 3 July 2004 EST

:Well... In [[Trentish]] this construction has been used but is still undocumented (I should work on it..).  These kinds of constructions use something I call a &quot;frame verb&quot;: it is basically a verbal particle placed after the main verb.  A sentence like &quot;I believe him to be a problem&quot; would interlinearize to &quot;him-Topic problem-be-1p-3p ''believe''&quot;, where ''believe'' is the frame verb, and the main verb inflects to agree both with the agent of the main verb (him, 3p) and the agent of the frame verb (me, 1p).  This construction also is used for other purposes, such as questions—the question frame verb ''nisya'' could be glossed as &quot;which&quot; or more literally as &quot;want to know which&quot;—or evidential particles (&quot;know X is true&quot;, &quot;suspect X is true&quot;, etc.).  Theoretically these can stack on top of each other as well, with the medial frame verbs taking minimal verbal marking: &quot;I suspect that you know that I believe him to be a problem&quot; = &quot;him-Topic problem-be-1p-3p ''believe''-2p ''know''-1p ''suspect''&quot;.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
:Possibly [[mood]]s could be used for this—either an open, productive class of moods (...seems unlikely) or perhaps a small set of semantically broad ones that could be buttressed by specific words (similar to how a small set of [[counter]]s can cover all kinds of mass nouns).  On the far hand you could degrammaticalize it entirely and require separate clauses: &quot;I believe this: He is a problem&quot;, &quot;he seems like this: he is good&quot;, &quot;I promised him this: I will buy the cat food&quot;, &quot;I persuaded him this: he will buy the cat food&quot;.  Toki Pona does things like this, as does Anna Wierzbicka's Natural Semantic Metalanguage. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]

== Accents in Atlanliŋwa ==

I have to design my accent system around a certain set of phonetic assimilation rules... Unfortunately I have absolutely no idea what kind of accents sound natural. For that matter, I don't even know what kind of accent systems exist -- I know there's pitch accent (Japanese, Ural-Altaic) -- what does English use?

Currently, I have this idea (in order of precedence):

* Accent is determined before affixation or assimilation.
# Single-syllable words are not accented.
# Accent on the second syllable if the consonant is doubled.
# Accent on the first syllable if it is pronounced as a long vowel (a, `o, yi and wu) (IPA: /a:/, /o:/, /i:/ and /u:/).
# If the third syllable begins with y or w, accent the third syllable.
# If the second syllable begins with a consonant that is not palatalised or labialised, and has the same place or manner of articulation as the third syllable's consonant and is not y or w, then
## If the first syllable is not palatalised or labialised, then accent on the first syllable
## Otherwise, accent on the third syllable
# Otherwise, accent the second syllable.

So, we have (&amp;rarr; indicates post-assimilation):

# mal
# a'''τ̂i'''ka 
# '''a'''kàwa &amp;rarr; '''a'''kwa
# liŋa'''wa''' &amp;rarr; li'''ŋwa'''
#
## pyini'''ta''' &amp;rarr; pyin'''ta'''
## '''a'''wàgalu &amp;rarr; '''aw'''galu
# la'''ga'''

:A decent description of accentual systems in natlangs (in the context of devising a notation for describing them) along with an extensive list of example natlang stress patterns (described in the aforementioned notation) is found at the [http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/ssd/ Stress System Database].  Strictly speaking I don't suppose a stress system has to be naturalistic; a lexical stress system can place accents any old how.   
:In other words, from a conlanger's perspective your method could work fine for assigning stress to words, but how will native Atlanliŋwa speakers place accent on a word they don't recognize?  (They don't necessarily have to know. They might have to guess, if their language has primarily lexical stress.  But a speaker of say Finnish would probably stress it on the first syllable, as any other word in their language.)
:Any case as for ''kinds'' of accent, there are [[Wikipedia:Vocal stress|stress accent]] (based on loudness) and [[Wikipedia:pitch accent|pitch accent]] (based on, well, pitch), as well as tone accent.   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 21:02, 16 Aug 2004 (PDT)
::Interesting. Since there are no such things as 'natural' accent patterns, I'll go forward with my idea then.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Nuts and bolts</title>
    <id>646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46117</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-17T13:33:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rivendale</username>
        <id>279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fonts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Forum for technical questions (wiki-related or otherwise).
----
&lt;center&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''[http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=Help:Nuts_and_bolts&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Add a new question]'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== Acceptable use ==

What is constituted as acceptable use of this Wiki? For instance, Wikipedia is an encyclopedia about virtually anything but is not a dictionary; Conlang Wiki is not a place to host everything about a conlang rather it's more like a portal, etc.

:Well, it's meant to be mainly a place for people to present conlangs.  That is, you can put as complete a grammar, lexicon, teach-yourself-whateverian, or phrasebook up here as you like.  (Descriptions of concultures and related things also.)  
:Also, I would like the wiki to become a place to present topics in linguistics and conculturing, especially for a creator's perspective: i.e., not just a textbook description of, say, parts of speech, but also how conlangers can build on it (what they need or don't need; how natlangs and other conlangs handle them, etc.)
:As for texts in conlangs, I'm not quite sure yet; clearly some illustrative texts would be allowed, although I'm ''not sure'' about, say, if someone wanted to undertake translating a Wikipedia and hosting here.  [Not because of disapproval of such a project; I'd like to see/do such a thing myself.  Mainly because I'm not sure about how page organization would/should be handled.]  
:Suggestions of course are welcome; I don't intend to play [[Meatball:GodKing|GodKing]] here.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 13:16, 9 Aug 2004 (PDT)
::Perhaps, via Talk:, this could be a place for discussion of in-construction conlangs as well? I have one of my own, and would like to discuss it with others even as I construct it.  - [[User:Zhen Lin|刘 (劉) 振霖]] 22:48, 9 Aug 2004 (PDT)
:::Absolutely. The wiki format should be great for this. :)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:38, 10 Aug 2004 (PDT)
::::Excellent! Expect to start seeing stuff at [[Atlanliŋwa]]. - [[User:Zhen Lin|刘 (劉) 振霖]] 08:08, 10 Aug 2004 (PDT)

:I put together a short and not-yet-definitive page at [[FrathWiki:Goals]] (which at the moment basically reiterates what was said above).  Suggestions are welcome.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 19:36, 21 Aug 2004 (PDT)

== MediaWiki Upgrade? ==

Wikipedia and co. have moved to a newer MediaWiki.

- [[User:Zhen Lin|刘 (劉) 振霖]] 08:54, 9 Aug 2004 (PDT)

:Yes, they have.  But 1.3 is still beta, and as I am not yet well versed in the arcana of databases and the mediawiki software I remain somewhat insecure about the process of switching till a final release is made.  (Perhaps if I had more technically-minded helpers around to keep up with things...)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 13:16, 9 Aug 2004 (PDT)

::Well, they're up to 1.3.2, so I've upgraded.  There may be bugs, as it seems some things that belong in the upgrade didn't happen (Template namespace initialization script, upgrading the database to its newest form) so I'm dealing with these by hand atm.  Let me know if any other weirdness happens. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 10:35, 6 Sep 2004 (PDT)

== Broken search, fixed ==
The problems with the search—i.e., it not working at all, probably since &quot;pretty urls&quot; were put in place—have been [hopefully] fixed.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:27, 5 Oct 2004 (PDT)

== media files ==

HI, what do I need to do in order to get my uploaded ogg files to play? I have a new pc on vista. I had to install something on my old xp pc but cant remember what it was?
Thanks
[[User talk:Rivendale|Dayle]]

== Fonts ==

I have created a conscript for my conlang here on the wiki. How do I get it onto the wiki? I have an uploaded image of the conscript, but things would be easier if I could just type it in.
[[User talk:Rivendale|Dayle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Idle chatter</title>
    <id>647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35617</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-14T19:00:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Glottal stop vs. null consonant */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Forum for random and possibly off-topic discussions.  Relays, calls for collaboration, conlangs in the news, the price of PEZ in China...

----

&lt;center&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''[http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=FrathWiki:Idle_chatter&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new Add a new topic]'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

Conlang-related chat tends to take place at [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/index.php the ZBB] - but you probably already knew that. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 21:39, 12 Sep 2004 (PDT)

:I tend to get my conlang-related chat from [[List of mailing lists|mailing lists]] instead of web boards... actually I don't go by the ZBB at all.  Maybe I should check it out?  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 05:53, 13 Sep 2004 (PDT)

Useless definitions being added, see [[Linux.definition]], [[PHP.definition]], [[Av.definition]].

:Deleted.  If the contributor wants them back, they can login and explain what relevance they have here.   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 05:53, 13 Sep 2004 (PDT)

== Glottal stop vs. null consonant ==

What is the difference? Is the null consonant actually an abbreviation of the glottal stop? (By null consonant I mean the &quot;consonant&quot; before the vowel in [a].) Are there languages which exhibit a minimal pair between the two? I know that certain dialects of Japanese have minimal pairs for [pʔi] and [pi] and similar. - [[User:Zhen Lin|刘 (劉) 振霖]] 04:46, 17 Sep 2004 (PDT)

:I believe that some Polynesian or Pacific languages contrast initial [ʔa] and [a].  I believe in languages that do so the glottal stop is generally more distinctively pronounced than the non-phonemic use of glottal stop in other languages.  Alternately to emphasize glottalless [a] one would use a vocalic onglide, such as [ḁa] or [a̯a].  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:42, 17 Sep 2004 (PDT)

Some Tibetan dialects distinguish what is allegedly either /ʔ/ and zero or /ʔ/ and /ɦ/.  Against the /ɦ/ hypothesis speaks that 
Hindi speakers '''don't''' hear the Tibetan  འ as [ɦ].  OTOH the
Lhasa dialect, which is kind of standard, has merged the two as 
/ʔ/ with the following vowel in high or low tone.  Possibly it is
/ʔ/ vs. /ɰ/ since Tibetan has /x/ as well, or the realization of
'zero' differs across dialects.  [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 12:50, 10 May 2005 (PDT)

Um, well, if you look at it like difference for diphthongs.  Let's say, the Cockney distinction between Bottle and Bowel.  The word &quot;Bottle&quot; would be pronounced /baʔul/ (the dark /l/ turns the schwa /ə/ into an /u/ through velarisation), whereas &quot;Bowel&quot; would be pronounced /baul/ (it might be slightly different but it's phonetically possible in cockney).  So there we have a distinction between a glottal stop and a null, the latter of which helps with diphthongisation.  If anyone has any questions about it, feel free to message me.--[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 17:43, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

== The Logo ==
Anyone else noticed that it looks a little like Firefox's if you squint?

(This has been a Pointless Edit, thanks for reading.) [[User:Tropylium|John Vertical]] 04:49, 1 November 2007 (PDT)

== 'Happy Christmas' in People's Conlangs? ==

* Jodenjeol fram Njuvpisceotärosem - Happy Christmas from New Pisces and Taurus
*: /jodənjeol fɹaːm ɲuvpiskeotɛəɹoses/
*: [Good-advent-and-Christmastide from New-Pisces-Taurus(DAT)]

==Riddle==
What do you call a part of a Sanskrit sentence in which every word influences the sound of an adjacent word? [[User:PierreAbbat|PierreAbbat]] 17:54, 29 December 2007 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Âdlantki</title>
    <id>649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46379</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T21:43:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Writing system */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Âdlantki (&quot;Atlantic&quot;, /ə̀dlɑn(t)kí/) is the medieval stage of the [[Atlantic]] language, descended from [[Kirumb]].  

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Atlantic (''Âdlantki'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
|[[Atlantia]] (''Ədləntɛ'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timespan:
| c. 500 AD to c. 1500 AD
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| —
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of language families|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of language families|classification]]:
|''[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;''[[Satem]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Hadwan languages|Hadwan]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Kirumb]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Âdlantki]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Atlantic]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
|}

==History==
The history of the language begins with the migration of [[Kirumb]] speakers out of Greece starting in the fifth century.  

The division between Âdlantki and [[Atlantic]] is largely arbitrary, and generally placed at the time of the vowel shift that occurred in the 1500s.

==Classification==
Âdlantki is a [[Hadwan languages|Hadwan]] language in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family. Besides its inherited lexicon, Atlantic derives borrowed vocabulary for [[acrolect]]al terms from [[Ancient Greek]].

===Derived languages===
* [[Atlantic]] language

==Vocabulary==
''Main article: [[Âdlantki Lexicon]]''

==Writing system==
The Âdlantki alphabet is descended from a variety of the [http://www.frath.net/pdf/krmb-alphabet.pdf Kirumb alphabet] (PDF, 117K). As this is not convenient for computer entry, various transliterations exist, the most common being the Windows-character-set-friendly one used on this page.

[[Category:Indo-European conlangs|Adlantki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Âdlantki/Lexicon</title>
    <id>650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44959</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-28T03:30:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>spelling of üé; +šuyivi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#D|D]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#S|S]] [[#Š|Š]] [[#Ü|Ü]] [[#V|V]] 
|}


==A==
*'''adâ''' ''postp.'' to
*'''âdlantki''' ''or'' '''âdlanki''' ''adj.'' Atlantic
*'''ândi''' ''adj.'' humble, low, little (''comp.'' '''ondâšri''', ''superl.'' '''ontmi''')
*'''âssonth''' ''num.'' 80
*'''âstu''' ''num.'' 8

==D==
*'''dâłni''' ''n.'' thing
*'''duo''' ''num.'' 2

==F==
*'''fârtušvi, fârtust, fartuš''' ''v.'' plan
*'''fe''' ''postp.'' on
*'''feŋkh''' ''num.'' 5
*'''feŋksonth''' ''or'' '''fâŋksonth''' ''num.'' 50
*'''fołvé''' ''adj.'' many (''comp.'' '''fołšer''', ''superl.'' '''fołtam''')

==G==
*'''gârmi''' ''adj.'' warm
*'''gemvi, gemva, gom''' ''v.'' come, go

==H==
*'''hašlog''' ''n.'' thousand
*'''hefsonth''' ''or'' '''hâfsonth''' ''num.'' 70
*'''heft''' ''num.'' 7
*'''himatyi''' ''n.'' cloak


==I==
*'''ini''' ''num.'' 1
*'''isvi, isva, us''' ''v.'' bring

==J==
*'''jesaktârkh''' ''num.'' 14
*'''jesaŋkekh''' ''num.'' 15
*'''jesath''' ''num.'' 10
*'''jesdveskh''' ''num.'' 16
*'''jessefkh''' ''num.'' 17
*'''ješšenâwkh''' ''num.'' 19
*'''jestinskh''' ''num.'' 11
*'''jestoskh''' ''num.'' 18
*'''jestrikh''' ''num.'' 13
*'''jestukh''' ''num.'' 12

==K==
*'''kerbi''' ''adj.'' Kirumb
*'''kessonth''' ''num.'' 40
*'''kethur''' ''num.'' 4

==M==
*'''mâs''' ''adj.poss.'' my
*'''meffo''' ''pron.pers.'' from me, by me
*'''meŋvi, man, mon''' ''v.'' think

==N==
*'''nyóa''' ''num.'' 9
*'''nówsonth''' ''or'' '''nyósonth''' ''num.'' 90

==O==
*'''oné''' ''n.'' dream
*'''oši''' ''n.'' road

==S==
*'''sathog''' ''n.'' hundred
*'''skelvi, skelva, skol''' ''v.'' stumble
*'''sómâd''' ''adv.'' today
*'''stri''' ''num.'' 3
*'''strisonth''' ''num.'' 30

==Š==
*'''šuyivi, šešeyós, šešuyki''' ''v.'' sing

==Ü==
*'''üé''' ''n.'' bird

==V==
*'''vessonth''' ''or'' '''vâssonth''' ''num.'' 60
*'''vesth''' ''num.'' 6
*'''visi''' ''n.'' town, village
*'''visth''' ''or'' '''dusonth''' ''num.'' 20

[[Category:General lexica|Adlantki lexicon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sirius Texts: Aesop</title>
    <id>651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4016</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T02:00:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>last line, spelling of 'welratz'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;&lt; [[Sirius]]&lt;/small&gt;
==Ari-Horkrak hi Markritz==
Etz ari-horkrak esti finktz furo-furo ackar ho kon-horkrak tzo e weji toln he plocki ho meshi.  &quot;Oho!&quot; etz isti ari-horkrak, &quot;Mor esti!&quot; hi most yoshoi toln af meshi.  Het etz esti? Markritz henk owoik na shortz!  &quot;Wishar ye esti thiror,&quot; etz isti ari-horkrak, &quot;ho samna; welratz me, me nef hesh nemshal of mith nef krushi of markritz.&quot;

''Thiror esti yommu hear yomtza.''

===Interlinear===
{| 
! Ari-Horkrak || hi || Markritz
|-
| male-chicken || and || pearl
|-
|colspan=3| ''The Rooster and the Pearl''
|}

{| 
!  Etz ||   ari-horkrak  || esti || finktz
|-
|  PAST ||  rooster || be ||  walk
|-
|colspan=4| ''A rooster was once walking''
|}

{| 
! furo-furo ||  ackar || ho ||   kon-horkrak
|-
| cross-cross || farm ||  among || female-chicken
|-
|colspan=4| ''up and down the farm among the hens''
|}

{| 
!  tzo || e ||  weji || toln || he || plocki || ho || meshi.
|-
|  then || PAST || see || thing || REL || shine  || amid || grass
|-
|colspan=8| ''when he saw something that shone in the grass.''
|}

* ''tzo'' here because we mean &quot;at this time&quot;, not ''ho'' &quot;at what time?&quot;.

{|
! &quot;Oho!&quot; || etz || ari-horkrak || isti, || &quot;Mor || esti!&quot;
|-
| aha || PAST || rooster || say || mine || is
|-
|colspan=6| ''&quot;Aha!&quot; he said, &quot;Something for me!&quot;''
|}

{|
!  hi ||  most || yoshoi || toln || af || meshi
|-
| and || soon || dig ||   thing || out-of || grass
|-
|colspan=6| ''and quickly dug it out of the grass.''
|}

* Using ''etz'' more than once in a sentence is unnecessary.

{|
! Het ||  etz  || esti? || Markritz || henk || owoik || na || shortz!
|-
| what || PAST || be? ||  pearl  || somehow || lost || in || yard
|-
|colspan=8| ''What was it?  A pearl somehow lost in the yard!''
|}

{|
! wishar || ye || esti || thiror || etz || isti || ari-horkrak || ho || samna
|-
| maybe  || you || be ||  treasure, || PAST || say || rooster, || among || humans
|-
|colspan=10| ''&quot;Maybe you are treasure,&quot; said the rooster, &quot;Among humans&quot;''
|}

{|
! welratz || me || me || nef || hesh || nemshal || of || mith || nef || krushi || of || markritz
|-
| but || I || I || rather || have || piece || of || corn || than || pile || of || pearl
|-
|colspan=12| ''&quot;But me, I'd rather have a piece of corn than a pile of pearls.&quot;''
|}

{|
!  thiror ||  esti || yommu || hear || yomtza 
|-
|  treasure || is || for || who || make 
|-
|colspan=8| ''Treasure is for who makes (it).''
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Somian</title>
    <id>653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4021</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-28T22:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.135.111.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License</title>
    <id>654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4022</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-18T17:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edit of 69.50.166.6, changed back to last version by Muke</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__ 

Version 1.2, November 2002 

&lt;pre&gt;
Copyright (C) 2000,2001,2002  Free Software Foundation, Inc.
59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
&lt;/pre&gt;

==0. PREAMBLE ==

The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document &quot;free&quot; in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others. 

This License is a kind of &quot;copyleft&quot;, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software. 

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Wikipedia</title>
    <id>655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45969</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T12:44:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categorization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article incorporates text from [http://wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia], and is available under the [[FrathWiki:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|GNU Free Documentation License]]. &lt;br&gt; For the original article see:''
&lt;includeonly&gt;[[Category:Imported from Wikipedia]]&lt;/includeonly&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henaudute Lexicon</title>
    <id>656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47985</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-04T02:59:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Μ */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

In etymologies, ** indicates a root not in the Dele word list, while * is a regular Dele word.

The citation form is '''nom. sg.''', gen. sg. for nouns, and '''1sg.''' for verbs.  The symbol ''·'' in a verb indicates the infix point.

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|- id=&quot;tocinside&quot;
| [[#Α|Α]] [[#Β|Β]] [[#Γ|Γ]] [[#Δ|Δ]] [[#Ε|Ε]] [[#Ζ|Ζ]] [[#Η|Η]] [[#Θ|Θ]] [[#Ι|Ι]] [[#Κ|Κ]] [[#Λ|Λ]] [[#Μ|Μ]] [[#Ν|Ν]] [[#Ο|Ο]] [[#Π|Π]] [[#Ρ|Ρ]] [[#Σ|Σ]] [[#Τ|Τ]] [[#Υ|Υ]] [[#Φ|Φ]] [[#Χ|Χ]] [[#Ω|Ω]]
|}

===Α===
*'''ἁ''' ''pron.rel.'' '''αὑ''' ''obl.''
*'''ἁ·βνε''' ''v.'' to be four.  '''ἁφθα''' ''num.'' four.  '''ἁβρα''' ''num.'' fourth.
*'''ἁ·γνε''' ''v.'' to be red.
*'''ἁ·θνε''' ''v.'' to know.
*'''ἀιτε''', -τεν ''l.'' name, noun.
*'''ἀιτλε''', -λᾱν ''l. sg., t. pl.'' word.  
*'''ἀλ''' ''pron. dem.'' that.  '''ἀλλυ''' ''obl.''
*'''ἁ·λνε''' ''v.'' to be nine.  '''ἁλθα''' ''num.'' nine. '''ἁλδρα''' ''num.'' ninth.
*'''ἁμη''', -μνα ''g.'' oil.
*'''ἀ·μνε''' ''v.'' to sit.
*'''ἀν''' ''pron. dem.'' this; ''def. art.'' the.  '''ἀννυ''' ''obl.''
*'''ἁνδα''' ''adv.'' thus; in that way.
*'''ἁ·πνε''' ''v.'' to be glad.
*'''ἁργλη''', -λα ''t.'' jackal. —''**srgāl-''
*'''ἀρ''' ''pron. dem.'' that yonder.  '''ἀρῥυ''' ''obl.''
*'''ἀρε''', -ρεν ''l.'' the sun.
*'''ἁς''' ''conj.'' and.
*'''ἀτρα''', -τρα ''t.'' brother's wife.
*'''α·ὑνε''' ''v.'' to be two. '''αὑ''' ''num.'' two. '''αὑρα''' ''num.'' second, 2nd.
*'''ἀ·χνε''' ''v.'' to bite.

===Β===
*'''βαι·νε''' ''v.'' to curse.
*'''βα·χνε''' ''v.'' to hide, conceal.
*'''βδανζανη''', -ανα, ''g.'' sauce.  —''**vyañjana-''
*'''βορῥι·νε''' ''v.'' to be warlike.  '''βορῥη''', -ρῥινα ''g.'' Borrhē, the third day of the week.
*'''βρελ''', -λα ''t.'' month, about 35 days.
*'''βρερτη''', -τεν ''l.'' Brertē, second week of the month.
*'''βῡ''', βυα ''t.'' father's mother.

===Γ===
*'''γα·θνε''' ''v.'' to recline.
*'''γα·κνε''' ''v.'' to defecate; to be bad. 
*'''γαλ''', -λα ''t.'' bird.
*'''γαρη''' -ρνα ''g.'' earth, land; inanimate gender
*'''γαρνωβρελ''', -λα ''t.'' Gar, the third nobrel of the lada.
*'''γαρτοι''', -τοιχα ''t.'' gnome.
*'''γε''' ''pron. pers. 2pl.'' '''γευ''' ''obl.''
*'''Γεθολλα''', -λα ''t.'' [[Gedhe̊l]].
*'''Γεθολλανε''', -νεν ''l. sg., t. pl.'' speaker of Gedhe̊l.
*'''γοχλαδα''', -δα ''t.'' the second lada of a rhike. 
*'''γραρτη''', -τεν ''l.'' Grartē, third week of the month.

===Δ===
*'''δα·θνε''' ''v.'' to dry.
*'''δαλ''', -λα ''t.'' brother; elder brother.
*'''δε·βνε''' ''v.'' to swear.  '''δεβη''', -βνα ''g.'' oath.  
*'''δελ''', -λα ''t.'' tongue.
*'''δηθνε''', -να ''t.'' father.
*'''δηκε''', -κᾱν ''l.'' a horn.
*'''δηνα''', -να ''t.'' man.
*'''δηνυ''', -να ''t.'' son's wife.
*'''δη·χενε''' ''v.'' to be long (in space)
*'''δηψῑ''', -ψῑν ''t.'' (pl. tant.) teachings.
*'''δλη·νε''' ''v.'' to be jovial.  '''δλη''', δληνα ''g.'' Dlē, the fifth day of the week.
*'''δρῑγι''', -γα ''t.'' zodiac; a sequence of eleven rhiki, about 23,100 days.
*'''δυλση''', -υνα ''g.'' flour.
*'''δῡνε''' (δυ·υνε) ''v.'' to mill, grind.
*'''δυ·ρνε''' ''v.'' to be round.

===Ε===
*'''εἰνε''' (ε·ενε) ''v.'' to be hot.
*'''εἱ·ννε''' ''v.'' to bless.
*'''ἑ·λνε''' ''v.'' to drink.
*'''ἑν''', ἑμα ''t.'' eye.
*'''ἑρνεζε''', ἑρνεινα ''g. irreg.'' a meal.
*'''ἐ·τυνε''' ''v.'' to wrap.

===Ζ===
*'''ζητα''', -τα ''t.'' louse.

===Η===
*'''ἠδα''' ''prep.'' before, in front of.  '''ἠδη''', -δανα ''g.'' front, face.
*'''ἠδε''', -δειν ''l.'' lake.  
*'''ἠζη''', ἠανα ''g.'' oats (the Henaudute is singular)
*'''ἠι''', ἡᾱν ''l.'' oat plant; ''Avena sativa''
*'''ἡ·νανε''' ''v.'' to be yellow.
*'''ἡναυ''', -ναυδα ''t.'' ‘yellowtail’ (a fabulous monster).
*'''ἡνωβρελ''', -λα ''t.'' He, fourth nobrel of the lada.
*'''ἡτοι''', -τοιχα ''t.'' sylph. 
*'''ἡχε''' ''prep.'' behind.

===Θ===
*'''θαβε''', -βεν ''l.'' nose.
*'''θαλε''', -λεν ''l.'' tree.
*'''θεινε''' (θε·ενε) ''v.'' to burn.
*'''θεμε''', -μεν ''l.'' skin, leather.
*'''θεν''' ''pron. pers. 1pl. exclusive'' '''θενευ''' ''obl.''
*'''θημι''', -μα ''t.'' mother's father.
*'''θηνε''' (θα·ανε) ''v.'' to be far off.
*'''θο·κνε''' ''v.'' to be six. '''θοχθα''' ''num.'' six. '''θοκρα''' ''num.'' sixth.
*'''θρα·ννε''' ''v.'' to be holy; to go berserk.  '''θρανη''', -ννα ''g.'' Thranē, the second day of the week.
*'''θυ·τνε''' ''v.'' to be beautiful.  '''θυτη''', -τνα ''g.'' Thutē, sixth day of the week.

===Ι===
*'''ἱ''', ἱκα ''t.'' son.
*'''ἰγη''', -να ''g.'' salt.
*'''῾ῑθιτε·νε''' ''v.'' to be gray.
*'''ἰμαλδρα·λνε''' ''v.'' to fry.
*'''ἰμε''', -μεν ''l.'' grease, fat.
*'''᾿ῑνε''' (ἰ·ινε) ''v.'' to be many.
*'''ἱ·ννε''' ''v.'' to be one.  '''ἱν''' ''num.'' one. '''ἱνδρα''' ''num.'' first.
*'''ἰσ·νε''' ''v.'' to poison.  —Etym. uncertain.
*'''ἱ·τνε''' ''v.'' to spoil.
*'''῾ῑ·φινε''' ''v.'' to be black.

===Κ===
*'''και·χνε''' ''v.'' to be all.  '''καιχη''', -χνα ''g.'' whole.
*'''καλε''', -λεν ''l.'' neck.
*'''κεθανδα''', ''adv.'' how? in what way?
*'''κενε''', -νεν ''l.'' head.
*'''κη·νε''' ''v.'' to be three. '''κη''' ''num.'' three. '''κηρα''' ''num.'' third.
*'''κῑ·μινε''' ''v.'' to do.
*'''κιρη''', -ρνα ''g.'' leather.
*'''κουνε''' (κο·ονε) ''v.'' to rain.  '''κου''', κοα ''t.'' rain.
*'''κρατηρη''', -ρνα ''g.'' bowl. —''**kratēr-''

===Λ===
*'''λᾱδα''', -δα ''t.'' lada, or &quot;long year&quot;, about 700 days.
*'''λαιρη''', -ινα ''g.'' (food) a filling; stuffing.
*'''λαλη''', -λνα ''g.'' a day.
*'''λαλλι''', -λλα ''t.'' bitterness.
*'''λαλλιδρατη''', -τεν ''l.'' Lallidratē, fifth week of the month.
*'''λαν''', λαμα ''t.'' hand.
*'''λαρ''', -ρα ''t.'' ox. 
*'''λαρλασιτρη''', -ρανα ''g.'' kitchen.
*'''λε''' ''prep.'' through.
*'''λε''' ''pron. pers. 2sg.'' '''λευ''' ''obl.''
*'''λει''', λειεν ''l.'' flesh, skin.
*'''λε·τνε''' ''v.'' to fly.
*'''ληε''', ληᾱν ''l.'' star.
*'''λιθη''', -θνα ''g.'' ritual.
*'''λι·θνε''' ''v.'' to be one hundred. '''λισθα''' ''num.'' hundred. '''λιθρα''' ''num.'' hundredth.
*'''λιφη''' -φνα ''g.'' mountain.
*'''λιχη''', -χνα ''g.'' sand.
*'''λογε''', -γεν ''l.'' ear.
*'''λο·ρνε''' ''v.'' to sleep.   '''λορῥολη''', -λανα ''g.'' pillow.
*'''λου''', λωα ''t.'' tiger. —''**lōhu-''
*'''λυ''', λυκα ''t.'' wolf.
*'''λῡε''', -εν ''l.'' water.
*'''λυ·κυνε''' ''v.'' to chop.
*'''λῡνωβρελ''', -λα ''t.'' Lu, the second nobrel of the lada.
*'''λῡσιφαγ·νε''' ''v.'' be [[Fanglutsen]].  '''λῡσιφαγγε''', -ᾱν ''l. sg., t. pl.'' a Fanglutsen person
*'''λῡτοι''', -τοιχα ''t.'' undine.  
*'''λυσσα''', -σσα or '''λυττα''', -ττα ''t.'' young wolf.
*'''λω·χονε''' ''v.'' to hear.

===Μ===
*'''μα''', μαδα ''t.'' woman.
*'''μα·θνε''' ''v.'' to be good.
*'''μα·ινε''' ''v.'' to happen.
*'''μαριζη''', -ανα ''g.'' black pepper. —''**marica-''
*'''μαυ''', μαα ''t.'' hare.
*'''μενε''', -νεν ''l.'' belly.
*'''μερε''', -ρεν ''l.'' moon.
*'''μη·ανε''' ''v.'' to be night, dark. '''μηαθη''' or '''μηθη''', -θανα ''g.'' night.
*'''μηϊδρατη''', -τεν ''l.'' Mēidratē, fourth week of the month.
*'''μη·μανε''' ''v.'' to put.
*'''μημνε''', -να ''t.'' mother.
*'''μηχα''', -χα ''t.'' fright, fear.
*'''μι''' ''prep.'' in, within.  '''μιη''', μινα ''g.'' inside.
*'''μουρη''', -υνα ''g.'' a sieve or strainer.
*'''Μυλιφθα·νε''' ''v.'' to be from the Mu Mountains.  '''Μυλιφθασθα''', -θα ''t.'' Muliphthastha, the Henaudute dialect characteristic of the Mu Mountains (in Mu.: Mmyribdassa) 
*'''Μυλιφθη''', ᾱν ''l.'' the Mu Mountains, the major mountain range running northeast-southwest across the northwest edge of the Henaudute territory. (Mu.: Mmyribdahē)

===Ν===
*'''να''' ''prep.'' amid, between.  '''νακη''', -κνα ''g.'' center.
*'''να·δνα''' ''v.'' to swim.
*'''νακλα·νε''' ''v.'' to fill.
*'''ναι''', ναια ''t.'' daughter.
*'''ναμε''', -μεν ''l.'' egg.
*'''νατε''', -τεν ''l.'' body.
*'''ναυρ''', -ρα ''t.'' strength.
*'''νε''', ''pron. pers. 1sg.'' '''νευ''' ''obl.''
*'''νε·χινε''', ''v.'' to make; to form.
*'''νελε''', -λεν ''l.'' cloud.
*'''νερ''', ''prep.'' under.
*'''νολ''', -λλα ''t.'' hog.
*'''νοθε''', -θεν ''l.'' finger.
*'''νο·ρνε''' ''v.'' to go.
*'''νο·τνε''' ''v.'' to be five. '''νοσθα''' ''num.'' five. '''νοτρα''' ''num.'' fifth.
*'''νοτο·ρῥονε''' ''v.'' to have five flavors.
*'''νο·χινε''' ''v.'' to be silent.  '''νοχη''', -χινα ''g.'' Nochē, seventh day of the week.
*'''νυε''', νῡεν ''l.'' breast.
*'''νυ·ινε''' ''v.'' to stop, stand.
*'''νυρ''', ''prep.'' near; almost. '''νυρη''' -ρνα ''g.'' vicinity, surroundings, neighborhood.
*'''νωβρελ,''' -βρελα ''t.'' nobrel, or &quot;quinquemester&quot;, about 175 days.

===Ο===
*'''ὁμιθα''' ''adj.'' beloved, favorite.
*'''ὁ·πνε''' ''v.'' to eat.
*'''ὀρῥο''', -ῥα ''t.'' flavor.
*'''οὐνε''' (ὀ·ονε) ''v.'' to break.
*'''οὐνε''' (ὀ·ονε) ''v.'' to laugh.
*'''οὐλαδα''', -δα ''t.'' the third lada of a rhike.
*'''ὁφη''', -φνα ''g.'' seed. 

===Π===
*'''παθε''', -θεν ''l.'' foot.
*'''πα·θνε''' ''v.'' to kill.
*'''παι''' ''prep.'' out of.
*'''παιπι·ρνε''' ''v.'' to emerge, come out.  —παι + πιρνε.
*'''παλλη''', -ανα ''g.'' &quot;palle&quot;, a type of edible tuber.
*'''πα·λνε''' ''v.'' to be white.
*'''πανδῑγι''', -γα ''t.'' panther.  —''**pan- + *dīgi''
*'''πε''', πεχα ''t.'' brother's child; son's child.
*'''πενε''', -νεν ''l.'' tooth.
*'''πενχε''', -χα ''t.'' child.
*'''πευ''', πεεν ''l.'' mouth.
*'''πε·χνε''' ''v.'' to be small.
*'''πιμβλαδα''', -δα ''t.'' the first lada of a rhike.
*'''πι·ρνε''' ''v.'' to come.
*'''πιτ·νε''' ''v.'' to spit.
*'''πουνε''' (πω·ονε) ''v.'' to be seven. '''ποσθα''' ''num.'' seven. '''πουρα''' ''num.'' seventh.
*'''πωλαλε''', -λεν  ''l.'' a week, seven days.

===Ρ===
*'''ῥαδη''', -δνα ''g.'' world.
*'''ῥα·γνε''' ''v.'' to cover.
*'''ῥα·μνε''' ''v.'' to walk.
*'''ῥαρτη''', -τεν ''l.'' Rhartē, first week of the month. 
*'''ῥα·υρανε''' ''v.'' to prepare.
*'''ῥα·χνε''' ''v.'' to be green.
*'''ῥε''' ''pron. pers. 3sg.'' '''ῥευ''' ''obl.''
*'''ῥε·δνε''' ''v.'' to be ten. '''ῥεσθα''' ''num.'' ten. '''ῥεδρα''' ''num.'' tenth.
*'''ῥε·υνε''' ''v.'' to shine.  '''ῥευτη''', -τενα ''g.'' Rheutē, the first day of the week.
*'''ῥηλε·νε''' ''v.'' to fill.
*'''ῥηνε''', -α ''t.'' cow.  '''ῥηνε''', -ειν ''l.'' beef.
*'''ῥικε''', -κιεν ''l.'' rhike, or cycle of three ladi, about 2,100 days.
*'''ῥῑνε''' (ῥι·ινε) ''v.'' to be cold.
*'''ῥο''', ῥοφα ''t.'' younger brother.
*'''ῥοθι''', -θα ''t.'' sister's husband.
*'''ῥοχυ''', -χα ''t.'' turtle. 

===Σ===
*'''σις''', -σα ''t.'' lion.  —''**sisi-''
*'''στρυη''', -ανα ''g.'' a dollop. —''**sruva-''

===Τ===
*'''ταιμα·νε''' ''v.'' to faint.
*'''τακε''', -κεν ''l.'' grass.
*'''ταλλα''', -λλακα ''t.'' phœnix.
*'''ταλλη''', -λλανα ''g.'' home.
*'''τα·μνε''' ''v.'' to die.
*'''ταν''', -να ''t.'' fire; high animate gender.
*'''ταννωβρελ''', -λα ''t.'' Tan, first nobrel of the lada.
*'''ταντοι''', -τοιχα ''t.'' salamander.
*'''ταρη''', -ρνα ''g.'' place.
*'''ταφε''', -φεν ''l.'' claw.
*'''ταχσιτρη''', -ανα ''g.'' market.
*'''τε''' ''pron. pers. 3pl.'' '''τευ''' ''obl.''
*'''τει''', τειεν ''l.'' hair, fur.
*'''τε·λνε''' ''v.'' to speak, to say.
*'''τημα''', -μα ''t.'' mother's mother; wife's mother; term of address, Mrs., Madam
*'''τη·νε''' ''v.'' to be.
*'''τιε''', τῑεν ''l.'' path, way.
*'''τιρῥι''', -ρῥα ''t.'' sister.
*'''τι·θνε''' ''v.'' to mix.
*'''το·φνε''' ''v.'' to be flat.
*'''τοχε''', -εν ''l.'' an onion.
*'''τοχον·νε''' ''v.'' to be obscure, be mysterious.  '''τοχονη''', -ννα ''g.'' Tochonē, fourth day of the week.
*'''τυ·γνε''' ''v.'' to give.

===Υ===
*'''ὑ''' ''prep.'' on top of.  '''ὑη''', ὑνα ''g.'' top (part).
*'''ὑ''' ὑτα ''t.'' daughter's husband.
*'''ὑδε''', -δεν ''l.'' tail.
*'''ὑ·δνε''' ''v.'' to be big.
*'''ὑλε''', -λεν ''l.'' muscle.
*'''ὑν-''' ''pref. neg.'' 

===Φ===
*'''φαγη''', -γνα　''g.'' leaf.
*'''φα·ρνε''' ''v.'' to bear, give birth.
*'''φεβε''', -βεν ''l.'' knee.
*'''φηνε''' (φα·ανε) ''v. irreg.'' to ask. 
*'''φι·ννε''' ''v.'' to be new.  '''φιννι''' ''adv.'' now.
*'''φο·κνε''' ''v.'' to collect, gather, harvest.
*'''φολ''' ''prep.'' below.  '''φολη''', -λνα ''g.'' bottom.
*'''φυρνατλεσσα''', -σσα ''t.'' a translator.
*'''φυτε''', -τεν ''g.'' blood.

===Χ===
*'''χᾱ''', χαυνα ''g.'' wheat.
*'''χα·μνε''' ''v.'' to see.
*'''χαρ''', -ρα ''t.'' heart (seen as the seat of emotions). '''χαρε''', -ρεν ''l.'' heart (body part).
*'''χατε''', -τεν ''l.'' bone.
*'''χει''', χειεν ''l.'' feather.  '''χεισιφαπε''', -πεν ''l.'' &quot;featherbark&quot;, an aromatic medicinal plant.
*'''χεν''' ''pron. pers. 1pl. inclusive'' '''χεισυ''' ''obl.''
*'''χευνε''', -νεν ''l. sg., t. pl.'' member of a tribe. '''χευνηδα''', -δα ''t.'' king, tribal chief.
*'''χηυλη''', -λανα ''g.'' stone, rock.
*'''χι·λνε''' ''v.'' to be like or similar.
*'''χο·βνε''' ''v.'' to be eight. '''χοφθα''' ''num.'' eight. '''χοβρα''' ''num.'' eighth.
*'''χοδα,''' -δα ''t.'' father's father; head of household; fiancée's father; respectful term of address, Mr., sir.
*'''χο·ονε''' ''v.'' to croak; to caw.  
*'''χοσι''', -σα ''t.'' fish.
*'''χουλα''', -λα ''t.'' charm, charisma.
*'''χυδη''', -δνα ''g.'' root.
*'''χυρ''' ''prep.'' next to.  '''χυρη''', -ρνα ''g.'' side.

===Ω===
*'''ὠθε''', -θουν ''l.'' liver.
*'''ὠ·μονε''' ''v.'' to smoke. '''ὠμο''', -μα ''t.'' smoke.
*'''ὡ·ρονε''' ''v.'' to drop, let go.
*'''Ὠραδιδηνα''', -να ''t.'' one of the [[Óradierra]], speakers of [[Óradiendelsa]].

[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Henaudute]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Verb</title>
    <id>657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>3985</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-01T16:27:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>modify links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''verb''' is a [[part of speech]] that usually denotes action (&quot;bring&quot;, &quot;read&quot;), occurrence (&quot;to decompose&quot; (itself), &quot;to glitter&quot;), or a state of being (&quot;exist&quot;, &quot;live&quot;, &quot;soak&quot;, &quot;stand&quot;). Depending on the [[language]], a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its [[tense]], [[aspect]], [[mood]] and [[voice]]. It may also agree with the [[person]], [[gender]], and/or [[number]] of some of its arguments (what we usually call subject, object, etc.).

==Valency==

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its '''valency''', or [[valence]]. According to valency, a verb can be classified as one of:

* Intransitive (valency = 1): the verb only has a subject. For example: &quot;he runs&quot;, &quot;it falls&quot;.
* Transitive (valency = 2): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example: &quot;she eats fish&quot;, &quot;we hunt rabbits&quot;.
* Ditransitive (valency = 3): the verb has a subject, a direct object and an indirect or secondary object. For example: &quot;I gave her a book&quot;, &quot;She sent flowers to me&quot;.

It's possible to have verbs with valency = 0. A few of these appear in [[Spanish]] and other languages and may be termed &quot;impersonal verbs&quot;. For example: ''Llueve'' = &quot;It rains&quot;. Such verbs don't exist in [[English]] because in this language every verb must have a subject, even if it's a dummy one like &quot;it&quot;.

English verbs are often flexible with regards to valency. A transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can be added an object and become transitive. Compare:

* ''I gave.'' (intransitive)
* ''I gave blood.'' (transitive)
* ''I gave blood for John.'' (ditransitive)

In the first example, the verb ''give'' describes the idea of giving, in the abstract; in the second, what was given is specified; in the third, both the gift and the recipient are set forth.   

In many languages other than English, such valency changes aren't possible like this; the verb must instead be inflected for voice in order to change the valency.

== Copula ==

A [[copula]] is a special kind of verb, sometimes called a ''linking verb'', that is used to describe its subject or equate or liken the subject with its predicate.  Because copulas do not describe actions being performed, they are usually analysed outside the transitive/intransitive distinction.  The most basic copula in English is ''to be''; there are others (''like'', ''seem'', ''become'', etc.).

Some languages (the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] family, [[Russian]], [[Chinese]] and others) can omit the simple copula equivalent of &quot;to be&quot;, especially in the present tense. In these languages a [[noun]] and [[adjective]] pair (or two nouns) can constitute a complete sentence. This construction is called ''[[copula|zero copula]]''.

== Verbal noun and verbal adjective ==

Most languages have a number of [[verbal noun]]s that describe the action of the verb.  In [[Indo-European languages]], there are several kinds of verbal nouns, including [[gerund]]s, [[infinitive]]s, and [[supine]]s.  English has gerunds, such as ''seeing'', and infinitives such as ''to see''; they both can function as nouns; ''seeing is believing'' is roughly equivalent in meaning with ''to see is to believe.''  These terms are sometimes applied to verbal nouns of non-Indo-European languages.  

In the Indo-European languages, verbal adjectives are generally called [[participle]]s.  English has an [[voice|active]] participle, also called a present participle; and a [[voice|passive]] participle, also called a past participle.  The active participle of ''give'' is ''giving'', and the passive participle is ''given''.  The active participle describes [[noun]]s that are wont to do the action given in the verb, e.g. ''a giving person''.  The passive participle describes nouns that have been the subject of the action of the verb, e.g. ''given money''.  Other languages apply tense and aspect to participles, and possess a larger number of them with more distinct shades of meaning.

==Agreement==

In languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument (what we tend to call the subject) in person, number and/or gender. English only shows distinctive agreement in the third person singular, present tense form of verbs (which is marked by adding &quot;-s&quot;); the rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb.

Spanish inflects verbs for tense/mood/aspect and they agree in person and number (but not gender) with the subject. [[Japanese]], in turn, inflects verbs for many more categories, but shows absolutely no agreement with the subject. [[Basque]], [[Georgian]], and some other languages, have '''polypersonal agreement''': the verb agrees with the subject, the direct object and even the secondary object if present.

==See also==

* [[Linguistics]], [[grammar]], [[syntax]], [[phrase structure rules]]
* [[Tense]], [[aspect]], [[mood]], [[voice]]
* [[Verb framing]]

----
{{msg:Wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Verb|Verb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>New Royce</title>
    <id>658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T13:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category cities</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''New Royce''' ([[Ibran]]: Нөјв Ро̄с, ''Noif Roes'', '''here:''' ''New York'') is the fourth largest city in North America, after Mexico City, Toronto, and Los Angeles.  It is the capital and largest city of New Ibria.

==History==
The history of New Royce begins in [[1626]] with the colonization of the area by Dutch and Ibrian settlers, the city originally being called Nieuw Amsterdam.  In [[1664]] the city was captured by the English and named ''New York''.  During the [[Wikipedia:Third Anglo-Dutch War|Third Anglo-Dutch War]], in [[1673]], the city was retaken, but was returned to England as part of the [[Wikipedia:Treaty of Westminster|Treaty of Westminster]].  The Ibrians refused to accept English government and created the country of New Ibria.  

[intervening periods...]

In [[2000]], the government instituted a spelling reform.   By pressure from neighboring nations it is in a modified [[Cyrillic]] script.  Reactions against it were heavy; New Royce's major newspaper, the ''Tieups,'' &lt;!-- yes, it's amusing in English --&gt; refused to adopt the new orthography altogether, calling it ''un scandal e abominazón.''    Currently, most signs on the streets are biscriptal and both systems are taught in the schools.  

==Boroughs==
*Брүклан, ''Bréuklen'' /bryˈklɐ̃/
*Влизінкс, ''Vléssinx'' /vleˈzĩks/ (''here:'' Queens)
*де Бронк, ''de Bronk'' /dɛˈbrɔ̃k/
*Іл-де-ʼТя̄тс, ''Isle-de-Staits'' /ˌildɛtˈtaːts/
*Манатан, ''Manhattan'' /ˌmɑnɑˈtɐ̃/

[[Category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English</title>
    <id>659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35543</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-14T03:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;i&gt;For information on the language and structure, go to [[Modern English]].&lt;i&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''English''' is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language, serving basically as the lingua franca over much of the world; the most notable English-speaking countries are the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand.

=Stages of English=
There are 3 primary stages of English.  A fourth, is a brief period of transition time between Middle English and Modern English, known as Early Modern English.  They are as follows: &lt;br&gt;
[[Anglo-Saxon]] (also known as '''Old English''') &lt;br&gt;
[[Middle English]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Early Modern English]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Modern English]] &lt;br&gt;

==The Dates of the Changes==
The Anglo-Saxon language formed from invading groups of Angles and Saxons from Northern Germany to England.  It was  also affected by the [[Celtic]] languages around it, and from a heavy [[Old Norse]] influx from invading Danish Vikings. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The start of the Middle English era is marked by the battle of Hastings in 1066.  The French Normans (originally Vikings who were given land and gold in to protect France from other Vikings, Norman = North man) lead by William the Conqueror won the battle and took over the island from there.  The Norman French version of [[Old French]] was not the &quot;proper&quot; French of the time, but much of the Old Norse influence was replaced by the French vocabulary. Quite a bit of it mixed with the Anglo-Saxon language and eventually Middle English emerged. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The Early Modern English period is marked by the [[Great Vowel Shift]].  This is the primary sound shift that separates the dialects of Modern English to those of the Middle and Old English eras.  There were other sound shifts, but that was the primary and most important one.  [[Shakespeare]] is one of the more well known writers in this era.  This era also preserved forms such as the informal pronoun and many forms of the subjunctive. &lt;br&gt;

=English's Spread=
English was spread by the colonisation by the British Empire.  The Thirteen Colonies of America, Australia, India, and others were colonised by Britain and became primarily English speaking.  The colonies eventually became the United States, and Australia, after many years of being a penal colony, had too gained independence.  India also did so, many years later.  Canada was originally a French colony that was won during the French and Indian war by the British, and English became an important language in the country.   Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, which were originally Celtic speaking were conquered by Anglo-Saxon or Norman French peoples and were eventually assimilated.  Although there are still Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Cornish speakers today, almost all can speak a dialect of English.  After the United States had been established as an International power (after World War II), the spread of English grew even more than it had before.
Today, English is the most spoken First and Second language in the world, mostly because of China's teaching it to most children in schools.  It has also become a powerful [[Lingua Franca]] throughout the world.

=Languages based on English=
==[[Creole]]s and natural descendants==
*[[Tok Pisin]]
*[[Scots]]
*[[Hawai'ian Creole]], also known as '''Hawai'ian Pidgin'''
*[[Spanglish]]
*[[Gullah]]

==Constructed languages==
*[[Volapük]] (with other sources)

==Sources==


Page written by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]].
----

[[Category:Germanic natlangs]]

[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Muke/Spelling</title>
    <id>660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4030</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-05T03:02:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Notes on a revision of English orthography''

Basic principles:
* Institute two different spelling systems, one for native words and one for foreign ones.  Or put differently, spell Germanic words Germanically and Romance words Romantically.  (Give some way to discern orthographies, I'm thinking maybe use ''italics''.)   [This may not even be necessary.  Who knows? I'll discard it for now.]

* Morphophonemics is more important than strict phonemics, due to the prominence of stress alternation leading to different vowel realizations.  (The ’lauts in foot/feet, swim/swam/swum, would have to be handled differently.)  There may be cases where a morph has to be split though (?)

* Faithfulness to traditional spelling (yes/no?)  not sure

* Character repertoire (low ascii / windows charset / higher unicode bits?)  not sure

* Oh yeah.  And it's gotta match my idiolect &gt;;)

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, 
| Foer skoer ân se’n yeers âgo, ar fođđ’rs brot foerth âpon đis ''cóntinent'' â nu ''nation'',
|-
| conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
| ''concéved'' ân ''líberte'' ân ''dédicated'' tî đî ''próposition'' đîd ol men ar ''created'' ''equal''.
|}

==Spellings==
Round them up, compare them to phonemics and phonetics, see if we can come up with anything consistent.

* '''â''' (''a''; /@/, [∅])
* '''âgo''' (''ago'', /@&quot;go/, [go]). 
* '''ân''' (''and'', /@n/, [n=]).
* '''ân''' (''in'', /@n/, [n=]).
* '''âpon''' (''upon'', /@pAn/, [pAn]).
* '''ar''' (''are'', /Ar/, [Ar]).
* '''ar''' [or '''our'''?] (''our''; /Ar/, [Ar] or /{Ur/, [{wr=]).
* '''br’ɴ, brot''' (''bring, brought''; /brN=/, /brAt/; [brN=], [brAt]).
* '''''concéve''''' [or ''k’nseev''?] (''conceive'', /kn=&quot;siv/, [k1~&quot;siv]
* '''''cóntinent''''' [or ''kontân’nt''?] (''continent'', /&quot;kAnt@nn=t/, [&quot;kA~tn1~t])
* '''''creáte''''' [or ''kreaet''?] (''create'', /kri&quot;et/, [kri&quot;et])
* '''''dédicate''''' [or ''dedâkaet''?] (''dedicate'', /&quot;dEd@ket/, [&quot;dEdket])
* '''đî''' (''the''; /D1/, [d_d1]).
* '''đît''' (''that''; /D1t/, [d_d1t]); ''đîd'' before vowels.
* '''đis''' (''this'', /DIs/, [d_dIs]).
* '''equal''' [or ''equ’l''] (''equal'', /&quot;ikwl=/, [&quot;ikwl=]).
* '''fođđ’r''' (''father'', /&quot;fADr=/, [&quot;fADr=]).
* '''foer''' (''four'', /for/, [fOr(=)]).  
* '''foerth''' (/forT/, [fOrT]).
* '''''líberte''''' [or ''libb’rde''] (''liberty'', /&quot;lIbr=di/, [&quot;libr=4i]
* '''man''' ''pl.'' ''men'' (''man'', /m{n/, [m{n]).
* '''''nation''''' [or ''naex’n''?] (''nation'', /&quot;neSn=/, [&quot;neSn=]).
* '''''próposition''''' [or ''propâsix’n''?] (''proposition'', /&quot;prAp@zISn=/, [&quot;prApzISn=]
* '''nu''' (''new'', /nu/, [nu])
* '''ol''' (''all'', /Al/, [Al]).
* '''se’n''' (''seven'', /sEn=/, [sEn=]).
* '''skoer''' (''score'', /skor/, [skOr(=)]).
* '''tî''' (''to'', /t1/, [t1]).
* '''yeer''' ''pl.'' '''yeers''' (''year'', /yir/, [yir=]).</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henaudute ceremonial calendar</title>
    <id>661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22849</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-06T21:17:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Rhikes of the Zodiac / Ῥικι Δρῑγα ''Rhici Drîga'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the ceremonial [[calendar]] used by the [[Yellow Empire]].  The names are in [[Henaudute]].  This calendar has no relationship to seasons or solar years or whatnot; it is merely a conveniently-divided reckoning of time which counts upward from the date of the coronation of the king.

==Divisions of time==
===Days - Λαλη ''lalê'' ===
# '''ῥευτη''' ''rheutê'' — shining day
# '''θρανη''' ''thranê'' — holy day
# '''βορῥη''' ''borrhê'' — martial day
# '''τοχονη''' ''tochonê'' — obscure day
# '''δλη''' ''dlê'' — joyful day
# '''θυτη''' ''thutê'' — beautiful day
# '''νοχη''' ''nochê'' — silent day

===Weeks / Πωλαλι ''Pôlali''===
# '''ῥαρτη''' ''rhartê'' — Sun’s week
# '''βρερτη''' ''brertê'' — Moon’s week
# '''γραρτη''' ''grartê'' — Earth’s week
# '''μηϊδρατη''' ''mêïdratê'' — Mēïdē (Night-father)’s week
# '''λαλλιδρατη''' ''lallidratê'' — Lallidē (Day-father)’s week

===Months / Βρελῑ ''Brelî''===
# '''ναυρ''' ''naur'' — month of strength
# '''χουλα''' ''choula'' — month of charm
# '''δηψῑ''' ''dêpsî'' — month of teachings
# '''τοι'''¹ ''toe'' — month of a spirit
# '''λαλλι''' ''lalli'' — month of bitterness

¹ The name of this month depends on the quimmester.  In fact, during this month the quimmester does not need to be stated.  The names are of mythological creatures associated with the element of the quimmester:
* '''ταντοι''' ''tantoe'' — month of the tantech (or 'salamander') in the fire quimmester
* '''λῡτοι''' ''lûtoe'' — month of the lutech (or 'undine') in the water quimmester
* '''γαρτοι''' ''gartoe'' — month of the gartech (or 'gnome') in the earth quimmester
* '''ἡτοι''' ''hêtoe'' — month of the hetech (or 'sylph') in the air quimmester

===Quimmesters / Νωβρελῑ ''Nôbrelî''===
A ''quimmester'' is a period of five months; in this calendar, 175 days.

# '''ταννωβρελ''' ''tannôbrel'' — fire quimmester
# '''λῡνωβρελ''' ''lûnôbrel'' — water quimmester
# '''γαρνωβρελ''' ''garnôbrel'' — earth quimmester
# '''ἡνωβρελ''' ''hênôbrel'' — air quimmester

===Ladas / Λᾱδῑ ''Lâdî''===
A ''lada'' or &quot;long year&quot; is a period of twenty months; in this calendar, 700 days.

# '''πιμβλαδα''' ''pimblada'' — newborn year
# '''γοχλαδα''' ''gochlada'' — adolescent year
# '''οὐλαδα''' ''oulada'' — elder year

===Rhikes of the Zodiac / Ῥικι Δρῑγα ''Rhici Drîga''===
A ''rhike'' is a period of sixty months; in this calendar, 2,100 days.  The eleven rhikes make up one full zodiac, a period of 23,100 days.  The zodiac is the largest division of time in the calendar; after the zodiac is completed, it is restarted with an ordinal (second, third, fourth, etc.).

# '''σισεν''' ''sisen'' — lion’s rhike
# '''λυσσαν''' ''lussan'' — wolf-cub’s rhike
# '''ἁργλην''' ''harglên'' — jackal’s rhike
# '''νολλα''' ''nolla'' — hog’s rhike
# '''λαρα''' ''lara'' — ox’s rhike
# '''λωυν''' ''lôun'' — tiger’s rhike
# '''μαυν''' ''maun'' — hare’s rhike
# '''πανδῑγιν''' ''pandîgin'' — panther’s rhike
# '''λυκα''' ''luka'' — wolf’s rhike
# '''ῥοχυν''' ''rhochun'' — turtle’s rhike
# '''ταλλακα''' ''tallaca'' — phoenix’s rhike

==External links==
* [http://frath.net/language/hena-calendar.shtml Today's date in Henaudute ceremonial calendar] (uses JavaScript)

[[Category:Henaudute]]
[[Category:Calendars]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ch-m- Tlondor</title>
    <id>662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29095</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T17:51:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*Timespan: 20,000 years ago to present.  
*Setting: Tl-nd-, a fictional archipelago in the Atlantic.
*Author: [[User:JeffLilly|Jeff Lilly]]
This conlang is a language for a conculture I'm working on for a book.
Design principles:
* Inspired by Semitic, but with a twist:  arguments and predicates are morphologically bound and interleaved
* Lots of juicy consonant clusters


== Introduction ==

'''Sources'''

The single source for the language which I will refer to throughout the following monograph as “Ch-m- Tlondor” is a single ream of papers, tied together with twine, dating approximately to 1250 AD, written in rather vulgar Latin interspersed with stretches of 13th century French idiom.  The author claims to be one Claude d’Bisque, a Frenchman of Basque ancestry, and purports to record his journey to a previously undiscovered island in the Atlantic, about two day’s sail west of France.  The papers describe in tedious detail the particulars of how d’Bisque came to set out on the voyage, the Basque cod fishermen who guided him, the rather unremarkable ways of the inhabitants of the island, and the difficulties encountered on their attempt to leave.  This is followed by a lengthy appendix relating details of the language of the island, which is of considerable interest, since its syntactic system is unique in the world.  

It has frequently been asserted that d’Bisque invented the language, as well as the island and the whole history related in his document; but this seems unlikely, for the following reasons.  First, the linguistic appendix is written in the same handwriting and phraseology as the rest of the book, showing that d’Bisque is almost certainly the author.  However, d’Bisque was no linguist, as shown by the corrupted Latin which he wrote, and the difficulty he had in describing the language Ch-m- Tlondor.  The appendix consists of long word lists, lengthy passages of transcribed speech with margins filled with attempts at translation, and some completely misguided notes on grammar.  For example, d’Bisque asserts that Ch-m- Tlondor was like Latin, in preferring to place the verb last in the sentence; but this is certainly not the case in the examples he gives.  It is inconceivable that d’Bisque could have constructed this language himself from whole cloth.

In this monograph I attempt to set out an orderly description of the language.  I am no comparative linguist, and cannot hope to properly place it in the taxonomy of the world’s tongues; but I hope that this description will assist some other scholar to give it the attention it deserves.

'''The Voyage of d’Bisque'''

	It may interest some to hear a brief summary of d’Bisque’s voyage and description of the “terra Tlandae”, as he called the island.  In the early 13th century Basque fishermen had made long journeys into the Atlantic in search of cod, highly valued for its oil and meat.  They brought back many strange tales of their adventures.  D’Bisque hired some of these fishermen to take him to an island they had told of; the purpose of his journey was curiosity and a “caesarum cardorum”, perhaps a reference to a broken heart.  The islanders, it was told to him, were magicians and could do wonderful things.  D’Bisque brought along his sons Francis and Gerard.

	The voyage lasted two days, and at the end of that time they came to a single island rising from the middle of the Atlantic like the top of a mountain.  On arrival at shore they were greeted by farmers, who expressed wonder at their seaworthy craft.  These people, it seemed, never left their island.  The Basque fishermen knew a little of the language of terra Tlandae and d’Bisque was fascinated by it; as noted above, he compiled extensive word lists and examples of sentences.  The islanders could indeed do some magic, according to d’Bisque; they could call animals to them, move small objects with their minds, and see into the future.  

After spending a few days among the islanders, d’Bisque expressed an interest in climbing to the top of the mountain.  The islanders warned him strongly against it, saying that it was the realm of very powerful magicians; but d’Bisque and his sons climbed to the peak anyway, believing that God would save them from heathen magic.  At the top of the mountain, which took a day or so to climb, they saw no people.  On their return to the village, the islanders refused to speak with them.

They then took their leave, and sailed back toward France.  But almost as soon as they set out, d’Bisque’s son Francis fell ill, speaking feverishly of a great king that was calling to him in his mind, and of a lavish feast the king offered him, along with many other earthly pleasures.  As the voyage went on, Francis spoke with wild eyes of birds of iron, and horses with bellies of fire, and great underground cities.  At last Francis began to speak in Ch-m- Tlondor, and babbled furiously in that language for many hours.  At last he died, just as they reached France.

D’Bisque ends this rather tedious account with speculation concerning terra Tlandae – specifically, that it is all that remains of the continent of Atlantis, and that the magicians of that great land live under the ground of their submerged continent.  He closes with a prayer that God punish the magicians of that land for their wickedness.

== Overview of Ch-m- Tlondor ==

The first and most striking thing noted by the student of Ch-m- Tlondor is that almost all words of all grammatical categories are bound morphemes – that is, words cannot stand alone, but must be morphologically bound to other words.  This rule applies to all grammatical categories except adverbs, interjections, and some elements of the determiner class.  Other classes of words are somewhat like the consonantal and vowel roots of Arabic, in that they consist of sequences of consonants and vowels that must be interleaved to create a complete word.  For example, the noun “dog” is the consonantal sequence '''gm-ch-'''; it cannot appear alone, but must combine with a verb such as '''-ulm''', “run”, and an aspect infix (e.g. '''-a-''', perfective), to create '''gmachulm''', “the dog ran”.  The following table elaborates on this example:

{| border=1 
|The dog ran 
|Gmachulm
|- 
|The dog is running 
|Gmochulm
|- 
|The dog will run 
|Gmichulm
|- 
|The dog ate 
|Gmachich
|- 
|The dog slept 
|Gmachidrif
|- 
|The man ran 
|Namulm
|- 
|The man ate 
|Namich
|}

At this point it should be clear why “Ch-m- Tlondor”, with dashes to indicate where morphological material is required, is the unfortunate way in which the name of the language must be represented in English.  A name by itself is an argument; but since this language requires all arguments to be morphologically bound to predicates, it is impossible to write the name of the language alone, without predicating something of it.  The true name of the language is '''Ch-m Tlondor''', literally “speech of Tl-nd-“ ('''Tl-nd-''' being the true name of “terra Tlandae”).  Perhaps the closest one can come is to say &quot;The speech of Tl-nd- is/exists&quot;, i.e. '''Chimid Tlondor'''.


'''Phonology'''

''Phoneme inventory.''  Knowledge of Ch-m- Tlondor’s phonology is necessarily limited by the orthographic representation used by d’Bisque.  The language appears to have a small inventory of vowels:  i, e, o, a, u. It is unknown to what extent vowel quality may vary according to environment.  Sonorants m, n, r, and l may appear as vowels.  Ch-m- Tlondor does not have “ng” or “h”, or any voiced fricatives or affricates.  It also has almost no coronal fricatives -- only &quot;ch&quot;.  However, it does have the voiceless velar fricative “x”, written as “hh” by d’Bisque.  D’Bisque also appears to use “c” and “q” for “k”:  “c” before o, a, u, and “q” before i and e.  I have followed his orthography, except to use “x” for “hh”.

''Clusters.''  Ch-m- Tlondor admits a number of consonant clusters in both onset and coda position which English does not.  In general, the language admits any onset cluster of the forms:

*''(voiceless stop)(fricative)''
*''(voiced stop)(fricative)''
*''(voiceless stop)(sonorant)''
*''(voiced stop)(sonorant)''

Codas allow the same clusters, but in reverse order.  For example, the onset cluster “tl-“ is permitted, as in the noun '''tl-c-''', “chowder”, and the coda cluster “-lt”, as in the verb '''-olt''', “scamper”.  (This latter may be related to the noun '''l-t-''', “mouse”.)
Sonorants may in general not cluster, except –rn, -rm, -ln, and –lm.  Other apparent clusters of sonorants should be read as vocalic sonorants.  For example, '''nl-d-''', “marriage”, should be read with three syllables “n-lo-dor” in the phrase '''nlodor''', “of marriage”.

'''Morphology'''

A note on some peculiarities of morphology are in order.

''Predicatization.''  Nominals may be converted to predicates, either to create a new lexeme (analogous to the history of the English verb “access”), or to permit the nominal to be used attributively (see ''Copula Statements'' below).  The predicatization process inserts '''-o-''' between the consonant clusters of the nominal (note that '''-o-''' is the stative aspectual marker) and prior to the first cluster.  Thus the nominal '''n-m-''', “man”, may be predicatized to '''-onom''', meaning “to man” or perhaps “manly”, as in '''powonom''', “that boy is a man.”

''Argumentization.''  Predicates, such as adjectives or verbs, may be converted to arguments, either to name a new object whose purpose is to perform the action, or to name the action or property itself.  Argumentization reduplicates the final consonant of the predicate.  Thus the verb '''-idfil''', “poke/impale”, may be argumentized to be a noun, '''idfil-l''', “impaling”.  (The noun '''df-l-''', “spear”, is probably related as well.)  Thus one can say '''idfilolid bodach''', “spearing of fish is easy”; compare '''dfalidfil badach''', “The spear impaled the fish.”


'''Syntax'''

In the Ch-m- Tlondor sentence, a subject combines with a verb and an aspect infix morphologically to create a complete sentence.  Modifiers to the subject generally appear to the left of the verb; modifiers to the verb appear after.  Objects of the verb appear after the verb, generally marked with an adposition affix; modifiers to these objects appear after them.  Word order is thus fairly strict.
The above generalizations apply to simple declarative statements and wh-questions (which are in-situ).  Other categories have more complex forms:

''Polar questions.''  Here, the main verb is combined with an expletive nominal '''w-m-''' and moved to the beginning of the sentence.  The subject of the sentence appears immediately after the verb, marked with an adposition '''-o-or'''.  For example, “Is the man eating?” would be '''Womich nomor?'''

''Copula Statements.''  In cases in which two nominals are equated, as in “Tl-nd- is an island”, the second nominal undergoes a morphological process to change it into an adjectival element (see predicatization and argumentization below).  In this case, the noun '''dr-mt-''', “island”, is predicatized into '''-odromt''' and the sentence is '''Tlondodromt'''.

''Imperatives.''  Here, the main verb is combined with the pronoun '''w-w-''' (you sng.) or '''w-r-''' (you pl.) to indicate imperative.  Thus “Run!” would be translated as '''Wowulm!'''

''Subjunctives of Necessity (must, should, ought, need).''  The subjects of these sentences combine with the predicate '''-a-adrt''', and precede the verb, which combines with a pronoun indicating the subject.  For example, “the man should be eating” appears as '''namadrt gogich''' ('''g-g-''' being “he”).

''Subjunctives of Possibility (can, could, may, might).''  This is the same as subjunctives of necessity, except that the subject combines with predicate '''o-oxrt''', and the verb appears at the beginning of the sentence.  For example, “the dog can eat” appears as '''gogich nomoxrt'''.


* [[Sample Texts of Ch-m- Tlondor]]
* [[Etymology of Ch-m- Tlondor and Related Tongues]]
* [[Conculture:  Tl-nd-]]

[[Category:Ch-m- Tlondor]]
[[Category:Tl-nd-]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JeffLilly</title>
    <id>663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4033</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-06T17:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeffLilly</username>
        <id>5</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I am a computational linguist; my interests center around lexical semantics, syntax, and historical linguistics.  I am working on a book for older children, and am creating the conlang [[Ch-m- Tlondor]] and the conculture of [[Tl-nd-]] as background.  I would be very grateful for any feedback on this project.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sample Texts of Ch-m- Tlondor</title>
    <id>665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4035</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-06T20:00:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeffLilly</username>
        <id>5</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Dodid Lochor Don Chimim Tlondor ==

{| border=1
! Yoyeyorxn || woror || Tlondach
|-
|y-y- -o- -eyorxn || w-r- -o- -or || Tl-nd- -o- -ach
|-
|We-welcome || you-of || Tl-nd-at
|}
''Welcome to Tl-nd-.''


{| border=1
!Womayamch || woror || lpochor || don
|-
|w-m- + -o- + -ayamch || w-r- + -o- + -or || lp-ch + -o- + -or || don
|-
|interrogative-want || you-interrogative || rabbit-of || some
|}
''Would you like some rabbit?''

{| border=1
!Worobln || yolach
|-
|w-r- + -o- + obln || y-l + -o- + ach
|-
|You-from || where-at
|}
''Where are you from?''

{| border=1
!Chicharanx || dfalum
|-
|Chich-r- + -a- + anx || df-l- + -a- + -um
|-
|Chich-r-has-make || spear-new
|}
''Chich-r- has made a new spear.''

{| border =1
!Godfomtin || gogobrd || gogomx || gogoxrt || gorim || anam || pochnim || pochor || gogid || gogoxrt || bodach || don
|-
|Godf-mt- + -o- + -in || g-g- + -o- + -obrd || g-g- + -o- + omx || g-g- + -o-oxrt || g-r- + -o- + -im || anam || p-chn- + -o- + -im || p-ch- + -o- + -or || g-g- + -o- + id || g-g- + -o-oxrt || b-d- + -o- + -ach || don
|-
|Husband-my || he-foolish || he-knock || he-subj.possib. || hole-in || many || bottom-in || boat-of || he-see || he-subj.poss. || fish-at || some
|}
''My husband is foolish; he would knock holes in the bottom of a boat, to see the fish.''

{| border=1
!Dofowl || chocharld || chuchu
|-
|D-f- + -o- + -owl || ch-ch- + -o- + -arld || chuchu
|-
|Ship-your || it-large || excessively
|}
''Your ship is far too large.''

== Babel Text ==

* 1. And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech. 
* '''Qec cor ladagab chamor mom qecadfax mamad.'''
* ''And whole earth-had language-of one and-speak one-as.''

* 2. And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there. 
* '''Qec chachad yar dadac dachabln dach dadabmt brchor ramtim Shinaror caqimb darach.'''
* ''And it-was while they-travel east-from that they-found plain-of land-in Shinar-of and-lived there-at.''

* 3. And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar. 
* '''Qec dadochom dadoloch, yoyepicm, yiyanax ploxor, qiqupulm dodor doloyir.  Qec dadagab plaxor dchamobol, nateqec nlachlobol.'''
* ''And they-said eachother-to, we-start, we-make brick-of, burn-and them-of thoroughly.  And they-had brick-of stone-for, mud-and mortar-for.''


* 4. And they said, Go to, let us build us a city, and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. 
* '''Qec dadochom, yoyepicm, yiyanax dachor dadopom, choyaleqec, chichilid dofoxrt chichor gibmimch; qecanax minor dodobol, od moch chichadxachl dnodmoxrt dodobol yit bodom lodor cor.'''
*''And they-said, we-start, we-make city-of us-for, tower-and, it-reach top-may it-of heaven-into; and-make name-of us-for, so not it-scatter something-subj.POSSIB. us-of widely surface-on earth-of whole.''

*5. And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded.
*'''Qec Rlataxam gagatom gagit gogoxrt dochach choyaleqec, ra namor dratuprt chachor.'''
*''And Lord-come he-down he-see he-subj.POSSIB city-at tower-and, all man-of child-build it-of.''

Back to the main page of [[Ch-m- Tlondor]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etymology of Ch-m- Tlondor and Related Tongues</title>
    <id>666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:27:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category: ch-m- tlondor</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Ch-m- Tlondor's Language Family ==

It is not known whether Ch-m- Tlondor is a language isolate.  Almost certainly its unique system of morphological predication is unique, but it is known that this system developed from a more standard system near the end of the Era of the Garden.  Attempts to relate the language to other tongues based on lexical reconstruction have so far failed.

'''Chomiz Talonid Or''':''Speech of Talonid''

''Overview.''
This tongue, originally spoken on each of the Five Islands of Tl-nd-, was essentially agglutinative, with little in the way of inflectional morphology.  It appears that in its oldest form it had a strict prohibition against consonant clusters, allowing only ''(stop)(liquid)'' combinations, and then only if the two consonants did not match in place (e.g. &quot;pl&quot; was permitted, as in '''ploz''', &quot;bear&quot;, but not &quot;dl&quot;).  Its inventory of phonemes included a set of fricatives not found in Ch-m- Tlondor:  ''sh, s, z, th, dh, zh.''

''Salient Features of Syntax.''
Chomiz Talonid Or was a strict SVO language.  Noun compounding was not permitted; adjectives and adpositional modifiers appeared after the head noun.  A rich set of auxiliary modifiers could be suffixed to a subject noun to indicate tense, aspect, necessity, possiblity, mood, and voice.

'''Changes between Chomiz Talonid Or and Ch-m- Tlondor'''

* Unstressed vowels were dropped.  Thus '''Chomiz Talonid Or''' became '''Chomz Tlond Or'''.
* Fricatives ''sh, s, z, th, dh, zh'' were dropped if they violated the syllabic structure of the language.  Thus '''Chomz Tlond Or''' became '''Chom Tlond Or'''.
* Internal vowels of verbs began to agree with the vowels of the auxiliary suffix.  For example, the noun '''gimach''', &quot;dog&quot;, and the verb '''ulmso''', &quot;run&quot;, originally combined with the progressive '''-sho''' to create the form '''gimachsho ulmso'''.  When the internal vowels began to agree, the form became '''gomochsho ulmso''' (or '''gmochsho ulm''' after the phonological changes noted above).
* The internal vowels of subject nouns came to be seen as part of the marking on the noun, rather than phonological agreement.  In other words, the base form of &quot;dog&quot; ceased to be '''gmach''' and became '''gm-ch''', with the internal vowel decided by the suffixed auxiliary marker.
* As the base forms of nouns lost their internal vowels, the auxiliary marker vowel was used in other places in the clause.  For example, in &quot;he saw the dog&quot;, originally '''gegash ziti gimach zhach''', the auxiliary marker '''-ash''' (perfective) changed the internal vowel of '''geg''' (&quot;he&quot;) to '''a'''.  This '''a''' was then spread to other nouns in the clause to serve as the internal vowel, producing '''gagash it gmach zhach'''.
* All remaining instances of fricatives ''sh, s, z, th, dh, zh'' were lost.
* This phonological change contributed to the loss of the suffixed auxiliary markers, which were, in general, syllables of the form VC, with C a coronal fricative.  With this loss, speakers began to treat the verb as a suffix; thus '''gagash it gmach zhach''' became '''gagit gmach ach'''.
* The use of verbs as suffixes spread to other predicates, including postpositions and adjectives.  Thus '''gagit gmach ach''' became '''gagit gmachach''', and '''Ch-m- Tl-nd- Or''' became '''Ch-m- Tlondor'''.

'''Examples of change:  full sentences'''

'''Changes to Ch-m- Tlondor:  the Era of Union and the Era of Dominion'''

Development of the verb as feature marking on the subject noun:  a grid of nine features of voice + lenition, on the first consonant gives a core verb, on the second consonant gives domain.  Adpositional infixes develop into case marking; freer word order.

Back to the main page of [[Ch-m- Tlondor]].

[[Category:Ch-m- Tlondor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran/Paternoster</title>
    <id>675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4045</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-13T17:55:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Paternoster_in_Ibran&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Paternoster_in_Ibran]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Goals</title>
    <id>676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4046</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-09T00:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[FrathWiki:About]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FrathWiki:About]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki talk:About</title>
    <id>678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47692</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-24T14:21:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Conlangs otherwise described? */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Is Frathwiki intended to include auxlangs, like Glosa, Esperanto, Loglan and my own Ceqli?

:Yes.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:24, 23 Aug 2004 (PDT)

...Um, so how is it not a place to promote auxlangs!? I'm interested as my main interest is 'practical' conlanging ( esp. Folkspraak). [[User:Xipirho|Xipirho]]

::Describe, yes.  Push, no.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:47, 3 January 2007 (PST)

==What FrathWiki shouldn't be==
* ''A place to describe well-known creations such as Esperanto or Tolkien's worlds.'' They got their own forums, and besides Tolkien is well represented in Wikipedia.  We could have a page linking to Tolkien language stuff on Wikipedia, though. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 14:10, 6 Jun 2005 (PDT)
*Oops for got to mention my edit here. 
[[User:Leon math|Leon math]] 18:12, 2 November 2006 (PST)

*What about different spelling schemes for already existing languages? Cheers. [[User:Xipirho|Xipirho]]
*: Those are okay too.  I've got a couple out here myself.  (I thought we had a category, but I guess not; but there's [[Latin pinyin]], [[Hangraphy]], [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]], and probably others). —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:47, 3 January 2007 (PST)

== &quot;Frath&quot;? ==

A name suggests what something is.  I'm curious why this Wiki is called the &quot;Frathwiki&quot; -- any particular meaning to &quot;Frath&quot;?  I would infer a sense of the purpose of the Wiki from its name, but I am not familiar with &quot;Frath&quot;.  Interesting name!

:Hmm, I never noticed this comment x.x   &quot;Frath&quot; just happened to be my domain name (for various reasons), and as this was the wiki I was putting on it, the name just followed.  (Of course there are a couple of other wikis on [http://frath.net/ frath.net] now, so it's not ''the'' frath wiki anymore...)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:47, 3 January 2007 (PST)

==Conlangs otherwise described?==
I have a website with some pages describing conlangs I thought worth putting info on. Is it acceptable to add this info on this Wiki as well? And how about pages copied from the ial.wikia.com site, which already are under a license compatible with putting on here? -- [[User:BRG|BRG]] 14:39, 23 July 2009 (UTC)

:Yes.  It's acceptable to make pages about languages described elsewhere here.  Just make sure that anything you add that you don't have the rights to personally has its license followed; some of them can be pretty weird in their requirements (for example, cc-by-sa requires a link to the cc-by-sa license, name of the source/author, title of the original work, link to the original, and relationship to the original [e.g. 'incorporates text from...']--all that can fit into a template, of course).   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 14:21, 24 July 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of mailing lists</title>
    <id>679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46095</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-17T03:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jim Henry</username>
        <id>180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Constructed language lists */ add conlang_learners and conlang-card-game</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page is a list of mailing lists where conlanging and/or conculturing etc. are on-topic.  (A list of nat-stuff too, as a resource for ''a posteriori'' creators?)

This list is woefully incomplete, please contribute to it.

==Constructed language lists==
*[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html CONLANG mailing list]
*:CONLANG is probably the largest constructed language list out there.  The listserv imposes a limit of 100 messages a day (which is occasionally reached) and there is a per-user limit of 5 messages a day to keep traffic down.  Auxlang advocacy is off-topic.

*[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/auxlang.html AUXLANG mailing list]
*:AUXLANG was split off of CONLANG to provide a place for specific auxlang concerns.

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/langmaker2 Langmaker2 Yahoogroup]
*:This group is associated with [http://www.langmaker.com/ langmaker.com].

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/romconlang Romconlang Yahoogroup]
*:A group for Romance conlangs, formerly called [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/romanceconlang romanceconlang].

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/pieconlang PIE Conlang Yahoogroup]
*:A group for conlangs based on [[Proto-Indo-European]].

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/celticonlang Celticonlang Yahoogroup]
*:A group for constructed languages based on [[Celtic languages]].

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/westasianconlangs/ West Asian Conlangs Yahoogroup]
*:A group for conlangs based on Turkic, Iranian, or Afro-Asiatic languages (or other languages of West Asia and North Africa).

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eastasianconlangs/ East Asian Conlangs Yahoogroup]
*:A group for conlangs based on languages of East Asia.

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/slaviconlang/ Slaviconlang Yahoogroup]
*:A group for conlangs based on [[Slavic languages]], Baltic, Greek, Albanian, or Uralic.

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/germaniconlang/ Germaniconlang Yahoogroup]
*:A group for conlangs based on [[Germanic languages]].

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlang/ Lostlangs Yahoogroup]
*:The discussion group of the [[League of Lost Languages]].

*[http://espanol.groups.yahoo.com/group/ideolengua/ IdeoLengua Yahoogroup]
*:In Spanish.

*[http://de.groups.yahoo.com/group/kunstsprachen/ Kunstsprachen Yahoogroup]
*:In German.

*[http://lists.conlang.org/listinfo.cgi/conlang_learners-conlang.org conlang_learners], a group of people voting on [[Learners shortlist|a conlang to learn together]]

*[http://groups.google.com/group/conlang-card-game Conlang Card Game Development], discussion of Glossotechnia

==Constructed culture lists==
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture Conculture Yahoogroup]
*:A general conculture group split off of CONLANG.  &lt;s&gt;[[Ill Bethisad]]-related traffic tends to dominate it, though.&lt;/s&gt;
Not so any more, since most [[Ill Bethisad]] discussion has moved to the IB wiki.

==Natural language lists==
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/qalam Qalam Yahoogroup]
*:A group for discussion of writing systems of the world.

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/cybalist/ Cybalist Yahoogroup]
*:A group for Indo-European historical linguistics.

*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Nostratic-L/ Nostratic-L Yahoogroup]
*:A group for discussing the controversial [[Nostratic]] hypothesis.

== Message Boards ==
*[http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/ Zompist Bulletin Board]
*:The ZBB is a message board for discussing Almea, conlangs, linguistics...

== IRC Channels ==
*[irc://irc.efnet.net/ConLang #ConLang] - The IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet

[[Category:Conlanging culture]]
[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran/Swadesh list</title>
    <id>680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4054</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-23T21:53:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Swadesh_list_for_Ibran&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Swadesh_list_for_Ibran]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Wikipedia</title>
    <id>681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4061</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T14:29:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>MediaWiki:Wikipedia moved to Template:Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Template:Wikipedia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Romance conlangs</title>
    <id>683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42757</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-05T11:52:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]

Conlangs derived from Latin, or from other Romance languages.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Indo-European conlangs</title>
    <id>684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22486</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-15T03:53:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/PreJz3|PreJz3]] ([[User_talk:PreJz3|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Muke|Muke]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
This category is for conlangs derived from Proto-Indo-European that are not in a more specific real-world family (such as [[:Category:Romance conlangs]]).

There may also eventually be a comparable [[:Category:Indo-European natlangs]].


[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Stub</title>
    <id>685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4027</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T18:03:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>MediaWiki:Stub moved to Template:Stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Template:Stub]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:How does one edit a page</title>
    <id>686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16679</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T01:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Help:Editing]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help:Editing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Language questions</title>
    <id>687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4023</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:10:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>FrathWiki:Language questions moved to Help:Language questions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help:Language questions]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Nuts and bolts</title>
    <id>688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T01:18:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Help:Nuts and bolts]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help:Nuts and bolts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Contents</title>
    <id>689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29860</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-13T10:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of help pages.

* [[Help:Editing]] - How does one edit a page? How does the wiki syntax work?

* [[Help:Goals]] - What is FrathWiki for?  What kinds of things can I add?

* [[Help:Language questions]] - How does language X handle feature Y?  Is this naturalistic?

* [[Help:Nuts and bolts]] - Why doesn't this program work?  I think I found a bug.  How do I...

* [[Help:How does one start a page]] - How ''does'' one start a page?

== All pages in the ''Help'' namespace ==

&lt;dpl&gt;
  namespace=Help
&lt;/dpl&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Goals</title>
    <id>690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5634</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T02:11:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FrathWiki:About]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki talk:Goals</title>
    <id>691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4053</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T19:37:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>FrathWiki talk:Goals moved to Help talk:Goals</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help talk:Goals]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dele</title>
    <id>692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40411</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-02T01:16:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Dele is a proto-language for [[Arda]] created by [[User:Dauyn|Aidan Grey]]. 

* [[Dele-English root list]]
* [[English-Dele root list]]

==Morphology==
===Case endings===
{|
! 
!colspan=2|   Fire
!colspan=2|  Water
!colspan=2|  Earth
|-
! !!  sg !! pl !! sg !! pl !! sg !! pl
|-
! nom 
|  +zero || -I: ||     -E ||        -I ||      -E: ||     +A
|-
! acc
| -E:N  ||  -YEN ||  +EN ||    -YAN ||    -AN ||     +A
|-
! dat
| -E:S ||  -YES ||    +ES ||       -YAS ||    -AS ||     +AS
|-
! gen
|      -N ||    +IN ||     +EN ||        +IN ||     +NA ||     -ANA
|-
! voc
|       +O ||    -YO ||     +A ||        -YA ||     -A ||      +A
|-
! ine
|       -NA: ||   -I:NA ||   -NA ||       +INA ||    -ANA ||    -ENA
|-
! abe
|       -LE ||   -LI: ||    -LA ||       -LI ||     -ELA ||    -ALA
|-
! loc 
|      -SE ||   -SI: ||    -SE ||       -SI ||     -AS ||     -ASA
|-
! ill       
| -MA: ||  -MI:     || -MA ||       -MI ||     -AMA ||    -AMA:
|-
! abl 
|      -O:S ||  -YO:S ||   +S ||        -YAS ||    +AS  ||    +ASA
|-
! all      
| -E:R ||  -YA:R ||   +ER ||       -YAR  ||   -AR ||     -ARA
|-
! perl
|      -NDA ||  -YAN ||    +NDA ||      -YANDA ||   -ANDA ||   -ANDAM
|-
! ess 
|      -RAS ||   -YARAS ||  +RAS ||      -YARAS ||  -ARDAS ||  -ARDAM
|-
! trans
|     +AM ||   -YAM   ||  +M ||        -YAM ||    -AM ||     -AMA
|-
! com
|     +AS ||   -YAS ||    +S ||        -YAS ||    -AS ||     +SA:
|-
! ins
|       -QO: ||  +IQO ||    -QA ||       +IQA  ||   +QA ||     -AQA:
|}

This is the 'easy-fied' table of declensions.  The minus &quot;-&quot; before a suffix indicates it replaces the final stem vowel, while the plus &quot;+&quot; indicates the vowel remains.

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Dele]]
[[Category:Arda]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dele-English root list</title>
    <id>693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T06:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#W|W]]  [[#Y|Y]]
|}

==A==
* '''a:''' (cry of joy)
* '''akha:''' (exclamation of pain)
* '''ala''' that
* '''ala''' that
* '''ana''' this
* '''ana''' this
* '''ara''' that yonder

==B==
* '''ba:yan''' helping; serving
* '''baban''' tip
* '''bada''' itter
* '''badha''' need, v.
* '''baga''' sickle
* '''bagha''' hide, v.
* '''baka''' flat of hand
* '''balu''' surge, v.
* '''bama''' help, v.
* '''bana''' reed
* '''bana''' scrape, v.
* '''banin''' dung; dark liquid
* '''bapa''' barley
* '''bapa''' be caught, v.
* '''bara''' greedy
* '''barat''' rip to pieces, v.
* '''basa''' coagulate, v.
* '''basam''' hit; weaken, v.
* '''bata''' liquid; wine
* '''batha''' twig; branch
* '''baya''' sow, v.
* '''bayan''' curse
* '''bebhe''' help, enable, v.
* '''beki''' cut in, v.
* '''bele''' collapse, v.
* '''beleh''' wander about, v.
* '''beler''' pole; mast
* '''beni''' slanting
* '''beqel''' twist to rope, v.
* '''beri''' hold in lap, v.
* '''beta''' fall, v.
* '''bewa''' turn, v.
* '''bha:ka''' rip up; open, v.
* '''bhabha''' wish, v.
* '''bhabu''' be mouldy, v.
* '''bhadha''' kill
* '''bhama''' life force
* '''bhami''' understand, v.
* '''bhani''' flame; burn, v.
* '''bhapa''' thrust; hit, v.
* '''bhara''' one-eyed
* '''bharu''' be depressed, v.
* '''bhatha''' shoulder; arm; thigh
* '''bhatu''' rub, v.
* '''bhayal''' hollow like a pipe
* '''bhayu''' smell, v.
* '''bhebe''' vein; tendon
* '''bhedu''' dip into, v.
* '''bhege''' hello
* '''bhekhe''' nephew
* '''bheku''' produce, v.
* '''bhere''' incline, v.
* '''bheseb''' shout, v.
* '''bhetha''' touch; press, v.
* '''bhethe''' crops
* '''bhidi''' celebrate, v.
* '''bhighi''' set in motion, v.
* '''bhigi''' groin
* '''bhimi''' spar
* '''bhini''' new
* '''bhini''' new
* '''bhisis''' grow, v.
* '''bhiyim''' oneself, for oneself
* '''bhnsn''' suck, v.
* '''bhoba''' humble, v.
* '''bhoko''' collect, v.
* '''bholo''' bottom
* '''bhoni''' sulky
* '''bhothi''' creep; crawl, v.
* '''bhubu''' backside; rump
* '''bhuhun''' intelligence
* '''bhuku''' become bloated, v.
* '''bhuru''' across; through
* '''bhutu''' blood
* '''bhuyuph''' beam; board
* '''bibhi''' slide, v.
* '''bidhi''' bleat, v.
* '''bidi''' move forward, v.
* '''biki''' sound, v.
* '''bili''' hoot, owl-noise
* '''bimir''' wrinkle up, v.
* '''bini''' tremble, v.
* '''binit''' feast, v.
* '''biniw''' struggle, v.
* '''bisi''' mud
* '''biyi''' tower up, v.
* '''biyil''' rib; breast
* '''blml''' spy; watch, v.
* '''blnll''' maple
* '''bmghm''' accustom oneself, v.
* '''boda''' bathe, v.
* '''boli''' war; army
* '''bomi''' attack, v.
* '''bona''' turn away, v.
* '''bono''' pipe
* '''boqo''' press; crowd, v.
* '''bowo''' hang, v.
* '''boyu''' open, v.
* '''brgr''' something of sticks
* '''bunu''' goat
* '''busu''' husband's mother
* '''buwud''' sheath

==D==
* '''da: ''' father
* '''da:ka''' horn
* '''da:na''' man
* '''da:pha''' colour (light)
* '''daba''' rope
* '''daga''' growl; snarl, v.
* '''daha''' around, both
* '''dala''' rotten
* '''dala, robho''' brother
* '''damu''' want; choose, v.
* '''dapap''' small, weak
* '''dara''' be strong, v.
* '''datha''' dry
* '''datha''' firm
* '''dathi''' water course
* '''dawad''' coal
* '''dawas''' stick; club
* '''dayap''' reach somewhere, v.
* '''de''' (emphasis)
* '''de:khe''' long
* '''de:nu''' daughter-in-law
* '''de:phe''' soon
* '''debe''' oath
* '''debe''' oath
* '''deda''' threaten, v.
* '''dede''' well up, v.
* '''deghe''' overpower, v.
* '''dehes''' dribble; drip, v.
* '''dekhe''' drone; bark, v.
* '''delad''' encourage, v.
* '''dele''' tongue
* '''dele''' tongue
* '''deli''' metal
* '''depe''' upwards
* '''dere''' twitter, v.
* '''desim''' trample, v.
* '''dethib''' show, v.
* '''dhaba''' nose
* '''dhaba''' nose
* '''dhabha''' think, v.
* '''dhaha''' far off
* '''dhana''' beech tree
* '''dhani''' dispute, v.
* '''dhapha''' smile, v.
* '''dhaphi''' slit, v.
* '''dharu''' steal; rob, v.
* '''dhasa''' bring,carry, v.
* '''dhasuk''' stretch, v.
* '''dhatha''' dive, v.
* '''dhatha''' ice
* '''dhawa''' trip; trample, v.
* '''dhe:se''' weasel
* '''dhedi''' resound, v.
* '''dhekhu''' change, v.
* '''dhekhu''' ferment, v.
* '''dhema''' heavy
* '''dheme''' skin
* '''dheme''' skin
* '''dhene''' slant; slope, v.
* '''dhese''' blue; plant dye
* '''dheseg''' freeze; cold, v.
* '''dhibi''' whale, large fish
* '''dhili''' dig, v.
* '''dhini''' be aware of, v.
* '''dhlll''' milk
* '''dhlnl''' throw, v.
* '''dhnqnr''' sharp
* '''dhokho''' onion
* '''dhono''' work, v.
* '''dhori''' behold
* '''dhosi''' contract a disease, v.
* '''dhotu''' intestines
* '''dhowak''' turn; wind, v.
* '''dhowom''' satisfy oneself, v.
* '''dhrwr''' quail
* '''dhusu''' behind
* '''dhutu''' beautiful
* '''di:gi''' wild animal
* '''didi''' bowel
* '''diliph''' hook
* '''dimi''' house
* '''dini''' thou
* '''dirir''' stand out, v.
* '''diyi''' middle
* '''dlll''' dirt
* '''dlylb''' work, do, v.
* '''dm:hm''' look out for, v.
* '''dmbhm''' mist; steam
* '''do:bhu''' doorpost
* '''do:ma''' significant talk
* '''domi''' tread; go, v.
* '''domo''' blood clot
* '''domu''' strew; sow, v.
* '''doni''' swallow, v.
* '''dopa''' glisten, v.
* '''dori''' plait, v.
* '''doro''' swing; spin, v.
* '''doyugh''' god (name of)
* '''drwrth''' strong; big
* '''dudu''' jaw
* '''dugu''' stretch out; broad, v.
* '''dukhu''' punch, thrust, v.
* '''dunus''' get over, v.
* '''duru''' round object
* '''duru''' round
* '''dusu''' mill, grind
* '''duwu''' gable; head
* '''duwudh''' hew, v.

==E==
* '''ese''' hot; warm

==G==
* '''gabha''' cream
* '''gabi''' bow; incline, v.
* '''gadha''' lie down, v.
* '''gagu''' bird-song
* '''gaka''' defecate, v.
* '''gala''' bird
* '''gala''' scorn, v.
* '''galu''' right place
* '''gana''' jump, v.
* '''ganu''' spout, v.
* '''gapha''' crouch down, v.
* '''gapha''' form
* '''gapi''' splash, v.
* '''gara''' earth
* '''gara''' lack
* '''garam''' wizard
* '''gasa''' flock; feather
* '''gasi''' hit; sharp, v.
* '''gathi''' narrow; thin
* '''gawal''' step back; shy, v.
* '''gawas''' below
* '''gaya''' scratch skin, v.
* '''ge''' you (pl.)
* '''ge:ne''' diaphragm; mind
* '''gedi''' spread legs, v.
* '''geghe''' henbane
* '''gehe''' bitter taste
* '''geke''' grunt, v.
* '''geme''' duck
* '''geni''' limb
* '''gephe''' awaken, v.
* '''gere''' rip up, v.
* '''geris''' rock
* '''gese''' without
* '''getha''' wet element
* '''gethu''' chin(bone)
* '''gewew''' bind, v.
* '''geyekh''' close in, v.
* '''gha:ki''' favourable
* '''gha:ra''' thigh; leg
* '''gha:wa''' carve, v.
* '''gha:yu''' warm; roast, v.
* '''ghabi''' body part (curved)
* '''ghada''' clothe, v.
* '''ghadi''' stake
* '''ghala''' stare, v.
* '''ghalad''' milk, wipe, v.
* '''ghali''' raised place
* '''ghama''' aspen tree
* '''ghama''' broad; flat
* '''ghama''' perish, v.
* '''ghana''' whistle; pipe, v.
* '''ghapha''' catch sight of, v.
* '''ghasag''' heel, back of knee;
* '''ghata''' squirrel; weasel
* '''ghawa''' relatives
* '''ghawu''' grain
* '''ghayat''' scab
* '''ghele''' nail; penis
* '''ghenas''' notice, v.
* '''ghene''' we, you and I
* '''gheni''' vine
* '''ghepu''' vault, v.
* '''ghesi''' shriek, cry, v.
* '''ghete''' young of animal
* '''gheye''' tread down, v.
* '''ghi:bi''' victory
* '''ghibhi''' climb, stride, v.
* '''ghibil''' arrange, v.
* '''ghini''' over; above
* '''ghisi''' secrete, v.
* '''ghiti''' butter, milk
* '''ghlkl''' hollow out, v.
* '''ghmdm''' press, v.
* '''ghmsm''' shut, v.
* '''gho:kho''' strong
* '''gho:ma''' miss; deceive, v.
* '''ghodhu''' envelop, v.
* '''ghosi''' foam; spray
* '''ghoti''' fish
* '''ghowa''' sing, v.
* '''ghowim''' rock; stone
* '''ghuru''' side
* '''ghuru''' side
* '''gidhi''' smooth; even
* '''gighi''' space; room
* '''ginid''' weave, v.
* '''glll''' pile up, v.
* '''gm:dm''' shadow
* '''gm:phm''' pull out, v.
* '''gmgm''' span of hand
* '''gmlm''' quack; croak, v.
* '''gmwmm''' heath; free land
* '''gnlnl''' burning; heat; anger
* '''gnrnkh''' trouble oneself, v.
* '''go:mokh''' ring
* '''gobhu''' beyond
* '''gobo''' skull
* '''gobu''' act secretly, v.
* '''goko''' torment; pain
* '''golo''' pleased, well inclined
* '''gomi''' reath
* '''gomo''' stink, v.
* '''gono''' sparkle, v.
* '''goro''' find; take, v.
* '''gosa''' human being
* '''gosol''' grow up, v.
* '''goto''' burden
* '''goyos''' fat; thick
* '''gr:mr''' lump
* '''gryr''' shake, v.
* '''gunu''' pot for cooking
* '''guru''' plait; weave, v.

==H==
* '''ha:da''' front, brow
* '''hagha''' bite, v.
* '''haku''' hiss, v.
* '''hala''' work with sharp tool, v.
* '''hamu''' grey
* '''hanu''' dwindle, v.
* '''hara''' sun
* '''hara''' rub; bore, v.
* '''hara''' spongy
* '''hara''' sun
* '''haya''' rob; rub, v.
* '''hayat''' name
* '''he:ge''' yesterday
* '''hedhi''' pit; hollow
* '''hephe''' quick
* '''hepi''' twine threads, v.
* '''heyek''' sound; drone, v.
* '''himi''' hollow
* '''hiri''' bend, to crook, v.
* '''hnsnw''' seek, v.
* '''ho:mo''' smoke, v.
* '''ho:mo''' smoke
* '''homo''' summer
* '''hoqo''' old
* '''hoqo''' laugh, v.
* '''horo''' taste something, v.
* '''hrthr''' twig (thin &amp; pliable)

==I==
* '''ihi''' many
* '''imi''' grease; fat

==K==
* '''ka:ba''' live, v.
* '''ka:na''' wave hand, v.
* '''kabu''' hail
* '''kadha''' version
* '''kagha''' woe; wolf
* '''kaka''' dense
* '''kala''' dampen; wet, v.
* '''kala''' neck
* '''kalah''' whole
* '''kama''' fly; gnat
* '''kama''' vulva
* '''kapa''' recognise, v.
* '''karak''' desire; lust for, v.
* '''karas''' choose, v.
* '''karudh''' wood; forest
* '''kasa''' attach, v.
* '''kasa''' three
* '''kasa''' press; maltreat, v.
* '''kasa''' three
* '''kata''' be warm, v.
* '''kawu''' humming sound
* '''kaya''' taste, v.
* '''kayagh''' draw; scoop, v.
* '''kayakh''' all
* '''ke''' we
* '''ke''' we
* '''ke:mu''' plug; pin
* '''ke:re''' pray, v.
* '''ke:se''' hesitate, v.
* '''kebe''' reward; pay
* '''kebhe''' hedgehog
* '''kedhi''' tip, sting
* '''keghe''' bird (large)
* '''kegu''' ster
* '''kele''' gnaw, v.
* '''kene''' head
* '''kera''' mow, v.
* '''kere''' mock; scorn, v.
* '''kese''' abuse, v.
* '''kesu''' baa
* '''keta''' slack; silly
* '''ketha''' lead, show the way, v.
* '''kethe''' (interrogative)
* '''kethe''' tired; weak
* '''kethem''' staff (as support)
* '''kha:ka''' stiff; rigid
* '''kha:la''' hunt; desire, v.
* '''kha:san''' lack
* '''kha:wal''' stone; rock
* '''kha:wal''' stone
* '''kha:wam''' shit; hole, v.
* '''kha:wan''' eiderduck
* '''khaba''' twig (pliable)
* '''khabha''' quiver, v.
* '''khaghu''' horse
* '''khaha''' move violently, v.
* '''khaka''' marrow; brain
* '''khama''' see, v.
* '''khama''' see
* '''khani''' stride, v.
* '''khapa''' unwilling; vexed
* '''khapi''' be at, be located
* '''khara''' heart
* '''kharu''' pole; rod
* '''khasa''' pole; stem
* '''khasa''' whirl, v.
* '''khata''' bone
* '''khata''' gravel; grit
* '''khawan''' reach; grip, v.
* '''khe:be''' sharp; pointed
* '''khe:ru''' pebble
* '''khedhe''' run; flow, v.
* '''kheghu''' think about, v.
* '''khehe''' feather
* '''khela''' aside; one's own
* '''khele''' grab, v.
* '''khenen''' dumbfound, v.
* '''khewen''' person
* '''khewen''' person
* '''khigi''' set, v.
* '''khili''' like, similar
* '''khini''' spring
* '''khinip''' plot; originate, v.
* '''khiniy''' pea; legume
* '''khiphi''' speak formally, v.
* '''khirigh''' clear, pure
* '''khisip''' shine; (colour), v.
* '''khitit''' shout; loud, v.
* '''khlnl''' loud
* '''khmqmh''' melt, v.
* '''khnbn''' master; lord
* '''khnln''' prattle, v.
* '''khobo''' eight
* '''khoda''' father-in-law
* '''khodo''' stay overnight, v.
* '''khoko''' belch, v.
* '''khoku''' fish (type of)
* '''khona''' cherry
* '''khophi''' force, use force, v.
* '''khora''' winnow grain, v.
* '''khoro''' row; herd
* '''khorom''' line up, v.
* '''khoru''' thrush
* '''khota''' sharp-edged
* '''khoti''' goose
* '''khowa''' babbling
* '''khowo''' croak (of frog or raven)
* '''khudu''' root (edible)
* '''khudu''' root
* '''khuru''' plaited container
* '''khuwu''' shriek, v.
* '''khuwul''' bee
* '''ki:mi''' do
* '''kiki''' penis
* '''kili''' narrow
* '''kimi''' stem; reed
* '''kiri''' leather
* '''kiwi''' colour (dark)
* '''kiwiy''' tire, make tired, v.
* '''kiyi''' scratch, v.
* '''kiyim''' promote; hurry, v.
* '''klhl''' swollen; thick
* '''klsl''' lumpy; knot
* '''km:pm''' goatskin
* '''knkn''' leprosy
* '''kobi''' press; pain, v.
* '''kohas''' peel; skin
* '''koho''' rain
* '''koho''' rain
* '''kokha''' warm
* '''konokh''' ground
* '''kori''' tear, v.
* '''korug''' man, life-force
* '''korun''' sift; riddle, v.
* '''kosa''' extinguish, v.
* '''kosor''' plait, weave, v.
* '''krrr''' opinion
* '''ku:ru''' rod
* '''ku:su''' scratch; dig, v.
* '''kunu''' elm
* '''kuru''' hard
* '''kusuth''' trickle, v.
* '''kutu''' steal; act secretly, v.

==L==
* '''la:na''' spiritual depression
* '''la:tha''' reach, v.
* '''la:wa''' bird-cry
* '''la:ya''' star
* '''la:ya''' sound; hear, v.
* '''la:ya''' star
* '''labha''' puddle; swamp
* '''lada''' ingernail; toenail
* '''lada''' run, v.
* '''laga''' blackbird
* '''lagha''' stick
* '''laka''' bird of prey
* '''laka''' gland
* '''lakha''' bulge, v.
* '''lala''' bore, stab, v.
* '''lali''' elbow; forearm
* '''lali''' raw; coarse; bitter
* '''lalu''' chequered
* '''lama''' hand
* '''lamap''' buy, v.
* '''lamu''' breathe, v.
* '''lana''' along
* '''lanar''' sole of foot
* '''lanir''' now
* '''lapa''' year
* '''lapha''' pitiful; small
* '''lapu''' tame, v.
* '''lara''' bullock, young ox
* '''lara''' to, with
* '''lari''' short
* '''lasa''' ash tree
* '''latad''' hazel
* '''lathu''' wool; woollen garment
* '''latu''' wet, v.
* '''lawa''' sober
* '''lawad''' pant, v.
* '''lawu''' pass away, v.
* '''layah''' break; grind, v.
* '''layar''' bank of river
* '''layaw''' suffer, v.
* '''layi''' fill up, v.
* '''le''' you
* '''le''' you
* '''le:su''' fabric (woven)
* '''lebhi''' on each other
* '''lebhu''' hum; buzz, v.
* '''lede''' dark
* '''ledhu''' honey
* '''ledu''' thrust, v.
* '''leghe''' wide
* '''leghedh''' stall
* '''lehe''' flesh; meat
* '''lehe''' go; stride, v.
* '''leke''' passage, narrow place
* '''lela''' moisten, v.
* '''lele''' soft; mild
* '''leli''' apportion, v.
* '''lema''' heavy; burdensome
* '''leme''' harm; crime
* '''lemeg''' break in, steal, v.
* '''lemi''' false
* '''lemu''' rip off, v.
* '''lene''' be bent, v.
* '''leni''' intend, v.
* '''lepe''' through
* '''lepe''' through
* '''lere''' scratch; slit, v.
* '''leres''' tense; tight
* '''lesedh''' prickly plant
* '''lesi''' lame
* '''lesid''' sweat, v.
* '''lete''' fly about, v.
* '''lewa''' worry, v.
* '''leyer''' damage, v.
* '''libhi''' mountain
* '''libhi''' snow
* '''lidhi''' hundred
* '''lidi''' lard; fat
* '''lighi''' pregnant animal
* '''likhi''' sand
* '''likhi''' sand
* '''lili''' unite, v.
* '''lilip''' suck(le); breast, v.
* '''limi''' hoof
* '''lini''' hem in; narrow, v.
* '''liphi''' door
* '''lipi''' deer
* '''liqi''' push away, v.
* '''liri''' linen
* '''lirith''' bitter plant
* '''lisi''' lurk, v.
* '''lithi''' rite, ceremony
* '''lithi''' rite, ceremony
* '''liti''' thick-haired
* '''liwi''' swirl, v.
* '''llslw''' sparrow; finch
* '''llthl''' fetlock
* '''llwlw''' sad, afflicted
* '''lm:dm''' appear; see, v.
* '''lm:km''' be damp, v.
* '''lm:mm''' share, v.
* '''lm:sm:p''' flee, v.
* '''lm:wm:l''' dangle, v.
* '''lmbm''' slack
* '''lmlm''' day
* '''lmwm''' torment, v.
* '''lo:gho''' hear, v.
* '''lo:ho''' quick; violent
* '''lo:si''' orphan
* '''loba''' kiss
* '''lobi''' throw; strew, v.
* '''logi''' scratch; comb, v.
* '''logo''' ear
* '''logo''' swelling
* '''loki''' year, to go
* '''loli''' bend; swing, v.
* '''lolo''' plait; string, v.
* '''lolu''' intestines
* '''lona''' wade, v.
* '''lono''' leg; bone
* '''loqor''' lean on, v.
* '''loro''' sleep, v.
* '''loro''' sleep
* '''losi''' taste; enjoy, v.
* '''losu''' twenty
* '''lota''' dung
* '''lothi''' worry about sth, v.
* '''loya''' buttock; hip
* '''loyom''' dry; thirst, v.
* '''loyus''' totter, v.
* '''lr:lr''' cook, v.
* '''lrwrg''' carp
* '''lu:nu''' respect; punish, v.
* '''lu:su''' water
* '''lu:su''' water
* '''ludu''' creaking
* '''luhu''' split; cut, v.
* '''luku''' wolf
* '''lulu''' eagle
* '''lusu''' grain (type of)
* '''luyun''' blue
* '''luyup''' jump happily, v.
* '''luyus''' hornless

==M==
* '''ma:''' mother
* '''ma:''' mother
* '''ma:ha''' night
* '''ma:ha''' night
* '''ma:kha''' fear, v.
* '''ma:ma''' put, v.
* '''ma:na''' strength
* '''maba''' place to stay
* '''mabha''' cough, v.
* '''mabha''' slide; slippery, v.
* '''mada''' flea
* '''mada''' woman
* '''mada''' woman
* '''madhi''' apart
* '''mahuh''' trip, v.
* '''maka''' press; crush, v.
* '''maku''' glue
* '''mala''' hit; thrust, v.
* '''malal''' be afraid, v.
* '''malu''' be friendly, v.
* '''mama''' knit; knot, v.
* '''mamu''' like; spare, v.
* '''mana''' noose, bow
* '''mana''' spray;, v.
* '''manag''' fold; to hide; skin, v.
* '''mapa''' stretch out hand for, v.
* '''mapha''' frisky
* '''maphi''' be worth, v.
* '''mara''' fabric; spun yarn
* '''masa''' weed
* '''masan''' cleft, hollow
* '''masu''' pledge
* '''matagh''' juice
* '''matha''' good
* '''maya''' happen, come to pass
* '''maya''' happen, v.
* '''maya''' rest, v.
* '''mayaq''' loose
* '''mayar''' blemish
* '''me:du''' lift; weigh, v.
* '''me:le''' weep, v.
* '''me:pe''' gnat
* '''me:we''' cat
* '''mede''' fist
* '''mege''' spin, v.
* '''meka''' tear
* '''mekhu''' spots (bright and dark)
* '''mele''' speckled
* '''meme''' swallow, v.
* '''memi''' miserable; naked
* '''memu''' pail (wooden)
* '''mene''' belly
* '''menu''' lick, v.
* '''mere''' moon
* '''meri''' vine; stem
* '''mesa''' body-part
* '''mese''' attend, pay attention, v.
* '''mesew''' udder
* '''mesu''' awl
* '''mete''' want; wish, v.
* '''mewu''' small animal
* '''meyagh''' lie; camp, v.
* '''meye''' go energetically, v.
* '''meyem''' raging
* '''mi''' in
* '''mi:khi''' cry, make wild noises, v.
* '''midhi''' woollen
* '''mighi''' stamp into pieces, v.
* '''migi''' mummy
* '''migin''' place, v.
* '''miki''' glowing coal
* '''mili''' skilled manually
* '''mimi''' grumble, v.
* '''mini''' pour, v.
* '''miriw''' beside; outside
* '''misi''' draw lots, v.
* '''misin''' old man
* '''mithi''' be hostile, v.
* '''ml:nlgh''' wet
* '''mlphl''' ant
* '''mlthl''' run away, v.
* '''mmmm''' light, v.
* '''mngn''' bunch
* '''mnmn''' tower; jut out, v.
* '''mo:du''' think of, v.
* '''mo:ra''' ship
* '''mo:tam''' sound; bellow, v.
* '''moba''' reproach, v.
* '''mobi''' light; pale
* '''mobu''' high; noble
* '''mogo''' vessel
* '''mola''' oak
* '''moli''' bud; twig
* '''momi''' rape (vegetable)
* '''momo''' below
* '''mono''' sip, v.
* '''monu''' rag
* '''mopho''' shine; look, v.
* '''mopo''' dish
* '''mora''' pant; breathe, v.
* '''moro''' glitter; white; birch , v.
* '''moru''' sieve, v.
* '''morugh''' lord
* '''moso''' help; use, v.
* '''mosodh''' embrace; bind, v.
* '''motho''' fear
* '''mowi''' crawl, v.
* '''mowo''' let; leave over, v.
* '''mowok''' creator; producer
* '''mowos''' row; oar, v.
* '''mrlr''' other, there
* '''mudu''' put away, v.
* '''muhum''' twig
* '''mulugh''' stop, v.
* '''mumu''' nape of the neck
* '''munu''' wetness; spring
* '''muyug''' pan

==N==
* '''na:bhi''' lamb
* '''na:gha''' stand up stiff, v.
* '''na:pa''' opious; much
* '''na:su''' lightning
* '''naba''' navel
* '''naba''' shrivel up, v.
* '''nada''' swim
* '''nada''' pay attention to, v.
* '''nada''' swim
* '''nadha''' fix, v.
* '''naga''' feed, v.
* '''nagha''' hold fast, v.
* '''naghu''' stream, v.
* '''nagi''' plough, v.
* '''naha''' barb; tip
* '''naka''' center
* '''naka''' hit, hew, v.
* '''nakha''' trail, v.
* '''nalam''' flicker; blink, v.
* '''nama''' be ensnared, v.
* '''nama''' egg
* '''nama''' healthy
* '''namagh''' shoulder; hip
* '''namu''' be influenced, v.
* '''nana''' sweet
* '''napa''' slack
* '''napa''' swill, v.
* '''napha''' opposite; towards
* '''napu''' cut, injure, v.
* '''naqa''' enjoy, v.
* '''nara''' limb of body
* '''nari''' seethe, v.
* '''nasa''' intestines; stomach
* '''nasu''' sing; rejoice, v.
* '''nata''' body; form
* '''nata''' drip, v.
* '''nata''' wool; flock
* '''nati''' damp
* '''nawar''' strength (of youth)
* '''naya''' daughter
* '''ne''' I
* '''ne:ke''' move, set in motion, v.
* '''ne:su''' pole; stick
* '''neba''' be heavy; pregnant, v.
* '''nebak''' hollow, cave
* '''nede''' fog; foggy
* '''nege''' living-space
* '''neghe''' bore through, v.
* '''neghi''' make; form, v.
* '''negi''' left
* '''neka''' hit; wound, v.
* '''neke''' wild boar
* '''nele''' cloud (dark)
* '''nemi''' hack; hoe, v.
* '''nemu''' suck(le), v.
* '''nene''' plaited work
* '''nephe''' scratch; slit, v.
* '''nepi''' stupid
* '''nera''' soft; tender
* '''nere''' under
* '''nese''' calf of leg
* '''nete''' stiff
* '''neye''' branch
* '''nidhi''' loins; kidney
* '''niki''' golden colour
* '''nini''' touch, v.
* '''niri''' separate, v.
* '''niriw''' axe
* '''niwi''' endure, v.
* '''niyik''' swarm; swell, v.
* '''nldhl''' piece of land
* '''nlkl''' bond; bundle
* '''nlylr''' tarry; live, v.
* '''nmbm''' be fat; swarm, v.
* '''nn:sn:d''' lay down, v.
* '''nnbn''' become thin, v.
* '''nnln''' pot; vat
* '''nnthn''' muddy
* '''nnwn''' plant (type of)
* '''no:hom''' beer, bitter
* '''nobhagh''' biting insects
* '''nodho''' finger
* '''noghi''' be silent, v.
* '''noho''' colour (type of)
* '''nokho''' act cautiously, v.
* '''noki''' summer; harvest
* '''noku''' jay
* '''nolat''' hurt, v.
* '''nolo''' be astonished, v.
* '''nomu''' sheep
* '''nomun''' light (in movement)
* '''nona''' like; love, v.
* '''nonu''' thud, dull noise
* '''nopu''' excite; rouse, v.
* '''norar''' ward off, v.
* '''noro''' go, v.
* '''nosol''' pig
* '''nosu''' kindle, set alight, v.
* '''noto''' five
* '''nrhrn''' wander; go, v.
* '''nrkr''' renounce, v.
* '''nrmr''' sacrificial animal
* '''nryr''' alone
* '''ntnr''' sister-in-law
* '''nu:bhu''' north wind
* '''nubu''' hurdle
* '''nudu''' shut off, v.
* '''numu''' wood (piece of)
* '''nuru''' near to
* '''nusu''' breasts
* '''nusu''' nipple; breast
* '''nutu''' wide; long
* '''nuwud''' cheer up, v.
* '''nuyu''' stand, v.
* '''nuyu''' stand

==O==
* '''o:dho''' liver
* '''o:yo''' (exclamation of joy)

==P==
* '''pa:pi''' strain, v.
* '''pa:tha''' possess, v.
* '''paba''' settle, v.
* '''pabha''' edge
* '''paghir''' long and thin
* '''pahi''' lead, v.
* '''pala''' white
* '''pala''' mummy, daddy
* '''pala''' scream, v.
* '''pala''' white
* '''palag''' earth; floor
* '''palidh''' bend; elbow, v.
* '''pama''' bull; cow
* '''pama''' praise aloud, v.
* '''pana''' sew, v.
* '''panu''' skin, v.
* '''para''' thrust, v.
* '''parar''' brown (dark), grey
* '''patha''' foot
* '''patu''' agape
* '''pawa''' swell up, v.
* '''pawap''' needy; sad; ill
* '''pawu''' clamber, v.
* '''paya''' out of
* '''paya''' outside
* '''paya''' swift; rapid
* '''peba''' sour; bitter
* '''pebe''' jug; pot
* '''pebha''' seize; grasp, v.
* '''pekhe''' small
* '''pekhe''' small
* '''pele''' religious concept
* '''peled''' swallow, v.
* '''pemib''' be happy, v.
* '''pena''' gird, v.
* '''pene''' tooth
* '''pene''' lofty
* '''pene''' tooth
* '''penek''' murmur, v.
* '''penu''' ride a vehicle, v.
* '''pepe''' throw; shoot, v.
* '''peqa''' tender; weak
* '''pesar''' naked
* '''pese''' dread; horror
* '''peseb''' tell lies, v.
* '''petha''' thousand
* '''pewe''' mouth
* '''peyeg''' injure, v.
* '''pha:ra''' up to
* '''pha:wadh''' be roused, v.
* '''phada''' seize, v.
* '''phaga''' leaf; bloom
* '''phala''' sneeze
* '''phali''' down
* '''phalu''' throw; toss, v.
* '''phama''' something bent
* '''phapa''' bark
* '''phapa''' mark; distinguish, v.
* '''phapa''' wither, v.
* '''phara''' bear, give birth to, v.
* '''phara''' left, on the left
* '''phara''' puddle; ditch
* '''pharam''' blame, v.
* '''phasa''' ask, v.
* '''phasath''' take; seize, v.
* '''phasi''' snore, v.
* '''phawa''' humming insect
* '''phayuh''' swamp; lake
* '''phe:ri''' divide, v.
* '''phebe''' knee
* '''phebe''' shine; light, v.
* '''phegu''' fragile, harm
* '''phele''' spear
* '''phema''' pack, v.
* '''pheme''' ruminate; throat, v.
* '''phepi''' bale
* '''phere''' destroy, v.
* '''pheri''' gain, earn, v.
* '''phethe''' mud
* '''phi:yin''' swarm, v.
* '''phibis''' bellow, v.
* '''phigi''' river, flowing water
* '''phikhi''' shine, light, v.
* '''phili''' vault; breast
* '''phini''' strip; beam
* '''phiri''' vomit, v.
* '''phisigh''' concubine
* '''phiti''' shimmer, v.
* '''pho:nar''' rage; tower up, v.
* '''pho:sut''' starling
* '''phobu''' pillar
* '''phoda''' abscess
* '''phophi''' fodder (green)
* '''phosus''' pelt
* '''phumul''' sheep; pelt
* '''pigi''' plait; weave, v.
* '''pimi''' young
* '''pini''' bow-wow
* '''pinib''' rise, v.
* '''piphi''' respect, v.
* '''pipi''' sweep, v.
* '''piri''' come forth, v.
* '''pithi''' be flat, v.
* '''piwit''' spit; spew, v.
* '''piwit''' spit
* '''plthl''' fight; struggle, v.
* '''pm:khm''' increase, v.
* '''pm:nm:gh''' rest comfortably, v.
* '''pmmm''' spleen; milt
* '''po:so''' seven
* '''po:so''' seven
* '''pogho''' wound; injure, v.
* '''pona''' knead, v.
* '''pono''' fit, suit, v.
* '''powak''' lattice-work
* '''pr:br''' lean; bow, v.
* '''prlrd''' bean
* '''putu''' unpleasant

==Q==
* '''qalik''' marry, v.
* '''qama''' sit, v.
* '''qama''' sit
* '''qeme''' explore, v.
* '''qenu''' run; roll, v.
* '''qeye''' (exclamation)
* '''qoha''' needy
* '''qoso''' break to pieces, v.
* '''qoyuk''' hurry, v.
* '''qrtr''' pointed; stake
* '''qryrt''' post

==R==
* '''r''' (demonstrative)
* '''ra''' it, one, they
* '''ra:pa''' swift
* '''ra:wap''' wane, v.
* '''ra:ya''' lessen; small, v.
* '''raba''' concern oneself with, v.
* '''rada''' world
* '''rada''' world
* '''radha''' poppy
* '''radhar''' clucking
* '''raga''' cover, v.
* '''raga''' scent, v.
* '''raga''' sprinkle, v.
* '''ragha''' sink in, v.
* '''raghi''' be guilty, v.
* '''ragi''' swamped by water
* '''raka''' enclosure
* '''rakha''' green
* '''rakha''' strive, v.
* '''rala''' arm
* '''ralar''' womb
* '''rama''' break, v.
* '''rama''' walk
* '''rama''' walk
* '''rama''' yawn, v.
* '''rami''' now, therefore
* '''rana''' complain, v.
* '''rana''' quake, v.
* '''ranadh''' leave behind, v.
* '''rapa''' abhor; detest, v.
* '''rapa''' squash, v.
* '''rapha''' plait, v.
* '''rapur''' lips
* '''rara''' crumble, v.
* '''rasa''' hoarse
* '''rasuy''' deep; hollow
* '''rata''' pole; stick; stem
* '''ratha''' hair; wool
* '''rati''' grain; kernel
* '''rawap''' sort out, v.
* '''rawar''' prepare, v.
* '''rayu''' shoes; leather
* '''re:be''' rot; stink, v.
* '''re:her''' bulb
* '''re:le''' full
* '''re:midh''' lack; empty, v.
* '''re:ne''' cow
* '''re:sil''' sulphur
* '''rebe''' smash, v.
* '''rebhes''' animals with armour
* '''rebur''' mussel
* '''rede''' ten
* '''rede''' rub past, v.
* '''rede''' ten
* '''redha''' watch closely, v.
* '''redi''' hobble, v.
* '''redu''' dwarf-like
* '''reghep''' be ashamed, v.
* '''reli''' butterfat
* '''relu''' thing
* '''reme''' short; small
* '''rene''' move, v.
* '''renuw''' plant; root
* '''rephe''' sad, out of humour
* '''rephi''' thin
* '''reri''' stretch; totter, v.
* '''rese''' disturb, v.
* '''reseb''' lest
* '''resi''' grove, small wood
* '''resil''' worm
* '''resu''' shine, v.
* '''reta''' pale; split
* '''rete''' support, v.
* '''reyit''' poke; hit, v.
* '''ri''' she
* '''ri''' she
* '''ri:bhi''' stick (hammer-shaped)
* '''ri:gi''' striped
* '''ri:ni''' hoe; mattock
* '''ri:si''' sprout, v.
* '''riqi''' turn, v.
* '''riqid''' cut, prick, v.
* '''ridi''' mud; swamp
* '''righi''' testicle
* '''rikhi''' prosper, v.
* '''riki''' bloom, v.
* '''rili''' stem
* '''rilir''' whistle (wind), v.
* '''rimi''' venerate, v.
* '''ripi''' straight
* '''risi''' cold
* '''risi''' grind, v.
* '''rlyll''' turn; twist, v.
* '''rmlm''' press together, v.
* '''rmsm''' mistake
* '''rmsmw''' blackberry
* '''rngn''' mouse; muscle
* '''rnkn''' sell; earn, v.
* '''rnsn''' fast; violent
* '''ro:ba''' older member of family
* '''ro:da''' thick; firm
* '''ro:ro''' protect, v.
* '''ro:yow''' calm; silent
* '''robha''' frog
* '''robho''' brother
* '''robu''' be fixed, v.
* '''roda''' slow
* '''rodi''' fall; sink, v.
* '''rodu''' like, v.
* '''rokha''' squeak, v.
* '''rokhu''' turtle
* '''roki''' knead clay, v.
* '''roko''' rip up; dig, v.
* '''roli''' bright
* '''romo''' sword
* '''ronoy''' husband's sister
* '''ropho''' dog
* '''ropo''' sharpen, v.
* '''rora''' lament, v.
* '''roru''' hang down, v.
* '''rothi''' brother-in-law
* '''rotu''' shin-bone
* '''rowo''' vulture
* '''royo''' cast off, v.
* '''rrkhr''' pluck, v.
* '''rrphr''' condense, v.
* '''ru''' he
* '''runu''' glitter brightly, v.
* '''rutu''' let fly at sth., v.
* '''ruwup''' eat; jaw; mouth, v.

==S==
* '''sa:qa''' bear
* '''sa:da''' dream
* '''sa:da''' yellow
* '''sa:ghi''' rub off, v.
* '''sa:na''' death; corpse
* '''sa:na''' yellow; brown
* '''sa:sa''' her
* '''saqa''' hunder, loud noise
* '''saba''' four
* '''sabi''' peel; break off, v.
* '''saga''' red
* '''saga''' red
* '''sahay''' pole; stake
* '''sakha''' tear to pieces, v.
* '''sama''' smoulder, v.
* '''sana''' sigh, v.
* '''sana''' skin; leather bag
* '''sani''' flow, v.
* '''sanu''' weave; plait, v.
* '''sapa''' chatter, v.
* '''sapha''' drop (of liquid)
* '''sapha''' think; feel, v.
* '''sara''' aim; go straight, v.
* '''sara''' prick, v.
* '''saru''' pliable
* '''sasan''' bald; bare
* '''sasar''' thrust together, v.
* '''sasu''' revile; abuse, v.
* '''satha''' know
* '''sawa''' two
* '''sawa''' two
* '''sawib''' break wind, v.
* '''saya''' wind, n.
* '''sayab''' next to, behind infront
* '''sayan''' anoint, v.
* '''sayan''' sanctify, v.
* '''se:ga''' jut out, v.
* '''se:khe''' back (direction, location)
* '''se:le''' dye, v.
* '''se:se''' drive; wound, v.
* '''se:tu''' injure; damage, v.
* '''seqi''' bristle, v.
* '''sebe''' look at, v.
* '''sebu''' announce, v.
* '''sege''' move, meal, v.
* '''segha''' wash, v.
* '''seghe''' follow, v.
* '''sela''' eyebrow
* '''sele''' fork of branch
* '''seleg''' dare, v.
* '''seli''' frothing up
* '''seme''' beard
* '''seme''' eye
* '''seney''' eat
* '''senu''' even; good
* '''sepa''' ploughshare
* '''sepi''' shrink, make small, v.
* '''sera''' frost
* '''sere''' slimy
* '''serer''' drive; thrust, v.
* '''sesa''' be hot; shine, v.
* '''sese''' stretch out, v.
* '''sesuth''' poplar
* '''sethe''' grass (type of), oats
* '''sewa''' roof
* '''sewel''' squash, v.
* '''sewi''' sparrow (?) name of bird
* '''seye''' sneeze, v.
* '''seyen''' bless, v.
* '''si:bhi''' black
* '''si:dhi''' ash
* '''si:gi''' be empty; leave, v.
* '''si:khi''' shut away, v.
* '''si:li''' find, v.
* '''si:ti''' young man
* '''sighi''' well-disposed
* '''sigikh''' sinew
* '''siki''' son
* '''simi''' cut off, v.
* '''sini''' one
* '''sini''' one
* '''sisi''' heel
* '''sisidh''' jutting object
* '''siti''' rot, v.
* '''siti''' spoil
* '''siyigh''' bubble up, v.
* '''siyis''' bump; swelling
* '''slml''' tumble down, v.
* '''slrl''' thick; big
* '''slsls''' overflow, v.
* '''sm:thm''' wasp
* '''smlmph''' be curved, v.
* '''so:bha''' stunned
* '''so:ma''' leave behind, v.
* '''so:ro''' doubt, be in doubt, v.
* '''so:ro''' release
* '''so:ro''' release
* '''soba''' grind one's teeth, v.
* '''sobo''' dress, v.
* '''sodho''' resin
* '''soghi''' disappear, v.
* '''soho''' hum; croon, v.
* '''soki''' build, v.
* '''solikh''' split, v.
* '''solo''' bird (water-bird)
* '''sona''' apple
* '''soni''' hand; arm
* '''sopha''' beaker
* '''sopo''' eat, v.
* '''sora''' grant; possess, v.
* '''soro''' offer a drink, v.
* '''soson''' active; healthy
* '''sosoph''' play; joke, v.
* '''soto''' press down, v.
* '''sowad''' guilt; duty
* '''sowop''' truly
* '''srhr''' blow softly, v.
* '''sryr''' press together, v.
* '''su''' top
* '''su''' top
* '''subu''' pour out, v.
* '''sudhu''' tire; rest, v.
* '''sudu''' tail
* '''sudu''' tail
* '''sulu''' muscle
* '''sumu''' thin shaft
* '''sunu''' stamp; thrust, v.
* '''supu''' tendril; trap
* '''suru''' duck down, v.
* '''susub''' grip, v.
* '''susuw''' dry out, v.
* '''sutu''' son-in-law
* '''sutu''' unripe
* '''suwukh''' gnawing insect
* '''suwup''' half

==T==
* '''ta:''' be, exist
* '''ta:ka''' hold, v.
* '''ta:nu''' barren
* '''ta:tha''' wine
* '''tabha''' cracking sound
* '''tagha''' buy; sell, v.
* '''taka''' grass
* '''taka''' stunted; curtailed
* '''tala''' grass (type of)
* '''talak''' wind, v.
* '''talum''' feel, v.
* '''tama''' die, v.
* '''tamu''' dust; sand
* '''tana''' fire
* '''tana''' vexacious
* '''tanaph''' weak; miserable
* '''tani''' scent
* '''tapa''' care; trouble, v.
* '''tapha''' claw
* '''tara''' place, location
* '''tara''' place, location
* '''tasal''' parade; show off, v.
* '''tasas''' stomach
* '''tata''' tie; bind, v.
* '''tathi''' chew, grind, v.
* '''tawab''' deceive, v.
* '''taya''' shoulder
* '''tayal''' corner
* '''tayar''' gall
* '''tayus''' peg
* '''te''' they
* '''te''' they
* '''te:ma''' mother-in-law
* '''te:ma''' mother-in-law
* '''tebe''' prettify, make happy, v.
* '''tedhe''' stumble, v.
* '''tege''' wax
* '''teghe''' stroke, v.
* '''teher''' split off, v.
* '''tekhe''' stick; stalk
* '''tela''' peg; wedge
* '''tele''' speak, v.
* '''tele''' speak
* '''tene''' guest; stranger
* '''tenel''' nut
* '''tera''' hit; cuff, v.
* '''tese''' hair
* '''tese''' purify, v.
* '''tesew''' berry (type of)
* '''tetu''' tie up, v.
* '''tha:mi''' maternal grandfather
* '''tha:ra''' run off (water), v.
* '''thadi''' stab, stick, v.
* '''thaga''' shut in, v.
* '''thaha''' torso, upper body
* '''thaha''' want, v.
* '''thala''' tree
* '''thala''' tree
* '''thalak''' sharpen, v.
* '''thama''' at
* '''thana''' dizziness; madness
* '''thapha''' have room, v.
* '''thara''' shout, raise voice, v.
* '''tharagh''' embrace, v.
* '''tharap''' pea
* '''thawal''' entrust, v.
* '''thawat''' roast; bake, v.
* '''thayan''' sky
* '''thebhi''' husband's brother
* '''thedha''' hop; tremble, v.
* '''thedi''' sea
* '''thela''' remain, v.
* '''themu''' pull, v.
* '''thene''' we, they and I
* '''thepa''' measure, v.
* '''thephun''' clash; fall, v.
* '''theqe''' burn, v.
* '''there''' companion
* '''thesa''' corpse; destruction
* '''thethi''' rip; rag, v.
* '''theti''' add, sum, v.
* '''theyul''' pointed
* '''thili''' rage, v.
* '''thimi''' look, v.
* '''thini''' swamp; blackish
* '''thipi''' apart; in two
* '''thlml''' rip, v.
* '''thnbhn''' worm; maggot
* '''tho:nom''' woo; marry, v.
* '''thodu''' streak past, v.
* '''thokho''' blind, dark
* '''thoko''' six
* '''thoko''' six
* '''thomi''' mud; mire
* '''thoya''' trough
* '''thoyokh''' and
* '''thuhu''' wish; want, v.
* '''thuhus''' meet, v.
* '''thumu''' snow; winter
* '''thuru''' hit, v.
* '''thusu''' polecat
* '''thuthu''' revulsion
* '''tibhi''' turn green, v.
* '''tighi''' shout; scream, v.
* '''timi''' stuff full, v.
* '''tirikh''' throat
* '''tiris''' sister
* '''tisi''' lung
* '''tithi''' mix, v.
* '''titi''' stain; dirty, v.
* '''tiwib''' shining bright
* '''tiyi''' path
* '''tiyi''' path
* '''tmdhm''' revile, v.
* '''tn:tn''' buzz, v.
* '''tnrn''' tree (type of)
* '''to:ro''' swell, v.
* '''tobho''' flat
* '''togho''' spirit
* '''toka''' stab, v.
* '''tomu''' evening
* '''toni''' drive, v.
* '''topho''' heal, v.
* '''tothu''' copulate, v.
* '''towan''' be excited, v.
* '''towos''' hair; beard
* '''toyoph''' hang slack, v.
* '''trsr''' pasture, v.
* '''trwr''' howl
* '''tugu, pheri''' give, v.
* '''tulu''' blow up, v.
* '''turu''' reduce; small, v.

==W==
* '''wa:ha''' time, occasion
* '''wa:su''' astonishment
* '''wa:ya''' kernel; corn
* '''waqa''' sap; resin
* '''waba''' scrape; gnaw, v.
* '''wala''' nine
* '''wala''' nine
* '''wali''' track; furrow, v.
* '''wama''' burst, v.
* '''wanu''' thick; dense
* '''wapa''' be glad, v.
* '''warith''' hungry
* '''wasa''' deformed
* '''watha''' thorn
* '''wathim''' throw shoot, v.
* '''waya''' evil; bad; mis-
* '''waya''' itch, v.
* '''we:de''' lake
* '''we:ma''' be hidden, v.
* '''we:re''' be able, v.
* '''we:re''' can, be able to
* '''weba''' spray, v.
* '''webe''' assail; assault, v.
* '''webu''' ball of dung; pill
* '''wegi''' gape, v.
* '''weke''' germ; sprout
* '''weli''' mite; louse
* '''weme''' unwilling
* '''wesa''' twig; bough
* '''wese''' empty, v.
* '''weye''' aweful
* '''wighi''' leather bag
* '''wighir''' fence of stakes
* '''wiki''' grasp for sth., v.
* '''wili''' wavy
* '''wl:yl''' perk
* '''wmtm''' wander, v.
* '''wmwmm''' mouse
* '''wonon''' heap
* '''woso''' warm time; summer
* '''wu:sul''' joint of animal
* '''wunu''' (negative particle)
* '''wunu''' not, no
* '''wunu''' no, not
* '''wusuph''' hold; grasp, v.
* '''wusus''' strangle, v.
* '''wuyup''' garlic; leek

==Y==
* '''ya''' (relative)
* '''ya:la''' buzz; hum, v.
* '''ya:ra''' howl, v.
* '''ya:ta''' louse
* '''yaga''' gather; collect, v.
* '''yama''' smear, v.
* '''yara''' snake
* '''yasa''' pinch, v.
* '''yasu''' tear up; open, v.
* '''yege''' dim; reddish
* '''yeghe''' call; cry, v.
* '''yeke''' enough
* '''yela''' sheep
* '''yele''' drink, v.
* '''yeli''' whole, well
* '''yephe''' harm, v.
* '''yera''' urinate, v.
* '''yesep''' sell, v.
* '''yeser''' alder tree
* '''yetu''' turn; wrap, v.
* '''yewegh''' strip
* '''yibhi''' away, off
* '''yigi''' salt
* '''yimi''' quickly
* '''ynqngh''' turn, v.
* '''ynnn''' slip, v.
* '''yo:qu''' tie, v.
* '''yo:ni''' be still; calm, v.
* '''yo:ri''' form a ball, v.
* '''yobho''' seed
* '''yobho''' scent out, v.
* '''yobho''' seed
* '''yodo''' pain; illness
* '''yolo''' move, hurry, v.
* '''yomi''' like; desire, v.
* '''yona''' push, v.
* '''yono''' statute; rule
* '''yonup''' thrust; injure, v.
* '''yoras''' buckle at the knees, v.
* '''yoro''' free, v.
* '''yotho''' show; be visible, v.
* '''yoyod''' talk, v.
* '''yrsr''' strap
* '''yudu''' big

[[Category:Dele]]
[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English-Dele root list</title>
    <id>694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:15:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+categories: general lexica, source material, dele</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
{{widetoc}}

==A==
* '''abhor; detest, v.''' rapa
* '''abscess''' phoda
* '''abuse, v.''' kese
* '''accustom oneself, v.''' bmghm
* '''across; through''' bhuru
* '''act cautiously, v.''' nokho
* '''act secretly, v.''' gobu
* '''active; healthy''' soson
* '''add, sum, v.''' theti
* '''agape''' patu
* '''aim; go straight, v.''' sara
* '''alder tree''' yeser
* '''all''' kayakh
* '''alone''' nryr
* '''along''' lana
* '''and''' thoyokh
* '''animals with armour''' rebhes
* '''announce, v.''' sebu
* '''anoint, v.''' sayan
* '''ant''' mlphl
* '''apart''' madhi
* '''apart; in two''' thipi
* '''appear; see, v.''' lm:dm
* '''apple''' sona
* '''apportion, v.''' leli
* '''arm''' rala
* '''around, both''' daha
* '''arrange, v.''' ghibil
* '''ash''' si:dhi
* '''ash tree''' lasa
* '''aside; one's own''' khela
* '''ask, v.''' phasa
* '''aspen tree''' ghama
* '''assail; assault, v.''' webe
* '''astonishment''' wa:su
* '''at''' thama
* '''attach, v.''' kasa
* '''attack, v.''' bomi
* '''attend, pay attention, v.''' mese
* '''awaken, v.''' gephe
* '''away, off''' yibhi
* '''aweful''' weye
* '''awl''' mesu
* '''axe''' niriw

==B==
* '''baa''' kesu
* '''babbling''' khowa
* '''back (direction, location)''' se:khe
* '''backside; rump''' bhubu
* '''bald; bare''' sasan
* '''bale''' phepi
* '''ball of dung; pill''' webu
* '''bank of river''' layar
* '''barb; tip''' naha
* '''bark''' phapa
* '''barley''' bapa
* '''barren''' ta:nu
* '''bathe, v.''' boda
* '''be able, v.''' we:re
* '''be afraid, v.''' malal
* '''be ashamed, v.''' reghep
* '''be astonished, v.''' nolo
* '''be at, be located''' khapi
* '''be aware of, v.''' dhini
* '''be bent, v.''' lene
* '''be caught, v.''' bapa
* '''be curved, v.''' smlmph
* '''be damp, v.''' lm:km
* '''be depressed, v.''' bharu
* '''be empty; leave, v.''' si:gi
* '''be ensnared, v.''' nama
* '''be excited, v.''' towan
* '''be fat; swarm, v.''' nmbm
* '''be fixed, v.''' robu
* '''be flat, v.''' pithi
* '''be friendly, v.''' malu
* '''be glad, v.''' wapa
* '''be guilty, v.''' raghi
* '''be happy, v.''' pemib
* '''be heavy; pregnant, v.''' neba
* '''be hidden, v.''' we:ma
* '''be hostile, v.''' mithi
* '''be hot; shine, v.''' sesa
* '''be influenced, v.''' namu
* '''be mouldy, v.''' bhabu
* '''be roused, v.''' pha:wadh
* '''be silent, v.''' noghi
* '''be still; calm, v.''' yo:ni
* '''be strong, v.''' dara
* '''be warm, v.''' kata
* '''be worth, v.''' maphi
* '''be, exist''' ta:
* '''beaker''' sopha
* '''beam; board''' bhuyuph
* '''bean''' prlrd
* '''bear''' sa:qa
* '''bear, give birth to, v.''' phara
* '''beard''' seme
* '''beautiful''' dhutu
* '''become bloated, v.''' bhuku
* '''become thin, v.''' nnbn
* '''bee''' khuwul
* '''beech tree''' dhana
* '''beer, bitter''' no:hom
* '''behind''' dhusu
* '''behold''' dhori
* '''belch, v.''' khoko
* '''bellow, v.''' phibis
* '''belly''' mene
* '''below''' momo
* '''below''' gawas
* '''bend, to crook, v.''' hiri
* '''bend; elbow, v.''' palidh
* '''bend; swing, v.''' loli
* '''berry (type of)''' tesew
* '''beside; outside''' miriw
* '''beyond''' gobhu
* '''big''' yudu
* '''bind, v.''' gewew
* '''bird''' gala
* '''bird (large)''' keghe
* '''bird (water-bird)''' solo
* '''bird of prey''' laka
* '''bird-cry''' la:wa
* '''bird-song''' gagu
* '''bite, v.''' hagha
* '''biting insects''' nobhagh
* '''bitter plant''' lirith
* '''bitter taste''' gehe
* '''black''' si:bhi
* '''blackberry''' rmsmw
* '''blackbird''' laga
* '''blame, v.''' pharam
* '''bleat, v.''' bidhi
* '''blemish''' mayar
* '''bless, v.''' seyen
* '''blind, dark''' thokho
* '''blood''' bhutu
* '''blood clot''' domo
* '''bloom, v.''' riki
* '''blow softly, v.''' srhr
* '''blow up, v.''' tulu
* '''blue''' luyun
* '''blue; plant dye''' dhese
* '''body part (curved)''' ghabi
* '''body; form''' nata
* '''body-part''' mesa
* '''bond; bundle''' nlkl
* '''bone''' khata
* '''bore through, v.''' neghe
* '''bore, stab, v.''' lala
* '''bottom''' bholo
* '''bow; incline, v.''' gabi
* '''bowel''' didi
* '''bow-wow''' pini
* '''branch''' neye
* '''break in, steal, v.''' lemeg
* '''break to pieces, v.''' qoso
* '''break wind, v.''' sawib
* '''break, v.''' rama
* '''break; grind, v.''' layah
* '''breasts''' nusu
* '''breathe, v.''' lamu
* '''bright''' roli
* '''bring,carry, v.''' dhasa
* '''bristle, v.''' seqi
* '''broad; flat''' ghama
* '''brother''' dala, robho
* '''brother-in-law''' rothi
* '''brown (dark), grey''' parar
* '''bubble up, v.''' siyigh
* '''buckle at the knees, v.''' yoras
* '''bud; twig''' moli
* '''build, v.''' soki
* '''bulb''' re:her
* '''bulge, v.''' lakha
* '''bull; cow''' pama
* '''bullock, young ox''' lara
* '''bump; swelling''' siyis
* '''bunch''' mngn
* '''burden''' goto
* '''burn, v.''' theqe
* '''burning; heat; anger''' gnlnl
* '''burst, v.''' wama
* '''butter, milk''' ghiti
* '''butterfat''' reli
* '''buttock; hip''' loya
* '''buy, v.''' lamap
* '''buy; sell, v.''' tagha
* '''buzz, v.''' tn:tn
* '''buzz; hum, v.''' ya:la

==C==
* '''calf of leg''' nese
* '''call; cry, v.''' yeghe
* '''calm; silent''' ro:yow
* '''can, be able to''' we:re
* '''care; trouble, v.''' tapa
* '''carp''' lrwrg
* '''carve, v.''' gha:wa
* '''cast off, v.''' royo
* '''cat''' me:we
* '''catch sight of, v.''' ghapha
* '''celebrate, v.''' bhidi
* '''center''' naka
* '''change, v.''' dhekhu
* '''chatter, v.''' sapa
* '''cheer up, v.''' nuwud
* '''chequered''' lalu
* '''cherry''' khona
* '''chew, grind, v.''' tathi
* '''chin(bone)''' gethu
* '''choose, v.''' karas
* '''clamber, v.''' pawu
* '''clash; fall, v.''' thephun
* '''claw''' tapha
* '''clear, pure''' khirigh
* '''cleft, hollow''' masan
* '''climb, stride, v.''' ghibhi
* '''close in, v.''' geyekh
* '''clothe, v.''' ghada
* '''cloud (dark)''' nele
* '''clucking''' radhar
* '''coagulate, v.''' basa
* '''coal''' dawad
* '''cold''' risi
* '''collapse, v.''' bele
* '''collect, v.''' bhoko
* '''colour (dark)''' kiwi
* '''colour (light)''' da:pha
* '''colour (type of)''' noho
* '''come forth, v.''' piri
* '''companion''' there
* '''complain, v.''' rana
* '''concern oneself with, v.''' raba
* '''concubine''' phisigh
* '''condense, v.''' rrphr
* '''contract a disease, v.''' dhosi
* '''cook, v.''' lr:lr
* '''copulate, v.''' tothu
* '''corner''' tayal
* '''corpse; destruction''' thesa
* '''cough, v.''' mabha
* '''cover, v.''' raga
* '''cow''' re:ne
* '''cracking sound''' tabha
* '''crawl, v.''' mowi
* '''creaking''' ludu
* '''cream''' gabha
* '''creator; producer''' mowok
* '''creep; crawl, v.''' bhothi
* '''croak (of frog or raven)''' khowo
* '''crops''' bhethe
* '''crouch down, v.''' gapha
* '''crumble, v.''' rara
* '''cry, make wild noises, v.''' mi:khi
* '''(cry of joy)''' a:
* '''curse''' bayan
* '''cut in, v.''' beki
* '''cut off, v.''' simi
* '''cut, injure, v.''' napu
* '''cut, prick, v.''' riqid

==D==
* '''damage, v.''' leyer
* '''damp''' nati
* '''dampen; wet, v.''' kala
* '''dangle, v.''' lm:wm:l
* '''dare, v.''' seleg
* '''dark''' lede
* '''daughter''' naya
* '''daughter-in-law''' de:nu
* '''day''' lmlm
* '''death; corpse''' sa:na
* '''deceive, v.''' tawab
* '''deep; hollow''' rasuy
* '''deer''' lipi
* '''defecate, v.''' gaka
* '''deformed''' wasa
* '''(demonstrative)''' r
* '''dense''' kaka
* '''desire; lust for, v.''' karak
* '''destroy, v.''' phere
* '''diaphragm; mind''' ge:ne
* '''die, v.''' tama
* '''dig, v.''' dhili
* '''dim; reddish''' yege
* '''dip into, v.''' bhedu
* '''dirt''' dlll
* '''disappear, v.''' soghi
* '''dish''' mopo
* '''dispute, v.''' dhani
* '''disturb, v.''' rese
* '''dive, v.''' dhatha
* '''divide, v.''' phe:ri
* '''dizziness; madness''' thana
* '''do''' ki:mi
* '''dog''' ropho
* '''door''' liphi
* '''doorpost''' do:bhu
* '''doubt, be in doubt, v.''' so:ro
* '''down''' phali
* '''draw lots, v.''' misi
* '''draw; scoop, v.''' kayagh
* '''dread; horror''' pese
* '''dream''' sa:da
* '''dress, v.''' sobo
* '''dribble; drip, v.''' dehes
* '''drink, v.''' yele
* '''drip, v.''' nata
* '''drive, v.''' toni
* '''drive; thrust, v.''' serer
* '''drive; wound, v.''' se:se
* '''drone; bark, v.''' dekhe
* '''drop (of liquid)''' sapha
* '''dry''' datha
* '''dry out, v.''' susuw
* '''dry; thirst, v.''' loyom
* '''duck''' geme
* '''duck down, v.''' suru
* '''dumbfound, v.''' khenen
* '''dung''' lota
* '''dung; dark liquid''' banin
* '''dust; sand''' tamu
* '''dwarf-like''' redu
* '''dwindle, v.''' hanu
* '''dye, v.''' se:le

==E==
* '''eagle''' lulu
* '''ear''' logo
* '''earth''' gara
* '''earth; floor''' palag
* '''eat''' seney
* '''eat, v.''' sopo
* '''eat; jaw; mouth, v.''' ruwup
* '''edge''' pabha
* '''egg''' nama
* '''eiderduck''' kha:wan
* '''eight''' khobo
* '''elbow; forearm''' lali
* '''elm''' kunu
* '''embrace, v.''' tharagh
* '''embrace; bind, v.''' mosodh
* '''(emphasis)''' de
* '''empty, v.''' wese
* '''enclosure''' raka
* '''encourage, v.''' delad
* '''endure, v.''' niwi
* '''enjoy, v.''' naqa
* '''enough''' yeke
* '''entrust, v.''' thawal
* '''envelop, v.''' ghodhu
* '''even; good''' senu
* '''evening''' tomu
* '''evil; bad; mis-''' waya
* '''excite; rouse, v.''' nopu
* '''(exclamation of joy)''' o:yo
* '''(exclamation of pain)''' akha:
* '''(exclamation)''' qeye
* '''explore, v.''' qeme
* '''extinguish, v.''' kosa
* '''eye''' seme
* '''eyebrow''' sela

==F==
* '''fabric (woven)''' le:su
* '''fabric; spun yarn''' mara
* '''fall, v.''' beta
* '''fall; sink, v.''' rodi
* '''false''' lemi
* '''far off''' dhaha
* '''fast; violent''' rnsn
* '''fat; thick''' goyos
* '''father''' da: 
* '''father-in-law''' khoda
* '''favourable''' gha:ki
* '''fear''' motho
* '''fear, v.''' ma:kha
* '''feast, v.''' binit
* '''feather''' khehe
* '''feed, v.''' naga
* '''feel, v.''' talum
* '''fence of stakes''' wighir
* '''ferment, v.''' dhekhu
* '''fetlock''' llthl
* '''fight; struggle, v.''' plthl
* '''fill up, v.''' layi
* '''find, v.''' si:li
* '''find; take, v.''' goro
* '''finger''' nodho
* '''fire''' tana
* '''firm''' datha
* '''fish''' ghoti
* '''fish (type of)''' khoku
* '''fist''' mede
* '''fit, suit, v.''' pono
* '''five''' noto
* '''fix, v.''' nadha
* '''flame; burn, v.''' bhani
* '''flat''' tobho
* '''flat of hand''' baka
* '''flea''' mada
* '''flee, v.''' lm:sm:p
* '''flesh; meat''' lehe
* '''flicker; blink, v.''' nalam
* '''flock; feather''' gasa
* '''flow, v.''' sani
* '''fly about, v.''' lete
* '''fly; gnat''' kama
* '''foam; spray''' ghosi
* '''fodder (green)''' phophi
* '''fog; foggy''' nede
* '''fold; to hide; skin, v.''' manag
* '''follow, v.''' seghe
* '''foot''' patha
* '''force, use force, v.''' khophi
* '''fork of branch''' sele
* '''form''' gapha
* '''form a ball, v.''' yo:ri
* '''four''' saba
* '''fragile, harm''' phegu
* '''free, v.''' yoro
* '''freeze; cold, v.''' dheseg
* '''frisky''' mapha
* '''frog''' robha
* '''front, brow''' ha:da
* '''frost''' sera
* '''frothing up''' seli
* '''full''' re:le

==G==
* '''gable; head''' duwu
* '''gain, earn, v.''' pheri
* '''gall''' tayar
* '''gape, v.''' wegi
* '''garlic; leek''' wuyup
* '''gather; collect, v.''' yaga
* '''germ; sprout''' weke
* '''get over, v.''' dunus
* '''gird, v.''' pena
* '''give, v.''' tugu, pheri
* '''gland''' laka
* '''glisten, v.''' dopa
* '''glitter brightly, v.''' runu
* '''glitter; white; birch , v.''' moro
* '''glowing coal''' miki
* '''glue''' maku
* '''gnat''' me:pe
* '''gnaw, v.''' kele
* '''gnawing insect''' suwukh
* '''go energetically, v.''' meye
* '''go, v.''' noro
* '''go; stride, v.''' lehe
* '''goat''' bunu
* '''goatskin''' km:pm
* '''god (name of)''' doyugh
* '''golden colour''' niki
* '''good''' matha
* '''goose''' khoti
* '''grab, v.''' khele
* '''grain''' ghawu
* '''grain (type of)''' lusu
* '''grain; kernel''' rati
* '''grant; possess, v.''' sora
* '''grasp for sth., v.''' wiki
* '''grass''' taka
* '''grass (type of)''' tala
* '''grass (type of), oats''' sethe
* '''gravel; grit''' khata
* '''grease; fat''' imi
* '''greedy''' bara
* '''green''' rakha
* '''grey''' hamu
* '''grind one's teeth, v.''' soba
* '''grind, v.''' risi
* '''grip, v.''' susub
* '''groin''' bhigi
* '''ground''' konokh
* '''grove, small wood''' resi
* '''grow up, v.''' gosol
* '''grow, v.''' bhisis
* '''growl; snarl, v.''' daga
* '''grumble, v.''' mimi
* '''grunt, v.''' geke
* '''guest; stranger''' tene
* '''guilt; duty''' sowad

==H==
* '''hack; hoe, v.''' nemi
* '''hail''' kabu
* '''hair''' tese
* '''hair; beard''' towos
* '''hair; wool''' ratha
* '''half''' suwup
* '''hand''' lama
* '''hand; arm''' soni
* '''hang down, v.''' roru
* '''hang slack, v.''' toyoph
* '''hang, v.''' bowo
* '''happen, come to pass''' maya
* '''happen, v.''' maya
* '''hard''' kuru
* '''harm, v.''' yephe
* '''harm; crime''' leme
* '''have room, v.''' thapha
* '''hazel''' latad
* '''he''' ru
* '''head''' kene
* '''heal, v.''' topho
* '''healthy''' nama
* '''heap''' wonon
* '''hear, v.''' lo:gho
* '''heart''' khara
* '''heath; free land''' gmwmm
* '''heavy''' dhema
* '''heavy; burdensome''' lema
* '''hedgehog''' kebhe
* '''heel''' sisi
* '''heel, back of knee;''' ghasag
* '''hello''' bhege
* '''help, enable, v.''' bebhe
* '''help, v.''' bama
* '''help; use, v.''' moso
* '''helping; serving''' ba:yan
* '''hem in; narrow, v.''' lini
* '''henbane''' geghe
* '''her''' sa:sa
* '''hesitate, v.''' ke:se
* '''hew, v.''' duwudh
* '''hide, v.''' bagha
* '''high; noble''' mobu
* '''hiss, v.''' haku
* '''hit, hew, v.''' naka
* '''hit, v.''' thuru
* '''hit; cuff, v.''' tera
* '''hit; sharp, v.''' gasi
* '''hit; thrust, v.''' mala
* '''hit; weaken, v.''' basam
* '''hit; wound, v.''' neka
* '''hoarse''' rasa
* '''hobble, v.''' redi
* '''hoe; mattock''' ri:ni
* '''hold fast, v.''' nagha
* '''hold in lap, v.''' beri
* '''hold, v.''' ta:ka
* '''hold; grasp, v.''' wusuph
* '''hollow''' himi
* '''hollow like a pipe''' bhayal
* '''hollow out, v.''' ghlkl
* '''hollow, cave''' nebak
* '''honey''' ledhu
* '''hoof''' limi
* '''hook''' diliph
* '''hoot, owl-noise''' bili
* '''hop; tremble, v.''' thedha
* '''horn''' da:ka
* '''hornless''' luyus
* '''horse''' khaghu
* '''hot; warm''' ese
* '''house''' dimi
* '''howl''' trwr
* '''howl, v.''' ya:ra
* '''hum; buzz, v.''' lebhu
* '''hum; croon, v.''' soho
* '''human being''' gosa
* '''humble, v.''' bhoba
* '''humming insect''' phawa
* '''humming sound''' kawu
* '''hunder, loud noise''' saqa
* '''hundred''' lidhi
* '''hungry''' warith
* '''hunt; desire, v.''' kha:la
* '''hurdle''' nubu
* '''hurry, v.''' qoyuk
* '''hurt, v.''' nolat
* '''husband's brother''' thebhi
* '''husband's mother''' busu
* '''husband's sister''' ronoy

==I==
* '''I''' ne
* '''ice''' dhatha
* '''in''' mi
* '''incline, v.''' bhere
* '''increase, v.''' pm:khm
* '''ingernail; toenail''' lada
* '''injure, v.''' peyeg
* '''injure; damage, v.''' se:tu
* '''intelligence''' bhuhun
* '''intend, v.''' leni
* '''(interrogative)''' kethe
* '''intestines''' dhotu
* '''intestines''' lolu
* '''intestines; stomach''' nasa
* '''it, one, they''' ra
* '''itch, v.''' waya
* '''itter''' bada

==J==
* '''jaw''' dudu
* '''jay''' noku
* '''joint of animal''' wu:sul
* '''jug; pot''' pebe
* '''juice''' matagh
* '''jump happily, v.''' luyup
* '''jump, v.''' gana
* '''jut out, v.''' se:ga
* '''jutting object''' sisidh

==K==
* '''kernel; corn''' wa:ya
* '''kill''' bhadha
* '''kindle, set alight, v.''' nosu
* '''kiss''' loba
* '''knead clay, v.''' roki
* '''knead, v.''' pona
* '''knee''' phebe
* '''knit; knot, v.''' mama
* '''know''' satha

==L==
* '''lack''' kha:san
* '''lack''' gara
* '''lack; empty, v.''' re:midh
* '''lake''' we:de
* '''lamb''' na:bhi
* '''lame''' lesi
* '''lament, v.''' rora
* '''lard; fat''' lidi
* '''lattice-work''' powak
* '''laugh, v.''' hoqo
* '''lay down, v.''' nn:sn:d
* '''lead, show the way, v.''' ketha
* '''lead, v.''' pahi
* '''leaf; bloom''' phaga
* '''lean on, v.''' loqor
* '''lean; bow, v.''' pr:br
* '''leather''' kiri
* '''leather bag''' wighi
* '''leave behind, v.''' so:ma
* '''leave behind, v.''' ranadh
* '''left''' negi
* '''left, on the left''' phara
* '''leg; bone''' lono
* '''leprosy''' knkn
* '''lessen; small, v.''' ra:ya
* '''lest''' reseb
* '''let fly at sth., v.''' rutu
* '''let; leave over, v.''' mowo
* '''lick, v.''' menu
* '''lie down, v.''' gadha
* '''lie; camp, v.''' meyagh
* '''life force''' bhama
* '''lift; weigh, v.''' me:du
* '''light (in movement)''' nomun
* '''light, v.''' mmmm
* '''light; pale''' mobi
* '''lightning''' na:su
* '''like, similar''' khili
* '''like, v.''' rodu
* '''like; desire, v.''' yomi
* '''like; love, v.''' nona
* '''like; spare, v.''' mamu
* '''limb''' geni
* '''limb of body''' nara
* '''line up, v.''' khorom
* '''linen''' liri
* '''lips''' rapur
* '''liquid; wine''' bata
* '''live, v.''' ka:ba
* '''liver''' o:dho
* '''living-space''' nege
* '''lofty''' pene
* '''loins; kidney''' nidhi
* '''long''' de:khe
* '''long and thin''' paghir
* '''look at, v.''' sebe
* '''look out for, v.''' dm:hm
* '''look, v.''' thimi
* '''loose''' mayaq
* '''lord''' morugh
* '''loud''' khlnl
* '''louse''' ya:ta
* '''lump''' gr:mr
* '''lumpy; knot''' klsl
* '''lung''' tisi
* '''lurk, v.''' lisi

==M==
* '''make; form, v.''' neghi
* '''man''' da:na
* '''man, life-force''' korug
* '''many''' ihi
* '''maple''' blnll
* '''mark; distinguish, v.''' phapa
* '''marrow; brain''' khaka
* '''marry, v.''' qalik
* '''master; lord''' khnbn
* '''maternal grandfather''' tha:mi
* '''measure, v.''' thepa
* '''meet, v.''' thuhus
* '''melt, v.''' khmqmh
* '''metal''' deli
* '''middle''' diyi
* '''milk''' dhlll
* '''milk, wipe, v.''' ghalad
* '''mill, grind''' dusu
* '''miserable; naked''' memi
* '''miss; deceive, v.''' gho:ma
* '''mist; steam''' dmbhm
* '''mistake''' rmsm
* '''mite; louse''' weli
* '''mix, v.''' tithi
* '''mock; scorn, v.''' kere
* '''moisten, v.''' lela
* '''moon''' mere
* '''mother''' ma:
* '''mother''' ma:
* '''mother-in-law''' te:ma
* '''mother-in-law''' te:ma
* '''mountain''' libhi
* '''mouse''' wmwmm
* '''mouse; muscle''' rngn
* '''mouth''' pewe
* '''move forward, v.''' bidi
* '''move violently, v.''' khaha
* '''move, hurry, v.''' yolo
* '''move, meal, v.''' sege
* '''move, set in motion, v.''' ne:ke
* '''move, v.''' rene
* '''mow, v.''' kera
* '''mud''' bisi
* '''mud''' phethe
* '''mud; mire''' thomi
* '''mud; swamp''' ridi
* '''muddy''' nnthn
* '''mummy''' migi
* '''mummy, daddy''' pala
* '''murmur, v.''' penek
* '''muscle''' sulu
* '''mussel''' rebur

==N==
* '''nail; penis''' ghele
* '''naked''' pesar
* '''name''' hayat
* '''nape of the neck''' mumu
* '''narrow''' kili
* '''narrow; thin''' gathi
* '''navel''' naba
* '''near to''' nuru
* '''neck''' kala
* '''need, v.''' badha
* '''needy''' qoha
* '''needy; sad; ill''' pawap
* '''(negative particle)''' wunu
* '''nephew''' bhekhe
* '''new''' bhini
* '''new''' bhini
* '''next to, behind infront''' sayab
* '''night''' ma:ha
* '''night''' ma:ha
* '''nine''' wala
* '''nine''' wala
* '''nipple; breast''' nusu
* '''no, not''' wunu
* '''noose, bow''' mana
* '''north wind''' nu:bhu
* '''nose''' dhaba
* '''nose''' dhaba
* '''not, no''' wunu
* '''notice, v.''' ghenas
* '''now''' lanir
* '''now, therefore''' rami
* '''nut''' tenel

==O==
* '''oak''' mola
* '''oath''' debe
* '''oath''' debe
* '''offer a drink, v.''' soro
* '''old''' hoqo
* '''old man''' misin
* '''older member of family''' ro:ba
* '''on each other''' lebhi
* '''one''' sini
* '''one''' sini
* '''one-eyed''' bhara
* '''oneself, for oneself''' bhiyim
* '''onion''' dhokho
* '''open, v.''' boyu
* '''opinion''' krrr
* '''opious; much''' na:pa
* '''opposite; towards''' napha
* '''orphan''' lo:si
* '''other, there''' mrlr
* '''out of''' paya
* '''outside''' paya
* '''over; above''' ghini
* '''overflow, v.''' slsls
* '''overpower, v.''' deghe

==P==
* '''pack, v.''' phema
* '''pail (wooden)''' memu
* '''pain; illness''' yodo
* '''pale; split''' reta
* '''pan''' muyug
* '''pant, v.''' lawad
* '''pant; breathe, v.''' mora
* '''parade; show off, v.''' tasal
* '''pass away, v.''' lawu
* '''passage, narrow place''' leke
* '''pasture, v.''' trsr
* '''path''' tiyi
* '''path''' tiyi
* '''pay attention to, v.''' nada
* '''pea''' tharap
* '''pea; legume''' khiniy
* '''pebble''' khe:ru
* '''peel; break off, v.''' sabi
* '''peel; skin''' kohas
* '''peg''' tayus
* '''peg; wedge''' tela
* '''pelt''' phosus
* '''penis''' kiki
* '''perish, v.''' ghama
* '''perk''' wl:yl
* '''person''' khewen
* '''person''' khewen
* '''piece of land''' nldhl
* '''pig''' nosol
* '''pile up, v.''' glll
* '''pillar''' phobu
* '''pinch, v.''' yasa
* '''pipe''' bono
* '''pit; hollow''' hedhi
* '''pitiful; small''' lapha
* '''place to stay''' maba
* '''place, location''' tara
* '''place, location''' tara
* '''place, v.''' migin
* '''plait, v.''' rapha
* '''plait, v.''' dori
* '''plait, weave, v.''' kosor
* '''plait; string, v.''' lolo
* '''plait; weave, v.''' guru
* '''plait; weave, v.''' pigi
* '''plaited container''' khuru
* '''plaited work''' nene
* '''plant (type of)''' nnwn
* '''plant; root''' renuw
* '''play; joke, v.''' sosoph
* '''pleased, well inclined''' golo
* '''pledge''' masu
* '''pliable''' saru
* '''plot; originate, v.''' khinip
* '''plough, v.''' nagi
* '''ploughshare''' sepa
* '''pluck, v.''' rrkhr
* '''plug; pin''' ke:mu
* '''pointed''' theyul
* '''pointed; stake''' qrtr
* '''poke; hit, v.''' reyit
* '''pole; mast''' beler
* '''pole; rod''' kharu
* '''pole; stake''' sahay
* '''pole; stem''' khasa
* '''pole; stick''' ne:su
* '''pole; stick; stem''' rata
* '''polecat''' thusu
* '''poplar''' sesuth
* '''poppy''' radha
* '''possess, v.''' pa:tha
* '''post''' qryrt
* '''pot for cooking''' gunu
* '''pot; vat''' nnln
* '''pour out, v.''' subu
* '''pour, v.''' mini
* '''praise aloud, v.''' pama
* '''prattle, v.''' khnln
* '''pray, v.''' ke:re
* '''pregnant animal''' lighi
* '''prepare, v.''' rawar
* '''press down, v.''' soto
* '''press together, v.''' sryr
* '''press together, v.''' rmlm
* '''press, v.''' ghmdm
* '''press; crowd, v.''' boqo
* '''press; crush, v.''' maka
* '''press; maltreat, v.''' kasa
* '''press; pain, v.''' kobi
* '''prettify, make happy, v.''' tebe
* '''prick, v.''' sara
* '''prickly plant''' lesedh
* '''produce, v.''' bheku
* '''promote; hurry, v.''' kiyim
* '''prosper, v.''' rikhi
* '''protect, v.''' ro:ro
* '''puddle; ditch''' phara
* '''puddle; swamp''' labha
* '''pull out, v.''' gm:phm
* '''pull, v.''' themu
* '''punch, thrust, v.''' dukhu
* '''purify, v.''' tese
* '''push away, v.''' liqi
* '''push, v.''' yona
* '''put away, v.''' mudu
* '''put, v.''' ma:ma

==Q==
* '''quack; croak, v.''' gmlm
* '''quail''' dhrwr
* '''quake, v.''' rana
* '''quick''' hephe
* '''quick; violent''' lo:ho
* '''quickly''' yimi
* '''quiver, v.''' khabha

==R==
* '''rag''' monu
* '''rage, v.''' thili
* '''rage; tower up, v.''' pho:nar
* '''raging''' meyem
* '''rain''' koho
* '''rain''' koho
* '''raised place''' ghali
* '''rape (vegetable)''' momi
* '''raw; coarse; bitter''' lali
* '''reach somewhere, v.''' dayap
* '''reach, v.''' la:tha
* '''reach; grip, v.''' khawan
* '''reath''' gomi
* '''recognise, v.''' kapa
* '''red''' saga
* '''red''' saga
* '''reduce; small, v.''' turu
* '''reed''' bana
* '''(relative)''' ya
* '''relatives''' ghawa
* '''release''' so:ro
* '''release''' so:ro
* '''religious concept''' pele
* '''remain, v.''' thela
* '''renounce, v.''' nrkr
* '''reproach, v.''' moba
* '''resin''' sodho
* '''resound, v.''' dhedi
* '''respect, v.''' piphi
* '''respect; punish, v.''' lu:nu
* '''rest comfortably, v.''' pm:nm:gh
* '''rest, v.''' maya
* '''revile, v.''' tmdhm
* '''revile; abuse, v.''' sasu
* '''revulsion''' thuthu
* '''reward; pay''' kebe
* '''rib; breast''' biyil
* '''ride a vehicle, v.''' penu
* '''right place''' galu
* '''ring''' go:mokh
* '''rip off, v.''' lemu
* '''rip to pieces, v.''' barat
* '''rip up, v.''' gere
* '''rip up; dig, v.''' roko
* '''rip up; open, v.''' bha:ka
* '''rip, v.''' thlml
* '''rip; rag, v.''' thethi
* '''rise, v.''' pinib
* '''rite, ceremony''' lithi
* '''rite, ceremony''' lithi
* '''river, flowing water''' phigi
* '''roast; bake, v.''' thawat
* '''rob; rub, v.''' haya
* '''rock''' geris
* '''rock; stone''' ghowim
* '''rod''' ku:ru
* '''roof''' sewa
* '''root''' khudu
* '''root (edible)''' khudu
* '''rope''' daba
* '''rot, v.''' siti
* '''rot; stink, v.''' re:be
* '''rotten''' dala
* '''round''' duru
* '''round object''' duru
* '''row; herd''' khoro
* '''row; oar, v.''' mowos
* '''rub off, v.''' sa:ghi
* '''rub past, v.''' rede
* '''rub, v.''' bhatu
* '''rub; bore, v.''' hara
* '''ruminate; throat, v.''' pheme
* '''run away, v.''' mlthl
* '''run off (water), v.''' tha:ra
* '''run, v.''' lada
* '''run; flow, v.''' khedhe
* '''run; roll, v.''' qenu

==S==
* '''sacrificial animal''' nrmr
* '''sad, afflicted''' llwlw
* '''sad, out of humour''' rephe
* '''salt''' yigi
* '''sanctify, v.''' sayan
* '''sand''' likhi
* '''sand''' likhi
* '''sap; resin''' waqa
* '''satisfy oneself, v.''' dhowom
* '''scab''' ghayat
* '''scent''' tani
* '''scent out, v.''' yobho
* '''scent, v.''' raga
* '''scorn, v.''' gala
* '''scrape, v.''' bana
* '''scrape; gnaw, v.''' waba
* '''scratch skin, v.''' gaya
* '''scratch, v.''' kiyi
* '''scratch; comb, v.''' logi
* '''scratch; dig, v.''' ku:su
* '''scratch; slit, v.''' nephe
* '''scratch; slit, v.''' lere
* '''scream, v.''' pala
* '''sea''' thedi
* '''secrete, v.''' ghisi
* '''see''' khama
* '''see, v.''' khama
* '''seed''' yobho
* '''seed''' yobho
* '''seek, v.''' hnsnw
* '''seethe, v.''' nari
* '''seize, v.''' phada
* '''seize; grasp, v.''' pebha
* '''sell, v.''' yesep
* '''sell; earn, v.''' rnkn
* '''separate, v.''' niri
* '''set in motion, v.''' bhighi
* '''set, v.''' khigi
* '''settle, v.''' paba
* '''seven''' po:so
* '''seven''' po:so
* '''sew, v.''' pana
* '''shadow''' gm:dm
* '''shake, v.''' gryr
* '''share, v.''' lm:mm
* '''sharp''' dhnqnr
* '''sharp; pointed''' khe:be
* '''sharp-edged''' khota
* '''sharpen, v.''' ropo
* '''sharpen, v.''' thalak
* '''she''' ri
* '''she''' ri
* '''sheath''' buwud
* '''sheep''' nomu
* '''sheep''' yela
* '''sheep; pelt''' phumul
* '''shimmer, v.''' phiti
* '''shin-bone''' rotu
* '''shine, light, v.''' phikhi
* '''shine, v.''' resu
* '''shine; (colour), v.''' khisip
* '''shine; light, v.''' phebe
* '''shine; look, v.''' mopho
* '''shining bright''' tiwib
* '''ship''' mo:ra
* '''shit; hole, v.''' kha:wam
* '''shoes; leather''' rayu
* '''short''' lari
* '''short; small''' reme
* '''shoulder''' taya
* '''shoulder; arm; thigh''' bhatha
* '''shoulder; hip''' namagh
* '''shout, raise voice, v.''' thara
* '''shout, v.''' bheseb
* '''shout; loud, v.''' khitit
* '''shout; scream, v.''' tighi
* '''show, v.''' dethib
* '''show; be visible, v.''' yotho
* '''shriek, cry, v.''' ghesi
* '''shriek, v.''' khuwu
* '''shrink, make small, v.''' sepi
* '''shrivel up, v.''' naba
* '''shut away, v.''' si:khi
* '''shut in, v.''' thaga
* '''shut off, v.''' nudu
* '''shut, v.''' ghmsm
* '''sickle''' baga
* '''side''' ghuru
* '''side''' ghuru
* '''sieve, v.''' moru
* '''sift; riddle, v.''' korun
* '''sigh, v.''' sana
* '''significant talk''' do:ma
* '''sinew''' sigikh
* '''sing, v.''' ghowa
* '''sing; rejoice, v.''' nasu
* '''sink in, v.''' ragha
* '''sip, v.''' mono
* '''sister''' tiris
* '''sister-in-law''' ntnr
* '''sit''' qama
* '''sit, v.''' qama
* '''six''' thoko
* '''six''' thoko
* '''skilled manually''' mili
* '''skin''' dheme
* '''skin''' dheme
* '''skin, v.''' panu
* '''skin; leather bag''' sana
* '''skull''' gobo
* '''sky''' thayan
* '''slack''' napa
* '''slack''' lmbm
* '''slack; silly''' keta
* '''slant; slope, v.''' dhene
* '''slanting''' beni
* '''sleep''' loro
* '''sleep, v.''' loro
* '''slide, v.''' bibhi
* '''slide; slippery, v.''' mabha
* '''slimy''' sere
* '''slip, v.''' ynnn
* '''slit, v.''' dhaphi
* '''slow''' roda
* '''small''' pekhe
* '''small''' pekhe
* '''small animal''' mewu
* '''small, weak''' dapap
* '''smash, v.''' rebe
* '''smear, v.''' yama
* '''smell, v.''' bhayu
* '''smile, v.''' dhapha
* '''smoke''' ho:mo
* '''smoke, v.''' ho:mo
* '''smooth; even''' gidhi
* '''smoulder, v.''' sama
* '''snake''' yara
* '''sneeze''' phala
* '''sneeze, v.''' seye
* '''snore, v.''' phasi
* '''snow''' libhi
* '''snow; winter''' thumu
* '''sober''' lawa
* '''soft; mild''' lele
* '''soft; tender''' nera
* '''sole of foot''' lanar
* '''something bent''' phama
* '''something of sticks''' brgr
* '''son''' siki
* '''son-in-law''' sutu
* '''soon''' de:phe
* '''sort out, v.''' rawap
* '''sound, v.''' biki
* '''sound; bellow, v.''' mo:tam
* '''sound; drone, v.''' heyek
* '''sound; hear, v.''' la:ya
* '''sour; bitter''' peba
* '''sow, v.''' baya
* '''space; room''' gighi
* '''span of hand''' gmgm
* '''spar''' bhimi
* '''sparkle, v.''' gono
* '''sparrow (?) name of bird''' sewi
* '''sparrow; finch''' llslw
* '''speak''' tele
* '''speak formally, v.''' khiphi
* '''speak, v.''' tele
* '''spear''' phele
* '''speckled''' mele
* '''spin, v.''' mege
* '''spirit''' togho
* '''spiritual depression''' la:na
* '''spit''' piwit
* '''spit; spew, v.''' piwit
* '''splash, v.''' gapi
* '''spleen; milt''' pmmm
* '''split off, v.''' teher
* '''split, v.''' solikh
* '''split; cut, v.''' luhu
* '''spoil''' siti
* '''spongy''' hara
* '''spots (bright and dark)''' mekhu
* '''spout, v.''' ganu
* '''spray, v.''' weba
* '''spray;, v.''' mana
* '''spread legs, v.''' gedi
* '''spring''' khini
* '''sprinkle, v.''' raga
* '''sprout, v.''' ri:si
* '''spy; watch, v.''' blml
* '''squash, v.''' sewel
* '''squash, v.''' rapa
* '''squeak, v.''' rokha
* '''squirrel; weasel''' ghata
* '''stab, stick, v.''' thadi
* '''stab, v.''' toka
* '''staff (as support)''' kethem
* '''stain; dirty, v.''' titi
* '''stake''' ghadi
* '''stall''' leghedh
* '''stamp into pieces, v.''' mighi
* '''stamp; thrust, v.''' sunu
* '''stand''' nuyu
* '''stand out, v.''' dirir
* '''stand up stiff, v.''' na:gha
* '''stand, v.''' nuyu
* '''star''' la:ya
* '''star''' la:ya
* '''stare, v.''' ghala
* '''starling''' pho:sut
* '''statute; rule''' yono
* '''stay overnight, v.''' khodo
* '''steal; act secretly, v.''' kutu
* '''steal; rob, v.''' dharu
* '''stem''' rili
* '''stem; reed''' kimi
* '''step back; shy, v.''' gawal
* '''ster''' kegu
* '''stick''' lagha
* '''stick (hammer-shaped)''' ri:bhi
* '''stick; club''' dawas
* '''stick; stalk''' tekhe
* '''stiff''' nete
* '''stiff; rigid''' kha:ka
* '''stink, v.''' gomo
* '''stomach''' tasas
* '''stone''' kha:wal
* '''stone; rock''' kha:wal
* '''stop, v.''' mulugh
* '''straight''' ripi
* '''strain, v.''' pa:pi
* '''strangle, v.''' wusus
* '''strap''' yrsr
* '''streak past, v.''' thodu
* '''stream, v.''' naghu
* '''strength''' ma:na
* '''strength (of youth)''' nawar
* '''stretch out hand for, v.''' mapa
* '''stretch out, v.''' sese
* '''stretch out; broad, v.''' dugu
* '''stretch, v.''' dhasuk
* '''stretch; totter, v.''' reri
* '''strew; sow, v.''' domu
* '''stride, v.''' khani
* '''strip''' yewegh
* '''strip; beam''' phini
* '''striped''' ri:gi
* '''strive, v.''' rakha
* '''stroke, v.''' teghe
* '''strong''' gho:kho
* '''strong; big''' drwrth
* '''struggle, v.''' biniw
* '''stuff full, v.''' timi
* '''stumble, v.''' tedhe
* '''stunned''' so:bha
* '''stunted; curtailed''' taka
* '''stupid''' nepi
* '''suck(le), v.''' nemu
* '''suck(le); breast, v.''' lilip
* '''suck, v.''' bhnsn
* '''suffer, v.''' layaw
* '''sulky''' bhoni
* '''sulphur''' re:sil
* '''summer''' homo
* '''summer; harvest''' noki
* '''sun''' hara
* '''sun''' hara
* '''support, v.''' rete
* '''surge, v.''' balu
* '''swallow, v.''' meme
* '''swallow, v.''' peled
* '''swallow, v.''' doni
* '''swamp; blackish''' thini
* '''swamp; lake''' phayuh
* '''swamped by water''' ragi
* '''swarm, v.''' phi:yin
* '''swarm; swell, v.''' niyik
* '''sweat, v.''' lesid
* '''sweep, v.''' pipi
* '''sweet''' nana
* '''swell up, v.''' pawa
* '''swell, v.''' to:ro
* '''swelling''' logo
* '''swift''' ra:pa
* '''swift; rapid''' paya
* '''swill, v.''' napa
* '''swim''' nada
* '''swim''' nada
* '''swing; spin, v.''' doro
* '''swirl, v.''' liwi
* '''swollen; thick''' klhl
* '''sword''' romo

==T==
* '''tail''' sudu
* '''tail''' sudu
* '''take; seize, v.''' phasath
* '''talk, v.''' yoyod
* '''tame, v.''' lapu
* '''tarry; live, v.''' nlylr
* '''taste something, v.''' horo
* '''taste, v.''' kaya
* '''taste; enjoy, v.''' losi
* '''tear''' meka
* '''tear to pieces, v.''' sakha
* '''tear up; open, v.''' yasu
* '''tear, v.''' kori
* '''tell lies, v.''' peseb
* '''ten''' rede
* '''ten''' rede
* '''tender; weak''' peqa
* '''tendril; trap''' supu
* '''tense; tight''' leres
* '''testicle''' righi
* '''that''' ala
* '''that''' ala
* '''that yonder''' ara
* '''they''' te
* '''they''' te
* '''thick; big''' slrl
* '''thick; dense''' wanu
* '''thick; firm''' ro:da
* '''thick-haired''' liti
* '''thigh; leg''' gha:ra
* '''thin''' rephi
* '''thin shaft''' sumu
* '''thing''' relu
* '''think about, v.''' kheghu
* '''think of, v.''' mo:du
* '''think, v.''' dhabha
* '''think; feel, v.''' sapha
* '''this''' ana
* '''this''' ana
* '''thorn''' watha
* '''thou''' dini
* '''thousand''' petha
* '''threaten, v.''' deda
* '''three''' kasa
* '''three''' kasa
* '''throat''' tirikh
* '''through''' lepe
* '''through''' lepe
* '''throw shoot, v.''' wathim
* '''throw, v.''' dhlnl
* '''throw; shoot, v.''' pepe
* '''throw; strew, v.''' lobi
* '''throw; toss, v.''' phalu
* '''thrush''' khoru
* '''thrust together, v.''' sasar
* '''thrust, v.''' ledu
* '''thrust, v.''' para
* '''thrust; hit, v.''' bhapa
* '''thrust; injure, v.''' yonup
* '''thud, dull noise''' nonu
* '''tie up, v.''' tetu
* '''tie, v.''' yo:qu
* '''tie; bind, v.''' tata
* '''time, occasion''' wa:ha
* '''tip''' baban
* '''tip, sting''' kedhi
* '''tire, make tired, v.''' kiwiy
* '''tire; rest, v.''' sudhu
* '''tired; weak''' kethe
* '''to, with''' lara
* '''tongue''' dele
* '''tongue''' dele
* '''tooth''' pene
* '''tooth''' pene
* '''top''' su
* '''top''' su
* '''torment, v.''' lmwm
* '''torment; pain''' goko
* '''torso, upper body''' thaha
* '''totter, v.''' loyus
* '''touch, v.''' nini
* '''touch; press, v.''' bhetha
* '''tower up, v.''' biyi
* '''tower; jut out, v.''' mnmn
* '''track; furrow, v.''' wali
* '''trail, v.''' nakha
* '''trample, v.''' desim
* '''tread down, v.''' gheye
* '''tread; go, v.''' domi
* '''tree''' thala
* '''tree''' thala
* '''tree (type of)''' tnrn
* '''tremble, v.''' bini
* '''trickle, v.''' kusuth
* '''trip, v.''' mahuh
* '''trip; trample, v.''' dhawa
* '''trouble oneself, v.''' gnrnkh
* '''trough''' thoya
* '''truly''' sowop
* '''tumble down, v.''' slml
* '''turn away, v.''' bona
* '''turn green, v.''' tibhi
* '''turn, v.''' riqi
* '''turn, v.''' bewa
* '''turn, v.''' ynqngh
* '''turn; twist, v.''' rlyll
* '''turn; wind, v.''' dhowak
* '''turn; wrap, v.''' yetu
* '''turtle''' rokhu
* '''twenty''' losu
* '''twig''' muhum
* '''twig (pliable)''' khaba
* '''twig (thin &amp; pliable)''' hrthr
* '''twig; bough''' wesa
* '''twig; branch''' batha
* '''twine threads, v.''' hepi
* '''twist to rope, v.''' beqel
* '''twitter, v.''' dere
* '''two''' sawa
* '''two''' sawa

==U==
* '''udder''' mesew
* '''under''' nere
* '''understand, v.''' bhami
* '''unite, v.''' lili
* '''unpleasant''' putu
* '''unripe''' sutu
* '''unwilling''' weme
* '''unwilling; vexed''' khapa
* '''up to''' pha:ra
* '''upwards''' depe
* '''urinate, v.''' yera

==V==
* '''vault, v.''' ghepu
* '''vault; breast''' phili
* '''vein; tendon''' bhebe
* '''venerate, v.''' rimi
* '''version''' kadha
* '''vessel''' mogo
* '''vexacious''' tana
* '''victory''' ghi:bi
* '''vine''' gheni
* '''vine; stem''' meri
* '''vomit, v.''' phiri
* '''vulture''' rowo
* '''vulva''' kama

==W==
* '''wade, v.''' lona
* '''walk''' rama
* '''walk''' rama
* '''wander about, v.''' beleh
* '''wander, v.''' wmtm
* '''wander; go, v.''' nrhrn
* '''wane, v.''' ra:wap
* '''want, v.''' thaha
* '''want; choose, v.''' damu
* '''want; wish, v.''' mete
* '''war; army''' boli
* '''ward off, v.''' norar
* '''warm''' kokha
* '''warm time; summer''' woso
* '''warm; roast, v.''' gha:yu
* '''wash, v.''' segha
* '''wasp''' sm:thm
* '''watch closely, v.''' redha
* '''water''' lu:su
* '''water''' lu:su
* '''water course''' dathi
* '''wave hand, v.''' ka:na
* '''wavy''' wili
* '''wax''' tege
* '''we''' ke
* '''we''' ke
* '''we, they and I''' thene
* '''we, you and I''' ghene
* '''weak; miserable''' tanaph
* '''weasel''' dhe:se
* '''weave, v.''' ginid
* '''weave; plait, v.''' sanu
* '''weed''' masa
* '''weep, v.''' me:le
* '''well up, v.''' dede
* '''well-disposed''' sighi
* '''wet''' ml:nlgh
* '''wet element''' getha
* '''wet, v.''' latu
* '''wetness; spring''' munu
* '''whale, large fish''' dhibi
* '''whirl, v.''' khasa
* '''whistle (wind), v.''' rilir
* '''whistle; pipe, v.''' ghana
* '''white''' pala
* '''white''' pala
* '''whole''' kalah
* '''whole, well''' yeli
* '''wide''' leghe
* '''wide; long''' nutu
* '''wild animal''' di:gi
* '''wild boar''' neke
* '''wind, n.''' saya
* '''wind, v.''' talak
* '''wine''' ta:tha
* '''winnow grain, v.''' khora
* '''wish, v.''' bhabha
* '''wish; want, v.''' thuhu
* '''wither, v.''' phapa
* '''without''' gese
* '''wizard''' garam
* '''woe; wolf''' kagha
* '''wolf''' luku
* '''woman''' mada
* '''woman''' mada
* '''womb''' ralar
* '''woo; marry, v.''' tho:nom
* '''wood (piece of)''' numu
* '''wood; forest''' karudh
* '''wool; flock''' nata
* '''wool; woollen garment''' lathu
* '''woollen''' midhi
* '''work with sharp tool, v.''' hala
* '''work, do, v.''' dlylb
* '''work, v.''' dhono
* '''world''' rada
* '''world''' rada
* '''worm''' resil
* '''worm; maggot''' thnbhn
* '''worry about sth, v.''' lothi
* '''worry, v.''' lewa
* '''wound; injure, v.''' pogho
* '''wrinkle up, v.''' bimir

==Y==
* '''yawn, v.''' rama
* '''year''' lapa
* '''year, to go''' loki
* '''yellow''' sa:da
* '''yellow; brown''' sa:na
* '''yesterday''' he:ge
* '''you''' le
* '''you''' le
* '''you (pl.)''' ge
* '''young''' pimi
* '''young man''' si:ti
* '''young of animal''' ghete

[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Source material]]
[[Category:Dele]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Widetoc</title>
    <id>695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5246</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T18:18:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added __NOTOC__</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]]
|}
__NOTOC__</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Latin characters</title>
    <id>696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4065</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-21T23:17:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>M</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==A==
===a===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| a || &amp;amp;#x0061; || Latin small letter a
|-
| ａ || &amp;amp;#xFF41; || Fullwidth Latin small letter a
|-
| ◌ͣ || &amp;amp;#x0363; || Combining Latin small letter a
|-
| 𝐚 || &amp;amp;#x1D41A; || Mathematical bold small a
|-
| 𝑎 || &amp;amp;#x1D44E; || Mathematical italic small a
|-
| 𝒂 || &amp;amp;#x1D482; || Mathematical bold italic small a
|-
| 𝒶 || &amp;amp;#x1D4B6; || Mathematical script small a
|-
| 𝓪 || &amp;amp;#x1D4EA; || Mathematical bold script small a
|-
| 𝔞 || &amp;amp;#x1D51E; || Mathematical Fraktur small a
|-
| 𝕒 || &amp;amp;#x1D552; || Mathematical double-struck small a
|-
| 𝖆 || &amp;amp;#x1D586; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small a
|-
| 𝖺 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BA; || Mathematical sans-serif small a
|-
| 𝗮 || &amp;amp;#x1D5EE; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small a
|-
| 𝘢 || &amp;amp;#x1D622; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small a
|-
| 𝙖 || &amp;amp;#x1D656; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small a
|-
| 𝚊 || &amp;amp;#x1D68A; || Mathematical monospace small a
|-
| ⓐ || &amp;amp;#x24D0; || Circled Latin small letter a
|-
| A || &amp;amp;#x0041; || Latin capital letter A
|-
| Ａ || &amp;amp;#xFF21; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter A
|-
| 𝐀 || &amp;amp;#x1D400; || Mathematical bold capital A
|-
| 𝐴 || &amp;amp;#x1D434; || Mathematical italic capital A
|-
| 𝑨 || &amp;amp;#x1D468; || Mathematical bold italic capital A
|-
| 𝒜 || &amp;amp;#x1D49C; || Mathematical script capital A
|-
| 𝓐 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D0; || Mathematical bold script capital A
|-
| 𝔄 || &amp;amp;#x1D504; || Mathematical Fraktur capital A
|-
| 𝔸 || &amp;amp;#x1D538; || Mathematical double-struck capital A
|-
| 𝕬 || &amp;amp;#x1D56C; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital A
|-
| 𝖠 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A0; || Mathematical sans-serif capital A
|-
| 𝗔 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D4; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital A
|-
| 𝘈 || &amp;amp;#x1D608; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital A
|-
| 𝘼 || &amp;amp;#x1D63C; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital A
|-
| 𝙰 || &amp;amp;#x1D670; || Mathematical monospace capital A
|-
| Ⓐ || &amp;amp;#x24B6; || Circled Latin capital letter A
|-
| ª || &amp;amp;#x00AA; || Feminine ordinal indicator
|-
| ᴬ || &amp;amp;#x1D2C; || Modifier letter capital A
|-
| ᵃ || &amp;amp;#x1D43; || Modifier letter small A
|-
| á || &amp;amp;#x00E1; || Latin small letter a with acute
|-
| Á || &amp;amp;#x00C1; || Latin capital letter A with acute
|-
| à || &amp;amp;#x00E0; || Latin small letter a with grave
|-
| À || &amp;amp;#x00C0; || Latin capital letter A with grave
|-
| ă || &amp;amp;#x0103; || Latin small letter a with breve
|-
| Ă || &amp;amp;#x0102; || Latin capital letter A with breve
|-
| ắ || &amp;amp;#x1EAF; || Latin small letter a with breve and acute
|-
| Ắ || &amp;amp;#x1EAE; || Latin capital letter A with breve and acute
|-
| ằ || &amp;amp;#x1EB1; || Latin small letter a with breve and grave
|-
| Ằ || &amp;amp;#x1EB0; || Latin capital letter A with breve and grave
|-
| ẵ || &amp;amp;#x1EB5; || Latin small letter a with breve and tilde
|-
| Ẵ || &amp;amp;#x1EB4; || Latin capital letter A with breve and tilde
|-
| ẳ || &amp;amp;#x1EB3; || Latin small letter a with breve and hook above
|-
| Ẳ || &amp;amp;#x1EB2; || Latin capital letter A with breve and hook above
|-
| â || &amp;amp;#x00E2; || Latin small letter a with circumflex
|-
| Â || &amp;amp;#x00C2; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex
|-
| ấ || &amp;amp;#x1EA5; || Latin small letter a with circumflex and acute
|-
| Ấ || &amp;amp;#x1EA4; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex and acute
|-
| ầ || &amp;amp;#x1EA7; || Latin small letter a with circumflex and grave
|-
| Ầ || &amp;amp;#x1EA6; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex and grave
|-
| ẫ || &amp;amp;#x1EAB; || Latin small letter a with circumflex and tilde
|-
| Ẫ || &amp;amp;#x1EAA; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex and tilde
|-
| ẩ || &amp;amp;#x1EA9; || Latin small letter a with circumflex and hook above
|-
| Ẩ || &amp;amp;#x1EA8; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex and hook above
|-
| ǎ || &amp;amp;#x01CE; || Latin small letter a with caron
|-
| Ǎ || &amp;amp;#x01CD; || Latin capital letter A with caron
|-
| å || &amp;amp;#x00E5; || Latin small letter a with ring above
|-
| Å || &amp;amp;#x00C5; || Latin capital letter A with ring above
|-
| Å || &amp;amp;#x212B; || Angstrom sign
|-
| ǻ || &amp;amp;#x01FB; || Latin small letter a with ring above and acute
|-
| Ǻ || &amp;amp;#x01FA; || Latin capital letter A with ring above and acute
|-
| ä || &amp;amp;#x00E4; || Latin small letter a with diaeresis
|-
| Ä || &amp;amp;#x00C4; || Latin capital letter A with diaeresis
|-
| ǟ || &amp;amp;#x01DF; || Latin small letter a with diaeresis and macron
|-
| Ǟ || &amp;amp;#x01DE; || Latin capital letter A with diaeresis and macron
|-
| ã || &amp;amp;#x00E3; || Latin small letter a with tilde
|-
| Ã || &amp;amp;#x00C3; || Latin capital letter A with tilde
|-
| ȧ || &amp;amp;#x0227; || Latin small letter a with dot above
|-
| Ȧ || &amp;amp;#x0226; || Latin capital letter A with dot above
|-
| ǡ || &amp;amp;#x01E1; || Latin small letter a with dot above and macron
|-
| Ǡ || &amp;amp;#x01E0; || Latin capital letter A with dot above and macron
|-
| ą || &amp;amp;#x0105; || Latin small letter a with ogonek
|-
| Ą || &amp;amp;#x0104; || Latin capital letter A with ogonek
|-
| ā || &amp;amp;#x0101; || Latin small letter a with macron
|-
| Ā || &amp;amp;#x0100; || Latin capital letter A with macron
|-
| ả || &amp;amp;#x1EA3; || Latin small letter a with hook above
|-
| Ả || &amp;amp;#x1EA2; || Latin capital letter A with hook above
|-
| ȁ || &amp;amp;#x0201; || Latin small letter a with double grave
|-
| Ȁ || &amp;amp;#x0200; || Latin capital letter A with double grave
|-
| ȃ || &amp;amp;#x0203; || Latin small letter a with inverted breve
|-
| Ȃ || &amp;amp;#x0202; || Latin capital letter A with inverted breve
|-
| ạ || &amp;amp;#x1EA1; || Latin small letter a with dot below
|-
| Ạ || &amp;amp;#x1EA0; || Latin capital letter A with dot below 
|-
| ặ || &amp;amp;#x1EB7; || Latin small letter a with breve and dot below
|-
| Ặ || &amp;amp;#x1EB6; || Latin capital letter A with breve and dot below
|-
| ậ || &amp;amp;#x1EAD; || Latin small letter a with circumflex and dot below
|-
| Ậ || &amp;amp;#x1EAC; || Latin capital letter A with circumflex and dot below
|-
| ḁ || &amp;amp;#x1E01; || Latin small letter a with ring below
|-
| Ḁ || &amp;amp;#x1E00; || Latin capital letter A with ring below
|-
| ㏂ || &amp;amp;#x33C2; || Square am
|-
| ℀ || &amp;amp;#x2100; || Account of
|-
| ℁ || &amp;amp;#x2101; || Addressed to the subject
|-
| ㏟ || &amp;amp;#x33DF; || Square a over m
|-
| ㍳ || &amp;amp;#x3373; || Square AU
|-
| ẚ || &amp;amp;#x1E9A; || Latin small letter a with right half ring
|-
| ᴀ || &amp;amp;#x1D00; || Latin letter small capital A
|}

=== æ (ash) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| æ || &amp;amp;#x00E6; || Latin small letter ae
|-
| Æ || &amp;amp;#x00C6; || Latin capital letter AE
|-
| ᴭ || &amp;amp;#x1D2D; || Modifier letter capital AE
|-
| ǽ || &amp;amp;#x01FD; || Latin small letter ae with acute
|-
| Ǽ || &amp;amp;#x01FC; || Latin capital letter AE with acute
|-
| ǣ || &amp;amp;#x01E3; || Latin small letter ae with macron
|-
| Ǣ || &amp;amp;#x01E2; || Latin capital letter AE with macron
|-
| ᴁ || &amp;amp;#x1D01; || Latin small capital AE
|}

=== ᴂ (turned ash) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ᴂ || &amp;amp;#x1D02; || Latin small letter turned ae
|-
| ᵆ || &amp;amp;#x1D46; || Modifier letter small turned ae
|}

=== ɐ (turned a) ===

{| 
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɐ || &amp;amp;#x0250; || Latin small letter turned a
|-
| ᵄ || &amp;amp;#x1D44; || Modifier letter small turned a
|}

=== ɑ (alpha) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɑ || &amp;amp;#x0251; || Latin small letter alpha
|-
| ᵅ || &amp;amp;#x1D45; || Modifier letter small alpha
|}

===ɒ (turned alpha)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɒ || &amp;amp;#x0252; || Latin small letter turned alpha
|}

==B==
=== b ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| b || &amp;amp;#x0062; || Latin small letter b
|-
| ｂ || &amp;amp;#xFF42; || Fullwidth Latin small letter b
|-
| 𝐛 || &amp;amp;#x1D41B; || Mathematical bold small b
|-
| 𝑏 || &amp;amp;#x1D44F; || Mathematical italic small b
|-
| 𝒃 || &amp;amp;#x1D483; || Mathematical bold italic small b
|-
| 𝒷 || &amp;amp;#x1D4B7; || Mathematical script small b
|-
| 𝓫 || &amp;amp;#x1D4EB; || Mathematical bold script small b
|-
| 𝔟 || &amp;amp;#x1D51F; || Mathematical Fraktur small b
|-
| 𝕓 || &amp;amp;#x1D553; || Mathematical double-struck small b
|-
| 𝖇 || &amp;amp;#x1D587; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small b
|-
| 𝖻 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BB; || Mathematical sans-serif small b
|-
| 𝗯 || &amp;amp;#x1D5EF; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small b
|-
| 𝘣 || &amp;amp;#x1D623; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small b
|-
| 𝙗 || &amp;amp;#x1D657; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small b
|-
| 𝚋 || &amp;amp;#x1D68B; || Mathematical monospace small b
|-
| ⓑ || &amp;amp;#x24D1; || Circled Latin small letter b
|-
| B || &amp;amp;#x0042; || Latin capital letter B
|-
| Ｂ || &amp;amp;#xFF22; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter B
|-
| ℬ || &amp;amp;#x212C; || Script capital B
|-
| 𝐁 || &amp;amp;#x1D401; || Mathematical bold capital B
|-
| 𝐵 || &amp;amp;#x1D435; || Mathematical italic capital B
|-
| 𝑩 || &amp;amp;#x1D469; || Mathematical bold italic capital B
|-
| 𝓑 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D1; || Mathematical bold script capital B
|-
| 𝔅 || &amp;amp;#x1D505; || Mathematical Fraktur capital B
|-
| 𝔹 || &amp;amp;#x1D539; || Mathematical double-struck capital B
|-
| 𝕭 || &amp;amp;#x1D56D; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital B
|-
| 𝖡 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A1; || Mathematical sans-serif capital B
|-
| 𝗕 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D5; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital B
|-
| 𝘉 || &amp;amp;#x1D609; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital B
|-
| 𝘽 || &amp;amp;#x1D63D; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital B
|-
| 𝙱 || &amp;amp;#x1D671; || Mathematical monospace capital B
|-
| Ⓑ || &amp;amp;#x24B7; || Circled Latin capital letter B
|-
| ᴮ || &amp;amp;#x1D2E; || Modifier letter capital B
|-
| ᵇ || &amp;amp;#x1D47; || Modifier letter small b
|-
| ḃ || &amp;amp;#x1E03; || Latin small letter b with dot above
|-
| Ḃ || &amp;amp;#x1E02; || Latin capital letter B with dot above
|-
| ḅ || &amp;amp;#x1E05; || Latin small letter b with dot below
|-
| Ḅ || &amp;amp;#x1E04; || Latin capital letter B with dot below
|-
| ḇ || &amp;amp;#x1E07; || Latin small letter b with line below
|-
| Ḇ || &amp;amp;#x1E06; || Latin capital letter B with line below
|-
| ㍴ || &amp;amp;#x3374; || Square bar
|-
| ㏃ || &amp;amp;#x33C3; || Square Bq
|-
| ʙ || &amp;amp;#x0299; || Latin letter small capital B
|}

=== ƀ (struck b) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|- 
| ƀ || &amp;amp;#x0180; || Latin small letter b with stroke
|-
| ᴯ || &amp;amp;#x1D2F; || Modifier letter capital barred B 
|-
| ᴃ || &amp;amp;#x1D03; || Latin letter small capital barred B
|}

=== ɓ (hooked b) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɓ || &amp;amp;#x0253; || Latin small letter b with hook
|-
| Ɓ || &amp;amp;#x0181; || Latin capital letter B with hook
|}

===ƃ (top-barred b)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƃ || &amp;amp;#x0183; || Latin small letter b with topbar
|-
| Ƃ || &amp;amp;#x0182; || Latin capital letter B with topbar
|}

==C==
=== c ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| c  || &amp;amp;#x0063; || Latin small letter c
|-
| ｃ || &amp;amp;#xFF43; || Fullwidth Latin small letter c
|-
| ◌ͨ || &amp;amp;#x0368; || Combining Latin small letter c
|-
| ⅽ || &amp;amp;#x217D; || Small Roman numeral one hundred
|-
| 𝐜 || &amp;amp;#x1D41C; || Mathematical bold small c
|-
| 𝑐 || &amp;amp;#x1D450; || Mathematical italic small c
|-
| 𝒄 || &amp;amp;#x1D484; || Mathematical bold italic small c
|-
| 𝒸 || &amp;amp;#x1D4B8; || Mathematical script small c
|-
| 𝓬 || &amp;amp;#x1D4EC; || Mathematical bold script small c
|-
| 𝔠 || &amp;amp;#x1D520; || Mathematical Fraktur small c
|-
| 𝕔 || &amp;amp;#x1D554; || Mathematical double-struck small c
|-
| 𝖈 || &amp;amp;#x1D588; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small c
|-
| 𝖼 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BC; || Mathematical sans-serif small c
|-
| 𝗰 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F0; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small c
|-
| 𝘤 || &amp;amp;#x1D624; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small c
|-
| 𝙘 || &amp;amp;#x1D658; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small c
|-
| 𝚌 || &amp;amp;#x1D68C; || Mathematical monospace small c
|-
| ⓒ || &amp;amp;#x24D2; || Circled Latin small letter c
|-
| C || &amp;amp;#x0043; || Latin capital letter C
|-
| Ｃ || &amp;amp;#xFF23; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter C
|-
| Ⅽ || &amp;amp;#x216D; || Roman numeral one hundred
|-
| ℂ || &amp;amp;#x2102; || Double-struck capital C
|-
| ℭ || &amp;amp;#x212D; || Black-letter capital C
|-
| 𝐂 || &amp;amp;#x1D402; || Mathematical bold capital C
|-
| 𝐶 || &amp;amp;#x1D436; || Mathematical italic capital C
|-
| 𝑪 || &amp;amp;#x1D46A; || Mathematical bold italic capital C
|-
| 𝒞 || &amp;amp;#x1D49E; || Mathematical script capital C
|-
| 𝓒 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D2; || Mathematical bold script capital C
|-
| 𝕮 || &amp;amp;#x1D56E; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital C
|-
| 𝖢 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A2; || Mathematical sans-serif capital C
|-
| 𝗖 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D6; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital C
|-
| 𝘊 || &amp;amp;#x1D60A; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital C
|-
| 𝘾 || &amp;amp;#x1D63E; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital C
|-
| 𝙲 || &amp;amp;#x1D672; || Mathematical monospace capital C
|-
| Ⓒ || &amp;amp;#x24B8; || Circled Latin capital letter C
|-
| ć || &amp;amp;#x0107; || Latin small letter c with acute
|-
| Ć || &amp;amp;#x0106; || Latin capital letter C with acute
|-
| ĉ || &amp;amp;#x0109; || Latin small letter c with circumflex
|-
| Ĉ || &amp;amp;#x0108; || Latin capital letter C with circumflex
|-
| č || &amp;amp;#x010D; || Latin small letter c with caron
|-
| Č || &amp;amp;#x010C; || Latin capital letter C with caron
|-
| ċ || &amp;amp;#x010B; || Latin small letter c with dot above
|-
| Ċ || &amp;amp;#x010A; || Latin capital letter C with dot above
|-
| ç || &amp;amp;#x00E7; || Latin small letter c with cedilla
|-
| Ç || &amp;amp;#x00C7; || Latin capital letter C with cedilla
|-
| ḉ || &amp;amp;#x1E09; || Latin small letter c with cedilla and acute
|-
| Ḉ || &amp;amp;#x1E08; || Latin capital letter C with cedilla and acute
|-
| ℅ || &amp;amp;#x2105; || Care of
|-
| ℆ || &amp;amp;#x2106; || Cada una
|-
| ㏆ || &amp;amp;#x33C6; || Square C over kg
|-
| ㎈ || &amp;amp;#x3388; || Square cal
|-
| ㏄ || &amp;amp;#x33C4; || Square cc
|-
| ㏅ || &amp;amp;#x33C5; || Square cd
|-
| ㎝ || &amp;amp;#x339D; || Square cm
|-
| ㎠ || &amp;amp;#x33A0; || Square cm squared
|-
| ㎤ || &amp;amp;#x33A4; || Square cm cubed
|-
| ㏇ || &amp;amp;#x33C7; || Square co
|-
| ᴄ || &amp;amp;#x1D04; || Latin letter small capital C
|}

=== ƈ (hooked c) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƈ || &amp;amp;#x0188; || Latin small letter c with hook
|-
| Ƈ || &amp;amp;#x0187; || Latin capital letter C with hook
|}

===ɕ (curled c) ===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɕ || &amp;amp;#x0255; || Latin small letter c with curl
|}

==D==
=== d ===

{| 
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| d || &amp;amp;#x0064; || Latin small letter d
|-
| ｄ || &amp;amp;#xFF44; || Fullwidth Latin small letter d
|-
| ◌ͩ || &amp;amp;#x0369; || Combining Latin small letter d
|-
| ⅾ || &amp;amp;#x217E; || Small Roman numeral five hundred
|-
| ⅆ || &amp;amp;#x2146; || Double-struck italic small d
|-
| 𝐝 || &amp;amp;#x1D41D; || Mathematical bold small d
|-
| 𝑑 || &amp;amp;#x1D451; || Mathematical italic small d
|-
| 𝒅 || &amp;amp;#x1D485; || Mathematical bold italic small d
|-
| 𝒹 || &amp;amp;#x1D4B9;  || Mathematical script small d
|-
| 𝓭 || &amp;amp;#x1D4ED; || Mathematical bold script small d
|-
| 𝔡 || &amp;amp;#x1D521; || Mathematical Fraktur small d
|-
| 𝕕 || &amp;amp;#x1D555; || Mathematical double-struck small d
|-
| 𝖉 || &amp;amp;#x1D589; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small d
|-
| 𝖽 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BD; || Mathematical sans-serif small d
|-
| 𝗱 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F1; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small d
|-
| 𝘥 || &amp;amp;#x1D625; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small d
|-
| 𝙙 || &amp;amp;#x1D659; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small d
|-
| 𝚍 || &amp;amp;#x1D68D; || Mathematical monospace small d
|-
| ⓓ || &amp;amp;#x24D3; || Circled Latin small letter d
|-
| D || &amp;amp;#x0044; || Latin capital letter D
|-
| Ｄ || &amp;amp;#xFF24; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter D
|-
| Ⅾ || &amp;amp;#x216E; || Roman numeral five hundred
|-
| ⅅ || &amp;amp;#x2145; || Double-struck italic capital D
|-
| 𝐃 || &amp;amp;#x1D403; || Mathematical bold capital D
|-
| 𝐷 || &amp;amp;#x1D437; || Mathematical italic capital D
|-
| 𝑫 || &amp;amp;#x1D46B; || Mathematical bold italic capital D
|-
| 𝒟 || &amp;amp;#x1D49F; || Mathematical script capital D
|-
| 𝓓 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D3; || Mathematical bold script capital D
|-
| 𝔇 || &amp;amp;#x1D507; || Mathematical Fraktur capital D
|-
| 𝔻 || &amp;amp;#x1D53B; || Mathematical double-struck capital D
|-
| 𝕯 || &amp;amp;#x1D56F; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital D
|-
| 𝖣 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A3; || Mathematical sans-serif capital D
|-
| 𝗗 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D7; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital D
|-
| 𝘋 || &amp;amp;#x1D60B; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital D
|-
| 𝘿 || &amp;amp;#x1D63F; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital D
|-
| 𝙳 || &amp;amp;#x1D673; || Mathematical monospace capital D
|-
| Ⓓ || &amp;amp;#x24B9; || Circled Latin capital letter D
|-
| ᴰ || &amp;amp;#x1D30;  || Modifier letter capital D
|-
| ᵈ || &amp;amp;#x1D48; || Modifier letter small d
|-
| ď || &amp;amp;#x010F; || Latin small letter d with caron
|-
| Ď || &amp;amp;#x010E; || Latin capital letter D with caron
|-
| ḋ || &amp;amp;#x1E0B; || Latin small letter d with dot above
|-
| Ḋ || &amp;amp;#x1E0A; || Latin capital letter D with dot above
|-
| ḑ || &amp;amp;#x1E11; || Latin small letter d with cedilla
|-
| Ḑ || &amp;amp;#x1E10; || Latin capital letter D with cedilla
|-
| ḍ || &amp;amp;#x1E0D; || Latin small letter d with dot below
|-
| Ḍ || &amp;amp;#x1E0C; || Latin capital letter D with dot below
|-
| ḓ || &amp;amp;#x1E13; || Latin small letter d with circumflex below
|-
| Ḓ || &amp;amp;#x1E12; || Latin capital letter D with circumflex below
|-
| ḏ || &amp;amp;#x1E0F; || Latin small letter d with line below
|-
| Ḏ || &amp;amp;#x1E0E; || Latin capital letter D with line below
|-
| ㍲ || &amp;amp;#x3372; || Square da
|-
| ㏈ || &amp;amp;#x33C8; || Square dB
|-
| ㎗ || &amp;amp;#x3397; || Square dl
|-
| ㍷ || &amp;amp;#x3377; || Square dm
|-
| ㍸ || &amp;amp;#x3378; || Square dm squared
|-
| ㍹ || &amp;amp;#x3379; || Square dm cubed
|-
| ǳ || &amp;amp;#x01F3; || Latin small letter dz
|-
| ʣ || &amp;amp;#x02A3; || Latin small letter dz digraph
|-
| ǲ || &amp;amp;#x01F2; || Latin capital letter D with small letter z
|-
| Ǳ || &amp;amp;#x01F1; || Latin capital letter DZ
|-
| ǆ || &amp;amp;#x01C6; || Latin small letter dz with caron
|-
| ǅ || &amp;amp;#x01C5; || Latin capital letter D with small letter z with caron
|-
| Ǆ || &amp;amp;#x01C4; || Latin capital letter DZ with caron
|-
| ʥ || &amp;amp;#x02A5; || Latin small letter dz digraph with curl
|-
| ʤ || &amp;amp;#x02A4; || Latin small letter dezh digraph
|-
| ᴅ || &amp;amp;#x1D05; || Latin letter small capital D
|}

=== đ (struck d) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| đ || &amp;amp;#x0111; || Latin small letter d with stroke
|-
| Đ || &amp;amp;#x0110; || Latin capital letter D with stroke
|}

===ɖ (tailed d)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɖ || &amp;amp;#x0256; || Latin small letter d with tail
|-
| Ɖ || &amp;amp;#x0189; || Latin capital letter African D
|}

===ɗ (hooked d)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɗ || &amp;amp;#x0257; || Latin small letter d with hook
|-
| Ɗ || &amp;amp;#x018A; || Latin capital letter D with hook
|}

===ƌ (top-barred d)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƌ || &amp;amp;#x018C; || Latin small letter d with topbar
|-
| Ƌ || &amp;amp;#x018B; || Latin capital letter D with topbar
|}

===ȡ (curled d)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ȡ || &amp;amp;#x0221; || Latin small letter d with curl
|}

===ð (eth)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ð || &amp;amp;#x00F0; || Latin small letter eth
|-
| Ð || &amp;amp;#x00D0; || Latin capital letter eth
|-
| ᴆ || &amp;amp;#x1D06; || Latin letter small capital eth
|}

==E==
=== e ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|- 
| e || &amp;amp;#x0065; || Latin small letter e
|-
| ｅ || &amp;amp;#xFF45; || Fullwidth Latin small letter e
|-
| ◌ͤ || &amp;amp;#x0364; || Combining Latin small letter e
|-
| ℯ || &amp;amp;#x212F; || Script small e
|-
| ⅇ || &amp;amp;#x2147; || Double-struck italic small e
|-
| 𝐞 || &amp;amp;#x1D41E; || Mathematical bold small e
|-
| 𝑒 || &amp;amp;#x1D452; || Mathematical italic small e
|-
| 𝒆 || &amp;amp;#x1D486; || Mathematical bold italic small e
|-
| 𝓮 || &amp;amp;#x1D4EE; || Mathematical bold script small e
|-
| 𝔢 || &amp;amp;#x1D522; || Mathematical Fraktur small e
|-
| 𝕖 || &amp;amp;#x1D556; || Mathematical double-struck small e
|-
| 𝖊 || &amp;amp;#x1D58A; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small e
|-
| 𝖾 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BE; || Mathematical sans-serif small e
|-
| 𝗲 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F2; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small e
|-
| 𝘦 || &amp;amp;#x1D626; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small e
|-
| 𝙚 || &amp;amp;#x1D65A; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small e
|-
| 𝚎 || &amp;amp;#x1D68E; || Mathematical monospace small e
|-
| ⓔ || &amp;amp;#x24D4; || Circled Latin small letter e
|-
| E || &amp;amp;#x0045; || Latin capital letter E
|-
| Ｅ || &amp;amp;#xFF25; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter E
|-
| ℰ || &amp;amp;#x2130; || Script capital E
|-
| 𝐄 || &amp;amp;#x1D404; || Mathematical bold capital E
|-
| 𝐸 || &amp;amp;#x1D438; || Mathematical italic capital E
|-
| 𝑬 || &amp;amp;#x1D46C; || Mathematical bold italic capital E
|-
| 𝓔 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D4; || Mathematical bold script capital E
|-
| 𝔈 || &amp;amp;#x1D508; || Mathematical Fraktur capital E
|-
| 𝔼 || &amp;amp;#x1D53C; || Mathematical double-struck capital E
|-
| 𝕰 || &amp;amp;#x1D570; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital E
|-
| 𝖤 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A4; || Mathematical sans-serif capital E
|-
| 𝗘 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D8; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital E
|-
| 𝘌 || &amp;amp;#x1D60C; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital E
|-
| 𝙀 || &amp;amp;#x1D640; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital E
|-
| 𝙴 || &amp;amp;#x1D674; || Mathematical monospace capital E
|-
| Ⓔ || &amp;amp;#x24BA; || Circled Latin capital letter E
|-
| ᴱ || &amp;amp;#x1D31; || Modifier letter capital E
|-
| ᵉ || &amp;amp;#x1D49; || Modifier letter small e
|-
| é || &amp;amp;#x00E9; || Latin small letter e with acute
|-
| É || &amp;amp;#x00C9; || Latin capital letter E with acute
|-
| è || &amp;amp;#x00E8; || Latin small letter e with grave
|-
| È || &amp;amp;#x00C8; || Latin capital letter E with grave
|-
| ĕ || &amp;amp;#x0115; || Latin small letter e with breve
|-
| Ĕ || &amp;amp;#x0114; || Latin capital letter E with breve
|-
| ê || &amp;amp;#x00EA; || Latin small letter e with circumflex
|-
| Ê || &amp;amp;#x00CA; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex
|-
| ế || &amp;amp;#x1EBF; || Latin small letter e with circumflex and acute
|-
| Ế || &amp;amp;#x1EBE; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex and acute
|-
| ề || &amp;amp;#x1EC1; || Latin small letter e with circumflex and grave
|-
| Ề || &amp;amp;#x1EC0; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex and grave
|-
| ễ || &amp;amp;#x1EC5; || Latin small letter e with circumflex and tilde
|-
| Ễ || &amp;amp;#x1EC4; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex and tilde
|-
| ể || &amp;amp;#x1EC3; || Latin small letter e with circumflex and hook above
|-
| Ể || &amp;amp;#x1EC2; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex and hook above
|-
| ě || &amp;amp;#x011B; || Latin small letter e with caron
|-
| Ě || &amp;amp;#x011A; || Latin capital letter E with caron
|-
| ë || &amp;amp;#x00EB; || Latin small letter e with umlaut
|-
| Ë || &amp;amp;#x00CB; || Latin capital letter E with umlaut
|-
| ẽ || &amp;amp;#x1EBD; || Latin small letter e with tilde
|-
| Ẽ || &amp;amp;#x1EBC; || Latin capital letter E with tilde
|-
| ė || &amp;amp;#x0117; || Latin small letter e with dot above
|-
| Ė || &amp;amp;#x0116; || Latin capital letter E with dot above
|-
| ȩ || &amp;amp;#x0229; || Latin small letter e with cedilla
|-
| Ȩ || &amp;amp;#x0228; || Latin capital letter E with cedilla
|-
| ḝ || &amp;amp;#x1E1D; || Latin small letter e with cedilla and breve
|-
| Ḝ || &amp;amp;#x1E1C; || Latin capital letter E with cedilla and breve
|-
| ę || &amp;amp;#x0119; || Latin small letter e with ogonek
|-
| Ę || &amp;amp;#x0118; || Latin capital letter E with ogonek
|-
| ē || &amp;amp;#x0113; || Latin small letter e with macron
|-
| Ē || &amp;amp;#x0112; || Latin capital letter E with macron
|-
| ḗ || &amp;amp;#x1E17; || Latin small letter e with macron and acute
|-
| Ḗ || &amp;amp;#x1E16; || Latin capital letter E with macron and acute
|-
| ḕ || &amp;amp;#x1E15; || Latin small letter e with macron and grave
|-
| Ḕ || &amp;amp;#x1E14; || Latin capital letter E with macron and grave
|-
| ẻ || &amp;amp;#x1EBB; || Latin small letter e with hook above
|-
| Ẻ || &amp;amp;#x1EBA; || Latin capital letter E with hook above
|-
| ȅ || &amp;amp;#x0205; || Latin small letter e with double grave
|-
| Ȅ || &amp;amp;#x0204; || Latin capital letter E with double grave
|-
| ȇ || &amp;amp;#x0207; || Latin small letter e with inverted breve
|-
| Ȇ || &amp;amp;#x0206; || Latin capital letter E with inverted breve
|-
| ẹ || &amp;amp;#x1EB9; || Latin small letter e with dot below
|-
| Ẹ || &amp;amp;#x1EB8; || Latin capital letter E with dot below
|-
| ệ || &amp;amp;#x1EC7; || Latin small letter e with circumflex and dot below
|-
| Ệ || &amp;amp;#x1EC6; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex and dot below
|-
| ḙ || &amp;amp;#x1E19; || Latin small letter e with circumflex below
|-
| Ḙ || &amp;amp;#x1E18; || Latin capital letter E with circumflex below
|-
| ḛ || &amp;amp;#x1E1B; || Latin small letter e with tilde below
|-
| Ḛ || &amp;amp;#x1E1A; || Latin capital letter E with tilde below
|-
| ㋍ || &amp;amp;#x32CD; || Square erg
|-
| ㋎ || &amp;amp;#x32CE; || Square eV
|-
| ᴇ || &amp;amp;#x1D07; || Latin letter small capital E
|}

=== ǝ (schwa or turned e) ===

{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ǝ || &amp;amp;#x01DD; || Latin small letter turned e
|-
| Ǝ || &amp;amp;#x018E; || Latin capital letter reversed E
|-
| ᴲ || &amp;amp;#x1D32; || Modifier letter capital reversed E
|-
| ə || &amp;amp;#x0259; || Latin small letter schwa
|-
| Ə || &amp;amp;#x018F; || Latin capital letter schwa
|-
| ᵊ || &amp;amp;#x1D4A; || Modifier letter small schwa
|-
| ɚ || &amp;amp;#x025A; || Latin small letter schwa with hook
|}

===ɛ (epsilon)===
{| 
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɛ || &amp;amp;#x025B; || Latin small letter open e
|-
| Ɛ || &amp;amp;#x0190; || Latin capital letter open E
|-
| ℇ || &amp;amp;#x2107; || Euler constant
|-
| ᵋ || &amp;amp;#x1D4B; || Modifier letter small open e
|}

===ɘ (reversed e)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɘ || &amp;amp;#x0258; || Latin small letter reversed e
|}

===ɜ (reversed epsilon)===
{| 
! example !! entity !! name
| ɜ || &amp;amp;#x025C; || Latin small letter reversed open e
|-
| ᴈ || &amp;amp;#x1D08; || Latin small letter turned open e
|-
| ᵌ || &amp;amp;#x1D4C; || Modifier letter small turned open e
|-
| ɝ  || &amp;amp;#x025D; || Latin small letter reversed open e with hook
|}

===ɞ (reversed closed epsilon)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɞ || &amp;amp;#x025E; || Latin small letter closed reversed open e
|}

===ʚ (closed epsilon)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʚ || &amp;amp;#x029A; || Latin small letter closed open e
|}

===ɤ (rams horn)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɤ || &amp;amp;#x0264; || Latin small letter rams horn
|}

== F ==
===f===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| f || &amp;amp;#x0066; || Latin small letter f
|-
| ｆ || &amp;amp;#xFF46; || Fullwidth Latin small letter f
|-
| 𝐟 || &amp;amp;#x1D41F; || Mathematical bold small f
|-
| 𝑓 || &amp;amp;#x1D453; || Mathematical italic small f 
|-
| 𝒇 || &amp;amp;#x1D487; || Mathematical bold italic small f
|-
| 𝒻 || &amp;amp;#x1D4BB; || Mathematical script small f
|-
| 𝓯 || &amp;amp;#x1D4EF; || Mathematical bold script small f
|-
| 𝔣 || &amp;amp;#x1D523; || Mathematical Fraktur small f
|-
| 𝕗 || &amp;amp;#x1D557; || Mathematical double-struck small f
|-
| 𝖋 || &amp;amp;#x1D58B; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small f 
|-
| 𝖿 || &amp;amp;#x1D5BF; || Mathematical sans-serif small f
|-
| 𝗳 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F3; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small f
|-
| 𝘧 || &amp;amp;#x1D627; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small f
|-
| 𝙛 || &amp;amp;#x1D65B; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small f
|-
| 𝚏 || &amp;amp;#x1D68F; || Mathematical monospace small f
|-
| ⓕ || &amp;amp;#x24D5; || Circled Latin small letter f
|-
| F || &amp;amp;#x0046; || Latin capital letter F
|-
| Ｆ || &amp;amp;#xFF26; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter F
|-
| ℱ || &amp;amp;#x2131; || Script capital F
|-
| 𝐅 || &amp;amp;#x1D405; || Mathematical bold capital F
|-
| 𝐹 || &amp;amp;#x1D439; || Mathematical italic capital F
|-
| 𝑭 || &amp;amp;#x1D46D; || Mathematical bold italic capital F
|-
| 𝓕 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D5; || Mathematical bold script capital F
|-
| 𝔉 || &amp;amp;#x1D509; || Mathematical Fraktur capital F
|-
| 𝔽 || &amp;amp;#x1D53D; || Mathematical double-struck capital F
|-
| 𝕱 || &amp;amp;#x1D571; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital F
|-
| 𝖥 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A5; || Mathematical sans-serif capital F
|-
| 𝗙 || &amp;amp;#x1D5D9; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital F
|-
| 𝘍 || &amp;amp;#x1D60D; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital F
|-
| 𝙁 || &amp;amp;#x1D641; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital F
|-
| 𝙵 || &amp;amp;#x1D675; || Mathematical monospace capital F
|-
| Ⓕ || &amp;amp;#x24BB; || Circled Latin capital letter F
|-
| ḟ || &amp;amp;#x1E1F; || Latin small letter f with dot above
|-
| Ḟ || &amp;amp;#x1E1E; || Latin capital letter F with dot above
|-
| ℻ || &amp;amp;#x213B; || Facsimile sign
|-
| ﬀ || &amp;amp;#xFB00; || Latin small ligature ff
|-
| ﬃ || &amp;amp;#xFB03; || Latin small ligature ffi
|-
| ﬄ || &amp;amp;#xFB04; || Latin small ligature ffl
|-
| ﬁ || &amp;amp;#xFB01; || Latin small ligature fi
|-
| ﬂ || &amp;amp;#xFB02; || Latin small ligature fl
|-
| ㎙ || &amp;amp;#x3399; || Square fm
|-
| ʩ || &amp;amp;#x02A9; || Latin small letter feng digraph
|}

=== ƒ (hooked f) ===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƒ || &amp;amp;#x0192; || Latin small letter f with hook
|-
| Ƒ || &amp;amp;#x0191; || Latin capital letter F with hook
|}

== G ==
===g===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| g || &amp;amp;#x0067; || Latin small letter g
|-
| ｇ || &amp;amp;#xFF47; || Fullwidth Latin small letter g
|-
| ℊ || &amp;amp;#x210A; || Script small g
|-
| 𝐠 || &amp;amp;#x1D420; || Mathematical bold small g
|-
| 𝑔 || &amp;amp;#x1D454; || Mathematical italic small g
|-
| 𝒈 || &amp;amp;#x1D488; || Mathematical bold italic small g
|-
| 𝓰 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F0; || Mathematical bold script small g
|-
| 𝔤 || &amp;amp;#x1D524; || Mathematical Fraktur small g
|-
| 𝕘 || &amp;amp;#x1D558; || Mathematical double-struck small g
|-
| 𝖌 || &amp;amp;#x1D58C; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small g
|-
| 𝗀 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C0; || Mathematical sans-serif small g
|-
| 𝗴 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F4; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small g 
|-
| 𝘨 || &amp;amp;#x1D628; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small g
|-
| 𝙜 || &amp;amp;#x1D65C; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small g
|-
| 𝚐 || &amp;amp;#x1D690; || Mathematical monospace small g
|-
| ⓖ || &amp;amp;#x24D6; || Circled Latin small letter g
|-
| G || &amp;amp;#x0047; || Latin capital letter G
|-
| Ｇ || &amp;amp;#xFF27; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter G
|-
| 𝐆 || &amp;amp;#x1D406; || Mathematical bold capital G
|-
| 𝐺 || &amp;amp;#x1D43A; || Mathematical italic capital G
|-
| 𝑮 || &amp;amp;#x1D46E; || Mathematical bold italic capital G
|-
| 𝒢 || &amp;amp;#x1D4A2; || Mathematical script capital G
|-
| 𝓖 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D6; || Mathematical bold script capital G
|-
| 𝔊 || &amp;amp;#x1D50A; || Mathematical Fraktur capital G
|-
| 𝔾 || &amp;amp;#x1D53E; || Mathematical double-struck capital G
|-
| 𝕲 || &amp;amp;#x1D572; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital G
|-
| 𝖦 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A6; || Mathematical sans-serif capital G
|-
| 𝗚 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DA; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital G
|-
| 𝘎 || &amp;amp;#x1D60E; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital G
|-
| 𝙂 || &amp;amp;#x1D642; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital G
|-
| 𝙶 || &amp;amp;#x1D676; || Mathematical monospace capital G
|-
| Ⓖ || &amp;amp;#x24BC; || Circled Latin capital letter G
|-
| ᴳ || &amp;amp;#x1D33; || Modifier letter capital G
|-
| ᵍ || &amp;amp;#x1D4D; || Modifier letter small g
|-
| ǵ || &amp;amp;#x01F5; || Latin small letter g with acute
|-
| Ǵ || &amp;amp;#x01F4; || Latin capital letter G with acute
|-
| ğ || &amp;amp;#x011F; || Latin small letter g with breve
|-
| Ğ || &amp;amp;#x011E; || Latin capital letter G with breve
|-
| ĝ || &amp;amp;#x011D; || Latin small letter g with circumflex
|-
| Ĝ || &amp;amp;#x011C; || Latin capital letter G with circumflex
|-
| ǧ || &amp;amp;#x01E7; || Latin small letter g with caron
|-
| Ǧ || &amp;amp;#x01E6; || Latin capital letter G with caron
|-
| ġ || &amp;amp;#x0121; || Latin small letter g with dot above
|-
| Ġ || &amp;amp;#x0120; || Latin capital letter G with dot above
|-
| ģ || &amp;amp;#x0123; || Latin small letter g with cedilla
|-
| Ģ || &amp;amp;#x0122; || Latin capital letter G with cedilla
|-
| ḡ || &amp;amp;#x1E21; || Latin small letter g with macron
|-
| Ḡ || &amp;amp;#x1E20; || Latin capital letter G with macron
|-
| ㏿ || &amp;amp;#x33FF; || Square gal
|-
| ㎇ || &amp;amp;#x3387; || Square GB
|-
| ㎓ || &amp;amp;#x3393; || Square GHz
|-
| ㎬ || &amp;amp;#x33AC; || Square GPa
|-
| ㏉ || &amp;amp;#x33C9; || Square Gy
|-
| ɡ || &amp;amp;#x0261; || Latin small letter script g
|-
| ɢ || &amp;amp;#x0262; || Latin small capital letter G
|}

===ǥ (struck g)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ǥ || &amp;amp;#x01E5; || Latin small letter g with stroke
|-
| Ǥ || &amp;amp;#x01E4; || Latin capital letter G with stroke
|}

===ɠ (hooked g)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɠ || &amp;amp;#x0260; || Latin small letter g with hook
|-
| Ɠ || &amp;amp;#x0193; || Latin capital letter G with hook
|-
| ʛ || &amp;amp;#x029B; || Latin letter small capital G with hook
|}

===ɣ (gamma)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɣ || &amp;amp;#x0263; || Latin small letter gamma
|-
| Ɣ || &amp;amp;#x0194; || Latin capital letter gamma
|-
| ˠ || &amp;amp;#x02E0; || Modifier letter small gamma
|}

===ƣ (gha)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƣ || &amp;amp;#x01A3; || Latin small letter oi
|-
| Ƣ || &amp;amp;#x01A2; || Latin capital letter OI
|}

== H ==

===h===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|- 
| h || &amp;amp;#x0068; || Latin small letter h
|-
| ｈ || &amp;amp;#xFF48; || Fullwidth Latin small letter h
|-
| ◌ͪ || &amp;amp;#x036A; || Combining small letter h
|-
| ℎ || &amp;amp;#x210E; || Planck constant
|-
| 𝐡 || &amp;amp;#x1D421; || Mathematical bold small h
|-
| 𝒉 || &amp;amp;#x1D489; || Mathematical bold italic small h 
|-
| 𝒽 || &amp;amp;#x1D4BD; || Mathematical script small h
|-
| 𝓱 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F1; || Mathematical bold script small h
|-
| 𝔥 || &amp;amp;#x1D525; || Mathematical Fraktur small h
|-
| 𝕙 || &amp;amp;#x1D559; || Mathematical double-struck small h
|-
| 𝖍 || &amp;amp;#x1D58D; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small h
|-
| 𝗁 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C1; || Mathematical sans-serif small h
|-
| 𝗵 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F5; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small h
|-
| 𝘩 || &amp;amp;#x1D629; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small h
|-
| 𝙝 || &amp;amp;#x1D65D; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small h
|-
| 𝚑 || &amp;amp;#x1D691; || Mathematical monospace small h
|-
| ⓗ || &amp;amp;#x24D7; || Circled Latin small letter h
|-
| H || &amp;amp;#x0048; || Latin capital letter H
|-
| Ｈ || &amp;amp;#xFF28; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter H
|-
| ℋ || &amp;amp;#x210B; || Script capital H
|-
| ℌ || &amp;amp;#x210C; || Black-letter capital H
|-
| ℍ || &amp;amp;#x210D; || Double-struck capital H
|-
| 𝐇 || &amp;amp;#x1D407; || Mathematical bold capital H
|-
| 𝐻 || &amp;amp;#x1D43B; || Mathematical italic capital H
|-
| 𝑯 || &amp;amp;#x1D46F; || Mathematical bold italic capital H
|-
| 𝓗 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D7; || Mathematical bold script capital H
|-
| 𝕳 || &amp;amp;#x1D573; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital H
|-
| 𝖧 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A7; || Mathematical sans-serif capital H
|-
| 𝗛 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DB; ||  Mathematical sans-serif bold capital H
|-
| 𝘏 || &amp;amp;#x1D60F; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital H
|-
| 𝙃 || &amp;amp;#x1D643; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital H
|-
| 𝙷 || &amp;amp;#x1D677; || Mathematical monospace capital H
|-
| Ⓗ || &amp;amp;#x24BD; || Circled Latin capital letter H
|-
| ʰ || &amp;amp;#x02B0; || Modifier letter small h
|-
| ᴴ || &amp;amp;#x1D34; || Modifier letter capital H
|-
| ĥ || &amp;amp;#x0125; || Latin small letter h with circumflex
|-
| Ĥ || &amp;amp;#x0124; || Latin capital letter H with circumflex
|-
| ȟ || &amp;amp;#x021F; || Latin small letter h with caron
|-
| Ȟ || &amp;amp;#x021E; || Latin capital letter H with caron
|-
| ḧ || &amp;amp;#x1E27; || Latin small letter h with diaeresis
|-
| Ḧ || &amp;amp;#x1E26; || Latin capital letter H with diaeresis
|-
| ḣ || &amp;amp;#x1E23; || Latin small letter h with dot above
|-
| Ḣ || &amp;amp;#x1E22; || Latin capital letter H with dot above
|-
| ḩ || &amp;amp;#x1E29; || Latin small letter h with cedilla
|-
| Ḩ || &amp;amp;#x1E28; || Latin capital letter H with cedilla
|-
| ḥ || &amp;amp;#x1E25; || Latin small letter h with dot below
|-
| Ḥ || &amp;amp;#x1E24; || Latin capital letter H with dot below
|-
| ḫ || &amp;amp;#x1E2B; || Latin small letter h with breve below
|-
| Ḫ || &amp;amp;#x1E2A; || Latin capital letter H with breve below
|-
| ẖ || &amp;amp;#x1E96; || Latin small letter h with line below
|-
| ㏊ || &amp;amp;#x33CA; || Square ha
|-
| ㋌ || &amp;amp;#x32CC; || Square hg
|-
| ㏋ || &amp;amp;#x33CB; || Square HP
|-
| ㍱ || &amp;amp;#x3371; || Square hPa
|-
| ㎐ || &amp;amp;#x3390; || Square Hz
|-
| ʜ || &amp;amp;#x029C; || Latin letter small capital H
|}

===ƕ (hwair)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƕ || &amp;amp;#x0195; || Latin small letter hv
|-
| Ƕ || &amp;amp;#x01F6; || Latin capital letter hwair
|}

===ħ (struck h)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ħ || &amp;amp;#x0127; || Latin small letter h with stroke
|-
| ℏ || &amp;amp;#x210F; || Planck constant over two pi
|-
| Ħ || &amp;amp;#x0126; || Latin capital letter H with stroke
|}

===ɦ (hooked h)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɦ || &amp;amp;#x0266; || Latin small letter h with hook
|-
| ʱ || &amp;amp;#x02B1; || Modifier letter small h with hook
|}

===ɧ (hooked heng)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɧ || &amp;amp;#x0267; || Latin small letter heng with hook
|}

===ʻ (turned comma)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʻ || &amp;amp;#x02BB; || Modifier letter turned comma
|-
| ʽ || &amp;amp;#x02BD; || Modifier letter reversed comma
|}

== I ==

===i===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| i || &amp;amp;#x0069; || Latin small letter i
|-
| ｉ || &amp;amp;#xFF49; || Fullwidth Latin small letter i
|-
| ◌ͥ || &amp;amp;#x0365; || Combining Latin small letter i
|-
| ⅰ || &amp;amp;#x2170; || Small Roman numeral one
|-
| ℹ || &amp;amp;#x2139; || Information source
|-
| ⅈ || &amp;amp;#x2148; || Double-struck italic small i
|-
| 𝐢 || &amp;amp;#x1D422; || Mathematical bold small i
|-
| 𝑖 || &amp;amp;#x1D456; || Mathematical italic small i
|-
| 𝒊 || &amp;amp;#x1D48A; || Mathematical bold italic small i
|-
| 𝒾 || &amp;amp;#x1D4BE; || Mathematical script small i
|-
| 𝓲 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F2; || Mathematical bold script small i
|-
| 𝔦 || &amp;amp;#x1D526; || Mathematical Fraktur small i
|-
| 𝕚 || &amp;amp;#x1D55A; || Mathematical double-struck small i
|-
| 𝖎 || &amp;amp;#x1D58E; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small i
|-
| 𝗂 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C2; || Mathematical sans-serif small i
|-
| 𝗶 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F6; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small i
|-
| 𝘪 || &amp;amp;#x1D62A; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small i
|-
| 𝙞 || &amp;amp;#x1D65E; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small i
|-
| 𝚒 || &amp;amp;#x1D692; || Mathematical monospace small i
|-
| ⓘ || &amp;amp;#x24D8; || Circled Latin small letter i
|-
| I || &amp;amp;#x0049; || Latin capital letter I
|-
| Ｉ || &amp;amp;#xFF29; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter I
|-
| Ⅰ || &amp;amp;#x2160; || Roman numeral one
|-
| ℐ || &amp;amp;#x2110; || Script capital I
|-
| ℑ || &amp;amp;#x2111; || Black-letter capital I
|-
| 𝐈 || &amp;amp;#x1D408; || Mathematical bold capital I
|-
| 𝐼 || &amp;amp;#x1D43C; || Mathematical italic capital I
|-
| 𝑰 || &amp;amp;#x1D470; || Mathematical bold italic capital I
|-
| 𝓘 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D8; || Mathematical bold script capital I
|-
| 𝕀 || &amp;amp;#x1D540; || Mathematical double-struck capital I
|-
| 𝕴 || &amp;amp;#x1D574; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital I
|-
| 𝖨 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A8; || Mathematical sans-serif capital I
|-
| 𝗜 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DC; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital I
|-
| 𝘐 || &amp;amp;#x1D610; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital I
|-
| 𝙄 || &amp;amp;#x1D644; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital I
|-
| 𝙸 || &amp;amp;#x1D678; || Mathematical monospace capital I
|-
| Ⓘ || &amp;amp;#x24BE; || Circled Latin capital letter I
|-
| ᴵ || &amp;amp;#x1D35; || Modifier letter capital I
|-
| ⁱ || &amp;amp;#x2071; || Superscript Latin small letter i
|-
| ᵢ || &amp;amp;#x1D62; || Latin subscript small letter i
|-
| í || &amp;amp;#x00ED; || Latin small letter i with acute
|-
| Í || &amp;amp;#x00CD; || Latin capital letter I with acute
|-
| ì || &amp;amp;#x00EC; || Latin small letter i with grave
|-
| Ì || &amp;amp;#x00CC; || Latin capital letter I with grave
|-
| ĭ || &amp;amp;#x012D; || Latin small letter i with breve
|-
| Ĭ || &amp;amp;#x012C; || Latin capital letter I with breve
|-
| î || &amp;amp;#x00EE; || Latin small letter i with circumflex
|-
| Î || &amp;amp;#x00CE; || Latin capital letter I with circumflex
|-
| ǐ || &amp;amp;#x01D0; || Latin small letter i with caron
|-
| Ǐ || &amp;amp;#x01CF; || Latin capital letter I with caron
|-
| ï || &amp;amp;#x00EF; || Latin small letter i with diaeresis
|-
| Ï || &amp;amp;#x00CF; || Latin capital letter I with diaeresis
|-
| ḯ || &amp;amp;#x1E2F; || Latin small letter i with diaeresis and acute
|-
| Ḯ || &amp;amp;#x1E2E; || Latin capital letter I with diaeresis and acute
|-
| ĩ || &amp;amp;#x0129; || Latin small letter i with tilde
|-
| Ĩ || &amp;amp;#x0128; || Latin capital letter I with tilde
|-
| İ || &amp;amp;#x0130; || Latin capital letter I with dot above
|-
| į || &amp;amp;#x012F; || Latin small letter i with ogonek
|-
| Į || &amp;amp;#x012E; || Latin capital letter I with ogonek
|-
| ī || &amp;amp;#x012B; || Latin small letter i with macron
|-
| Ī || &amp;amp;#x012A; || Latin capital letter I with macron
|-
| ỉ || &amp;amp;#x1EC9; || Latin small letter i with hook above
|-
| Ỉ || &amp;amp;#x1EC8; || Latin capital letter I with hook above
|-
| ȉ || &amp;amp;#x0209; || Latin small letter i with double grave
|-
| Ȉ || &amp;amp;#x0208; || Latin capital letter I with double grave
|-
| ȋ || &amp;amp;#x020B; || Latin small letter i with inverted breve
|-
| Ȋ || &amp;amp;#x020A; || Latin capital letter I with inverted breve
|-
| ị || &amp;amp;#x1ECB; || Latin small letter i with dot below
|-
| Ị || &amp;amp;#x1ECA; || Latin capital letter I with dot below
|-
| ḭ || &amp;amp;#x1E2D; || Latin small letter i with tilde below
|-
| Ḭ || &amp;amp;#x1E2C; || Latin capital letter I with tilde below
|-
| ⅱ || &amp;amp;#x2171; || Small Roman numeral two
|-
| Ⅱ || &amp;amp;#x2161; || Roman numeral two
|-
| ⅲ || &amp;amp;#x2172; || Small Roman numeral three
|-
| Ⅲ || &amp;amp;#x2162; || Roman numeral three
|-
| ĳ || &amp;amp;#x0133; || Latin small ligature ij
|-
| Ĳ || &amp;amp;#x0132; || Latin capital ligature IJ
|-
| ㏌ || &amp;amp;#x33CC; || Square in
|-
| ㍺ || &amp;amp;#x337A; || Square iu
|-
| ⅳ || &amp;amp;#x2173; || Small Roman numeral four
|-
| Ⅳ || &amp;amp;#x2163; || Roman numeral four
|-
| ⅸ || &amp;amp;#x2178; || Small Roman numeral nine
|-
| Ⅸ || &amp;amp;#x2168; || Roman numeral nine
|-
| ı || &amp;amp;#x0131; || Latin small letter dotless i
|-
| ɪ || &amp;amp;#x026A; || Latin letter small capital I
|}

===ᴉ (turned i)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ᴉ || &amp;amp;#x1D09; || Latin small letter turned i
|-
| ᵎ || &amp;amp;#x1D4E; || Modifier letter small turned i
|}

===ɨ (struck i)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name 
|-
| ɨ || &amp;amp;#x0268; || Latin small letter i with stroke
|-
| Ɨ || &amp;amp;#x0197; || Latin capital letter I with stroke
|}

===ɩ (iota)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɩ || &amp;amp;#x0269; || Latin small letter iota
|-
| Ɩ || &amp;amp;#x0196; || Latin capital letter iota
|}

== J ==
===j===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|- 
| j || &amp;amp;#x006A; || Latin small letter j
|-
| ｊ || &amp;amp;#xFF4A; || Fullwidth Latin small letter j
|-
| ⅉ || &amp;amp;#x2149; || Double-struck italic small j
|-
| 𝐣 || &amp;amp;#x1D423; || Mathematical bold small j
|-
| 𝑗 || &amp;amp;#x1D457; || Mathematical italic small j
|-
| 𝒋 || &amp;amp;#x1D48B; || Mathematical bold italic small j
|-
| 𝒿 || &amp;amp;#x1D4BF; || Mathematical script small j
|-
| 𝓳 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F3; || Mathematical bold script small j
|-
| 𝔧 || &amp;amp;#x1D527; || Mathematical Fraktur small j
|-
| 𝕛 || &amp;amp;#x1D55B; || Mathematical double-struck small j
|-
| 𝖏 || &amp;amp;#x1D58F; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small j
|-
| 𝗃 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C3; || Mathematical sans-serif small j
|-
| 𝗷 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F7; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small j
|-
| 𝘫 || &amp;amp;#x1D62B; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small j
|-
| 𝙟 || &amp;amp;#x1D65F; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small j
|-
| 𝚓 || &amp;amp;#x1D693; || Mathematical monospace small j
|-
| ⓙ || &amp;amp;#x24D9; || Circled Latin small letter j
|-
| J || &amp;amp;#x004A; || Latin capital letter J
|-
| Ｊ || &amp;amp;#xFF2A; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter J
|-
| 𝐉 || &amp;amp;#x1D409; || Mathematical bold capital J
|-
| 𝐽 || &amp;amp;#x1D43D; || Mathematical italic capital J
|-
| 𝑱 || &amp;amp;#x1D471; || Mathematical bold italic capital J
|-
| 𝒥 || &amp;amp;#x1D4A5; || Mathematical script capital J
|-
| 𝓙 || &amp;amp;#x1D4D9; || Mathematical bold script capital J
|-
| 𝔍 || &amp;amp;#x1D50D; || Mathematical Fraktur capital J
|-
| 𝕁 || &amp;amp;#x1D541; || Mathematical double-struck capital J
|-
| 𝕵 || &amp;amp;#x1D575; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital J
|-
| 𝖩 || &amp;amp;#x1D5A9; || Mathematical sans-serif capital J
|-
| 𝗝 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DD; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital J
|-
| 𝘑 || &amp;amp;#x1D611; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital J
|-
| 𝙅 || &amp;amp;#x1D645; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital J
|-
| 𝙹 || &amp;amp;#x1D679; || Mathematical sans-serif monospace capital J
|-
| Ⓙ || &amp;amp;#x24BF; || Circled Latin capital letter J
|-
| ʲ || &amp;amp;#x02B2; || Modifier letter small j
|-
| ᴶ || &amp;amp;#x1D36; || Modifier letter capital J
|-
| ĵ || &amp;amp;#x0135; || Latin small letter j with circumflex
|-
| Ĵ || &amp;amp;#x0134; || Latin capital letter J with circumflex
|-
| ǰ || &amp;amp;#x01F0; || Latin small letter j with caron
|-
| ᴊ || &amp;amp;#x1D0A; || Latin letter small capital J
|}

===ʝ (crossed-tail j)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʝ || &amp;amp;#x029D; || Latin small letter j with crossed tail
|}

===ɟ (dotless struck j)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɟ || &amp;amp;#x025F; || Latin small letter dotless j with stroke
|}

===ʄ (dotless hooked and struck j)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʄ || &amp;amp;#x0284; || Latin small letter dotless j with stroke and hook
|}

== K ==

===k===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| k || &amp;amp;#x006B; || Latin small letter k
|-
| ｋ || &amp;amp;#xFF4B; || Fullwidth Latin small letter k
|-
| 𝐤 || &amp;amp;#x1D424; || Mathematical bold small k
|-
| 𝑘 || &amp;amp;#x1D458; || Mathematical italic small k
|-
| 𝒌 || &amp;amp;#x1D48C; || Mathematical bold italic small k
|-
| 𝓀 || &amp;amp;#x1D4C0; || Mathematical script small k
|-
| 𝓴 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F4; || Mathematical bold script small k
|-
| 𝔨 || &amp;amp;#x1D528; || Mathematical Fraktur small k
|-
| 𝕜 || &amp;amp;#x1D55C; || Mathematical double-struck small k
|-
| 𝖐 || &amp;amp;#x1D590; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small k
|-
| 𝗄 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C4; || Mathematical sans-serif small k
|-
| 𝗸 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F8; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small k
|-
| 𝘬 || &amp;amp;#x1D62C; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small k
|-
| 𝙠 || &amp;amp;#x1D660; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small k
|-
| 𝚔 || &amp;amp;#x1D694; || Mathematical monospace small k
|-
| ⓚ || &amp;amp;#x24DA; || Circled Latin small letter k
|-
| K || &amp;amp;#x004B; || Latin capital letter K
|-
| K || &amp;amp;#x212A; || Kelvin sign
|-
| Ｋ || &amp;amp;#xFF2B; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter K
|-
| 𝐊 || &amp;amp;#x1D40A; || Mathematical bold capital K
|-
| 𝐾 || &amp;amp;#x1D43E; || Mathematical italic capital K
|-
| 𝑲 || &amp;amp;#x1D472; || Mathematical bold italic capital K
|-
| 𝒦 || &amp;amp;#x1D4A6; || Mathematical script capital K
|-
| 𝓚 || &amp;amp;#x1D4DA; || Mathematical bold script capital K
|-
| 𝔎 || &amp;amp;#x1D50E; || Mathematical Fraktur capital K
|-
| 𝕂 || &amp;amp;#x1D542; || Mathematical double-struck capital K
|-
| 𝕶 || &amp;amp;#x1D576; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital K
|-
| 𝖪 || &amp;amp;#x1D5AA; || Mathematical sans-serif capital K
|-
| 𝗞 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DE; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital K
|-
| 𝘒 || &amp;amp;#x1D612; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital K
|-
| 𝙆 || &amp;amp;#x1D646; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital K
|-
| 𝙺 || &amp;amp;#x1D67A; || Mathematical monospace capital K
|-
| Ⓚ || &amp;amp;#x24C0; || Circled Latin capital letter K
|-
| ᴷ || &amp;amp;#x1D37; || Modifier letter capital K
|-
| ᵏ || &amp;amp;#x1D4F; || Modifier letter small k
|-
| ḱ || &amp;amp;#x1E31; || Latin small letter k with acute
|-
| Ḱ || &amp;amp;#x1E30; || Latin capital letter K with acute
|-
| ǩ || &amp;amp;#x01E9; || Latin small letter k with caron
|-
| Ǩ || &amp;amp;#x01E8; || Latin capital letter K with caron
|-
| ķ || &amp;amp;#x0137; || Latin small letter k with cedilla
|-
| Ķ || &amp;amp;#x0136; || Latin capital letter K with cedilla
|-
| ḳ || &amp;amp;#x1E33; || Latin small letter k with dot below
|-
| Ḳ || &amp;amp;#x1E32; || Latin capital letter K with dot below
|-
| ḵ || &amp;amp;#x1E35; || Latin small letter k with line below
|-
| Ḵ || &amp;amp;#x1E34; || Latin capital letter K with line below
|-
| ㎄ || &amp;amp;#x3384; || Square kA
|-
| ㎅ || &amp;amp;#x3385; || Square KB
|-
| ㎉ || &amp;amp;#x3389; || Square kcal
|-
| ㎏ || &amp;amp;#x338F; || Square kg
|-
| ㎑ || &amp;amp;#x3391; || Square kHz
|-
| ㏍ || &amp;amp;#x33CD; || Square KK
|-
| ㎘ || &amp;amp;#x3398; || Square kl
|-
| ㎞ || &amp;amp;#x339E; || Square km
|-
| ㏎ || &amp;amp;#x33CE; || Square KM capital
|-
| ㎢ || &amp;amp;#x33A2; || Square km squared
|-
| ㎦ || &amp;amp;#x33A6; || Square km cubed
|-
| ㎪ || &amp;amp;#x33AA; || Square kPa
|-
| ㏏ || &amp;amp;#x33CF; || Square kt
|-
| ㎸ || &amp;amp;#x33B8; || Square kV
|-
| ㎾ || &amp;amp;#x33BE; || Square kW
|-
| ㏀ || &amp;amp;#x33C0; || Square k ohm
|-
| ᴋ || &amp;amp;#x1D0B; || Latin letter small capital K
|}

===ƙ (hooked k)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƙ || &amp;amp;#x0199; || Latin small letter k with hook
|-
| Ƙ || &amp;amp;#x0198; || Latin capital letter K with hook
|}

===ʞ (turned k)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʞ || &amp;amp;#x029E; || Latin small letter turned k
|}

== L ==

===l===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| l || &amp;amp;#x006C; || Latin small letter l
|-
| ｌ || &amp;amp;#xFF4C; || Fullwidth Latin small letter l
|-
| ⅼ || &amp;amp;#x217C; || Small Roman numeral fifty
|-
| ℓ || &amp;amp;#x2113; || Script small l
|-
| 𝐥 || &amp;amp;#x1D425; || Mathematical bold small l
|-
| 𝑙 || &amp;amp;#x1D459; || Mathematical italic small l
|-
| 𝒍 || &amp;amp;#x1D48D; || Mathematical bold italic small l
|-
| 𝓁 || &amp;amp;#x1D4C1; || Mathematical script small l
|-
| 𝓵 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F5; || Mathematical bold script small l
|-
| 𝔩 || &amp;amp;#x1D529; || Mathematical Fraktur small l
|-
| 𝕝 || &amp;amp;#x1D55D; || Mathematical double-struck small l
|-
| 𝖑 || &amp;amp;#x1D591; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small l
|-
| 𝗅 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C5; || Mathematical sans-serif small l
|-
| 𝗹 || &amp;amp;#x1D5F9; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small l
|-
| 𝘭 || &amp;amp;#x1D62D; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small l
|-
| 𝙡 || &amp;amp;#x1D661; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small l
|-
| 𝚕 || &amp;amp;#x1D695; || Mathematical monospace small l
|-
| ⓛ || &amp;amp;#x24DB; || Circled Latin small letter l
|-
| L || &amp;amp;#x004C; || Latin capital letter L
|-
| Ｌ || &amp;amp;#xFF2C; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter L
|-
| Ⅼ || &amp;amp;#x216C; || Roman numeral fifty
|-
| ℒ || &amp;amp;#x2112; || Script capital L
|-
| 𝐋 || &amp;amp;#x1D40B; || Mathematical bold capital L
|-
| 𝐿 || &amp;amp;#x1D43F; || Mathematical italic capital L
|-
| 𝑳 || &amp;amp;#x1D473; || Mathematical bold italic capital L
|-
| 𝓛 || &amp;amp;#x1D4DB; || Mathematical bold script capital L
|-
| 𝔏 || &amp;amp;#x1D50F; || Mathematical Fraktur capital L
|-
| 𝕃 || &amp;amp;#x1D543; || Mathematical double-struck capital L
|-
| 𝕷 || &amp;amp;#x1D577; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital L
|-
| 𝖫 || &amp;amp;#x1D5AB; || Mathematical sans-serif capital L
|-
| 𝗟 || &amp;amp;#x1D5DF; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital L
|-
| 𝘓 || &amp;amp;#x1D613; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital L
|-
| 𝙇 || &amp;amp;#x1D647; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital L
|-
| 𝙻 || &amp;amp;#x1D67B; || Mathematical monospace capital L
|-
| Ⓛ || &amp;amp;#x24C1; || Circled Latin capital letter L
|-
| ˡ || &amp;amp;#x02E1; || Modifier letter small l
|-
| ᴸ || &amp;amp;#x1D38; || Modifier letter capital L
|-
| ĺ || &amp;amp;#x013A; || Latin small letter l with acute
|-
| Ĺ || &amp;amp;#x0139; || Latin capital letter L with acute
|-
| ľ || &amp;amp;#x013E; || Latin small letter l with caron
|-
| Ľ || &amp;amp;#x013D; || Latin capital letter L with caron
|-
| ļ || &amp;amp;#x013C; || Latin small letter l with cedilla
|-
| Ļ || &amp;amp;#x013B; || Latin capital letter L with cedilla
|-
| ḷ || &amp;amp;#x1E37; || Latin small letter l with dot below
|-
| Ḷ || &amp;amp;#x1E36; || Latin capital letter L with dot below
|-
| ḹ || &amp;amp;#x1E39; || Latin small letter l with dot below and macron
|-
| Ḹ || &amp;amp;#x1E38; || Latin capital letter L with dot below and macron
|-
| ḽ || &amp;amp;#x1E3D; || Latin small letter l with circumflex below
|-
| Ḽ || &amp;amp;#x1E3C; || Latin capital letter L with circumflex below
|-
| ḻ || &amp;amp;#x1E3B; || Latin small letter l with line below
|-
| Ḻ || &amp;amp;#x1E3A; || Latin capital letter L with line below
|-
| ŀ || &amp;amp;#x0140; || Latin small letter l with middle dot
|-
| Ŀ || &amp;amp;#x013F; || Latin capital letter L with middle dot
|-
| ǉ || &amp;amp;#x01C9; || Latin small letter lj
|-
| ǈ || &amp;amp;#x01C8; || Latin capital letter L with small letter j
|-
| Ǉ || &amp;amp;#x01C7; || Latin capital letter LJ
|-
| ㏐ || &amp;amp;#x33D0; || Square lm
|-
| ㏑ || &amp;amp;#x33D1; || Square ln
|-
| ㏒ || &amp;amp;#x33D2; || Square log
|-
| ʪ || &amp;amp;#x02AA; || Latin small letter ls digraph
|-
| ㋏ || &amp;amp;#x32CF; || Limited liability sign
|-
| ㏓ || &amp;amp;#x33D3; || Square lx
|-
| ʫ || &amp;amp;#x02AB; || Latin small letter lz digraph
|-
| ʟ || &amp;amp;#x029F; || Latin letter small capital L
|}

===ł (struck l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ł || &amp;amp;#x0142; || Latin small letter l with stroke
|-
| Ł || &amp;amp;#x0141; || Latin capital letter L with stroke
|-
| ᴌ || &amp;amp;#x1D0C; || Latin letter small capital L with stroke
|}

===ƚ (barred l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƚ || &amp;amp;#x019A; || Latin small letter l with bar
|}

===ɫ (tildate l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɫ || &amp;amp;#x026B; || Latin small letter l with middle tilde 
|}

===ɬ (belted l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɬ || &amp;amp;#x026C; || Latin small letter l with belt
|}

===ɭ (hooked l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɭ || &amp;amp;#x026D; || Latin small letter l with retroflex hook
|}

===ȴ (curled l)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ȴ || &amp;amp;#x0234; || Latin small letter l with curl
|}

===ɮ (lezh)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɮ || &amp;amp;#x026E; || Latin small letter lezh
|}

===ƛ (struck lambda)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ƛ || &amp;amp;#x019B; || Latin small letter lambda with stroke
|}

===ʎ (turned y)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ʎ || &amp;amp;#x028E; || Latin small letter turned y
|}

== M ==

===m===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| m || &amp;amp;#x006D; || Latin small letter m
|-
| ｍ || &amp;amp;#xFF4D; || Fullwidth Latin small letter m
|-
| ◌ͫ || &amp;amp;#x036B; || Combining Latin small letter m
|-
| ⅿ || &amp;amp;#x217F; || Small roman numeral one thousand
|-
| 𝐦 || &amp;amp;#x1D426; || Mathematical bold small m
|-
| 𝑚 || &amp;amp;#x1D45A; || Mathematical italic small m
|-
| 𝒎 || &amp;amp;#x1D48E; || Mathematical bold italic small m
|-
| 𝓂 || &amp;amp;#x1D4C2; || Mathematical script small m
|-
| 𝓶 || &amp;amp;#x1D4F6; || Mathematical bold script small m
|-
| 𝔪 || &amp;amp;#x1D52A; || Mathematical Fraktur small m
|-
| 𝕞 || &amp;amp;#x1D55E; || Mathematical double-struck small m
|-
| 𝖒 || &amp;amp;#x1D592; || Mathematical bold Fraktur small m
|-
| 𝗆 || &amp;amp;#x1D5C6; || Mathematical sans-serif small m
|-
| 𝗺 || &amp;amp;#x1D5FA; || Mathematical sans-serif bold small m
|-
| 𝘮 || &amp;amp;#x1D62E; || Mathematical sans-serif italic small m
|-
| 𝙢 || &amp;amp;#x1D662; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic small m
|-
| 𝚖 || &amp;amp;#x1D696; || Mathematical monospace small m
|-
| ⓜ || &amp;amp;#x24DC; || Circled Latin small letter m
|-
| M || &amp;amp;#x004D; || Latin capital letter M
|-
| Ｍ || &amp;amp;#xFF2D; || Fullwidth Latin capital letter M
|-
| Ⅿ || &amp;amp;#x216F; || Roman numeral one thousand
|-
| ℳ || &amp;amp;#x2133; || Script capital M
|-
| 𝐌 || &amp;amp;#x1D40C; || Mathematical bold capital M
|-
| 𝑀 || &amp;amp;#x1D440; || Mathematical italic capital M
|-
| 𝑴 || &amp;amp;#x1D474; || Mathematical bold italic capital M
|-
| 𝓜 || &amp;amp;#x1D4DC; || Mathematical bold script capital M
|-
| 𝔐 || &amp;amp;#x1D510; || Mathematical Fraktur capital M
|-
| 𝕄 || &amp;amp;#x1D544; || Mathematical double-struck capital M
|-
| 𝕸 || &amp;amp;#x1D578; || Mathematical bold Fraktur capital M
|-
| 𝖬 || &amp;amp;#x1D5AC; || Mathematical sans-serif capital M
|-
| 𝗠 || &amp;amp;#x1D5E0; || Mathematical sans-serif bold capital M
|-
| 𝘔 || &amp;amp;#x1D614; || Mathematical sans-serif italic capital M
|-
| 𝙈 || &amp;amp;#x1D648; || Mathematical sans-serif bold italic capital M
|-
| 𝙼 || &amp;amp;#x1D67C; || Mathematical monospace capital M
|-
| Ⓜ || &amp;amp;#x24C2; || Circled Latin capital letter M
|-
| ᴹ || &amp;amp;#x1D39; || Modifier letter capital M
|-
| ᵐ || &amp;amp;#x1D50; || Modifier letter small m
|-
| ḿ || &amp;amp;#x1E3F; || Latin small letter m with acute
|-
| Ḿ || &amp;amp;#x1E3E; || Latin capital letter M with acute
|-
| ṁ || &amp;amp;#x1E41; || Latin small letter m with dot above
|-
| Ṁ || &amp;amp;#x1E40; || Latin capital letter M with dot above
|-
| ṃ || &amp;amp;#x1E43; || Latin small letter m with dot below
|-
| Ṃ || &amp;amp;#x1E42; || Latin capital letter M with dot below
|-
| ㎧ || &amp;amp;#x33A7; || Square m over s
|-
| ㎨ || &amp;amp;#x33A8; || Square m over s squared
|-
| ㎡ || &amp;amp;#x33A1; || Square m squared
|-
| ㎥ || &amp;amp;#x33A5; || Square m cubed
|-
| ㎃ || &amp;amp;#x3383; || Square mA
|-
| ㏔ || &amp;amp;#x33D4; || Square mb small
|-
| ㎆ || &amp;amp;#x3386; || Square MB
|-
| ㎎ || &amp;amp;#x338E; || Square mg
|-
| ㎒ || &amp;amp;#x3392; || Square MHz
|-
| ㏕ || &amp;amp;#x33D5; || Square mil
|-
| ㎖ || &amp;amp;#x3396; || Square Ml
|-
| ㎜ || &amp;amp;#x339C; || Square mm
|-
| ㎟ || &amp;amp;#x339F; || Square mm squared
|-
| ㎣ || &amp;amp;#x33A3; || Square mm cubed
|-
| ㏖ || &amp;amp;#x33D6; || Square mol
|-
| ㎫ || &amp;amp;#x33AB; || Square MPa
|-
| ㎳ || &amp;amp;#x33B3; || Square ms
|-
| ㎷ || &amp;amp;#x33B7; || Square mV
|-
| ㎹ || &amp;amp;#x33B9; || Square MV mega
|-
| ㎽ || &amp;amp;#x33BD; || Square mW
|-
| ㎿ || &amp;amp;#x33BF; || Square MW mega
|-
| ㏁ || &amp;amp;#x33C1; || Square M ohm
|-
| ᴍ || &amp;amp;#x1D0D; || Latin letter small capital M
|}

===ɱ (hooked m)===
{|
! example !! entity !! name
|-
| ɱ || &amp;amp;#x0271; || Latin small letter m with hook
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help talk:Goals</title>
    <id>697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4047</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-09T00:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Help talk:Goals moved to FrathWiki talk:About</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FrathWiki talk:About]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Vlad</title>
    <id>707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4073</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T03:53:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">☃</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Vlad/Spelling</title>
    <id>708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4074</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-13T11:31:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Spelling System No. 1==
===Bad Example===
:There was movement at the station, for the word had passed around
:That the colt from old Regret had got away,
:And had joined the wild bush horses - he was worth a thousand pound,
:So all the cracks had gathered to the fray.
:
:Đê wəz mūvmnt æt đə stæiʃn, fô đə wĕd əd pâst əræun
:Đæt đə cołt frm ołd Rəgret əd got əwæi,
:Æn əd joind đə waiłd buʃ hôsəz - hī wəz wĕŧ ə ŧæuzn pæun,
:səu ôł đə cræcs əd gæđəd tə đə fræi.
{| border=1
| Letter
| Vlad's phones
| RP phoneme
|-
| Pp
| pʰ,p
| p
|-
| Tt
| tʰ,t
| t
|-
| Kk
| cʰ,c
| k
|-
| Bb
| b
| b
|-
| Dd
| d
| d
|-
| Gg
| ɡ
| ɡ
|-
| Cc
| kʰ,k
| k
|-
| ʼ
| ʔ
| (borrowed words)
|-
| Ff
| f
| f
|-
| Ťť (or perhaps Ŧŧ, Þþ)
| θ
| θ
|-
| s
| s
| s
|-
| Šš (or perhaps Ʃʃ)
| ʃ
| ʃ
|-
| Çç (or perhaps Ƕƕ)
| ç
| hj
|-
| Xx (or perhaps Ĥĥ,Ȟȟ,Ħħ)
| x
| (borrowed words)
|-
| Hh
| h,χ
| h
|-
| Vv
| v
| v
|-
| Ďď (or perhaps Đđ)
| ð
| ð
|-
| Zz
| z
| z
|-
| Žž (or perhaps Ƶƶ,Ʒʒ)
| ʒ
| ʒ
|-
| Čč (or perhaps tš/tʃ)
| tʃ
| tʃ,t
|-
| Jj
| dʒ
| dʒ,d
|-
| Mm
| m
| m
|-
| Nn
| n,ɱ
| n
|-
| Ņņ
| ɲ
| (borrowed words)
|-
| Ŋŋ (or perhaps Ňň)
| ŋ
| ŋ
|-
| Ww
| w
| w,ʍ
|-
| Yy
| j
| j
|-
| Ll
| l
| l
|-
| Łł (or perhaps Ľľ)
| ɫ
| l
|-
| Ļļ
| ʎ
| (borrowed words)
|-
| Ḓḓ (or perhaps Ḍḍ)
| ɾ
| t,d
|-
| Rr
| ɹ,ʋ̴
| r
|}
{| border=1
| Letter
| Vlad's phones
| RP phoneme
|-
| Īī
| iː,ɨː
| i
|-
| Ūū
| ʉː,yː
| u
|-
| Ii
| ɪ
| ɪ,ə
|-
| Îî
| ɪː
| ɪə,i
|-
| Uu
| ʊ,ʏ
| ʊ
|-
| Ûû
| ʊː
| ʊ
|-
| Ee (or perhaps Ɛɛ)
| e
| e
|-
| Êê
| eː
| eə
|-
| Oo (or perhaps Ɔɔ)
| ɔ
| ɒ
|-
| Ôô
| oː
| ɔː
|-
| Aa
| ɐ
| ʌ,ə
|-
| Ââ
| ɐː
| ɑ
|-
| Ææ
| æ,ɛ
| æ
|-
| Ǣǣ (Æ̂æ̂)
| æː
| æ
|-
| Əə
| ə
| ə
|-
| (Ə̂ə̂) (maybe Ĕĕ)
| ɜː
| ɜ
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Vlad</title>
    <id>709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34708</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-31T06:21:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Epigraphist</username>
        <id>1233</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi!  Welcome to the wiki. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:03, 13 Sep 2004 (PDT)

Did you work on the proto-Klingon page?  Can you contact me : roger158 at msu.edu.  I'm involved in Klingon,too.

[[User:Epigraphist|Epigraphist]] 06:21, 31 July 2008 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Races of Nother</title>
    <id>713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4079</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-27T11:15:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.169.20.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A list of the sentient races of the happentrack called [[Nother]], their descriptions and properties.

==Major races==
===Humans===
'''Humans''' are the most common race on Earth, thus of them little need be said; they are of negligible magical talent, and live the shortest lives: an average of 60 years in modern times, and a limit of about double that.  

===Demihumans===
The '''demihumans''' (or ''terras'' /ˈtɛrəs/, sg. and pl.) are second to humans in ubiquity.  Genetically they don't differ enough from humans to be considered a separate species; the greatest difference is their capacity for [[magic of Nother|magic]].  All normal demihumans can do illusionary magic to varying degrees, and many have additionally a talent of substantial magic.  This may contribute to their longer lifespans, an average of 75, a limit of about 150.

A demihuman's natural appearance ''can'' be purely human, though for the most part they bear any of a range of physical features on the human frame that distinguish them, the least of them being distinctive eye, hair, and skin colors; fur, or unusual hair patterns; short horns, ridges, and other protuberances; and unusual height or body proportions.  

===Rami===
The '''rami''' (/ˈrɑmi/, sg. and pl., variously spelled) are a nonhuman people, but roughly man-shaped; the most noticeable difference is the presence of a tail and wings.  The tail is prehensile; the wings manipulable but not powerful enough to enable actual flight.  Rami have no magical ability whatever; some claim them to lack imaginative faculties altogether, but this is disputed.  Rami live from 120 to 200 years.

Rami coloration varies similarly to human coloration, though instead of being along a basically peach–brown–dark-brown spectrum with other undertones, the basic colors are light-blue–blue-gray–dark-gray.

===Dragons===
The '''dragons''' are by nature polymorphs.  Their native form is draconic; they may assume easily a human or rami form, and for convenience that is generally how they present themselves.  They generally prefer the rami form, which retains more familiar anatomy.  They accumulate considerable substantive magic ability over the span of their lives.   They are solitary by nature, and have been known to live at least two hundred years.  

==Minor races==
*Trents
*Brownies
*Maccans (/məˈkæn/, /ˈmækən/)
*Griffins

==Preternatural† races==
(†for lack of a better word)
*Nightmare, or ''incubus''

[[Category:Races]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nother</title>
    <id>714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44866</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-24T04:29:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>x.x</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Author: [[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]

==Languages of Nother==
*[[Atlantic]]
*[[Âdlantki]]
*[[Nother/Drake|Drake]]
*[[Kirumb]]
*[[Trentish]]

==Other articles==
*[[Races of Nother]]

[[Category:Nother]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nother/Kirumb</title>
    <id>715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46378</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T21:43:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Kirumb (''Kirómbos'')
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
| Southeastern Europe
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timespan:
| 1st c. BC (?) to 500 AD 
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| —
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of language families|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of language families|classification]]:
|''[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;''[[Satem]]''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[../Hadwan languages|Hadwan]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Kirumb'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Âdlantki]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Atlantic]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lawngreen&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
|}

* Website: http://frath.net/kirumb
* Descendants: [[Âdlantki]], [[Atlantic]] (and others, not yet created)

* [[../Kirumb phonology|../Kirumb phonology]]
* [[../Kirumb lexicon|../Kirumb lexicon]]

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;
{{stub}}

[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Nother]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Conflag med.png</title>
    <id>716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31731</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-26T07:05:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>uploaded a new version of &quot;[[Image:Conflag med.png]]&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Conlang Flag</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang flag</title>
    <id>717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45996</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T14:31:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Christian Thalmann's original artwork of the Conlang flag at various sizes */ cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conlang flag.svg|thumb|right|323px|The Conlang flag]]

The '''conlang flag''' consists of a rising sun behind a ziggurat or terraced tower.  The purple represents creativity, and the tower alludes to the [[wikipedia:Tower of Babel|Tower of Babel]] and to the never-ending building process involved in [[conlang]]ing.  

The flag was voted on by the members of the [[List of mailing lists|CONLANG]] mailing list in September [[2004]].  A rapid series of designs were created by many people, many iterating on earlier versions:  the design includes the suggestions of many.  

The final design was drawn by [[Christian Thalmann]].

{{stub}}

== Christian Thalmann's original artwork of the Conlang flag at various sizes ==

[[Image:Conflag big.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag big.png]]

[[Image:Conflag med.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag med.png]]

[[Image:Conflag sma.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag sma.png]]

[[Image:Conflag sim.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag sim.png]]

[[Image:Conflag dim.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag dim.png]]

[[Image:Conflag mic.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag mic.png]]

[[Image:Conflag thm.png|frame|center|Image:Conflag thm.png]]

[[Category:Conlanging culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Conlang flag</title>
    <id>718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43203</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-17T06:36:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dedalvs</username>
        <id>27</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Flag Creation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Now that's a pf**king cool flag!
That's really all I have to say. :) --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 07:51, 25 Sep 2004 (PDT)
That is amazing! The artist could easily sell merchandise with that, IMHO.  [[User:Dazi|Dazi]] 17:15, 11 Aug 2005 (PDT)

I like the flag a lot. It reminds me also of a path going towards the sun. --[[User:Imploder|Imploder]] 00:42, 25 August 2006 (PDT)

===Wikipedia link===
I put in the Wikipedia link to the Tower of Babel.  The double brackets were already there, but there was no link.  [[User:Caeruleancentaur|Charlie]] 12:11, 26 May 2008 (UTC)

:Absolutely. Well done! [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 13:43, 26 May 2008 (UTC)


===Flag Creation===
Hey, I thought I'd put a note here about everyone that had a hand in creating the flag.  There were actually quite a number of us.

(1) A fellow named Adrian (I forget his last name, and he's since disappeared) is the one who came up with the idea for having a flag, and he handled all the voting and hosted the site that showcased the proposals.

(2) The idea for the sun in the background and the two color bars came from my flag (David Peterson), that was originally a black band on the bottom, sky blue on the top, and a rising sun in the middle with the Egyptian glyph for &quot;tongue&quot; in black in the middle of the sun.

(3) Sai Emrys came up with the idea of using purple and black, since that color combination wasn't used in any other flag.

(4) Jeffrey Henning came up with the idea of using the Tower of Babel on the flag.

(5) Someone specific (though I forget who) came up with the idea of separating the purple from the black with a yellow band.

(6) Someone else specific also came up with the idea of a curved ground rather than a flat ground.

(7) Christian Thalmann came up with the design combining all these elements, and the final ziggurat design (he improved it significantly from Jeffrey's first sketch).

Just thought I should make a note of this somewhere, as it was kind of a community-wide effort on the Conlang-L.  [[User:Dedalvs|Dedalvs]] 20:07, 28 January 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-European languages</title>
    <id>719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48973</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T19:02:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See also */ trimming</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Indo-European languages''' are a [[language family|family]] of several hundred [[language]]s and dialects (443 according to the [[SIL International|SIL]] estimate), including most of the major languages of [[Europe]], as well as many in West, Central and [[Southern Asia]]. Contemporary languages in this family include [[Hindi]], [[Bengali]], [[German]], [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish]] (each with more than [[1 E8|100 million]] native speakers), as well as numerous smaller national or minority languages. Indo-European is the largest family of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately 3 billion native speakers; the second largest family of tongues is [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]. There are other, controversial supergroupings.

==Descendants==
Languages descended from [[Proto-Indo-European]].  

===Natural languages===
''Category:'' [[:Category:Indo-European natlangs|Indo-European natlangs]]
{| valign=top
|
* [[Albanian]]
* [[Armenian]]
* [[Greek]]
* [[Illyrian]]
* [[Messapic]]
* [[Phrygian]]
* [[Tocharian]]
* [[Thracian]]
* [[Venetic]]
|
* [[Anatolian languages]]
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]]
* [[Celtic languages]]
* [[Germanic languages]]
* [[Indo-Iranian languages]]
* [[Italic languages]]
|}
===Constructed languages===
* ''Category:'' [[:Category:Indo-European conlangs|Indo-European conlangs]]


==Classification==
The various subgroups of the [[Indo-European]] family include (in historical order of their first attestation):

* [[Anatolian languages]] &amp;mdash; earliest attested branch, from the 18th century BC; extinct, most notable was the language of the [[Hittites]].
* [[Indo-Iranian languages]], descending from a common ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
**[[Indo-Aryan languages]], including [[Sanskrit]], attested from the 2nd millennium BC
**[[Iranian languages]], attested from roughly 1000 BC, including [[Avestan]], [[Kurdish]] and [[Persian]]
**[[Dardic languages]]
**[[Nuristani languages]]
* [[Greek language]] &amp;mdash; fragmentary records in [[Mycenaean]] from the 14th century BC; [[Homer]] dates to the 8th century BC. See [[Proto-Greek language]], [[History of the Greek language]].
* [[Italic languages]] &amp;mdash; including [[Latin]] and its descendants, the [[Romance languages]], attested from the 1st millennium BC.
* [[Celtic languages]] &amp;mdash; [[Gaulish]] inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; [[Old Irish]] texts from the 6th century AD, see [[Proto-Celtic language]]. 
* [[Germanic languages]] (including [[Old English language|English]]) &amp;mdash; earliest testimonies in [[runic]] inscriptions from around the 2nd century, earliest coherent texts in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], 4th century, see [[Proto-Germanic language]].
* [[Armenian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the 5th century.
* [[Tocharian languages]] &amp;mdash; extinct tongues of the [[Tocharians]], extant in two dialects, attested from roughly the 6th century.
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]], believed by many Indo-Europeanists to derive from a common proto-language later than Proto-Indo-European, while others are skeptical and think that Baltic and Slavic are no more closely related than any other two branches of Indo-European.
** [[Slavic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the 9th century, earliest texts in [[Old Church Slavonic]].
** [[Baltic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the 14th century, and, for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]].
* [[Albanian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the 15th century (1462); relations with Illyrian, Dacian, or Thracian proposed.

In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, there are several extinct languages, about which very little is known:
* [[Illyrian languages]] &amp;mdash; possibly related to Messapian or Venetic; relation to Albanian also proposed.
* [[Venetic language]] &amp;mdash; close to Italic.
* [[Liburnian language]] &amp;mdash; apparently grouped with Venetic.
* [[Messapian language]] &amp;mdash; not conclusively deciphered.
* [[Phrygian language]] &amp;mdash; language of ancient [[Phrygia]], possibly close to Greek, Thracian, or Armenian.
*[[Paionian language]] &amp;mdash; extinct language once spoken north of Macedon.
* [[Thracian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Dacian.
* [[Dacian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Thracian and Albanian.
* [[Ancient Macedonian language]] &amp;mdash; probably related to Greek, others propose relation to Illyrian, Thracian or Phrygian.
* [[Ligurian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly not Indo-European; possibly close to or part of Celtic

There were no doubt other Indo-European languages which are now lost without a trace. The fragmentary [[Raetian language]] cannot be classified with any certainty.

Further subfamilies have been suggested, among them [[Italo-Celtic]] and [[Graeco-Aryan]]. Neither of these is widely accepted. [[Indo-Hittite]] refers to the hypothesis that there is a significant separation between Anatolian and all the remaining groups.

===Satem and Centum languages===
[[Image:Centum Satem map.png|thumb|260px|Diachronic map showing the Centum (blue) and Satem (red) areals. The supposed area of origin of Satemization is shown in darker red ([[Sintashta-Petrovka|Sintashta]]/[[Abashevo culture|Abashevo]]/[[Srubna culture|Srubna]]  cultures).]]

The Indo-European sub-branches are often classified in a [[Satem]] and a [[Centum]] group. This is based on the varying treatments of the three original [[Velar consonant|velar]] rows. Satem languages lost the distinction between labiovelar and pure velar sounds, and at the same time [[sibilant|assibilated]] the palatal velars. The centum languages, on the other hand, lost the distinction between palatal velars and pure velars. Thus, geographically, the  &quot;eastern&quot; languages are Satem (Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic, but not including Tocharian and Anatolian), and the &quot;western&quot; languages are Centum (Germanic, Italic, Celtic). The [[Satem-Centum isogloss]] runs right between the Greek (Centum) and Armenian (Satem) languages (thought to be related by a number of scholars), with Greek exhibiting some marginal Satem features. Some scholars think that there may be some languages that classify neither as Satem nor as Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, and possibly Albanian). It should be noted that the grouping does not imply a claim of [[monophyly]]: there never was a &quot;proto-Centum&quot; or a &quot;proto-Satem&quot;, but the sound changes spread by areal contact among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, during the 3rd millennium BC).

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:IndoEuropeanTreeA.PNG|thumb|800px| Indo-European Language Tree]]
|}

===Suggested superfamilies===
Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages are part of a hypothetical [[Nostratic language]] superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to other language families, such as [[South Caucasian languages]], [[Altaic languages]], [[Uralic languages]], [[Dravidian languages]], [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]. This theory is controversial, as is the similar [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] theory of [[Joseph Greenberg]], and the [[Proto-Pontic]] of John Colarusso.

==History==
{| align=right
|[[Image:IE5500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late [[Proto-Indo-European language]] in the [[Kurgan]] framework]]
|-
|[[Image:IE4500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid-[[3rd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE3500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid [[2nd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE2500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|distribution around [[250 BC]]]]
|-
|[[Image:IE1500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|post- [[Roman Empire]] and [[Migrations period]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE0500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late medieval distribution (after [[Islam]]ic, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] expansions)]]
|}

''See also: [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], [[Historical linguistics]], [[Glottochronology]].''

The possibility of common origin for some of these languages was first proposed by  [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] in [[1647]], proposing their derivation from &quot;[[Scythian]]&quot;. However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and were not pursued. The hypothesis was again proposed by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], who noticed similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time, [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], and [[Persian]]. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by [[Franz Bopp]] supported this theory, and Bopp's ''Comparative Grammar'', appearing between [[1833]] and [[1852]] is considered the starting point of [[Indo-European studies]] as an academic discipline. 

The common ancestral (reconstructed) language is called  [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There is disagreement as to the original [[geography|geographic]] location (the so-called &quot;[[Urheimat]]&quot; or &quot;original homeland&quot;) from where it originated. There are two main candidates today: 
# the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] (see [[Kurgan]]) 
# [[Anatolia]] (see [[Colin Renfrew]]).
Proponents of the Kurgan hypothesis tend to date the proto-language to ca. [[4000 BC]], while proponents of Anatolian origin usually date it several millennia earlier, associating the spread of Indo-European languages with the Neolithic spread of farming (see [[Indo-Hittite]]).

===Kurgan hypothesis===
{{main|Kurgan hypothesis}}
The Kurgan hypothesis was originally suggested by [[Marija Gimbutas]] in the [[1950s]]. According to the Kurgan hypothesis, early PIE was spoken in the [[chalcolithic]] steppe cultures of the [[5th millennium BC]] between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Volga]].  

Currently, her theories do not hold credence with most reputable scholars. Ms. Gimbutas's so-called Kurgan peoples theory relies heavily on Kurgan burial mounds. Unfortunately, it is unproven that these so-called Kurgan peoples were ever members of the Indo-European culture-linguistic group. Precisely because '''known''' ancient Indo-European cultures, (i.e. the Indo-Aryans [people of India], the Greeks, Estruscan/Romans, and the ancient norse peoples), universally practiced '''cremation''' and '''not''' burial. This contradiction with known and recorded cultural practices of [[cremation]] amongst proven ancient, yet geographically diverse Indo-Europeans groups, casts doubt on the probability that the so-called Kurgan culture were Indo-European. With these caveats in mind, below is outlined Gimbutas' Kurgan hypothesis.

Timeline
*[[4500 BC|4500]]&amp;ndash;4000: '''Early PIE'''. [[Sredny Stog culture|Sredny Stog]], [[Dnieper-Donets culture|Dnieper-Donets]] and [[Samara culture|Sarama]] cultures, [[domestication of the horse]].
*[[4000 BC|4000]]&amp;ndash;3500: The [[Yamna culture]], the prototypical [[kurgan]] builders, emerges in the steppe, and the [[Maykop culture]] in the northern [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. [[Indo-Hittite]] models postulate the separation of [[Anatolian languages|Proto-Anatolian]] before this time.
*[[3500 BC|3500]]&amp;ndash;3000: '''Middle PIE'''. The Yamna culture is at its peak, representing the classical reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European society]], with [[Ukrainian stone stela|stone idols]], early two-wheeled proto-chariots, predominantly practicing [[animal husbandry]], but also with permanent settlements and [[hillfort]]s, subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late [[Neolithic Europe]] cultures results in the &quot;kurganized&quot; [[Globular Amphora culture|Globular Amphora]] and [[Baden culture|Baden]] cultures. The [[Maykop culture]] shows the earliest evidence of the beginning [[Bronze Age]], and bronze weapons and artefacts are introduced to Yamna territory. Probable early [[Satemization]].
*[[3000 BC|3000]]&amp;ndash;2500: '''Late PIE'''. The Yamna culture extends over the entire Pontic steppe. The [[Corded Ware culture]] extends from the [[Rhine]] to the [[Volga]], corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity, the vast &quot;kurganized&quot; area disintegrating into various independent languages and cultures, still in loose contact enabling the spread of technology and early loans between the groups, except for the Anatolian and Tocharian branches, which are already isolated from these processes. The Centum-Satem break is probably complete, but the phonetic trends of Satemization remain active.
*[[2500 BC|2500]]&amp;ndash;2000: The breakup into the proto-languages of the attested dialects is complete. [[Proto-Greek]] is spoken in the [[Balkans]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] north of the Caspian in the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture. The Bronze Age reaches [[Central Europe]] with the [[Beaker culture]], likely composed of various Centum dialects. [[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (or alternatively, [[Proto-Slavic]] and [[Proto-Baltic]] communities in close contact) develops in north-eastern Europe. The [[Tarim mummies]] possibly correspond to proto-[[Tocharians]].
*[[2000 BC|2000]]&amp;ndash;1500: The [[chariot]] is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] from the [[Andronovo culture]] and the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] over much of [[Central Asia]], Northern [[India]], [[Iran]] and Eastern [[Anatolia]]. Proto-Anatolian is split into [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and [[Luwian]]. The pre-Proto-Celtic [[Unetice culture]] has an active metal industry ([[Nebra skydisk]]). 
*[[1500 BC|1500]]&amp;ndash;1000: The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] develops (pre-)[[Proto-Germanic]], and the (pre-)[[Proto-Celtic]] [[Urnfield]] and [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the [[Iron Age]].  [[Proto-Italic]] migration into the [[Italian peninsula]]. Redaction of the [[Rigveda]] and rise of the [[Vedic civilization]] in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Flourishing and decline of the [[Hittite Empire]]. The [[Mycenaean civilization]] gives way to the [[Greek Dark Ages]]. 
*[[1000 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[500 BC]]: The [[Celtic languages]] spread over Central and Western Europe. Northern Europe enters the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]], the formative phase of [[Proto Germanic]]. [[Homer]] initiates Greek literature and early [[Classical Antiquity]]. The Vedic Civilization  gives way to the [[Mahajanapadas]]. [[Zoroaster]] composes the [[Gatha]]s, rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], replacing the [[Elamites]] and [[Babylonia]]. The [[Cimmerians]] ([[Srubna culture]]) are replaced by [[Scythians]] in the Pontic steppe. [[Armenians]] succeed the [[Urartu]] culture. Separation of Proto-Italic into [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] and [[Latin-Faliscan languages|Latin-Faliscan]], and foundation of [[Rome]]. Genesis of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]]  alphabets. A variety of [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] are spoken  in Southern Europe. The Anatolian languages are [[language death|extinct]].

===Competing hypotheses===
[[Colin Renfrew]] in [[1987]] suggested that the spread of Indo-European was associated with the [[Neolithic revolution]], spreading peacefully into Europe from [[Asia Minor]] from around [[7000 BC]] with the advance of farming (''wave of advance''). Accordingly, all of [[Neolithic Europe]] would have been Indo-European speaking, and the Kurgan migrations would at best have replaced Indo-European dialects with other Indo-European dialects.

[[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]] in [[1984]] placed the Indo-European homeland on [[Lake Urmia]]. They suggested that [[Armenian language|Armenian]] was the language which stayed in the Indo-European cradle while other Indo-European languages left the homeland. They are also the originators of the [[Glottalic theory]].

Some people have pointed to the [[Black Sea deluge theory]], dating the genesis of the [[Sea of Azov]] to ca. [[5600 BC]], as a direct cause of the Indo-European expansion. This event occurred in still clearly Neolithic times and is rather too early to fit with Kurgan archaeology. It may still be imagined as an event in the remote past of the [[Sredny Stog culture]], and the people living on the land now beneath the Sea of Azov as possible  pre-Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Other theories exist, often with a [[nationalism|nationalistic]] flavour, sometimes bordering on [[national mysticism]], typically positing the development ''in situ'' of the proponents' respective homes. One prominent example of such are the Indian theories that derive [[Vedic Sanskrit]] from the [[Indus valley civilization]], postulating that Vedic Sanskrit is essentially identical to Proto-Indo-European, and that all other dialects must ultimately trace back to the early Indus valley civilization of ca. 3000 BC. This theory is not widely accepted by scholars. See [[Indo-Aryan migration]] for a discussion. Another example may be the [[Paleolithic Continuity Theory]] proposed by Italian theorists that derives Indo-European from the European [[Paleolithic]] cultures.

==Sound changes==
{{main|Indo-European sound laws}}
As the  Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various [[sound law]]s in the daughter languages. Notable among these are [[Grimm's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]], loss of prevocalic ''*p-'' in [[Proto-Celtic]], loss of prevocalic ''*s-'' in [[Proto-Greek]], [[Brugmann's law]] in [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]], as well as [[Satemization]] treated above.  [[Grassmann's law]] and [[Bartholomae's law]] may or may not have been still common Indo-European.

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Watkins | first = Calvert | title = The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0618082506 }}

* [[August Schleicher]], ''A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages'' (1861/62).

* Leszek Bednarczuk (red.), ''Języki indoeuropejskie''. PWN. Warszawa. 1986 (in Polish). &lt;!-- is this a book? --&gt;.

==See also==
* [[Language family]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[List of Indo-European roots]]
* [[List of Indo-European languages]]
* [[List of languages]]

== External links ==
;Databases
* [http://www.indoeuropean.nl The Indo-European Database]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 IE language family overview (SIL)]
* [http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4 Indo-European] at the  LLOW-database
* [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html Indo-European Documentation Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]

;Evolution
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/indoeuropean.html The Evolution of the Indo-European Languages, by Dr. C. George Boeree].
* [http://www.HJHolm.de A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages] by Hans J. Holm
* [http://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/psych/research/Evolution/Gray&amp;Atkinson2003.pdf Gray &amp; Atkinson, article on PIE Phylogeny]

;Lexicon
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html Indo-European Roots, from the American Heritage Dictionary].
* [http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Indo-European Root/lemmas] (by Andi Zeneli)

[[Category:Indo-European languages|*]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germanic languages</title>
    <id>720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42423</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-30T19:33:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Norwegian and Swedish Back Vowel Chain Shift */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Sound Changes in Germanic Languages=
==Sound Changes from PIE to Common Germanic==
''These may not be 100% accurate.''
* ḱ, ǵ, ǵʰ → k, g, gʰ

===[[Grimm's law]]===
*bʰ, dʰ, gʰ, gʷʰ → β, ð, ɣ, β/ɣ
*b, d, g, gʷ → p, t, k, kʷ/k
*p, t, k, kʷ → f, θ, x, xʷ

===[[Verner's law]]===
*f, θ, s, x, xʷ → β, ð, z, ɣ, ɣʷ (except initially or following IE stress)

===Vowel changes===
*aː → oː
*e → i
*eː → æː
*ei → iː
*eːi → eː (?)
*oi → ai
*oːi → oː (?)
*aːi → oː (?)
*eu → iu
*ou → au

==[[High German Consonant Shift]]==
This shift separates [[High German]] from other Germanic languages.
The 4 stages of the shift could be defined as follows:
# Non-geminated voicless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Fricative|fricatives]],
# Geminated, [[Nasal|nasal]]-adjacent and [[Liquid|liquid]]-adjacent voiceless [[Stop|stops]] became [[Affricate|affricates]],
# Voiced stops became voiceless stops, and finally
# All interdental fricatives (/[[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]/ and /[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/) became the dental stop and/or Alveolar stop /[[Voiced dental stop|d̻]]/ and /[[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]/. &lt;br&gt;
The last stage was shared by [[Low German]] and [[Dutch]].

The shift occurred in the period before [[Old High German]] existed, and in fact was the marker of Old High German.

==English [[Great Vowel Shift]]==
The Great Vowel Shift is where the vowels of [[Middle English]] were raised or diphthongised (for already high vowels).  This is the difference between Middle English and [[Modern English]].

{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! 
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
| '''Diphthong''' || aj || ||aw
|-
|  '''High''' || ↑ &lt;br&gt; i || || ↑ &lt;br&gt; u
|-
| '''Mid''' || ↑ &lt;br&gt; e || || ↑ &lt;br&gt; o
|-
| '''Low''' || ↑&lt;br&gt;æ || ←  a ||
|}

==Norwegian and Swedish Back Vowel Chain Shift==
The back vowel chain shift of Norwegian and Swedish has the long vowels raise, and in the case of the highest vowels, fronted towards /yː/.  It would look as follows:

{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
!
! Front Rd.
! Central
! Back
|-
|  '''High'''  || ʉ* ← || ← || ←  u
|-
| '''Mid-High'''  || || ||  ↑ &lt;br&gt;   o
|-
| '''Mid-Low''' || || ||  ↑ &lt;br&gt;   ɔ
|-
| '''Low'''  || || a  ↗ ||
|}
*This symbol is used to contrast it with the Nor./Swed. /y/ sound.
All vowels are Long.

==Danish Front Vowel Shift==

=Listing of Germanic Languages=
* [[West Germanic]]
** [[German]]
*** Stages of High German:
****[[Old High German]]
****[[Middle High German]]
****[[Early New High German]]
****[[New High German]] or Modern (Standard) German
*** Stages of Low German
**** [[Old Saxon]]
**** [[Middle Low Saxon]]
**** [[Low Saxon]] aka Low German
** Stages of Dutch:
*** [[Old Dutch]]
*** [[Middle Dutch]]
*** [[Dutch]]
**Anglo-Frisian
***Stages of Frisian:
****[[Old Frisian]]
****[[Frisian]]
*** [[English]]
****Stages of English:
*****[[Anglo-Saxon]]
*****[[Middle English]]
*****[[Early Modern English]]
*****[[Modern English]]
******[[Scots]]
*[[North Germanic]]
**[[Old Norse]]
***[[Old West Norse]]
****[[Icelandic]]
****[[Norwegian]]
***[[Old East Norse]]
****[[Old Swedish]]
****[[Swedish]]
****[[Old Danish]]
****[[Danish]]
*[[East Germanic]]
**[[Gothic]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Source material]]
[[Category:Germanic natlangs|!]]
[[Category:Germanic conlangs|!]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Indo-European languages</title>
    <id>721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4086</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-27T08:35:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>sound changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Sound changes from the thread at [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?t=1533&amp;postdays=0&amp;postorder=asc&amp;start=0 the ZBB] should probably be moved here under the appropriate languages, as they're a useful resource. I'll do so if I have time. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 01:35, 27 Sep 2004 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang relay</title>
    <id>722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36177</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-21T16:02:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jim Henry</username>
        <id>180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix tense re: relay 15</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''conlang relay''' is a translation game involving conlangs.  It is similar to the game called by names such as Telephone or Chinese Whispers, where a message is whispered from person to person, often in the process being changed beyond recognition.  Instead of by whispers, in a relay the text is passed by translation:  it is translated from the conlang it is received in, into one's own conlang, and then passed to the next person to be translated.  The resulting text is generally much changed; a tendency noticed in early relays was for the original texts to mutate into creation myths.

[[Conlang Relay 15]] began on March 31st 2008; some of the results are already hosted here, others will be posted eventually.

==External links==
* [http://www.frontiernet.net/~scaves/relayrule.html Rules for the Conlang Relay Game]
* [http://www.valdyas.org/mailman/listinfo/relay CONLANG Translation Relay] — mailing list for organization of conlang relays
* [http://steen.free.fr/relay10/old_relays.html List of participants in previous relays] 
* [http://dedalvs.free.fr/relay/oldrelays.html David J. Peterson's list]  of old relays and their participants &amp;mdash; very complete up to Relay 14, LCC2 relay, and Inverse Relay #1
* [http://www.theiling.de/cgi/relay.cgi Preliminary Relay Scheduler] at [http://www.theiling.de/ Theiling Online]

===Former relays===
* [http://www.valdyas.org/irina/valdyas/taal/hanleni_halsen/relay.html Starlings' Song Translation Relay]
* [http://www.frontiernet.net/~scaves/bastrelay2.html Bast Relay Translation Game of 1999]  (Second Relay)
* [http://web.archive.org/web/%2A/http%3A//www.geocities.com/nicole_eap/onaila/relay/ Third Conlang Translation Relay] [Internet Archive]
* [http://www.geocities.com/laopooh/tsiressa/relay.html Tenth Anniversary Conlang Relay] (Fourth Relay)
* [http://www.valdyas.org/irina/relay5/ Fifth CONLANG Translation Relay]
* [http://nik_taylor.tripod.com/relay/ Sixth Conlang Translation Relay]
* [http://suzsoiz.free.fr/relay Relay 6.5]
* [http://www.quandary.org/~langs/relays/relay7/ Seventh Conlang Translation Relay] (incomplete)
* [http://steen.free.fr/relay8/relay.html Conlang Translation Relay 8]
* [http://www.quandary.org/~langs/relays/relay9/ Conlang Relay 9]
* [http://steen.free.fr/relay10/index.html Conlang Relay 10/R]
* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/relay11/ Conlang Relay 11]
* [[Conlang Relay 12]]
* [http://www.conlang.info/relay/relay13.html Conlang Relay 13]
[[Category:Collaborations]] [[Category:Conlang relays]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hangraphy</title>
    <id>723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19219</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-14T02:39:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leon math</username>
        <id>270</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characters */ italisice</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is a project anyone can contribute to.  Discuss changes on the [[Talk:Hangraphy|talk page]].''
----

Hangraphy (maybe 漢抓?) is a system for representing Indo-European roots with Han characters (漢字, ''hanzi'').  After having done so, we can add a kind of okurigana for inflections and such and we have a readymade scheme to represent all Indo-European languages.  Oversimplificated?  You betcha.

For an example, we can take the numbers, which are pretty basic.

{| cellpadding=5
| 1 || 一 || *oi-[no-] || en: ''one'', ru: ''один'', la: ''unus'', etc.
|-
| 2 || 二 || *dwo- || en: ''two'', es: ''dos'', grc: ''δύο'', ...
|-
| 3 || 三 || *tri- || en: ''three'', fr: ''trois'', de: ''drei'' ...
|-
| 4 || 四 || *kʷetwor- || en: ''four'', fr: ''quatre''
|-
| 5 || 五 || *penkʷe || en: ''five'', fr: ''cinq''
|-
| 6 || 六 || *(s)(w)eḱs || en: ''six'', fr: ''six''
|-
| 7 || 七 || *septem || en: ''seven'', fr: ''sept''
|-
| 8 || 八 || *oḱtō || en: ''eight'', fr: ''huit''
|-
| 9 || 九 || *newn || en: ''nine'', fr: ''neuf''
|-
| 10 || 十 || *deḱm || en: ''ten'', fr: ''dix''
|}

Since words get borrowed about so much, some diverse words in a language may be spelled with the same zi, e.g. 一 goes in English words derived from &quot;one&quot;, such as &quot;alone&quot; or &quot;only&quot;, but it also goes in words of Latin origin such as &quot;unique&quot; or &quot;union&quot;.

Of course some of these words inflect, so the Latin word for &quot;one&quot;, for example, won't just be 一, but perhaps something like 一us, 一a, 一um.
----
===Characters===
''I think a better approach would be to assign roots to each 字 first, and then flesh out the individual languages, rather than the other way around. The old stuff is still here, but commented out.'' --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 02:40, 8 Nov 2004 (PST)

:These assignments are not final - feel free to change if a better root fits.
{|
! zi !! root, ''meaning'' !! English !! Latin !! Greek !! Sanskrit !! notes
|-
| 一 || *oi-no-, ''one, unique'' || one, an, a || unus, una, unum
|-
| 二 || *dwo-, ''two'' || two || duo, duae
|-
| 三 || *trei-, ''three'' || three || tres, tria
|-
| 四 || *kʷetwer-, ''four'' || four || quattuor
|-
| 五 || *penkʷe, ''five'' || five || quinque
|-
| 六 || *s(w)eks, ''six'' || six || sex
|-
| 七 || *septm̥, ''seven'' || seven || septem
|-
| 八 || *oktō(u), ''eight'' || eight || octo
|-
| 九 || *newn̥, ''nine'' || nine || novem
|-
| 十 || *dekm̥, ''ten'' || ten || decem
|-
| 百 || *km̥-tom, ''hundred'' || hund[red] || centum || || ||  *''Is this unfair to the langs who form their hundred another way? Are there any?''
|-
| 男 || *wī-ro-, ''man'' || were[wolf] || vir
|-
| 女 || *gʷen-, ''woman'' || queen; quean || || gyne; gynaik-
|-
| 人 || *man-¹, ''man'' || man 
|-
| 土 || *dhghem-, ''earth'' || '''OE''' guma || humus; homo || || मनुः (manuḥ)
|-
| 不 || *no-, ''no''，''not'' || || || ||
|}

[[Category:Conscripts]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Hangraphy</title>
    <id>724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-07T05:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eritain</username>
        <id>280</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Unresolved Issues */ multiple reflexes of one root with different pronunciations: propose minimal furigana</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==OLD Issues==
*Will borrowed words from hanzi-using languages be written as in that language, like 大君 for ''tycoon''?
*:I should expect so.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:15, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*What do we do about concepts that differ between European and Asian langauges? There are hanzi for both ''older brother'' and ''younger brother'' while IE only has one, and there's no hanzi to distinguish ''cow'' from ''bull''. ''I'm working from Japanese; there may be other characters in use in other languages.''
*:Well, *gwou- appears to not be gender-specific to start with, so it could just use　牛.   Family terms may be a problem, we may just have to choose a &quot;nearby&quot; character arbitrarily and claim [[semantic drift]].  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:15, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
* I disagree with the usage of 男 and 女. For hero, there is the perfectly good 英 (Japanese: ei; Mandarin: ying1). For queen, there's 妃 (Japanese: kisaki; Mandarin: fei1) [primarily used for princess in Japanese though]. We could invent some, for instance, by composing 女皇, or we could use digraphs like Japanese; for instance, 明日 does not decompose into anything (in contrast to, say, something like 神風).
*:The roots of hero and queen originally had the basic meaning of &quot;man&quot; and &quot;woman&quot;. So there. :) --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 07:47, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*Japanese has no word for &quot;in&quot;, expressing it as &quot;at the middle of&quot;. Is there a 字 we could use for it?
*:Hmm, there's 在, which is Chinese basically for &quot;is located at/in&quot;.  Prepositions may be another rough spot.  However maybe we could some of the 字 that stand for locations that Japanese doesn't use prepositions for ''as'' prepositions (though probably not 中, which could maybe stand better for *medhyo, En. middle, La. medium, Grc. mesos). —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:08, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
Out of the choices for *al- [old] that were put up, I suspect &quot;老&quot; would be the better choice, as its meaning from what I can tell is closest to the original (something like &quot;grow [old]&quot;).   Besides &quot;'''ol'''d&quot; and &quot;'''al'''tus&quot; it also shows up in &quot;'''al'''umnus&quot;, &quot;ad'''ol'''escent&quot;, &quot;ad'''ul'''t&quot;, etc.    [If not actually another character entirely? hmm...]

古 seems more likely for, say, *sen-, la: &quot;senex&quot;, whence senior, senate, etc. (though for such a simple character maybe it should go to a more common root)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:24, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*In Japanese, 古 (mostly) refers to the age of objects, not people, so I don't think it would be appropriate for senex. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 22:37, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*Thirteen is three-ten, and thirty is thrice-ten. How do we distinguish pairs like these? It looks like this'll produce a whole lot of homographs. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 01:58, 2 Oct 2004 (PDT)
**I like the word you coin for this. I suggest we fix this by writing down the infix, like in Japanese, ao(i)mori (green forest) vs. Aomori (place name). Maybe something like 三十 and 三回十 (or 三次十, or even 三ice十) (Granted, none of those will even look natural in Chinese or Japanese, the very fact is that they are ordering the morphememes in reverse is bad enough) - [[User:Zhen Lin|刘 (劉) 振霖]] 04:59, 2 Oct 2004 (PDT)
*:The -ty is not the same &quot;ten&quot; as |ten| is.  It's from a Germanic element *tigu- (which may or may not be related) meaning something like &quot;decad, group of ten&quot; so we might use a separate character such as 拾 or perhaps better 什.  [Similar goes for like Latin, where -gint- marks decads and -decim teens].
==Unresolved Issues==
*Are there appropriate characters for prefixes and suffixes? A feminine suffix for ''regina'' and ''vixen'' would be useful, but not nearly as useful as the various suffixes Latin uses.
*:A lot of the prefixes are just the regular prepositions, so we could use their 字 for them...—[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:08, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*:Suffixes will be harder, as a lot of them outside a few basic ones like *-no- and *-to- they're pretty locally focussed.  For example the suffix of ''vixen'' (*-i(:)n-) doesn't appear to be the same suffix as that of ''regina'' (originally *-niH2-, apparently)... For suffixes, then, perhaps we can break the root-correspondence and go for functional correspondence instead (but that'll mean establishing a standard set of correspondences, and finding a way to handle synonymous suffixes...)... Either that or just spell suffixes out.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:08, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*How do we distinguish between a native word and a borrowed word using the same character? Will they be distinguished at all?
*:Hmm.  We could use a kind of furigana/ruby to spell out the word... or maybe use a 字 that represents the source language as determiner/disambiguator?  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:15, 30 Sep 2004 (PDT)
*::Yeah, English in particular is going to have the onyomi/konyomi problem in spades. I recall a proposal (can't find it now) to use (optionally brush-stroke-styled) futhorc for okurigana. It would work for furigana, too, and it's an appealing proposal. But I wouldn't want to spell out every reading in full. I suggest minimal phonetic disambiguation. Let's take for an example ''break/frac-/frag-/-fring-/'' and kin. Assume (I haven't checked) that in English overall, ''break'' is the most common reflex. Then, in standard orthography, it gets the bare character. (Well, OK. Actually, some of the senses of ''brake'' count here too: sheet-metal brakes and canebrakes are cognate with ''break,'' but vehicular brakes are not. So we'll need to sample a corpus, see what fraction of ''brake'' citations have those senses, and adjust the frequency counts to inflate the frequency of ''break'' and deflate ''brake'' accordingly.) Maybe ''frac-'' is next, so we write it with the character plus a ruby ''f''; and then ''frag-'' with ''f,'' possibly a filler symbol, and ''g''. By the time we get down to ''frangible'' and ''infringe,'' we've added the ''n'' and a vowel character, and then we hit ''friable,'' where we spell the root ''fr'' and use a symbol that means there are '''not''' other unwritten consonants, but that we are spelling the reading out in full. Of course, that's the generic public-schools-and-newspapers standard; a scientific journal might adopt a house style guide that says ''frac-'' or ''frag-'' is written without ruby, and require a ''b'' for ''break;'' likewise a tort law publication would surely write ''infringe'' without annotating it every time. There's one other problem with this, which is the spelling of vowels; vowel systems of English dialects vary like mad even before you try to spell them with an orthography (like futhorc or Roman letters) that reflects an archaic form of the system. It's not such a problem for ''frangible'' and ''infringe,'' but there could easily be some IE root that has two reflexes in English that differ only in vowel, and whose vowels are pronounced very differently in different dialects. We could adopt the heavy approach, which is to declare or create a reference dialect and spell the vowels according to it, or we could adopt a lighter approach: Repurpose the vowel runes as vowel-quality runes that mean 'front,' 'back,' 'high,' 'low,' 'tense,' 'lax,' or what have you. (Faking up, of course, a fairly mnemonic pairing so that the 'i' rune means either 'high' or 'front', etc.) Then we write these pairs with minimal indication of the necessary contrast, and let each reader render the particulars of the vowel according to dialect. I think this is much prettier, more flexible, and more Han-like (Hanly? Hannish?) than trying to explicitly render the full pronunciation from one reference dialect would be. [[User:Eritain|Eritain]] 21:07, 6 December 2006 (PST)
*What's to be done about words that replace the original IE stem? If 犬 is to be English ''hound'', then what will ''dog'' be?
*What about taboo forms?

===-to- suffix===

For the suffix *-to-, which in most languages (except, um, Greek) represents a completed action, I suggest maybe 了, which in Chinese forms a similar function (marking perfective aspect).   So for example en: &quot;right&quot; and la: &quot;rect(us)&quot; would be 「王了」.   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:35, 2 Oct 2004 (PDT)
*I'm not sure, but I'm guessing this developed into the Latin perfect participle. What about the thematic vowel? Would that be written, or considered part of the root? That would be nice, as it makes the conjugations appear a lot more orderly. :) --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 22:05, 2 Oct 2004 (PDT)
::Yeah, it's the participle.  It's also the English participle and past tense in -ed, and also the ordinal number marker -th: 四了 = fourth/quart(us), and 十了 = tenth/tithe...  I think we can get away with dropping the stem vowel when there's no (or little) ambiguity, but it may become a problem later... that and ablaut.  It seems all fine to add letters to the end of a word but they don't look the same in the middle.  We may have to import [[wikipedia:Bopomofo|Bopomofo]] or some such. ;)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:44, 3 Oct 2004 (PDT)
::: Where do you get your information? :) I feel like I'm missing out. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 08:09, 3 Oct 2004 (PDT)
:::: My main sources are Calvert Watkins, ''American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots'' (much of which is available online, [http://bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html]),
:::: Andrew Sihler, ''New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin'',
:::: and Julius Pokorny, ''Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' (whose data is  at http://www.indoeuropean.nl/ )  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 13:22, 3 Oct 2004 (PDT)
*Won't it look a bit odd, having all those English verbs of Latin origin ending with -ate written as though they were pas tense? And then reduplicating for the real past tense? Ugh.. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 23:24, 4 Oct 2004 (PDT)
*:Perhaps... I guess that's what we get for borrowing so many verbs in participle form :|  
*:For cleanliness' sake, isn't there a 字 that indicates the previous sign be doubled?  々, I believe.  We could use that for reduplication too, maybe.
*:Hmm, the basic sense of &quot;了&quot; is &quot;perfect&quot;, which is something that is basically default in English anyway: imperfects (&quot;progressives&quot;) are marked specially, with -ing.  Thus e.g. 予(na)了 &quot;donate&quot; doesn't get used in any imperfect constructions:  only in things like &quot;I donate [regularly]&quot; (habitual), &quot;[If] I donate&quot; (irrealis), and &quot;I [will/should/like to] donate&quot; (infinitive).  If it was past, we'd have &quot;予(na)了々&quot; (it will look like a &quot;rule&quot; that verbs in -了 take a ppl in -々)  or &quot;(was) 予(na)了ing&quot;.  So it mightn't look ''too'' odd, except in the case of verbs that have 了-less homographs....   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:19, 5 Oct 2004 (PDT)

=== Synonyms ===

What to do with all the synonyms? There are probably 5+ roots meaning &quot;to shine&quot;; I can't use the same hanzi for all of them! -- [[User:Ran|Ran]] 13:52, 3 Oct 2004 (PDT)

:There are synonymous and near-synonymous hanzi as well.  Kanjidic has at least ten 字 with a gloss of at least &quot;shine&quot; as well: 輝照耀陽暉曄焜煥煕熈...  Ideally we'd pick 字 that have in their use connotations similar to those that show in their descendent words, though this mayn't always be possible.
:Note also that PIE meanings, though usually given pretty definitely, are somewhat flexible as well.  For example the basic form given for a root is a verb, although many are used just as much so for nouns as well (which means that even a &quot;verb&quot; root doesn't need to be spelled with a &quot;verb&quot; 字).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 19:13, 3 Oct 2004 (PDT)


Thinking of breathing life into this again..perhaps there's a better way of going about the assignment of 字 to roots? --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 03:03, 7 Nov 2004 (PST)

:(Yeah, lack of action I partly blame on myself; I haven't been in a creative way at all lately, whether for conlangs or otherwise...)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:34, 7 Nov 2004 (PST)

==Kokuji==
Would it be going to far to create our own 字? I was thinking for dog (and OE docga) we could have 犬 (hound) with some phonetic on the side. --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 04:42, 7 Nov 2004 (PST)

:Hmm, I don't know.  Does unicode have a method for building 字 this way?  Or would they be all divided online?  (I suggest 狗, btw.)  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:34, 7 Nov 2004 (PST)

::I'm not sure. But if there is a way, there probably aren't any fonts that do it anyway... There is combining grapheme joiner (034F). :shrugs:--[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 21:49, 7 Nov 2004 (PST)

::Kind of -- there's the &quot;Ideographic Description Characters&quot; block at U+2FF0-U+2FFF which has metacharacters for things such as &quot;character composed of two characters side-by-side&quot; etc. -- [[User:Pne|pne]] 09:30, 10 July 2006 (PDT)

And so 犬狗 = hound-dog. Let's hear it for redundancy! :-P

== Archived stuff ==

Older content that may or may not be superseded:

{|
! !! IE !! Meaning !! English !! Latin !! Greek
|-
| 至 || *ad- || ''to, near, at'' || at || ad
|-
| 驅 / 趕 || *ag- || ''to drive, draw, move'' || || ag(o), ag(ere), eg(i), ac(tus)
|-
| 日 || *agh- || ''a day (considered as a span of time)'' || day, daw(n) (d- is a bit suss)
|-
| 田 || *agro- || ''field'' (probably derivative of *ag-) || acre || ager, agr(i)
|-
| 擁 || *aik- || ''to be master of, possess'' || ough(t), owe, ow(n)
|-
| 襲 ? || *aim- || ''copy'' || || aem(ulus); im(itor), im(itari), im(itatus)
|-
| 欲 || *ais- || ''to wish, desire'' || as(k)
|-
| 壽 ? || *aiw-, ayu- || ''vital force, life, long life, eternity'' || ? || aev(um); ae(tas); ae(ternus) || (→eon)
|-
| 鋒 || *ak- || ''sharp'' || egg (''to egg on''), ha(mmer)?  || ac(us); ac(er), ac(ris), ac(re)
|-
| 水 || *akʷ-ā- || ''water'' || is(land) || aqu(a)
|-
| 另 || *al- || ''beyond'' || o(ther), el(se)|| il(le)?; ul(s), ul(tra); al(ter); al(ius) || (→allo-)
|-
| 育 || *al- || ''to grow, nourish'' || ol(d), el(der) || al(tus); al(mus); al(o), al(ere), al(ui), al(tus)
|-
| 全 || *al- || ''all'' || all, al(beit), al(ready), al(so), al(though), al(ways)
|-
| 白 || *albho- || ''white'' || elf? || alb(us)
|-
| 幻 ? || *alu- || ''in words related to sorcery, magic, possession, and intoxication'' || ale
|-
| 圍 || *ambhi, m̥bhi || ''around'' (probably *ant-bhi, ''from both sides'') || ? || amb(io); amb(ulo)|| (→amphi-) 
|-
| || *an- || ''on'' || on
|-
| 気 || *anə- || ''spirit/breath, to breathe'' || || ani(mus); ani(mal); (''ha''lo &amp;lt; *ans-lo-?) || ἄνεμος
|-
| 緊 || *angh- || ''tight, painfully constricted, painful''
|-
| 鬼 ? || *ansu- || ''spirit, demon''
|-
| 前 || *ant- || ''front, forehead''
|-
| 離 || *apo-, ap- || ''off, away''
|-
| 合 || *ar-, arə- || ''to fit together''
|-
| 爍 || *arg- || ''to shine, white; the shining or white metal, silver''
|-
| 燃 ？ || *as- || ''to burn, glow''
|-
| 行 / 年 || *at- || ''to go; with germanic and latin derivatives meaning a year (conceived as &quot;the period gone through, the revolving year&quot;)''
|-
| 火 || *āter- || ''fire''
|-
| 覺 || *au- || ''to perceive''
|-
| 增 || *aug- || ''to increase''
|-
| 耀 || *aus- || ''to shine''
|-
| 金 || *aus- || ''gold'' [may be same root as 耀 *aus- shine] || || aurum || 
|-
| 禽 / 鳥 / 隹 || *awi- || ''bird''
|-
| 伯 / 叔 / 舅 || *awo- || ''an adult male relative other than one's father''
|-
| 朝 || *ayer- || ''day, morning''
|-
| 銅 || *ayes- || ''a metal, copper or bronze''
|-
| 杖 || *bak- || ''staff used for support''
|-
| 強 || *bel- || ''strong''
|-
| 耀 ? || *bhā- || ''to shine''
|-
| 曰 / 云 || *bhā- || ''to speak''
|-
| || *bha-bhā- || ''broad bean''
|-
| 好 / 良 || *bhad- || ''good''
|-
| 分 || *bhag- || ''to share out, apportion, also to get a share''
|-
| 臂 || *bhāgu- || ''arm''
|-
| 柏 || *bhāgo- || ''beech tree''
|-
| 鬚 || *bhardh-ā- || ''beard''
|-
| 麥 || *bhares-, bhars- || ''barley''
|-
| 擊 || *bhau- || ''to strike''
|-
| 奔 || *bhegʷ- || ''to run''
|-
| 蜂 || *bhei- || ''a bee''
|-
| || *bheid- || ''to split; with Germanic derivatives referring to biting (hence also to eating and to 
hunting) and woodworking''
|-
| 信 || *bheidh- || ''to trust, confide, persuade''
|-
| 耀 ? || *bhel- || ''to shine, flash, burn; shining white and various bright colors''
|-
| 脹 || *bhel- || ''to blow, swell; with derivatives referring to various round objects and to the notion of tumescent masculinity''
|-
| 花 || *bhel- || ''flower, thrive, bloom'' || ''bloo''m, ''blo''ssom, [blood] || ''flo''s, ''fol''ium || φύλλον 
|-
| 膨 || *bhelgh- || ''to swell''
|-
| 繫 / 束 / 縛 || *bhendh- || ''to bind''
|-
| 負 / 孕 || *bher- || ''to carry; also to bear children''
|-
| || *bher- || ''bright, brown''
|-
| 亮 || *bherəg- || ''to shine; bright, white''
|-
| 隱 || *bhergh- || ''to hide, protect''
|-
| 高 || *bhergh- || ''high; with derivatives referring to hills and hill-forts''
|-
| 呼 / 吸 || *bhes- || ''to breathe''
|-
| 覺 / 察 || *bheudh- || ''to be aware, to make aware''
|-
| 存 / 生 || *bheuə-, bheu || ''to be, exist, grow''
|-
| 彎 || *bheug- || ''to bend; with derivatives referring to bent, pliable, or curved objects''
|-
| 吹 || *bhlē- || ''to blow''
|-
| 溢 || *bhleu- || ''to swell, well up, overflow''
|-
| 裸 || *bhoso- || ''naked''
|-
| 兄 / 弟 || *bhrāter- || ''brother, male agnate''
|-
| 斷 || *bhreg- || ''to break''
|-
| 沸 || *bhreu-, bhreuə-, bhreəu- || ''to boil, bubble, effervesce, burn; with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing''
|-
| 眉 || *bhrū- || ''eyebrow''
|-
| 分 || *dā- || ''to divide''
|-
| 分 || *dail- || ''to divide''
|-
| || *daiwer- || ''husband's brother''
|-
| 涙 || *dakru- || ''tear'' || lacri(ma) || δάκρυ(ον)
|-
| 此 / 是 || *de- || ''demonstrative stem, base of prepositions and adverbs''
|-
| 顯 / 宣 || *deik- || ''to show, pronounce solemnly; also in derivatives referring to the directing of words or objects''
|-
| 納 || *dek- || ''to take, accept''
|-
| 十 || *dekm || ''ten''
|-
| 右 || *deks- || ''right (opposite left); hence, south (from the viewpoint of one facing east)'' || || dex(ter) || δεξ(ιός)
|-
| 長 || *del- || ''long''
|-
| 計 / 數 || *del- || ''to recount, count''
|-
| 戶 || *dem- || ''house, household''
|-
| || *demə- || ''to constrain, force, especially to break in (horses)''
|-
| 学 || *dens- || ''learn, use one's mind'' || || || δάω (*dnso:) &quot;learn&quot;, redupl. δι-''δάσκ''ω (→ didact-) &quot;teach&quot;
|-
| 歯 || *dent- || ''tooth''
|-
| 剝 || *der- || ''to split, peel, flay; with derivatives referring to skin and leather''
|-
| 䁐 ? || *derk- || ''to see'' || || (draco) || δρᾰκών, δέρκομαι
|-
| 堅 / 木 || *deru-, dreu- || ''to be firm, solid, steadfast; hence specialized senses &quot;wood&quot;, tree&quot; and derivatives referring to objects made of wood''
|-
| 缺 || *deu- || ''to lack, be wanting''
|-
| || *deu- || ''to do, perform, show favor, revere''
|-
| 久 || *deuə-, dwaə || ''long (in duration)''
|-
| 領 || *deuk- || ''to lead''
|-
| 置 || *dhē- || ''to set, put''
|-
| 暖 || *dhegʷw- || ''to burn, warm''
|-
| 吮 || *dhē(i)- || ''to suck''
|-
| 建 / 築 || *dheigh- || ''to form, build''
|-
| 支 || *dher- || ''to hold firmly, support''
|-
| 勇 || *dhers- || ''to venture, be bold''
|-
| 示 / 祭 ? || *dhēs- || ''root of words in religious concepts''
|-
| 流 || *dheu- || ''to flow'' || dew
|-
| 死 / 亡 || *dheu- || ''to die'' || dea(d), dea(th), die
|-
| 深 / 虛 || *dheub-, dheubh- || ''deep, hollow'' || deep
|-
| 成 ? || *dheuə- || ''to close, finish, come full circle'' (probably related to *dheu-, ''to die'') || tow(n) || fu(nus)
|-
| 造 || *dheugh- || ''to produce something of utility'' || ? || || (teukhos)
|-
| 土 || *dhghem- || ''earth'' || ? || hum(us); hom(o), hom(inis) || (khthon)
|-
| 昨 || *dhgh(y)es- || ''yesterday'' || yes(terday)
|-
| 插 / 修 ? || *dhīgʷ- || ''to stick, fix'' || dig? || fig(o), fig(ere), fixi=fic(si), fixus=fic(sus); fi(bula)
|-
| || *dhreg- || ''to draw, glide'' || drink, drench, drow(n)
|-
| 驅 || *dreibh- || ''to drive, push; snow'' || drive, drove
|-
| 落 || *dhreu- || ''to fall, flow, drip, droop'' || drea(ry), dro(p), droo(p) || || (thruptein)
|-
| 女 / 閨 / 娘 || *dhugəter- || ''daughter''
|-
| 門 || *dhwer- || ''door, doorway'' (usually plural) || door || for(as); for(is); for(um) || (thura)
|-
| (play) 玩 / 耍 / 嬉 || *dlegh- || ''to engage oneself'' || play || ''maybe'' (in)dulg(eo)
|-
| 舌 || *dn̥ghū- || ''tongue'' || tongue || lingu(a)
|-
| 給 / 予 || *dō- || ''to give'' || || d(o), d(are), de-d(i), d(atus) || (didonai, dosis, doron)
|-
| 惡 || *dus- || ''bad, evil, mis-'' (derivative of *deu-, to lack) || || || (→dys-)
|-
| 二 || *dwo- || ''two'' || two, twe(lve), twe(lfth) || du(o), bi(s), bi(ni) || (duo)
|-
| 神 || *dyeu- || ''to shine (and in many derivatives &quot;sky, heaven, god&quot;)'' || Tue(sday) || di(es); de(us); div(us); di(s), di(tis); div(es), div(itis); Iup(piter), Iov(is); Iu(lius) || (Zeus, delos)
|-
| 食 || *ed- || ''to eat'' (original meaning &quot;to bite&quot;) || eat || ed(o), ed(ere), ed(i), ed(itus); (pran)d(ium) ''first meal''
|-
| 居 || *es- || ''to be'' || a(m), is; ye(s) || es(se), s(um), es, es(t), s(umus), es(tis), s(unt) || (einai)
|-
| 空 || *euH2- || ''empty; to give out, lack, leave'' || wane, want || ''va''n(us), ''va''c(are), ''va''st(us) || 
|-
| 來 || *gʷā-, gʷem- || ''to go, to come'' || come, (wel)come, (be)come || ven(ire) || (bainein)
|-
| 貝 || *ko(n)kho- || ''shell[fish]'' ||  –  || coc(h)lea  || ''κόγχ''ος, ''κόχλ''ος 
|-
| 犬 || *k'won- || ''dog'' || hound || canis || κύων
|-
| 左   || *laiwo- || ''left'' ||  || laevus || λαιός
|-
| 月 || *me:-n- || ''moon, month'' || moon, month || mensis || men, mene || μείς, μήνη
|-
| 無 || *ne || ''not''
|-
| 口  || *ōs- || ''mouth'' || || os, oris || 
|-
| 休 || *paus- || ''cease, stop, leave [behind]'' ||  || ''paus''a (from grc): || παύω 
|-
| 火 || *peH2wr || ''fire'' || fire ||  — || πῦρ, pyro-
|-
| 吸 || *pneu- || ''breath(e)'' || sneeze, snore, sneer || || πνέω, πνοή, πνεῦμα
|-
| 矯 / 王 ? || *reg- || ''to move in a straight line'', with derivatives meaning ''to direct in a straight line, lead, rule'' || righ(t)=矯了; rake (also ''rajah, maharajah'' from Sanskrit) || reg(o), reg(ere), rexi=rec(si), rec(tus)=矯了us; rex=rec(s); reg(ula); rog(o), rog(are), rog(are), rog(avi), rog(atus)=矯了us ''Homograph Alert!'' || (oregein)
|-
| 見 || *spek- || ''see, observe, examine'' || spy || specere, species || σκέπτομαι, σκοπός
|-
| 響 / 音 / 聲 || *swen- || ''to make sound'' || [swan] || ''son''o, ''son''are;  sonus=音us || —
|-
| 下 || *upo- || ''down, below, under'' || up [!] || sub || ὑπό, hypo-
|-
| 看 || *weid- || ''to see, know'' || wit, wi(se)=見了 || vid(eo), vid(ere), vid(i), vi(sus)
|-
| 勝 / 克 || *weik- || ''to fight, conquer'' || || vinc(o), vinc(ere), vic(i), vic(tus)=勝了us
|}

{|
! !! IE !! English !! Latin !! Greek !! German !! Mandarin Chinese !! Japanese
|-
| 生 || *seuH- [give birth] || so(n) || || || Soh(n) || shēng || じょう
|-
| 飲 || *peH₃(i)- [drink] || || po(tus), bi-b(o) || πόσ(ις), πί(νω) || || yǐn || の(む)
|-
| 耳 || *H₂eus- || ear || aur(is) || οὖς || Ohr || ěr || みみ
|-
| 目 || *okʷ- ||  eye || oc(ulus) || || Auge || mù || め
|-
| 父 || *pH₂ter- || father || pater, patr(is) || || Vater || fù || ちち
|-
| 魚 || *peisk- || fish || pisc(is) || || Fisch || yú || さかな
|-
| 制 / 法 / 規 || *yewes- [law] || || ius, iur(is), ius(tus) || || || zhì / fǎ / guī
|-
| 地 || *lendh- || land || || || Land || dì || ち
|-
| 男 / 雄 || *wiH-ro (or *Hner-?) [male] || (were-) || vir ||  || || nán / xióng || ひと
|-
| 女 / 雌 || *gʷenH- [female] || (queen) ||  || γυνή || || nǚ / cí || おんな
|-
| 中 || *medhi- || mid, midd(le) || medi(us) || || || zhōng || なか
|-
| 母 || *maH₂ter- || mother || mater, matr(is) || μήτηρ || Mutter || mǔ || はは
|-
| 鼠 || *mūs- || mouse || mus, mur(is) || μυς || Maus || shǔ || ねずみ
|-
| 雪 || *sneigʷh- || snow || nix=nic(s), niv(is) || *νίψ (νίφα) || Schnee || xuě || ゆき
|-
| 水 || *akʷa- [water] || is(land) || aqu(a) || || || shuǐ || みず
|-
| 濕 || *wed- || wat(er), wet, wint(er), hyd(ro)- || und(a) || hud(ōr) &lt;!-- I need to learn me some Greek.. --&gt; || Wass(er) || shī || しめ(る)
|-
| 冬 || *ghei-/*ghiems [winter] ||  || hiem(s), hiem(is) || || || dōng || ふゆ
|-
| 風 || *H₂weH₁-(nt)- || wind || vent(us) || || || fēng || かぜ
|-
| 狼 || *wlkʷ- || wolf || lup(us) || λύκ(ος) || Wolf || láng || おおかみ
|-
| 狐 || *wlp-e:- [fox] || || vulp(es) || ἀλώπηξ || || hú || きつね
|-
| 牛 || *gʷou- || cow || bo(s, -vis) || βοῦς || Kuh || niú ||うし
|-
| 古 / 老 / 高 || *al-(t-) || old, (eld) || alt(us) || || || gǔ / lǎo / gāo || ふる(い), お[い(る)], たか(い)
|- 
| 蜜 || *melit- [honey] || (mildew) || mel (mulsus) || μέλι || || mì || みつ
|-
| 雨　|| *reg- || rain || rig(are) || || regen || yǔ || あめ
|-
| 圓 / 丸　|| *wel- [round]  || || vol(vere) || ἕλ(ιξ) || || yuán / wán || まる（い）
|-
| 王 || *reg- [king, rule, right] || right || rex, reg(num), reg(ula) || || Reich || wáng ||  おう
|}

===English Words===
{|
| 男狼 || werewolf || *wiro-wl̥kʷo
|-
| 男育了 || world || *wiro-al²-to
|}

===Latin Words===
{|
| 飲飲o, 飲飲re, 飲飲i, 飲飲了us || bibo, bibere, bibi, bibitus
|-
| 食ibilis || edibilis
|-
| 父icius || patricius
|-
| 魚ina || piscina
|-
| 飲io || potio
|-
| 飲to, 飲tare, 飲tavi, 飲tatus || poto, potare, potavi, potatus
|}

== New Additions ==

I added a few French words and will continue if you guys have no complaints. [[User:Eosp|Eosp]] 21:07, 19 February 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Copyright</title>
    <id>725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4090</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-05T22:52:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarifying license</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Unless otherwise stated, this work is licensed under a $1.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of conlangs</title>
    <id>726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46803</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-01T15:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Conlangs on FrathWiki */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Conlangs on FrathWiki ==

{{DPL from category
  | category=Conlangs
  | heading==Conlangs on FrathWiki listed alphabetically=
  | namespace=
  | columns=3
  | exclude category=Meta-pages
  | exclude category 1=Theory
  | exclude category 2=Concultures
  | exclude category 3=Vocabulary
  | exclude category 4=For deletion
}}

{{DPL from category by category
  | category=Conlangs
  | heading==Conlangs on FrathWiki listed by subcategories and crosscategories=
  | namespace=
  | notopcategory=1
  | exclude category=Meta-pages
  | exclude category 1=Theory
  | exclude category 2=Concultures
  | exclude category 3=Vocabulary
  | exclude category 4=For deletion
}}

==Conlangs on other wikis==
*[[Conlangcity:Interlecto|Interlecto]]
*[[LFNwiki:Lingua Franca Nova|Lingua Franca Nova]]
*[[Conlangcity:Tokcir|Tokcir]], the New Generation Language
*[http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/Romanslavic Romanslavic] on Conlang.Wikia

==Conlangs on other sites==
*Mercator's [http://www.xapia.com/andanese/index.php Andanese]
*Ahribar's [http://www.geocities.com/zarathustra47/conlang.html Arêndron]
*Arthaey Angosii's [http://arthaey.mine.nu:8080/~arthaey/conlang/ Asha'ille]
*Eddy the Great's [http://terp.bravehost.com/conworld/tpconlang.html Bp&amp;#664;x&amp;#8217;ã&amp;#816;àókxá&amp;#816;]
*[http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html Brithenig]
*Matt Arriola's [http://z500.8m.net/conlangs/index.html Igur, Noth, Erog, Seduk]
*[http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Ithkuil/ Ithkuil]
*[http://www.kli.org/ Klingon]
*K. Willis' [http://home.comcast.net/~kent.willis/site/ Calineg]
*[http://www.eskimo.com/~ram/Latejami/ Latejami] (''formerly Ladekwa, Latenkwa, Nasendi and Katanda'')
*[http://lingwadeplaneta.info/en/index.shtml/ Lingwa de Planeta]
*[http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]
*Maknas' [http://www.xapia.com/serakus/language/malknarh/grammar.html Malknarh]
*Maknas' [http://www.xapia.com/serakus/language/mekhael/grammar.html Mekhael]
*[http://www.petercrisci.com/petaylish Petaylish]
*[http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling]'s [http://www.theiling.de/conlang/s7/ Qthyn|gai]
*[http://www.tokipona.org/ Toki Pona]
*'''Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria'''
::''Taëse''
:::''Eastern'' &amp;#8212; [http://www.zompist.com/eastern2.html Proto-Eastern]
::::''Karazi''
:::::''Cuzeian''
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/cuezi.htm Cuêzi]
::::''Central''
:::::''Ca&amp;#271;inor''
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/native.htm Ca&amp;#271;inor]
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/verdurian.htm Verdurian]
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/bara.htm Barakhinei]
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/ismain.htm Ismaîn]
::::''Axunaic''
::::*[http://www.zompist.com/axunashin.htm Axuna&amp;#353;in]
:::::''Modern Axunaic''
:::::*[http://www.zompist.com/xurnash.htm Xurná&amp;#353;]
::::''[http://www.zompist.com/naviu.htm Naviu]''
::::''[http://www.zompist.com/chia.htm &amp;#268;ia-&amp;#352;a]''
:::''Monkhayic''
::::''Me&amp;#357;aiun''
::::*[http://www.zompist.com/kebreni.htm Kebreni]
:::''Wede:i-Mei''
:::*[http://www.zompist.com/wedei.html Wede:i]
::''Non-Human''
::*[http://www.zompist.com/elkaril.htm Elkarîl]
::*[http://www.zompist.com/flaidish.htm Flaidish]

:''This list is incomplete.  Please add to it.''

[[Category:Conlangs|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Latin Pinyin</title>
    <id>727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18069</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-05T00:07:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>status: abandoned</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right; text-align:center;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot;| Author
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]]
|-
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot;| Status
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;| &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;abandoned&lt;/span&gt; (2004)
|}

[[Chinese]], literally Romanized:  a method for spelling Mandarin roughly as if it were [[Latin]].

This Romanization is lossy:  several Chinese phonemes may correspond to one Latin spelling.  Additionally, tone is not indicated.  The main impetus for this system was a way to Latinize Chinese names.

==General correspondences==
===Initials===
{|
! pinyin !! Latin !! &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; !! pinyin !! Latin !! &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; !! pinyin !! Latin !! &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; !! pinyin !! Latin
|-
| ''b'' || '''p''' || || ''p'' || '''ph''' || || ''m'' || '''m''' || || ''f'' || '''f'''
|-
| ''d'' || '''t''' || || ''t'' || '''th''' || || ''n'' || '''n'''	|| || ''l'' || '''l'''	
|-
| ''g'' || '''c''' || || ''k'' || '''ch''' || || ''h'' || '''h'''	
|-
| ''j'' || '''c(i)''' || || ''q'' || '''ch(i)''' || || ''x'' || '''s(i)'''
|-
| ''z'' || '''z''' || || ''c'' || '''s''' || || ''s'' || '''s'''	
|-
| ''zh'' || '''t(i)''' || || ''ch'' || '''th(i)''' || || ''sh'' || '''s(i)''' || || ''r'' || '''z'''&amp;dagger;	
|}

&amp;dagger; &quot;'''R'''&quot; might be keepable for ''r'', but I don't know if the ''r'' is a sound a Latin-speaker would hear as '''r'''.

* Aspirated consonants are spelled with &quot;h&quot;, extending the convention already used for [[Greek]].  
* Many of the sibilants fall together to the Latin ear.  
* The &quot;(i)&quot;s drop before ''i'', ''y'', and diphthongs beginning with ''u''.  If you were using ''j'' (not common these days) it would be used here instead of ''i''.

===Finals===
{| 
|               || ''i'' '''i''' || ''u'' '''u''' || ''ü'' '''y'''
|-
| ''a'' '''a''' || ''ia'' '''ia''' || ''ua'' '''ua'''
|-
| ''o'' '''o''' ||                 || ''uo'' '''uo'''
|-
| ''e'' '''e''' || ''ie'' '''ie''' ||              || ''üe'' '''ue'''
|-
| ''er'' '''er'''
|-
| ''ai'' '''ae''' ||               || ''uai'' '''uae'''
|-
| ''ei'' '''ei''' (i?) ||          || ''uei'' (=''ui'') '''uei''' (ui?)
|-
| ''ao'' '''au''' || ''iao'' '''iau''' 
|-
| ''ou'' '''ou''' (u?) || ''iou'' (=''iu'') '''iou''' (iu?)
|-
| ''an'' '''en''' || ''ian'' '''ien''' || ''uan'' '''uen''' || ''üan'' '''yen'''
|-
| ''en'' '''in'''	|| ''in''  '''in''' || ''uen'' (=''un'') '''uen''' || ''ün'' '''yn'''
|-
| ''ang'' '''an(g/c)''' || ''iang'' '''ian(g/c)''' || ''uang'' '''uan(g/c)'''
|-
| ''eng'' '''en(g/c)''' || ''ing'' '''in(g/c)''' || ''ueng'' '''uen(g/c)'''
|-
| ''ong'' '''on(g/c)''' || ''iong'' '''ion(g/c)'''
|}

* The (g/c) is something I'm not certain of.  Certainly &quot;ng&quot; ''could'' always be spelled out (and certainly sometimes it was used: e.g., [[wikipedia:la:Sungteius|Sungteius]] == [[wikipedia:Shunzhi Emperor|Shunzhi Emperor]]).  Myself I'd prefer a ''c'' to go before unvoiced consonants (thus at least ''-nct-'', ''-nch-''), if not actually dropped altogether before consonants (''-nt-'') — ''h'' not counting as a consonant here.    If it ''must'' be kept it should at least be dropped before aspirates, combinations such as ''-cth-'' being an Abhomination against Nature.

==Special correspondences==

{|
| ''zi'' '''z''' ||  ''ci'' '''s''' || ''si'' '''s'''
|-
| ''zhi'' '''t(i)''' || ''chi'' '''th(i)''' || ''shi'' '''s''' || ''ri'' '''z'''
|-
| ''ju'' '''cy''' || ''jue'' '''cye''' || ''juan'' '''cyen''' || ''jun'' '''cyn'''
|-
| ''qu'' '''chy''' || ''que'' '''chye''' || ''quan'' '''chyen''' || ''qun'' '''chyn'''
|-
| ''xu'' '''sy''' || ''xue'' '''sye''' || ''xuan'' '''syen''' || ''xun'' '''syn'''
|-
| ''yu'' '''y''' || ''yue'' '''ye''' || ''yuan'' '''yen''' || ''yun'' '''yn'''
|-
| ''ya'' '''ia''' || ''ye'' '''ie''' || ''yao'' '''iau''' || ''you'' '''iou''' (iu?)
|-
| ''yan'' '''ien''' || ''yin'' '''in''' || ''ying'' '''in(g/c)''' || ''yang'' '''ian(g/c)'''
|-
|  ''yong'' '''ion(g/c)'''
|-
| ''wu'' '''u''' || ''wa'' '''va''' || ''wo'' '''vo''' || ''wai'' '''vae'''
|-
| ''wei'' '''vei''' (vi?) || ''wan'' '''ven''' || ''wen'' '''ven''' || ''wang'' '''van(g/c)'''
|-
| ''weng'' '''ven(g/c)'''
|}

==Notes==
Is it accurate?  Who knows?  The [[wikipedia:Shunzhi Emperor|Shunzhi Emperor]] appeared in Latin as [[wikipedia:la:Sungteius|Sungteius]], which isn't far off from what we'd have gotten (Suntius, say).   Beijing comes out as Peicing or Picing [cf Peking!].

===Examples===
Reign names of [[Wikipedia:List of Emperors of the Ming Dynasty|emperors of the Ming Dynasty]], transliterated and then made declinable:  ''Hongu, Cienven, Ionle, Honsi, Syente, Tienthon(g), Cinthae, Thiensuen, Thenchua, Honti, Tiente, Ciacin(g), Lonchin(g), Vanli, Thaethian(g), Thienchi, Thiontien''.

If we wanted to fully Latinize them, making them declinable, it would be as: ''Hong(u)us&amp;dagger;, Cienvenus, Ionleus, Honsius, Syenteus, Thienthongus, Cinthaeus, Thiensuenus, Thenchuas&amp;#x2021;, Hontius, Tienteus, Ciacingus, Lonchingus, Vanlius, Thaethiangus, Thienchius, Thiontienus.''

:&amp;dagger; Fourth declension, -us, -us ?
:&amp;#x2021; Greek first declension, -as, -ae, like ''Aeneas''.

[[Category:Latin]]
[[Category:Chinese]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Muke/Spelling</title>
    <id>732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4114</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-18T15:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biscriptal orthography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I think using that african alphabet for English would be bloody cool. But it seems to lack dental fricatives, as well some necessary vowelage... --[[User:Vlad|Vlad]] 04:58, 15 Oct 2004 (PDT)

== Biscriptal orthography ==

''Institute two different spelling systems, one for native words and one for foreign ones. Or put differently, spell Germanic words Germanically and Romance words Romantically. (Give some way to discern orthographies, I'm thinking maybe use italics.) [This may not even be necessary. Who knows? I'll discard it for now.]''

Back when Swedish/Danish/German were written with Fraktur
they used Antiqua (i.e. what we know as Roman) letters
for non-Swedish/Danish/German words.  The problem with 
using italics is that one then needs to use a lot of bold
for emphasis and then also '''''bold italic''''.  BTW italics
read poorly on-screen IMNSHO.   BTW, mind if I upload '''my'''
semiserious ideas on an English spelling reform? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 12:57, 10 May 2005 (PDT)

:Hmm, that's right and something I hadn't thought about (Fraktur/Antiqua).  Anyway, spelling reforms are certainly welcome here.  (This one is placed under my user page because, well, it's nameless for one, and I'm not really sure about a good naming convention either).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 09:11, 11 May 2005 (PDT)

::Except that in your case English [[Wikipedia:Blackletter|Blackletter]] is of course more appropriate than [[Wikipedia:Fraktur (typeface)|Fraktur]]!  There are plenty of fonts around, tho most of them lack accents and moreover the face has got too much of an association with Heavy Metal for general use, alas!  Perhaps you should design a &quot;Frathur&quot; style and make it official on your server! ;)
:: I call my spelling &quot;New AngloSaxon Spelling&quot;, with good reason since it uses þ, ð and accented letters, but with less good reason since it also uses ʃ ʒ ŋ as distinct letters (where ʒ is /dʒ/ rather than /ʒ/, BTW.
::(BTW how do you create the &lt;nowiki&gt;[[User Talk:Muke|✎]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; stamp?) [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 01:21, 13 May 2005 (PDT)
::: Sorry for the late reply.  Blackletter seems like a good idea ;) if a bit intrusive.  Possibly even just serif vs. sans-serif might be reasonable.  At any rate, I just set the &quot;your nickname&quot; field in [[Special:Preferences]] to &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; — though in recent versions you can just turn on &quot;raw signatures&quot; and put whatever you like in.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 08:41, 18 May 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilabial click</title>
    <id>733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4115</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-11T10:53:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ʘ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Non-Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ʘ 
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;O\&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Z-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;O\&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;p_!&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || p!
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bilabial]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Click]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || 
[+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; 
[+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; 
'''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+round] &lt;br&gt; 
'''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; 
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high]
|}

{{stub}}

===Bilabial Clicks in Natlangs===
'''[[!Xóõ]] bilabial clicks:'''
{|
| Plain || ʘ
|-
| [[Voiced]] || ʘg
|-
| [[Aspirated]] || ʘh
|-
| [[Plain]] with [[uvular ejective]] accompaniment || ʘq?
|}
===Bilabial Clicks in Conlangs===

[[Category:Phonetic segments|ʘ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ʘ</title>
    <id>734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4116</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T12:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bilabial click]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>O\</title>
    <id>735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4117</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T12:26:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bilabial click]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless lateral alveolar affricate</title>
    <id>736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4118</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-29T15:12:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right; text-align:center;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
| style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;big&gt;tˡɬ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 | Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || t͡ɬ ''or'' tɬ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;t_l_K&lt;/tt&gt; ''or'' &lt;tt&gt;t_K&lt;/tt&gt; ''or'' &lt;tt&gt;tK&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || t&lt;lat&gt;s&lt;lat&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Alveolar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Lateral]] [[affricate]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+anterior]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+lateral] 
|}

The lateral alveolar affricate is found in few natlangs. It consists of [[Voiceless lateral alveolar stop|tˡ]] followed by [[Voiceless lateral alveolar fricative|ɬ]], and it is the [[lateral]] equivalent of [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|t͡s]].
===Lateral alveolar affricates in natlangs===
'''[[Nahuatl]]'''
{|
| Plain || tl || atlatl /atɬatɬ/
|}
===Lateral alveolar affricates in conlangs===
'''[[Klingon]]'''
{|
| Plain || [http://www.kli.org/tlh/sounds/phonemes/tlh.au &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (tlh)] || &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (butlh) /butɬ/
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|tɬ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>T͡ɬ</title>
    <id>737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4119</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T13:03:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless lateral alveolar affricate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>T l K</title>
    <id>738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4120</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T13:03:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless lateral alveolar affricate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>T K</title>
    <id>739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4121</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T13:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless lateral alveolar affricate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless palatal sibilant</title>
    <id>740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47572</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Palatal fricatives in conlangs */ cat:segments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2 valign=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;big&gt;ç&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 valign=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ç
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || C
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Palatal]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Fricative]] ([[sibilant]])
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || 
[+consonantal] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt;
[+delayed release] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+distributed] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high] &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+front] &lt;br&gt;
|}

The voiceless palatal fricative can be considered an [[unvoiced]] [[Palatal approximant|j]]. It often arises from a [[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]][[Palatal approximant|j]] cluster.  It is often part of a [[voiceless palatal affricate]].

===Palatal fricatives in natlangs===
'''[[Modern English]]'''
{|
| h(u) || huge, human /hjudʒ hjumən/ [çuːʤ çuːmən]
|}
'''[[Japanese]]''' 
{|
| ひ(ゃ,ゅ,ょ) (hy(a,u,o)) || 百, /hyaku/, [çakɯ]
|}
'''[[High German]]'''
{|
|  ch (except next to back vowels) || Ich, Mädchen, möchten /ɪç metçən møçtən/
|}
'''[[Spanish]]'''
{|
|  gi, ge, j (except next to back vowels),|| gente, jefe, genio /çɛnte çɛfe çenio/
|}
'''[[Norwegian]]'''
{|
|  kj, ky, ki || kjøre, kirke, kylling  /çørə çirkə çylɪŋ/
|}


===Palatal fricatives in conlangs===

'''[[Atlantic]]'''
{|
| Plain || [[Image:Kirumb-small-letter-saadi.png|24px]] (sy) || syel, /çèl/
|}

{{stub}}

[[Category:Phonetic segments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless palatal fricative</title>
    <id>741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4123</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T13:34:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless palatal spirant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless palatal spirant</title>
    <id>742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4127</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T13:40:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Voiceless palatal spirant moved to Voiceless palatal sibilant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless palatal sibilant]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless bilabial stop</title>
    <id>743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47590</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T13:04:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See Also */ catsort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;big&gt;p&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]] || p
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]] || &lt;tt&gt;p&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]] || p
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bilabial]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s:
| [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' 
|}

The voiceless bilabial stop is an extremely common sound, occuring in almost every natlang.  Notable exceptions include standard [[Arabic]].

===Bilabial stops in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Plain || (s)p || spin /spɪn/ [spɪn]
|-
| Aspirated || p || pin /pɪn/ [pʰɪn]
|-
| Unreleased || p || cap /kæp/ [kʰæp̚]
|}

'''[[Ancient Greek]]'''
{|
| Plain || π (p) || πούς (pous) /púːs/
|-
| Aspirated || φ (ph) || φωνή (phōnē) /pʰɔːnɛ́ː/
|}

'''[[Spanish]]'''
{|
| Plain || p || perro /perro/ [pero]
|}

===Bilabial stops in conlangs===
'''[[Atlantic]]'''
{|
| Plain || [[Image:Kirumb-small-letter-pee.png|24px]] (p) || pədre [pə̀dɾə]
|}

===See Also===
*[[Voiced bilabial stop|Voiced bilabial stop - b]]
*[[Bilabial ejective|Bilabial ejective  - pʼ]]

[[Category:Phonetic segments|p]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Velar nasal</title>
    <id>744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T18:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. phonetic segments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ŋ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ŋ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;N&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || N
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Velar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Nasal]] [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: ||
[+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; 
[+sonorant] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt;
[+nasal] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high] &lt;br&gt;
|}

The velar nasal is a fairly common sound cross-linguistically. It is often an allophone of [[Alveolar nasal|n]] before a [[velar]] sound.

===Velar nasals in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Voiced || ng || sing /sɪŋ/
|-
| || n(k,g) || sank /sænk/ [sæŋk]
|}

'''[[Ancient Greek]]'''
{|
| Voiced || γ(γ,κ,ν,μ,χ)  || ἄγγελος  [áŋɡelos]
|}

'''[[Latin]]'''
{|
| Voiced || g(n) || magnus /magnus/ [maŋnʊs]
|}

===Velar nasals in conlangs===
'''[[Atlantic]]'''
{|
| Voiced || [[Image:Kirumb-small-letter-angma.png|24px]] (ŋ) || viŋe [vìŋə]
|}

'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Voiced || ņ || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-5a.mp3 gaņiut /ɡaŋiut/]
|-
| Unvoiced || hņ
|-
| Voiced geminated || ņņ || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-35b.mp3 sa’weņņün /saʔweŋŋʉn/]
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|ŋ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kirumb-capital-letter-saadi.png</title>
    <id>745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4130</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T16:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kirumb capital letter śādī.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kirumb capital letter śādī.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kirumb-small-letter-saadi.png</title>
    <id>746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4131</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T16:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kirumb small letter śādī</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kirumb small letter śādī</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Voiceless palatal sibilant</title>
    <id>747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47883</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-01T21:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not a sibilant, yep</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Is this really a sibilant?  It might be better to more generally list it mainly under [[voiceless palatal fricative]] instead.  It looks like only &quot;ɕ ɧ ʑ ʐ ʂ ʒ z ʃ s&quot; are technically sibilants.
:I agree, this is basically the spirant corresponding to /ɕ/. Largely similar to /x/, only farther front.--[[User:Tropylium|&lt;span class=&quot;IPA&quot;&gt;Trɔpʏliʊm&lt;/span&gt;]] • [[User talk:Tropylium|blah]] 21:38, 1 August 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kirumb-small-letter-pee.png</title>
    <id>748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4133</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T16:49:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kirumb small letter pē</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kirumb small letter pē</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kirumb-small-letter-angma.png</title>
    <id>749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4134</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T17:12:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kirumb small letter aŋma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kirumb small letter aŋma</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless bidental fricative</title>
    <id>750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T18:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categ. phonetic segments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;h̪͆&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || h̪͆
|-
| ''[[Z-SAMPA]]'': || &lt;tt&gt;h_t\&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bidental]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Fricative]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || ?
|}

The voiceless bidental fricative is vanishingly rare. Its voiced equivalent is [[Voiced bidental fricative|ɦ̪͆]].

===Bidental fricatives in natlangs===
'''Shapsug [[Adyghe]]''' 
{|
| Plain || || /xə/ [h̪͆ə] (‘six’)
|}

===Bidental fricatives in conlangs===
'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Plain || hh || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-42a.mp3 hhöž /hhœʒ/ [h̪͆œʒ&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|h̪͆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Labial-velar approximant</title>
    <id>751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31895</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-28T17:58:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;w&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || w
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;w&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || w
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Labial-velar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Approximant]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+approximant] &lt;br&gt;
[+sonorant] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt;
[+delayed release] &lt;br&gt;
[+voice] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+round] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high] &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+back] &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+tense]
|}

The labial-velar approximant is a semi-vowel, and can be considered a consonantal version of the vowel [[High back rounded vowel|u]].  It's voiceless equivalent is [[Voiceless labial-velar fricative|/ʍ/]]

{{stub}}

===Labial-velar approximants in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Voiced || w || win /wɪn/
|-
| Unvoiced [[Voiceless Labial-Velar Approximate|ʍ]] || (p,t,k)w; (q)u || twin /twɪn/ [t[[Voiceless Labial-Velar Approximate|ʍ]]ɪn]
|}
The sound was originally Ƿ (wynn) which comes from the [[Runic]].

'''[[Japanese]]'''
{|
| Voiced || わ (wa) || 私 /watasi/
|}
'''[[Old Norse]]'''
{|
| Voiced || v || Vikingr /wikiŋgr/
|}

'''[[Latin]]'''
{|
| Voiced || v || vīdī /wiːdiː/
|}

'''[[Nahuatl]]'''
{|
| Voiced || hu, uh || cihuātl /siwaːtɬ/
|-
| || (c)u, u(c) || cuīca /kwiːka/
|}
===Labial-velar approximants in conlangs===
'''[[Klingon]]'''
{|
| Voiced || &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (w) || &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (wab) /wab/
===See Also===
*[[Voiceless labial-velar fricative|Voiceless labial-velar fricative - ʍ]]
*[[Palatal approximant|Palatal approximant - j]]
[[Category:Phonetic segments|w]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glottal stop</title>
    <id>752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38314</id>
      <timestamp>2008-09-27T14:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ʔ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ʔ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;?&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || ?
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Glottal]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+constricted glottis]
|}

The glottal stop is a fairly common sound cross-linguistically. It is a part of the articulation of [[ejective]]s. It is impossible to voice a glottal stop.

=Glottal stops in natlangs=
==English==
===British English===
'''[[English]]''' ([[Cockney]] dialect)
{|
| Plain || t || bottle /bɒtəl/ [bɒʔɤ]
|}

===American English===
The sound between the vowels in '''uh-uh''', /əʔə/. 

'''[[Nahuatl]]'''
{|
| Plain || h || huehxolotl /weʔʃoɬotɬ/
|}
=Glottal stops in conlangs=
'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Plain || ’ || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-13b.mp3 ma’walg /maʔwalg/]
|}

'''[[Klingon]]'''
{|
| Plain || &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (') || [http://www.kli.org/tlh/sounds/Qo%27.au &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (Qo') /qχoʔ/]
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|ʔ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Labiovelar approximant</title>
    <id>753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4138</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-17T05:56:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Labial-velar approximant]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Labial-velar approximant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alveolar trill</title>
    <id>754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4139</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-11T10:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;r&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || r
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;r&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || r&lt;trl&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Alveolar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Trill]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+approximant] &lt;br&gt; [+sonorant] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; [+trill] &lt;br&gt;  [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+anterior] 
|}

The alveolar trill is a sound common amongst European languages. It is a rhotic, often being changed for [[Alveolar tap|ɾ]] or [[Uvular trill|ʀ]]. It often arises from [[Voiced alveolar sibilant|z]], especially between vowels.

{{stub}}

===Alveolar trills in natlangs===
'''[[Spanish]]'''
{|
| Voiced || rr || perro /pero/
|}

'''[[Latin]]'''
{|
| Voiced || r || Rōma /roːma/
|-
| Voiced geminated || rr || currō /kurroː/
|}

===Alveolar trills in conlangs===
'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Voiced || rr || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-35d.mp3 rrig /riɡ/]
|}
===See Also===
*[[Alveolar tap|Alveolar flap - ɾ]]
[[Category:Phonetic segments|r]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilabial trill</title>
    <id>755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4140</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-11T10:54:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ʙ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ʙ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;B\&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || b&lt;trl&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bilabial]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Trill]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+approximant] &lt;br&gt; [+sonorant] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; [+trill] &lt;br&gt; [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
|}

The bilabial trill is an easy sound for most people to make, yet it is used phonemically in very few natlangs.

{{stub}}
[[Category:Phonetic segments|ʙ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Labial-velar approximant</title>
    <id>756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4141</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-17T14:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hmm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I don't think segments is a particularly descriptive name. Perhaps something more general, like &quot;sounds&quot;?

:Possibly.  &quot;Segments&quot; is what they are, though, as opposed to suprasegmentals (things like tone and stress).  &quot;Sounds&quot; though seems a bit over-inclusive.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:19, 17 Oct 2004 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless postalveolar affricate</title>
    <id>757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48972</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T18:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>tyo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;tʃ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || t͡ʃ ''or'' ʧ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;t_S&lt;/tt&gt; ''or'' &lt;tt&gt;tS&lt;/tt&gt; ''(see text)''
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || tS
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Postalveolar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Affricate]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+distributed]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+strident]
|}

The voiceless postalveolar affricate is a quite common sound cross-linguistically. It often arises from [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] before a high vowel or [[Palatal approximant|j]]. Its voiced equivalent is [[Voiced alveolar affricate|dʒ]]. It can also be ejective, [[Postalveolar ejective affricate|tʃʼ]].

In [[X-SAMPA]] it can be represented explicitly as &lt;tt&gt;[t_S]&lt;/tt&gt;, though for convenience it can also be represented as &lt;tt&gt;[tS]&lt;/tt&gt;. The disjunctor hyphen (thus &lt;tt&gt;[t-S]&lt;/tt&gt;) can be used when it is important to emphasize the separateness of the &lt;tt&gt;[t]&lt;/tt&gt; and the &lt;tt&gt;[S]&lt;/tt&gt;.

Americanistic, Uralistic etc. linguistic traditions use the symbol '''č''' for this sound.

Note that in [[shallow transcription]] it is common to use /tʃ/ as a catch-all symbol for a number of different affricates, such as the [[voiceless retroflex affricate]] [tʂ], [[voiceless palato-alveolar affricate]] [tɕ], or even the [[voiceless palatal affricate]] [cç], if they do not contrast in the language in question with an actual postalveolar.

===Postalveolar affricates in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Plain || ch || chin /tʃɪn/
|}

'''[[Japanese]]'''
{|
| Plain || ち (chi) || 父 /titi/ [t͡ɕit͡ɕi]
|}
Note that this is one of the cases where the sound is actually not [tʃ].

'''[[Nahuatl]]'''
{|
| Plain || ch || tōchtli /toːtʃtɬi/
|}

'''[[Spanish]]'''
{|
| Plain || ch || coche /kotʃe/
|}
===Postalveolar affricates in conlangs===
'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Plain || č || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-3a.mp3 čuņ /tʃuŋ/]
|-
| Aspirated || čʰ || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-38d.mp3 čʰed /tʃʰed/]
|-
| Ejective || č’ || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-39b.mp3 qömč’oi /qœmtʃʼoi/]
|}
===See Also===
*[[Voiceless alveolar affricate]]
*[[Postalveolar affricated click]]

[[Category:Phonetic segments|tʃ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Velarized alveolar lateral approximant</title>
    <id>758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48170</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T21:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ɫ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || lˠ
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;l_G&lt;/tt&gt; ''or'' &lt;tt&gt;5&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || l&lt;vzd&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Alveolar]] ([[Velar]])
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Lateral]] [[Approximant]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+approximant] &lt;br&gt; [+sonorant] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+anterior] &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+lateral] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high]
|}

The velarized lateral alveolar approximant is an 'l', pronounced with the tongue raised towards the [[velum]]. It is commonly an allophone of [[alveolar lateral approximant|/l/]].  It is also called '''dark l''', or in Latin studies '''l pinguis''' ‘fat l’.

===Velarized lateral alveolar approximants in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Voiced || l || full /fʊl/ [fʊɫ]
|}

'''[[Latin]]'''
{|
| Voiced || l || volo /wolo:/ [ˈwɔɫoː]
|}
* [ɫ] appeared in Latin before any vowel but /i(ː)/, before any consonant but /l/, and word-finally.  It was more velarized before consonants than vowels.

===Velarized lateral alveolar approximants in conlangs===
'''[[Ithkuil]]'''
{|
| Voiced || ł || [http://home.inreach.com/sl2120/Sound_Files/cons-14a.mp3 łak (ɫak)]
|-
| Voiced Geminated || łł
|}

{{stub}}

[[Category:Phonetic segments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless labial-velar stop</title>
    <id>759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47708</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-24T19:08:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>ahgr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;k͡p&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || k͡p
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;k_p&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Labial-velar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high]
|}

The labial-velar stop is rare sound, occuring in some African natlangs, mostly in the Sahel belt. It is a combined [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] and [[Voiceless labial stop|p]], articulated with simultaneous labial and velar closure. Commonly the velar closure is formed and released slighty erlier, hence the transcription /k͡p/ rather than /p͡k/. Its voiced equivalent is [[Voiced labial-velar stop|ɡ͡b]].  

It is hypothetized that [[bilabial click]]s may arise from labial-velar stops.
[[Category:Phonetic segments|k͡p]]


{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nahuatl</title>
    <id>760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T13:42:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category uto-aztecan natlangs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nahuatl''' is an [[Aztecan languages|Aztecan]] language, spoken by the Aztecs and their descendants in Mexico.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{|
! !! Bilabial !! Alveolar !! Lateral Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Glottal
|-
| Stops || [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || || || || [[Voiceless velar stop|c (k)]] || [[Glottal stop|h (ʔ &lt;tt&gt;?&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Affricates || || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|tz (ts &lt;tt&gt;t_s&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || [[Voiceless lateral alveolar affricat|tl (tˡɬ &lt;tt&gt;t_l_K&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|ch (tʃ &lt;tt&gt;t_S&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Fricatives || || [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant|z (s)]] || [[Voiceless lateral alveolar fricative|l (ɬ &lt;tt&gt;K&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar sibilant|x (ʃ &lt;tt&gt;S&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Nasals || [[Bilabial nasal|m]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]]
|-
| Semi-vowels || || || || || [[Palatal approximant|y (j)]] || [[Labial-velar approximant|hu (w)]]
|}

*/w/ is spelt '''uh''' syllable-finally.
*/kw/ is spelt '''cu''', or '''uc''' syllable-finally.
*/s/ before '''i''' or '''e''' is spelt '''c''', and '''z''' elsewhere
*/k/ before '''i''' or '''e''' is spelt '''qu''', and '''c''' elsewhere
==Nahuatl words in English==
*atlatl
*avocado (←ahuacatl)
*axolotl
*chicle (←chictli)
*chili, chile, chilli (←chilli)
*chocolate (←xocolatl)
*cocoa, cacao (←cacahuatl)
*guacamole (←ahuacamolli)
*coyote (←coyotl)
*ocelot (←ocelotl)
*peyote, peyotl (←peyotl)
*tomato (←tomatl)
----
{{msg:stub}}

[[Category:Uto-Aztecan natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ɫ</title>
    <id>761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48169</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T21:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[IPA]] symbol ɫ ([[X-SAMPA]] &lt;tt&gt;5&lt;/tt&gt;) is ambiguous. It could mean:
*[[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|Velarized lateral alveolar approximant - lˠ]]
*[[Pharyngealized lateral alveolar approximant|Pharyngealized lateral alveolar approximant - lˤ]]

[[Category:Disambiguation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>5</title>
    <id>762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4147</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-17T11:41:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vlad</username>
        <id>8</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect → ɫ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ɫ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Billabial trill</title>
    <id>763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4148</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-17T20:25:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Billabial trill moved to Bilabial trill</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bilabial trill]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless labiovelar stop</title>
    <id>764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4149</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-17T20:41:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Voiceless labial-velar stop]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voiceless labial-velar stop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless alveolar sibilant</title>
    <id>765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4150</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-29T14:01:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;s&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || s
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;s&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || s
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Alveolar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Fricative]] ([[Sibilant]])
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+delayed release] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+anterior]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+strident]
|}

The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a very common sound, occuring in many languages. Its voiced equivalent is [[Voiced alveolar sibilant|z]], and it is part of the affricate [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ts]].

===Voiceless alveolar sibilants in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Plain || s || sit /sɪt/
|-
| Voiced || s || dogs /dɒgs/ [dɒgz]
|}

'''[[Japanese]]'''
{|
| Plain || さ, す, せ, そ (sa,su,se,so) || 桜 (sakura) /sakura/
|-
| Retracted || し (shi) || 手裏剣 (shuriken) /sjuriken/ [ʃɯɽikeɴ] &lt;!-- is this accurate? --&gt;
|}

'''[[Latin]]'''
{|
| Plain || s || sol /sol/
|}

'''[[Nahuatl]]'''
{|
| Plain || z, c(i, e) || cihuātl /siwaːtɬ/
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|s]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Klingon</title>
    <id>766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48179</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T22:01:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Consonants */ linkfix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Klingon''' is a conlang created by [[Marc Okrand]] for the Star Trek movies. It is intended to be a forceful, alien-sounding language.

==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{|
! !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Lateral !! Postalveolar&lt;br/&gt;/ palatal !! Retroflex !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
| Stops || [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p (pʰ &lt;tt&gt;p_h&lt;/tt&gt;)]] · [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t (tʰ &lt;tt&gt;t_h&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || || || [[Voiced retroflex stop|D (ɖ, &lt;tt&gt;d`&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || || [[Voiceless uvular stop|q]] || [[Glottal stop|' (ʔ &lt;tt&gt;?&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Affricates || || || [[Voiceless lateral alveolar affricate|tlh (tˡɬ &lt;tt&gt;t_l_K&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|ch (tʃ &lt;tt&gt;t_S&lt;/tt&gt;)]] · [[Voiced postalveolar affricate|j (dʒ &lt;tt&gt;d_Z&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || || || [[Voiceless uvular affricate|Q (qχ &lt;tt&gt;q_X&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Fricatives || [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || || || || [[Voiceless retroflex sibilant|S (ʂ &lt;tt&gt;s`&lt;/tt&gt;)]] || [[Voiceless velar fricative|H (x)]] · [[Voiced velar fricative|gh (ɣ &lt;tt&gt;G&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Nasals || [[Bilabial nasal|m]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] || || || || [[Velar nasal|ng (ŋ &lt;tt&gt;N&lt;/tt&gt;)]]
|-
| Approximants || [[Labial-velar approximant|w]] || || [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] || [[Palatal approximant|y (j)]]
|-
| Rhotic || || [[Alveolar trill|r]]
|}

==External links==
* [[kliwiki:Proto-Klingon|Proto-Klingon]]
* [http://www.kli.org/wiki/index.php?Puns%20in%20the%20Vocabulary%20of%20tlhIngan%20Hol Puns in the Vocabulary of tlhIngan Hol] &lt;!-- interwiki doesn't work [yet] for pages with spaces in title--mediawiki converts them to underscores, which doesn't work for KLIwiki --&gt;

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Exolangs]]
{{msg:stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiced velopharyngeal fricative</title>
    <id>767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4152</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-29T15:13:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;ʩ&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || ʩ
|-
| ''[[Z-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;f\&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Velopharyngeal]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Fricative]]
|-
|}

[[Category:Phonetic segments|ʩ]]
{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Z-SAMPA</title>
    <id>768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47585</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:56:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat:phonabets</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Z-SAMPA''' is an extension of [[X-SAMPA]] created by members of the [[Zompist Bulletin Board]].
----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tengwar</title>
    <id>769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28422</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-01T21:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markjreed</username>
        <id>1182</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rewrite font tags with CSS; use larger size so the Tengwar shows up in the Code200x fonts.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [http://code2000.net Code2000] font (or another font that implements Tengwar in the private use range specified in the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]]) is required to view this page.  Tengwar has been proposed for, but is not yet included in, [[Plane 1]] of [[Unicode]], being roadmapped for a range starting at U+13000.
----
{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;
| Ⅰ || Ⅱ || Ⅲ || Ⅳ
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;25&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;29&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;31&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;33&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;34&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: Code2001, Code2000, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/tengwar.html Tengwar ConScript Unicode Standard]
* [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n1641/n1641.htm Proposal to encode Tengwar in Plane 1 of ISO/IEC 10646-2]

[[Category:Conscripts]]
----
{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linear B</title>
    <id>771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4156</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-20T04:44:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Syllabary */ + ha, ai, au, phu, rai/lai</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Linear B''' was used to write an archaic form of [[Greek]].
===Syllabary===
{| cellpadding=15 align=&quot;center&quot;
! !! a !! e !! i !! o !! u
|-
! 
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀀&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀁&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀂&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀃&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀄&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! d
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀅&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀆&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀇&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀈&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀉&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! j
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀊&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀋&lt;/font&gt;
| (none)
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀍&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀎&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! k
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀏&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀐&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀑&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀒&lt;/font&gt; 
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀓&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! m
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀔&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀕&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀖&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀗&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀘&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! n
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀙&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀚&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀛&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀜&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀝&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! p
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀞&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀟&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀠&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀡&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀢&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! q
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀣&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀤&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀥&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀦&lt;/font&gt;
| (none)
|-
! r
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀨&lt;/font&gt; 
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀩&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀪&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀫&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀬&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! s
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀭&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀮&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀯&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀰&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀱&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! t
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀲&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀳&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀴&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀵&lt;/font&gt; 
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀶&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! w
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀷&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀸&lt;/font&gt; 
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀹&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀺&lt;/font&gt;
| (none)
|-
! z
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀼&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀽&lt;/font&gt;
| (none)
| &lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐀿&lt;/font&gt;
| (none)
|}

Additional characters: 
* 𐁀 &quot;a₂&quot; = ''ha ''
* 𐁁 &quot;a₃&quot; = ''ai ''
* 𐁂 &quot;a₄&quot; = ''au ''
* 𐁆 &quot;pu₂&quot; = ''phu ''
* 𐁉 &quot;ra₃&quot; = ''rai / lai''

===Ideograms===
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂀&lt;/font&gt; — man
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂁&lt;/font&gt; — woman
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂂&lt;/font&gt; — deer
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂃&lt;/font&gt; — horse
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂄&lt;/font&gt; — mare
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂅&lt;/font&gt; — stallion
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂆&lt;/font&gt; — ewe
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂇&lt;/font&gt; — ram
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂈&lt;/font&gt; — nanny goat
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂉&lt;/font&gt; — billy goat
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂊&lt;/font&gt; — sow
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂋&lt;/font&gt; — boar
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂌&lt;/font&gt; — cow
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂍&lt;/font&gt; — bull
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂎&lt;/font&gt; — wheat
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂏&lt;/font&gt; — barley
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂐&lt;/font&gt; — olive oil
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂑&lt;/font&gt; — spice
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂒&lt;/font&gt; — cyprus
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂓&lt;/font&gt; — kapo
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂔&lt;/font&gt; — kanako
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂕&lt;/font&gt; — oil
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂖&lt;/font&gt; — wine
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂘&lt;/font&gt; — arepa
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂙&lt;/font&gt; — meri
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂚&lt;/font&gt; — bronze
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂛&lt;/font&gt; — gold
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂝&lt;/font&gt; — wool
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂠&lt;/font&gt; — horn
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂧&lt;/font&gt; — cloth
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂪&lt;/font&gt; — garment
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂫&lt;/font&gt; — armour
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂵&lt;/font&gt; — month
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐂷&lt;/font&gt; — tree
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃃&lt;/font&gt; — helmet
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃄&lt;/font&gt; — footstool
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃅&lt;/font&gt; — bathtub
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃆&lt;/font&gt; — spear
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃇&lt;/font&gt; — arrow
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃉&lt;/font&gt; — sword
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃌&lt;/font&gt; — wheeled chariot
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃍&lt;/font&gt; — chariot
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃎&lt;/font&gt; — chariot frame
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃏&lt;/font&gt; — wheel
*&lt;font face=&quot;Penuturesu,Code2001&quot; size=+5&gt;𐃘&lt;/font&gt; — dart
[[Category:Natscripts]]
----
{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khoisan languages</title>
    <id>773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:16:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Khoisan languages]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Descendants==
===Natural languages===
''Category:'' [[:Category:Khoisan natlangs|Khoisan natlangs]]

Hatsa&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Hadza]]&lt;br&gt;
Sandawe&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Sandawe]]&lt;br&gt;
Southern Africa&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Central&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Hainǁum&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Haiǁom]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kwadi&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Kwadi]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Nama&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Korana]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Nama]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Xiri]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Tshu-Khwe&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Deti]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;North Central&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Ganáda]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Shua]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northeast&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Hietschware]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northwest&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǁGana]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǀAnda]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Kxoe]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southwest&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǀGwi]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Naro]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Northern&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ʼAkhoe]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǂKxʼauǁʼein]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Kung-Ekoka]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[JuǀʼHoan]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Maligo]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǃOǃung]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Vasekela Bushman]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Southern&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ǃKwi&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Seroa]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Nǀu]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǀXam]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǁXegwi]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Hua&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǂHua]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[ǃXóõ]]
===Constructed languages===
* ''Category:'' [[:Category:Khoisan conlangs|Khoisan conlangs]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Khoisan languages|!]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-SAMPA</title>
    <id>774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47535</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T10:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''X-SAMPA''' is an ASCII version of the [[IPA]].  It is a generalized extension of [[SAMPA]], a set of systems for transcribing the phonemes of various languages.

On the Conlang list, the X-SAMPA variant [[CXS]] is more popular than plain X-SAMPA.

==External links==
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/x-sampa.htm X-SAMPA summary] (HTML)
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/ipasam-x.pdf X-SAMPA description] (PDF)
* [[Wikipedia:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]] — Wikipedia


----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan, Part I</title>
    <id>775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11499</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-25T14:35:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Patsi.gif</title>
    <id>776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4002</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-01T04:50:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bicoherent</username>
        <id>12</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Description of Tilawa language, Patsi alphabet, etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Description of Tilawa language, Patsi alphabet, etc.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tilawa</title>
    <id>777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29250</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:11:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A more updated version is also [http://bicoherent.topcities.com/litter/patsi.gif available].

[[Image:Patsi.gif]]
 &lt;div id=&quot;ghsfg5dfhsdfhd&quot; style=&quot;overflow:auto;height:1px;&quot;&gt;[http://www.zorpia.com/replicawatch2 replica watch] &lt;/div&gt;
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:How does one start a page</title>
    <id>778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31004</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-02T16:47:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>starting pages directly via URL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Starting a new page from scratch is not something that wikis tend to make easy.  

The Wiki Way™ is to start from pages that already exist and follow links to pages that don't exist to create them.  

In practical terms, this means you can go to your user page (while logged in, click on your username in the bar across the top of the page) and add a link to the page title you'd like to create, for example &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Blastwegian]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[List of monarchs of Blastwegia]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;.  (Placing a topic in double brackets will create a wiki link.  For more on wiki formatting, see [[Help:Editing]].)   After saving, the link will probably be red, indicating the page it points to doesn't exist yet.  Click on it to start editing your new page.

The link step is however not necessary, so if it happens that you don't want anyplace linking to your new page, it's possible to start a new one by simply typing the corresponding URL. Eg. set your browser for http://wiki.frath.net/ExampleTitle to start the page [[ExampleTitle]].

If the page title you want already has an article on it... things may get more complicated.  Ask [[User talk:Muke|Muke]] to do something about it.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan, Part II.</title>
    <id>779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4168</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-04T01:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Appendix III. The Sun and the North Wind. */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==WORD FORMATION ''tan yèxnëmérvan''==
===General Rules===
*098. Senyecan has a well-developed system of word formation in which roots are modified by various prefixes, suffixes, and inflectional endings to form new words.  ''E.g.'', the root '''ed-''', eat, may give '''éda''', to eat; '''édon''', food; '''édïin''', edible; '''eðdémon''', restaurant; '''veédïin''', inedible; '''édun''', eater.

*099. A ''root'' is that part of a word which remains after its formative elements are removed.  It gives the meaning or abstract idea apart from its relations.  It is not necesssarily a monosyllable.

*100. A ''simple word'' is formed from a single root.  A ''compound'' word is formed by combining two or more roots.

*101. The verb is the most important part of speech in Senyecan.  A major part of the Senyecon lexicon is derived from verbs.  To the verbal root are added prefixes and suffixes to form other words, such as nouns and adjectives, ''e.g.'', '''némv-a,''' to steam; '''némv-on''', steam; '''némv-in''', steamy.  In many languages this example would seem to be of a noun which has given rise to a verb.  It is not understood that way in Senyecan.  Words that are not derived from verbs are called ''non-derivative'' words.

*102. Other parts of speech formed from a verbal root are called ''deverbatives,''  ''e.g.'', '''rezréµan''', principality, from '''réßa''', to rule.

*103. There are eight categories of words in Senyecan.
**a. The verb with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', '''tíírsa''', to defy; '''tíírsan''', defiance; '''tíírsin''', defiant; '''tììrsu''', nevertheless; '''tììrsa''', despite; '''tììrsi''', although.
**b. The non-derivative noun with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', '''rúðson''', metal; '''ruðsáágun''', metalworker; '''rúðsin''', metallic.
**c. The non-derivative adjective with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', '''súntin''', alert; '''súntëtan''', alertness.  Any non-derivative adjective can be used as a verb: '''musúnta''', I am alert.
**d. The non-derivative adverb with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', '''ààru''', so, thus; '''ààri''', therefore.
**e. The non-derivative pronoun, ''e.g.'', '''mun''', I.
**f. The non-derivative postposition with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', '''bee''', outside of; '''béérin''', outer; '''béérun''', foreigner.
**h. The non-derivative conjunction, ''e.g.'', '''µo''', or.
**g. The non-derivative interjection, ''e.g.'', '''µái''', woe.

*104. The basic form of the Senyecan verb is called the triphonetic root.  In its simplest form, it consists of a consonant, a vowel(s), and a consonant (CVC, '''µen-'''), or a null, a vowel(s), and a consonant (0VC, '''aus-''').

*105. A lengthened triphonetic root can be formed by inserting a non-plosive consonant (N) before the last consonant (CVNC), ''e.g.'', '''semb''', '''0oln-'''.

*106. Compound verbs may be formed by adding a proclitic element to the triphonetic root, ''e.g.'', '''puµáða''', return.  These proclitic elements may be any part of speech.  As with enclitics, the proclitic element is pronounced on the basal pitch.

*107. To this triphonetic root are added the various prefixes and suffixes to form compound words, ''e.g.'', nouns from verbs.

*108. Syllabic augments are added to the complete verb and not to the proclitic or the triphonetic root, ''e.g.'', '''mupumáða''', I return; '''e-mupumáða''', I returned.

*109. Pronouns, non-derivative adverbs and postpositions, and non-derivative nouns and adjectives have their own forms independent of any triphonetic root.  To these also may be added the various prefixes and suffixes to form other parts of speech, ''e.g.'', '''múúsin''', moss; '''múúsmin''', mossy.

*110a. If the root of the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a vowel, the second element is added to the root of the first element, ''e.g.'', '''tíír-a''', scrape, + '''óndon''', stone = '''tiiróndon''', scouring stone.  '''óóšin''', swift, + '''óren''', hawk = '''oošóren''', goshawk.
**b. If the root of the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a consonant, the second element is added to the root, ''e.g.'', '''aabél-on''', apple, + '''ÿéélon''', wine = '''ààbelÿéélon''', cider.  But remember lenition, ''e.g.'', '''éda''', to eat + '''léépon''', plane = '''eðléépon'''.
**c. If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a consonant, an epenthetic e is added for euphony, ''e.g.'', '''móðrin''', blue + '''rúðson''', metal = '''mòðrërúðson''', cobalt.
**d. If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a vowel, the second element is added to the root, ''e.g.'', '''órv-a''', inherit + '''oíton''', unit = '''òrvoíton''', gene.
**e. If the first element in the compound word ends with a palatalized or labialized consonant, en epenthetic ë is added for euphony, ''e.g.'', '''mínö-in''', little + ''cááµen''', owl = '''mìnöecááµen''', little owl.

===Denominatives===

*111. Denominative words are compound words built on the root of a noun.

====Nouns from nouns====

*112a. Most of the names of animals have only one word for both sexes.  These are known as ''epicene'' words, ''e.g.'', '''ólšen''', moose.  In order to designate the sex of epicene words, a prefix is added.
**b. To designate a male animal, the prefix is '''øs-''', ''e.g.'', '''éšöen''', horse; '''øséšöen''', stallion.
**c. To designate a female animal, the prefix is '''ii-''', ''e.g.'', '''éšöen''', horse; '''iiéšöen''', mare.

*113. The noun suffix '''-ážen''' when added to the root denotes various kinds of small ungulates, ''e.g.'', '''ghooréton''', mountain ridge; '''ghòòretážen''', chamois.

*114. The noun suffix '''-áágun''' when added to the root denotes one who works with or is concerned with what is named in the noun root or one who makes or composes what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''naaúson''', boat; '''nààusáágun''', sailor.

*115. The noun suffix '''sééµan''' when added to the root denotes an inflammation of the body part named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''ghelóndon''', stomach; '''ghelòndësééµan''', gastritis.

*116. The noun suffix '''-démon''' when added to the root denotes the residence of that which is named in the noun root or a building pertaining to that which is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''áµen''', bird; '''aµdémon''', aviary.

*117. The noun suffix '''-en''' when added to the root denotes animals that are characterized by what is name in the noun or adjective root, ''e.g.'', '''lášin''', speckled; '''lášen''', salmon.

*118. The noun suffix '''-íyon''' when added to the root denotes a collective noun, ''e.g.'', '''ÿélnon''', glass; '''ÿelníyon''', glassware.

*119. The noun suffixes '''-l-''' and '''-c-''' when added to the root denote diminutives of or terms of endearment for what is named in the noun root.  Because these suffixes are enclitics, the primary pitch remains on the original syllable of the root word.  When both are added to the noun root, '''-l-''' precedes '''-c-''', ''e.g.'', '''cááµen''', eagle owl; '''cááµlen''', Scops owl; '''cááµlëcen''', pigmy owl.

*120. The noun suffix '''-lïen''' when added to the root denotes the young of animals, ''e.g.'', '''šásnen''', hare; '''šásnëlïen''', leveret.

*121. The noun suffix '''-méton''' when added to the root denotes the instrument that measures what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''ténan''', time; '''tenméton''', clock.

*122. The noun suffix '''-un''' when added to the root denotes the pwerson in charge of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''aÞálon''', family; '''aÞálun''', head of the family.

*123. The noun suffix '''-run''' when added to the root denotes a person connected with, belonging to, a resident of, or of the nationality of the place named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''göóron''', mountain; '''göórërun''', mountaineer.

*124. The noun suffix '''-témun''' when added to the root denotes a person who works with the metal named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''aaúson''', gold; '''ààustémun''', goldsmith.

*125. The noun suffix '''-tan''' when added to the root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''áma''', mother; '''ámtan''', motherhood.

*126. The noun suffix '''-µídan''' when added to the root denotes the science, theory or study of what is named in the noun base, ''e.g.'', '''téren''', star; '''terµídan''', astronomy.

*127. The patronymic is formed by prefixing '''žoon-''' to the noun or name, ''e.g.'', '''žoontémun''', son/daughter of the smith.

====Nouns from adjectives====

*128. The noun suffix '''-on''' when added to the root denotes a concrete noun related to the adjective root, ''e.g.'', '''réµin''', extensive; '''réµon''', country.

*129. The noun suffix '''-tan''' when added to the root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the adjective root, -ty, -ness, -tude, ''e.g.'', '''pééµin''', zesty; '''pééµtan''', zest.

*130. The noun suffix '''-ton''' when added to the combing form of numerals denotes nouns of quantity, ''e.g.'', '''seš''', six; '''séston''', sextet, hexad, half a dozen.

*131. The noun suffix '''-un''' when added to the root denotes a person possessing the quality named in the adjective root, ''e.g.'', '''mághin''', young; '''mághun''', youth.

*132. The noun suffix '''-úron''' when added to the root denotes a metal possessing the quality named in the adjective root, ''e.g.'', '''óóžin''', shining; '''oožúron''', silver.

====Adjectives from nouns====

*133. The adjectival suffix '''-mérvin''' when added to the root of the noun indicates having the shape or form of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''ðúvon''', wedge; '''ðuvmérvin''', wedge-shaped, cuneiform.

*134. The adjectival suffix '''-min''' when added to the root of the noun denotes the existence of, possession of, or a relationship to what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''élon''', stripe; '''élmin''', striped.

*135. The adjectival suffix '''-µin''' when added to the root of the noun denotes pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''šöónen''', dog; '''šöónmin''', canine, doggish. (''cf.'' 137)

*136. The adjectival suffix '''-nin''' when added to the root of the noun denotes similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', '''pìscen''', fish; '''pìscënin''', resembling a fish.

*137. The adjectival suffix '''-ónin''' when added to the palatalized base of the noun, denotes made of the material named in the noun, ''e.g.'', '''álµon''', tin; '''alµïónin''', made of tin.

*138. The adjectival suffix '''-pástin''' when added to the root of the noun denotes imperviousness to or the ability to resist or withstand what is named in the noun root, -proof, -tight, ''e.g.'', '''áµden''', water; '''àµdëpástin''', waterproof, watertight.

*139. The adjectival suffix '''-rin''' when added to the root of the noun denotes being full of what is named in the noun root, -ful, ''e.g.'', '''vøtan''', (good) luck, fortune; '''vøÞrin''', lucky, fortunate.

====Adjectives from adjectives====

*140. The adjectival suffix '''-est-''' when added to the root of the adjective denote somewhat or rather like what is named in the adjectival root, ''e.g.'', '''móðrin''', blue; '''moðréstin''', bluish.

===Deverbatives===

*141. Deverbative words are compound words built on the root of a verb.

====Nouns from verbs====

*142. The noun suffix '''-an''' when added to the root of the verb denotes an abstract noun derived from the verb, -ment, -ness, -tion, -tude, -ty, ''e.g.'', '''mízða''', pay; '''mízðan''', expense.

*143. The noun suffix '''-dáron''' when added to the root of the verb denotes the place where the action of the verb occurs, ''e.g.'', '''cöérïa''', buy; '''cöèrïedáron''', marketplace.

*144. The noun suffix '''-démon''' when added to the root of the verb denotes a building where the action of the verb occurs, ''e.g.'', '''álïa''', brew; '''àlïëdémon''', brewery.

*145. The noun suffix '''-en''' when added to the root of the verb denotes an animal that is characterized by the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''góµa''', to caw; '''góµen''', crow.

*146. The noun suffix '''-on''' when added to the root of the verb forms a concrete noun related to the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''mízða''', to pay; '''mízðon''', wages.

*147. The noun suffix '''töin''' when added to the root of the verb names a medicine or other substance used to perform the action expressed by the verb, ''e.g.'', '''lóµa''', to wash; '''lóµtöin''', soap.

*148. The noun suffix '''aÞun''' when added to the root of the verb denotes the recipient of the action expressed in the verb, ''e.g.'', '''cóla''' to imprison; '''cólaÞun''', prisoner.  Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel.

*149. The noun suffix '''-un''' when added to the root of the verb denotes the agent of the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', '''déma''', to build; '''démun''', builder.

====Adjectives from verbs====

*150. The adjectival suffix '''-est-''' when added to the root of the verb denotes having a tendency toward or inclination to perform the action expressed in the verb, ''e.g.'', '''dérga''', to attract; '''dérgestin''', attractive.  Note that the primary pitch remains on root vowel.

*151. The adjectival suffix '''-in''' when added to the palatalized root of the verb denotes having the capability of the action expressed in the verb, ''e.g.'', '''ínða''', burn; '''ínðïin''', combustible.

===Adjectives from postpositions===

*152. The adjectival suffix '''-rin''' is used to form an adjective from a postposition.  This adjective may then, in turn, be used to form other parts of speech, ''e.g.'', '''be''', outside; '''bérin''', outer; '''bérun''', foreigner.

==&lt;center&gt;[[Senyecan, Part III]]&lt;/center&gt;==


==Appendix I. Senyecan Time and Calendar==

*The Eons. £ ð ø ö

Senyecan history/mythology is divided into seven eons ('''aayáni''') of 156,000 years each. The 1st eon is that of the Self-existent &amp;, in reality, stretches back eternally. At the end of that eon, s/he created light &amp; that is the 2nd eon. At the end of the 2nd, s/he created the cosmos &amp; that is the 3rd eon. At the end of the 3rd, s/he created the elements &amp; that is the 4th eon. At the end of the 4th eon, s/he created the loquent beings &amp; that is the 5th eon. The 5th eon is divided into 6 eras ('''mèÿdiitáni''') of 26,000 years each. At the beginning of each era, s/he created one of the loquent beings: Children of Air, of Fire, of Water, of Earth, of Wood, of Stone. After the era of the Children of Stone, there was the 6th eon of harmony among all the loquent beings. Then came the Great Sundering, during which many fell out of harmony. After allegiances were re-aligned, the 7th eon began, in which we live today. 

*The Solar Cycle. 
Both the solar &amp; the lunar cycles are used in the Senyecan calendar. The solar year begins at the winter solstice ('''ÿòòmsuulsáátan'''). Eight celebrations are held in conjunction with the solar year. The primary celebations are the winter solstice, the vernal equinox ('''µèsnëmeðséntan'''), the summer solstice ('''lèèÞsuulsáátan'''), and the autumnal equinox ('''òsnëmeðséntan'''). The secondary celebrations are the cross-quarter days of midwinter ('''meðÿóóman''' [Imbolc]), midspring ('''meðµésnan''' [Beltane]), midsummer ('''meðléétan''' [Lughnasadh]), and midautumn ('''meðósnan''' [Samhain]). 

*The Lunar Cycle. 
The lunar cycle contains 13 months. The first month begins at sunrise on the day after the full moon after the winter solstice. The other months begin at sunrise on the day after the successive full moons. These months are known as winter moon ('''ÿoomlúxnan'''), late winter moon ('''qàsÿoomlúxnan'''), early spring moon ('''ààyerµèsnëlúxnan'''), spring moon ('''µèsnëlúxnan'''), late spring moon ('''qasµèsnëlúxnan'''), early summer moon ('''ààyerleeÞlúxnan'''), summer moon ('''leeÞlúxnan'''), late summer moon ('''qàsleeÞlúxnan'''), early autumn moon ('''ààyeròsnëlúxnan'''), autumn moon ('''òsnëlúxnan'''), late autumn moon ('''qasòsnëlúxnan'''), and early winter moon ('''ààyerÿoomlúxnan''').

*The Moon's Phases. 
Each of the phases of the moon begins a new &quot;week,&quot; known as a '''lùxnëmérvan''' (moon phase), or '''mérvan''' for short. Thus, the mérvan can vary in length from six to nine days. The &quot;week&quot; begins and celebrations are held on the day after each phase is at its fullest. The first six days of each phase are named after the avatar reverenced by each of the six loquent beings in the order of their creation: '''lùxnëdïéyan''' (Moon day - Children of Air); '''ààterdïéyan''' (Aaterun's day - Children of Fire); '''neerdïéyan''' (Neer's day - Children of Water); '''sèègïëdïéyan''' (Seegyun's day - Children of Earth); '''pèrcöëdïéyan''' (Percwun's day - Children of Wood); and '''puusdïéyan''' (Puusun's day - Children of Stone). Additional days in the phase bear the names '''alïòidïéyan''', one extra day; '''àlïëdöiidïéyan''', two extra day; and '''àlïëtirdïéyan''', three extra day. The names of the six days are used for the seven days of the contemporary week, being preceded by '''suuldïéyan''', Sun's day, a day dedicated to the Self-existent as s/he is in him/herself, not as an avatar. '''Néérun''' and '''Séégïun''' are female, the rest are male. 

P.S. The names of the six avatars are also used for the six visible moving heavenly bodies, treated as animate beings. '''lúxnen''' = moon; '''aatéren''' = Mercury; '''nééren''' = Venus; '''séégïen''' = Mars; '''pércöen''' = Jupiter; '''púúsen''' = Saturn.

==Appendix II. Senyecan Color Scheme==

*There are six basic colors: 
**red, '''rúúðin'''
**orange, '''véélrin'''
**yellow, '''bádïin'''
**green, '''ðálin'''
**blue, '''móðrin'''
**purple, '''vísöin'''

*Between each of these is an intermediary color:
**reddish-orange, '''sérin'''
**orangish-yellow, '''céncin'''
**yellowish-green, '''ÿélµin'''
**greenish-blue, '''lííµin'''
**bluish-purple, '''méélïin'''
**purplish-red, '''órbin'''

*Each of these twelve colors can then be modified by four different prefixes: 
**paler, '''£iid-'''
**pale, '''pel-'''
**dark, '''mel-'''
**darker, '''caal-'''

*There are also '''álin''' (white) and '''cøsin''' (black) which do not admit of shades.

*'''ÿéérµin''', gray, also has the five shades, but has '''šïéémin''' instead of '''*caalÿéérµin'''.

*There are two words for brown: '''vévrin''' for animate beings and '''véérin''' for inanimate beings.  Each of these can take the modifying prefixes, except that '''véérin''' has '''ðúscin''' instead of '''*caalvéérin'''.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Part II.</title>
    <id>780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4167</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-08T13:45:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Part II. moved to Senyecan, Part II.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Senyecan, Part II.]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Senyecan, Part II.</title>
    <id>781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4166</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-08T13:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[why I moved this page]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi!  I moved this page because the title wasn't specific enough.  You may move it to a better title if you have one in mind, but try to keep the name of the language in the title.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 05:48, 8 Nov 2004 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiced bilabial stop</title>
    <id>782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:41:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;big&gt;b&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]] || b
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]] || &lt;tt&gt;b&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]] || b
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bilabial]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+LABIAL]'''
|}

The voiced bilabial stop is an extremely common sound, occuring in the majority of natlangs with a voicing distinction amongst stops. It is the voiced counterpart to [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]].

===Bilabial stops in natlangs===
'''[[English]]'''
{|
| Voiced || b || bin /bɪn/
|}

===Bilabial stops in conlangs===
'''[[Klingon]]'''
{|
| Voiced ||  (b) || [http://www.kli.org/tlh/sounds/ghobe%27.au &lt;font face=&quot;Code2000&quot;&gt;&lt;/font&gt; (ghobe') /ɣobɛʔ/]
|}
[[Category:Phonetic segments|b]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Phonological feature</title>
    <id>783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-13T01:54:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Resources */ categ. phonology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__TOC__
==List of phonological features==
* [±syllabic] The feature ''[[syllable|syllabic]]'' applies to segments that form the sonority peak of a syllable.  All [[vowel]]s are [+syllabic], as are syllabic consonants (marked in IPA with [◌̩].)

* [±stress] The feature ''[[stress]]'' applies to syllables pronounced more prominently than others.

* [±long] The feature ''[[length|long]]'' applies to segments pronounced with greater duration.

* [±consonantal] The feature ''[[consonant]]al'' applies to segments with a [[sonority hierarchy|sonority]] of liquid or less; it does not apply to vowels or semivowels.

* [±approximant] The feature ''[[approximant]]'' applies to segments with a sonority of liquid or greater, namely vowels, semivowels, and liquids.

* [±sonorant] The feature ''[[sonorant]]'' applies to segments with a sonority of nasal or greater, namely vowels, semivowels, liquids, and nasals.

* [±contin-artic] The feature ''continuous articulation'' applies to non-[[stop]] segments, namely vowels, semivowels, liquids, and fricatives.  It does not apply to affricates, oral stops, or nasals (nasal stops).

* [±contin-acous] The feature ''acoustic continuity''(?) applies to all segments except oral stops and affricates.

* [±delayed release] The feature ''delayed release'' applies to all segments except non-affricated oral and nasal stops. 

* [±flap] The feature ''flap'' applies to [ɾ], [ɺ], and [ɽ].

* [±trill] The feature ''trill'' applies to [ʙ], [r], and [ʀ].

* [±nasal] The feature ''nasal'' applies to nasal stops and other nasalized segments.

* [±voice] The feature ''voice'' applies to all voiced segments.

* [±implosive] The feature ''implosive'' applies to implosive segments. 

* [±spread gl] The feature ''spread glottis'' applies to all aspirated segments, [ʍ], [h], and [ɦ].

* [±constr gl] The feature ''constricted glottis'' applies to [ʔ] and ejectives.

* [±LABIAL] The feature ''labial'' applies to segments articulated with the lips.  This includes rounded vowels and labialized consonants.

* [±round] The feature ''round'' applies to rounded vowels, labialized consonants, and [ʘ]

* [±labiodental] The feature ''labiodental'' applies to segments articulated with the lower lip and the upper teeth.

* [±CORONAL] The feature ''coronal'' applies to dentals, alveolars, retroflexes, palato-alveolars, alveolo-palatals, and palatals.

* [±anterior] The feature ''anterior'' applies to dentals and alveolars.  This feature is undefined for [-CORONAL] segments.

* [±distributed] The feature ''distributed'' applies to segments articulated with the tongue blade. This includes all coronal sounds except alveolars and retroflexes.  This feature is undefined for [-CORONAL] segments.

* [±strident] The feature ''strident'' applies to certain sibilant segments: [ʥ ʨ ʤ ʣ ʧ ʦ ʈʂ ɖʐ ɕ ɧ ʑ ʐ ʂ ʒ z ʃ s], and is undefined for [-CORONAL] segments.

* [±lateral] applies to lateral (l-like) segments. 

* [±DORSAL] applies to segments articulated with the body of the tongue, including vowels, palatals, velars, uvulars, and pharyngeals.

* [±high] applies to high vowels and semivowels, palatals, and velars.  It is not defined for [-DORSAL] segments.

* [±low] applies to low vowels and pharyngeals.  It is not defined for [-DORSAL] segments.

* [±front] applies to front vowels and semivowels, palatals, and fronted velars, and is not defined for [-DORSAL] segments.

* [±back] applies to back vowels and semivowels, uvulars, pharyngeals, and backed velars.  It is not defined for [-DORSAL] segments, nor for velars that are neither fronted nor backed.

* [±tense] applies to [ʍ w ɥ ɰ j o ø u y ɤ ɜ e ɞ ʉ ɯ ɨ i].  It is not defined for [-DORSAL] segments, [+consonantal] segments, or (sometimes) low vowels.

==Resources==
* [http://mypage.siu.edu/lhartman/ Phono] — A sound change modelling program that can model changes at the featural level.

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jamastulu</title>
    <id>784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T20:57:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[category:conlangs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">--[[User:Kurasmanja|Kurasmanja]] 14:29, 22 Nov 2004 (PST)

Question: What do you get when you take phonetic features from Georgian and Czech and mix them with a phonology based on Finnish?

Answer: Jamastulu.

Jamastulu is the brainchild of Rob Hoelz, and is being created for an RPG to give one its cultures a more realistic feel.  (And also to confuse the gamer!)  It has an as-of-yet unnamed sister language, and both languages are descended from a conlang known as Proto-Jama until a better name is created.  Rob is currently fleshing out the grammar of Proto-Jama and has already planned a great deal of sound changes to transform it into Jamastulu, and one of the other collaborators on the project is working to create the sister language.

Facts about Jamastulu:

- Jamastulu is literally translated as &quot;Tongue of the Desert.&quot;

- It is spoken by the Jamaskura (Shadows of the Desert).

- It has three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and around eight cases (currently being worked on), but suprisingly barely distinguishes number.

- In spite of its somewhat complicated noun system, its verbs are relatively simple, not inflecting for person or number.

==Phonology==

The phonemes of Jamastulu are given with their transliteration and the X-SAMPA equivalent in brackets on the right.

==Consonants==

{|
! !! Labial !! Labiodental !! Dental !! Alveolar !! Postalveolar !! Palatal !! Velar
|-
! Plosives
| p[p], pp[p_&gt;] || - || t[t], tt[t_&gt;] || - || - || tj[c], ttj[c_&gt;] || k[k], kk[k_&gt;]
|-
! Nasals
| m[m] || - || n[n] || - || - || nj[J] || - 
|-
! Taps
| - || - || - || r[4] || - || - || -
|-
! Trills
| - || - || - || rr[r] || - || - || -
|-
! Fricatives
| - || v[v] || - || ss[s], zz[z] || s[S], z[Z] || sj[C], zj[j\] || - 
|-
! Approximants
| - || - || - || l[l] || - || j[j] || -
|}

The following sounds are pronounced approximately as in English:
p, t, k, m, n, v, l

Other sounds:
tj, nj, sj, zj: Palatal versions of their dental/alveolar counter parts. 

pp, tt, ttj, kk: Glottalized versions of their voiceless aspirated equivalents.

r, rr: Pronounced as Spanish r and rr respectively.  (Tapped and trilled r)

ss, zz: Pronounced as English s an z respectively.

s: Pronounced as English sh.

z: Pronounced as s in the English word mea'''s'''ure.

j: Pronounced as English y in '''y'''es.

==Vowels==

The vowels are very similar if not identical to those of Finnish:

a - as a in f'''a'''ther

e - as ay in d'''ay''' (only a pure vowel, not a diphthong)

i - as ee in f'''ee'''t

o - as oa in m'''oa'''t (also a pure vowel)

u - as oo in f'''oo'''d

y - no equivalent in English, as ü in German '''ü'''ber.  (If you don't know how that sounds, round your lips while pronouncing Jamastulu i.)

ö - no equivalent in English, as ö in German sch'''ö'''n.  (If you don't know how that sounds, round your lips while
pronouncing Jamastulu e.)

ä - similar to e in b'''e'''d.

==Word structure==

Jamastulu prefers open syllables, and each word (other than compounds) is usually no longer than two syllables in length.  A Jamastulu word typically has the following structure:

(C)V(V)(C)(C)(ss, r)V(V)(ss, r, or N)

where C is a consonant, V is a vowel, and nasal is one of the nasals.

NOTE: Words cannot end in dipthongs.

==Consonant clusters==

Consonant clusters can only occur in the middle of a word in Jamastulu, and only the following 
are allowed:

N + S (where the two are at the same place of articulation)

N + r

N + ss

S + r

S + ss (except for tss)

N + S + ss

N + S + r

where S is a stop and N is a nasal.

==Diphthongs==

Diphthongs can occur anywhere in the word other than the final position.  The diphthongs of Jamastulu are the following:

ai
au
oi

ou
ui
uo

ua
ue
yi

==Related articles==
[[Proto-Jama]]

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Kurasmanja</title>
    <id>785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4173</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-23T00:03:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hi!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi, and welcome!  You seem to have a pretty good grasp on the wiki so far, but if you have any more questions, feel free to [[User talk:Muke|ask]].  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 16:03, 22 Nov 2004 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan, Part III</title>
    <id>786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10378</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:35:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Bicoherent</title>
    <id>787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4170</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-12T19:35:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.156.2.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Blah.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basque</title>
    <id>788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32411</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-06T16:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
Basque is a [[language isolate]] spoken in the Pyrenees by approximately 700,000 people on either side of the France-Spain border. It is an [[agglutinating]] language with an extensive [[case system]] and verbal [[morphology]].

== Phonology ==
{|
! Point of Articulation
! Stop
! Nasal
! Trill
! Tap
! Fricative
! Lateral
! Approximant
! Affricate
|-
! Bilabial
| p b
| m
|-
! Labiodental
| 
| 
|
|
| f (1)
|-
! Alveolar
| t d
| n
| rr
| r
| s z (2)
| l
|
| ts tz
|-
! Post-Alveolar
| 
| 
| 
| 
| x
|
|
| tx
|-
! Palatal
| tt dd
| ñ
| 
| 
| 
| ll
|-
! Velar
| k g
| 
| 
| 
| j
|}
# f is quite rare, and mostly occurs in loan words such as kafe. It is arguably not a sound originally present in Basque
# the distinction between s and z is not one of voicing, but rather s is apical (the tongue tip rather than the blade creates the sound). s sounds  somewhat like [S].
Voiced stops are also often softened inside words until they become fricatives (b -&gt; B, d -&gt; D, g -&gt; G) or vanish entirely.
The Basque vowel system is a standard i e a o u similar to Spanish, with no distinction for length, and no nasal vowels (except in one dialect). There are several diphthongs including eu au ai ei.

==The Noun Phrase==

The constituents of the [[Noun Phrase]] are ordered as follows:

relative_clause noun adjective adjective .... determiner

Every noun phrase must have a [[determiner]] and in almost every case it has exactly one. Most go at the end of the NP, but numbers greater than one and certain others such as zein &quot;which&quot; precede the NP. Note that Basque is somewhat unusual in that the heavy [[relative clause]] precedes the [[noun]] while [[adjectives]] follow it.

=== The Case System ===
====The Determiner -a====
The default determiner in Basque, often translated as &quot;the&quot;, is the suffix -a added onto the end of the noun phrase. THis often combines with the case affixes. For example:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

autobusa&lt;br&gt;
autobus-a&lt;br&gt;
bus-NP&lt;br&gt;
the bus&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

autobusean&lt;br&gt;
autobus-ean&lt;br&gt;
bus-loc&lt;br&gt;
in the bus&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

If these did not combine with would have *autobusan.

====Cases====
Basque has a large number of case affixes, including:&lt;br&gt;
* [[Ergative]]
* [[Absolutive]]
* [[Dative]]
* [[Instrumental]]
* [[Inessive]]
* [[Allative]]
* Possessive Genitive (1)
* [[Genitive]]

# The genitive and possessive genitive have different functions. The genitive is used for such things as origin (and never with animates), whereas the possessive genitive is used for possession and in the construction of some post-positional phrases.

The case endings in Basque always apply to noun phrases, and since adjectives always follow their noun this means that it is often not the noun itself which recieves the case marking. It is also common for [[determiners]] to recieve the case marking. Many of the determiners have slightly irregular case forms. For example: &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

kalean&lt;br&gt;
kale-a-n&lt;br&gt;
street-NP-loc&lt;br&gt;
In the street&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

kale batean&lt;br&gt;
kale bat-ean&lt;br&gt;
street one-loc&lt;br&gt;
In a street&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

kale zaharrean&lt;br&gt;
kale zahar-ean&lt;br&gt;
street old-loc&lt;br&gt;
In the old street&lt;br&gt;

The case system reflect number with a three way distinction: case ending with article (always singular), indefinite number (when the number is specified by a determiner or number elsewhere in the NP), and plural number. For example:

mendira&lt;br&gt;
mendi-ra&lt;br&gt;
to the mountain&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
mendietara&lt;br&gt;
mendi-e-ta-ra&lt;br&gt;
to the mountains&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
bi menditara&lt;br&gt;
bi mendi-ta-ra&lt;br&gt;
to two mountains&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

As you can see, when the NP is qualified by &quot;bi&quot; (two), then the plural -e- vanishes leaving the indefinite case ending, since the number is already specified.

====Ergativity====
Basque is probably most famous for being an [[ergative]] language (I have often seen it used as an example). What this means (in the case of Basque) is that in transitive clauses the [[Patient]] is unmarked, as is the single argument of an intransitive verb, and the [[Actor]] takes a separate marker. Some examples:&lt;br&gt;

mutila joan da&lt;br&gt;
mutil-a joan da&lt;br&gt;
boy-NP go pres.3st.sing.abs&lt;br&gt;
the boy goes&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

mutilak kafesnea nahi luke&lt;br&gt;
mutil-a-k kafesne-a nahi luke&lt;br&gt;
boy-NP-erg coffee-NP want cond.3rd.abs.3rd.erg&lt;br&gt;
the boy would like some coffee&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

As you can see, in the transitive sentence the Actor (the boy) takes an extra marker -k, whereas the Patient (coffee) does not. Interestingly, a common continuous construction results in agreement with the [[Actor]] only. For example: &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

ni etxea egiten ari naiz&lt;br&gt;
ni etxea egi-ten ari naiz&lt;br&gt;
I-abs house-NP make-prog act pres.1st.abs&lt;br&gt;
I am making the house&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

here, an intransitive auxilliary agreeing with the [[Actor]] is used even though egin (to make) is transitive. Both arguments are marked as abs although the verb disambiguates in this case. This is because ari which has come into use as an auxilliary is an intransitive verb.

==The Verbal System==
The Basque verbal system works in a way relatively rare outside of the [[Caucassian Languages]]. Most verbs have no [[finite forms]] of their own, only participles and must be used with an auxilliary to obtain a finite form. There are at most 12 commonly used verbs with their own finite forms, including the verbs eduki &quot;to have&quot;, egon &quot;to be located&quot;, and izan &quot;to be&quot; (used as an auxilliary). However, the Basque verbal paradigm is still formidable, with two [[tenses]] past vs non-past, three [[aspects]] marked on the participles, various [[moods]] including [[indicative]], [[subjunctive]] and [[hypothetical]] and extensive person agreement with the [[Ergative]], [[Absolutive]] and [[Dative]] arguments if present. The verb may also agree with the gender of the [[2nd person]], if the Ergative or Dative &quot;slot&quot; is free. Some examples:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;


The preference for the use of non-finite forms whenever possibly is strong, with chains of participles without auxilliaries common in normal &quot;flowing&quot; speech. For example:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[Category:Isolate natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Palatal approximant</title>
    <id>789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44927</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-26T05:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Anglo-Saxon */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the Palatal Glide/Approximant.  It is also used as a semi-vowel, equivalent to the high front vowels /i/ or /ɪ/.  It is often written in diphthongs for this reason.  Thus /ai/ or /aɪ/ are similar or the same as /aj/.  It is comes from Germanic languages that use '''j''' for /j/.
{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2 valign=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;big&gt;j&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 valign=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || j
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;j&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || j
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Palatal]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Approximant]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || 
[+consonantal] &lt;br&gt;
[+approximant] &lt;br&gt;
[+sonorant] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-artic] &lt;br&gt;
[+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt;
[+delayed release] &lt;br&gt;
[+voice] &lt;br&gt;
'''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high] &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+front] &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+tense] 
|}

=Natlangs=
==[[Germanic Languages]]==
===[[English]]===
====[[Anglo-Saxon]]====
In Anglo-Saxon, the Glide is represented by the symbol '''Ȝ''', '''ȝ''' (called yogh /jox/) and/or '''G''', '''g''' around a front vowel.  Thus, '''gear''' is /jæar/.  It was even used in the formation of diphthongs, so thus '''dæg''' is often pronounced like the modern Australian form /daj/.  A common grammatical prefix was '''ge-''' /yə-/, used to indicate the past tense.

====[[Middle English]]====
The symbol '''Ȝ''' was still used well into the Middle English era, and '''Y''', '''y''' was beginning to be pronounced /i/ or /ɪ/.  It was also used along with '''I''', '''i''' to form some diphthongs.  The prefix in Anglo-Saxon merged into '''y-''' but was pronounced /i-/ or /ji-/ depending on dialect.
====[[Modern English]]====
In all forms of Modern English, '''Y''', '''y''' is used as the glide and occasionally as the diphthong.  Thus '''year''' /yiɹ/ as a glide, and '''day''' /dej/ as the diphthong.
===[[High German]]===
In High German, the symbol used for this symbol is '''J''', '''j'''.  The word '''Jäger''' is pronounced /yegər/.  For diphthongs different symbols are used.  For /oj/, '''eu''' or '''äu''' is used, and for /aj/, '''ei''' or occasionally '''ai''' is used.


==[[Japanese]]==
{|
| Plain || や, よ, ゆ (ya, yo, yu) || 四, /jon/
|}

=Conlangs=
==[[Toki Pona]]==
{|
| Plain || j || jelo “yellow”
|}

==[[Etimri]]==
{|
| Plain || j || jof (fem) and jod (masc) “gross”
|}

----
{{stub}}
==Sources==
Back to [[IPA]]


[[Category:Phonetic segments|j]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kirshenbaum</title>
    <id>790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>stub, [[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Kirshenbaum''' or '''ASCII-IPA''' is a system for representing the [[IPA]] in [[ASCII]], developed by [[Evan Kirshenbaum]]. 

==External links==
* [http://www.kirshenbaum.net/IPA/ascii-ipa.pdf Representing IPA phonetics in ASCII] (pdf, 238 kb)
* [http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Evan_Kirshenbaum/IPA/faq.html Representing IPA phonetics in ASCII] (html version of above link)

==See also==
* [[X-SAMPA]]

{{stub}}

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kirschenbaum</title>
    <id>791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4175</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-01T19:04:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Kirshenbaum]] (Common misspelling)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kirshenbaum]] (Common misspelling)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASCII-IPA</title>
    <id>792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4176</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-01T19:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Kirshenbaum]] (Alternate name)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kirshenbaum]] (Alternate name)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Caeruleancentaur</title>
    <id>793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19821</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-05T23:46:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Volf|Volf]] ([[User_talk:Volf|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Caeruleancentaur|Caeruleancentaur]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Senyecan, Part I</title>
    <id>794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4095</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-03T23:31:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Epsilon==
You should be able to use any character you like here, we've got Unicode.  If you can't copy/paste or type them directly, the codes are  &amp;amp;epsilon; = ε (Greek epsilon), or &amp;amp;#x025B; = ɛ (IPA epsilon).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:28, 3 Jan 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan, Part II</title>
    <id>795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:35:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan</title>
    <id>796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4178</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-04T00:55:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Senyecan moved to Senyecan, Part I</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Senyecan, Part I]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Senyecan</title>
    <id>797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4179</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-04T00:55:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Talk:Senyecan moved to Talk:Senyecan, Part I</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Senyecan, Part I]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan Culture: Translations</title>
    <id>798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-25T14:51:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan Culture: Data</title>
    <id>799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:37:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Japanese</title>
    <id>800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47877</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-01T03:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removing painfully bad &quot;content&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Japanese''' (日本語,　pronounced approximately /nihoŋgo/) is the main language of Japan.  It is either an [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]], related only to [[Korean]], or a language isolate.

==Notable features of Japanese==
* Japanese uses several different writing systems: 
** [[Kanji]], a morphemic writing system using Chinese characters ([[hanzi]])
** Two [[kana]] alphabets systems, [[katakana]] and [[hiragana]]
** Roomaji (or rōmaji, or roumaji), i.e., Latin characters.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Isolate natlangs]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Numbers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan Culture: Table of Correspondences</title>
    <id>801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-25T14:54:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Proto-Jama</title>
    <id>802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4201</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-07T16:09:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.210.247.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>numbers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi,
I'm collecting numbers from various sytems in different languages.
I politely ask you send me numbers from 1 to 10 in Proto-Jama, or from other your conlangs.
Thank you for your help!
My email is: j_gorenc@yahoo.com

Janko Gorenc.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alveolar nasal</title>
    <id>804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48971</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T18:32:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Features */ link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#dfdfdf;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;n&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || n
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;n&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || n
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Alveolar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+sonorant] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+nasal] &lt;br&gt;  [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;CORONAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+anterior] 
|}

The '''alveolar nasal''' is a type of [[consonant]]al sound used in some [[speech|spoken]] [[language]]s. The symbol in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] that represents [[dental consonant|dental]], [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], and [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] [[nasal]]s is {{IPA|n}}, and the equivalent [[X-SAMPA]] symbol is &lt;tt&gt;n&lt;/tt&gt;.

== Features ==

Features of the alveolar nasal:

* Its [[manner of articulation]] is [[stop]] , which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. 
* Its [[place of articulation]] is [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue against the [[alveolar ridge]], termed respectively ''[[apical consonant|apical]]'' and ''[[laminal consonant|laminal]]''. 
* Its [[phonation]] type is voiced, which means the vocal cords are vibrating during the articulation. 
* It is a [[nasal consonant]], which means air is allowed to escape through the nose.
* It is a [[central consonant]], which means it is produced by allowing the airstream to flow over the middle of the tongue, rather than the sides.
* The [[airstream mechanism]] is [[pulmonic egressive]], which means it is articulated by pushing air out of the [[lung]]s and through the vocal tract, rather than from the [[glottis]] or the mouth.

== In natural languages ==

===English===
The alveolar nasal occurs in [[English (language)|English]], and it is the sound denoted by the letter 'n' in ''nine'' or ''plan''. Some dialects of English, including most [[American English]] dialects, also have syllabic /n/, as in ''lemon''.

Note that the letter 'n' does not always denote the sound /n/.  The digraph 'ng' is usually pronounced either [&amp;#331;] ([[velar nasal]]), as in ''hang'', or [&amp;#331;g], as in ''finger''.  In most words where 'n' is followed by a 'k', it is also velarised to [&amp;#331;k], as in ''stink''.

===Spanish===
{|
| ''plain'' || n || nube /ˈnube/ &quot;cloud&quot;
|}

===Esperanto===
{|
| ''plain'' || n || nulo /ˈnulo/ &quot;zero&quot;
|}

==See also==
*[[Velar nasal|Velar nasal – ŋ]]


[[Category:Phonetic segments|n]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Qanao language/Messy</title>
    <id>805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4183</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-14T12:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png|thumb|right|Qana'öžjinaet written in its native script]]
The '''Qanao language''' (Qanao: classical: ''qana'öžjinaet'' [qanaʔo.ʒ̞jɪnaət]) is an in-progress conlang.
=Writing system=
: ''See [[Qanao abugida]].''

=Phonology=
==Mora==
The following syllable types are one-mora:
* V
* VC
* CV
* CVC

The following syllable types are two-mora:
* CE
* CEC
* CVV
* CVVC

The following syllable types are three-mora:
* CEV
* CEVC
* CVE
* CVEC

==Consonants==
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #88a; background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
|- style=&quot;display: collapse;&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; | 
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
|-
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| p || t || ť || k || q || `
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| p || t || c || k || q || ʔ
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| b || d || ď || g ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| mb || nd || ɲɟ || ŋg ||  || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| m || n || ň || ŋ || γ || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| m || n || ɲ || ŋ || ɴ || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| φ || c || č ||   ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| pɸ || ʦ || ʧ ||   ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| f || s || š ||   ||   || h
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| ɸʰ || sʰ || ʃʰ ||   ||   || h
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| v || z || ž ||   ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| β̞ || z̞ || ʒ̞ ||   ||   ||
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| w || r || ř || y ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| w || ɹ̥ || ɹ̥ʲ || ʔj ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
|   || l || ľ ||   ||   || 
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
|   || l̥ || ʎ̥ ||   ||   || 
|}

==Vowels==
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #88a; background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
|- style=&quot;display: collapse;&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1.8em;&quot; |
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| i || í || ji || jí || e || u || ú || wu || wú
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| i || i: || ʲjɪ || ʲji: || ə || u || u: || ʷʊ || ʷu:
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| a || á || ja || já || ö || o || ó || wo || wó
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| a || a: || ʲja || ʲja: || o || ɔ || ɔ: || ʷɔ || ʷɔ:
|}

* Final ''o'' is realised as [o].

==Diphthongs==
There are two types of diphthongs in Qanao: short and long. A long diphthong is denoted by a grave accent over either the first or second vowel, i.e. '''aì''' or '''ìö'''. A short diphthong has a moraic length of the first vowel; a long diphthong has a moraic length of the preceding vowel plus one.

==Phonological processes==
* '''Chain palatalisation''': A palatalised consonant causes palatalisation of all consecutive preceding and successive consonants.
* '''Chain voicing''': /ɸ/ and /s/ become voiced when preceded or followed by voiced consonants.
* '''Deaspiration''': /ɸ/ and /s/ are not aspirated when followed by consonants.
* '''Metatheses''': 
** '''Diphthong splitting''': a VC mora preceded by a vowel and followed by a consonant becomes CV - i.e. ''ziùl'' + ''ku'a'' &amp;rarr; ''ziluku'a''.
*  '''Cluster simplification''':
** '''Prenasals''': (Note that the nasal component remains voiced)
*** /mb.mb/ becomes [m.mb]; /nd.nd/ becomes [n.nd]; etc. 
*** /mb.nd/ becomes [mb.d]; /nd.mb/ becomes [nd.b]; etc.
** '''Affricates''':
*** /pɸ.pɸ/ becomes [p.pɸ]; /ts.ts/ becomes [t.ts]; etc.
*** /pɸ.ɸ/ becomes [p.pɸ]; /ts.s/ becomes [t.ts]; etc.
* '''Consonant gemination''': /ʔ/ assimilates to the previous consonant: ''am'' + '' 'ura'' &amp;rarr; ''ammura''. However, take note of cluster simplification.

==Accent==
Qanao has pitch accent, which is derived from a simplification of a natural pitch system. Most simple words do not undergo simplification, since it is rare to have more than two pitch changes in a two or three-syllabled word.

There are four possible pitch and tone contours: high-level, high-falling, low-rising, and low-level. They will henceforth be referred to as high, falling, rising, and level tone respectively.
* A rising tone on the first mora is equivalent to a high tone for most transformations.
* A rising tone on the last mora is equivalent to a low tone for most transformations.
* A falling tone on the first mora is equivalent to a low tone for most transformations.
* A falling tone on the last mora is equivalent to a high tone for most transformations.

To begin with, tone is assigned to each mora as follows:
* If it begins with an unvoiced consonant, it has a high tone.
** If it begins with an aspirated consonant, it has a falling tone.
** If it ends with a voiced or glottal consonant, it has a falling tone.
* If it begins with a voiced consonant or a glottal stop, it a has low tone.
** If it ends with an unvoiced, non-glottal consonant, it has a rising tone.
* If it does not begin with a consonant, it has an undetermined tone.
** If it ends with an unvoiced consonant, it has a high tone.
** If it ends with a voiced consonant or a glottal stop, it has a low tone.

Then, within each group:
* An undetermined tone becomes the tone of the following mora.
* An undetermined tone on the last mora:
** Becomes a falling tone if there are no pitch falls in the group.
** Becomes the tone of the preceding tone otherwise.
* Rising and falling tones are restricted to the first and last mora only.
** A rising tone preceded by a high tone becomes a high tone.
** A falling tone preceded by a low tone becomes a low tone.
** A rising tone followed by a high tone becomes a low tone.
** A falling tone followed by a low tone becomes a high tone.
** A rising tone followed by a falling tone becomes a high tone.
** A falling tone followed by a rising tone becomes a low tone.
** A non-level tone preceded and followed by a high tone becomes a high tone.
** A non-level tone preceded and followed by a low tone becomes a low tone.
** A rising tone followed by a rising tone becomes a low tone.
** A falling tone followed by a falling tone becomes a high tone.
* There must be at most one pitch fall within each polysyllabic group.
** If the whole group has a high tone, the last mora becomes a falling tone.
** If the whole group has a low tone, the first mora becomes a falling tone.
*** If the last mora has a rising tone, it becomes a low tone.
** If there are more, the last pitch fall is preserved, and all others are levelled.
* There must be at most one pitch rise within each polysyllabic group.
** If there are more, the second pitch rise is preserved, and all others are levelled.

Then, within each word:
* Non-core, word-medial monosyllabic groups in polysyllabic words have their tones deleted.
* The first two prefixed groups and all non-final suffixed groups are levelled:
** If the first mora has a falling tone, all following morae have a low tone.
** If the first mora has a rising tone, all following morae have a high tone.
** If the last mora has a falling tone, all preceding morae have a high tone.
** If the last mora has a rising tone, all preceding morae have a low tone.
** Otherwise, the group is levelled to the tone of the first mora, with the last mora becoming a contour tone if it differs from the first mora.
* An undetermined tone becomes the tone of the following mora.
* An undetermined tone on the last mora becomes a falling tone.
* Rising and falling tones are restricted to the first and last mora only. 
** A group-initial non-level tone becomes a low tone.
** Otherwise, the same transformation as group-medial non-level tones is applied.
* A non-level tone on the last mora is simplified:
** A rising tone preceded by a low tone becomes a high tone.
** A falling tone preceded by a high tone becomes a low tone.

Therefore:
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; border: 1px solid #88a; border-collapse: collapse;  background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align: right; background: #ccf&quot; | Groups
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 'ádin
| nor
| 
| ac
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; | múfúrí
| bi
| čjil
| 
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | múrcí
| riam
| 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | muàril
| 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | hussa
|-
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align: right; background: #ccf&quot; | Syllables
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 'á
| din
| nor
| &amp;#8195;
| ac
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | mú
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | fú
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | rí
| bi
| čjil
| &amp;#8195;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | múr
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | cí
| riam
| &amp;#8195;
| mu
| à
| ril
| &amp;#8195;
| hus
| sa
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right; background: #ccf&quot; | Initial
| L
| L
| LH
| H
|
| H
| H
| -
| H
| -
| H
| -
| L
| H
|
| H
| H
| H
| -
| H
|
| H
| -
| H
|
| HL
| HL
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right; background: #ccf&quot; | Group-transf.
| HL
| L
| LH
| H
|
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| HL
| L
| H
|
| H
| H
| H
| HL
| H
|
| H
| H
| HL
|
| H
| HL
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right; background: #ccf&quot; | Word-transf.
| HL
| L
| L
| H
|
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|
| H
| H
| HL
|
| H
| L
|}

==Eastern sound shifts==

* ji [ʲjɪ] &amp;rarr; e [ʲe]
* jí [ʲji:] &amp;rarr; é [ʲe:]
* e [ə] &amp;rarr; j [ɪ] after front vowels, w [ʊ] after back vowels.
* u [u] &amp;rarr; u [ɯ]
* ú [u] &amp;rarr; ú [ɯ:]
* wu [ʷʊ] &amp;rarr; ü [u]
* wú [ʷu:] &amp;rarr; û [u:]
* ja [ʲja] &amp;rarr; jä [ʲæ]
* já [ʲja:] &amp;rarr; jä [ʲæ:]
* ó [ɔ:] &amp;rarr; ó [o:]
* wó [ʷɔ:] ↔ wó [ʷɔ:]

* ai [ai] &amp;rarr; ë [ɛ]
* aì [a.i] &amp;rarr; êi [ɛ:i]
* ái [a:i] &amp;rarr; aì [a.i]
* aí [ai:] &amp;rarr; eí [ɛi:]
* ao [aɔ] &amp;rarr; å [ʌ]
* aò [a.ɔ] &amp;rarr; åò [ʌ.ɔ]
* áo [a:ɔ] &amp;rarr; aò [a.ɔ]
* aó [aɔ:] &amp;rarr; åô [ʌɔ:]
* au [au] &amp;rarr; o [ɔ]
* aù [a.u] &amp;rarr; ôu [ɔ:ɯ]
* áu [a:u] &amp;rarr; åù [ʌ.ɯ]
* aú [au:] &amp;rarr; åú [ʌɯ:]
* prevocalic i [i] &amp;rarr; j [j] with'''out''' compensatory lengthening of following vowel
* prevocalic ì [i.] &amp;rarr; j [j] with compensatory lengthening of following vowel:
** ìá [i.a:] &amp;rarr; ıá [jɪa:]
** ìí [i.i:] &amp;rarr; ıí [jɪi:]
** ìú [i.u:] &amp;rarr; ıû [ɥɪɯ:]
** ìó [i.ɔ:] &amp;rarr; ıó [ɥʏo:]
* ou [ɔu] &amp;rarr; ö [o]
* où [ɔ.u] &amp;rarr; óu [o:ɯ]
* óu [ɔ:u] &amp;rarr; öù [o.ɯ]
* oú [ɔu:] &amp;rarr; öú [oɯ:]
* ua [ua] &amp;rarr; wa [ʷa]
* uá [ua:] &amp;rarr; wá [ʷa:]
* wua [ʷʊa] &amp;rarr; üa [ua]
* wuá [ʷua:] &amp;rarr; üá [ua:]
* ui [ui] &amp;rarr; ï [y]
* uì [u.i] &amp;rarr; î [y:]
* úi [u:i] &amp;rarr; îi [y:i]
* uí [ui:] &amp;rarr; wí [ʷi:]
* wui [ʷʊi] &amp;rarr; wï [ʷy]
* wuì [ʷʊ.i] &amp;rarr; wî [ʷy:]
* wúi [ʷu:i] &amp;rarr; ûi [u:i]
* wuí [ʷui:] &amp;rarr; üî [uy:]

* nasals and prenasals cause nasalisation of previous vowel (does not operate through interword boundaries)
* nasals cause nasalisation of following vowel
* b [mb] &amp;rarr; b [b]; m [m] if preceded or followed by unvoiced stops, nasal consonants or nasalised vowels
* d [nd] &amp;rarr; d [d]; n [n] if preceded or followed by unvoiced stops, nasal consonants or nasalised vowels
* ď [ɲɟ] &amp;rarr; ď [ɟ]; ň [ɲ] if preceded or followed by unvoiced stops, nasal consonants or nasalised vowels
* g [ŋg] &amp;rarr; g [g]; ŋ [ŋ] if preceded or followed by unvoiced stops, nasal consonants or nasalised vowels

* φv [pββ̞] &amp;rarr; φv [bβ]
* fv [ββ̞] &amp;rarr; fv [β]
* vf [β̞βʰ] &amp;rarr; vf [βʰ]
* cz [tzz̞] &amp;rarr; cz [dz]
* sz [zz̞] &amp;rarr; sz [z]
* zs [z̞zʰ] &amp;rarr; zs [zʰ]

* v [β̞] &amp;rarr; v [w]
* z [z̞] &amp;rarr; z [ɹ]
* ž [ʒ̞] &amp;rarr; ž [ɹʲ]

* q [q] &amp;rarr; q [k] before front vowels, '''w''', and finally; ` [ʔ] before back vowels.
* γ [ɴ] &amp;rarr; ` [ʔ]; n [n] after alveolar consonants, ň after palatal consonants, ŋ after velar consonants and q.

=Grammar=
==Word formation==
Most words and many auxilliaries are derived from biconsonantal roots. There is some amount of vowel gradation within roots, but it is fairly limited.

There are also a series of monoconsonantal roots which form prefixes that further modify the meaning  of the word. Some are still productive, and a few require agreement with numerals.

===Vowel gradation===
Although changing vowel grades is generally not productive, it is possible to imagine that it once was, giving rise to such sets of words as '''zal''' (water), '''žjil''' (blood), '''zál''' (lake), '''zil''' (clear), '''zul''' (to liquify), '''zúl''' (to melt). 

* '''a-grade''' (n1) general: ''qana' '' &quot;Qana&quot;; ''patuk'' &quot;tree&quot;; ''zal'' &quot;water&quot;
* '''ja-grade''' (n2) living things: ''qjana' '' &quot;Qjana&quot;
* '''á-grade''' (n3) permanent things: ''ázal'' &quot;ocean&quot;; ''ápatuk'' &quot;forest&quot;
* '''ji-grade''' (n4) transcendecent: ''žjinat'' &quot;language&quot;; ''yìöàn'' &quot;universe&quot;; ''kjim'' &quot;world&quot;
* '''i-grade''' (q) qualities: '' 'ìökiem'' &quot;universal&quot;
* '''u-grade''' (va) active actions: ''mumút'' &quot;to cause to die&quot;; ''muzil'' &quot;to make clear, to declare&quot;
* '''ú-grade''' (vp) passive actions: ''mút'' &quot;to die&quot;; ''fúzal'' &quot;to rain&quot;

===Monoconsonantal roots===

* ''' ' '''
** ''' ya-''' important person
** ''' 'á-''' large place
** ''' yi-''' divine
** ''' 'ó-''' super-honorific
* ''' '-ö-''' all (vowel gradable)
* '''b'''
** '''bó-''' humble
* '''c''' primary [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]
* '''d''' interrogative [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]
* '''f''' &quot;to fall from the sky&quot; (vowel gradable)
* '''φ''' plural (with numerals, indicates plurality of groups)
** '''φ-''' &quot;many; together&quot; (vowel gradable)
** '''φo-''' plural actor
** '''-φ''' plural patient
** '''-φan''' &quot;several together&quot;
** '''-φur''' &quot;several times at once&quot; (vowel gradable)
* '''g'''
* '''h'''
* '''k'''
** '''kó''' honorific
* '''l'''
* '''m'''
** '''mu''' causative
** '''mú''' passive-causative
* '''n''' &quot;to exist&quot; (triform conjugation verb)
* '''ŋ'''
* '''γ''' indefinite [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]
* '''p'''
* '''q''' distal [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]; &quot;Qanao&quot;
** '''qó''' respective
* '''r''' verbaliser
* '''s'''
* '''t''' proximal [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]
* '''v''' medial [[#Demonstratives|demonstrative]]
* '''z'''

==Conjugation==

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; border: 1px solid #88a; border-collapse: collapse;  background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! n.
! vb.
! adj.
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | *
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Consonantal root
| z.l
| múf:r
| 'ìök.m
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 0
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Infix stem
| za.l
| múfú.r
| 'ìöki.m
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 1
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Stem
| zal-
| múfúr-
| 'ìökim-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 2
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Sentence-medial
| &amp;ndash;
| múfúr
| 'ìökim
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 3
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Sentence-terminal
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 4
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Infinitive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | n.
| &amp;ndash;
| múfúà.r-
| 'ìökià.m-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 5
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Approximative adjective
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | q.
| ázai.l-
| múfúi.r-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 5-6
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Approximative adverb
| ázaùl
| múfúòr
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 6
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Adverb
| &amp;ndash;
| múfór
| 'ìökium
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 7a
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Compounding (with noun)
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ázalö-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | múfúrö-
| 'ìökimi-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | 7b
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; textalign: right;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Compounding (with non-noun)
| iokimö-
|}

The medial form is the citation form for most words.

==Particles==
* '''pr.''' - predicate, any of:
** '''p.t.''' - terminal predicate (not always - there are some auxilliaries that attach to these)
** '''p.s.''' - stem predicate
* '''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;''' - suffix attaches to base specified in superscript instead of in the '''base''' column.
* '''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;''' - vowel specified in subscript appears only to break illegal consonant clusters.

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; border: 1px solid #88a; border-collapse: collapse;  background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
! Type
! Base
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7a
! 7b
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Indicative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | vb-1
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ø
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;a
| &lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;i
| &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;o 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ö
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | q-1
| &amp;ndash;
| &lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;u
| i
| o 
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Identitive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | n-1
| ø
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| a.r
| &amp;ndash;
| ur
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | rö
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | vb-1
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;d
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| u.d
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | od
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | dö
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | q-1
| i.d
| di
| dö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Nominative participle
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr.
| &lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;r
| ir
| &amp;ndash;
| rai.r
| r&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.s
| or
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Nominative participant
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr.
| &lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;r
| ar
| &amp;ndash;
| ra.r
| rai.s
| &amp;ndash;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Absolutive participle
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr.
| &lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;n
| in
| &amp;ndash;
| na.r
| n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;.s
| on
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Absolutive participant
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr.
| &lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;n
| an
| &amp;ndash;
| na.r
| nai.s
| &amp;ndash;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Present
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.t.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| a
| aq
| a
| &amp;ndash;
| ai.r
| uq
| ari
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Preterite
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.t.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| i
| id
| i
| &amp;ndash;
| i.r
| ud
| idö
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Assertive aorist
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.t.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| á
| áp
| á
| &amp;ndash;
| á.r
| úp
| ápi
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Future
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.t.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| ja
| jav
| ja
| &amp;ndash;
| jai.r
| jauv
| javi
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Irrealis
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| já
| jáh
| já
| &amp;ndash;
| já.r
| jáuh
| jáhi
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Counterfactual
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| í
| íf
| í
| &amp;ndash;
| í.r
| úf
| ífö
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Approximative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | q.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | n-5-1
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ø
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;5-0&lt;/sup&gt;a
| &lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;u
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ö
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | vb-5-1
| &lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;o
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| is
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| as
| us
| si
| sö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Perfective
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| &lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;c
| &lt;sub&gt;u&lt;/sub&gt;c
| &amp;ndash;
| cu.r
| ci.r
| uc
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Negative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| &lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;z
| &lt;sub&gt;u&lt;/sub&gt;z
| &amp;ndash;
| za.r
| zi.r
| zur
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | zö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Incorporative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| av
| ov
| &amp;ndash;
| va.r
| vi.r
| vur
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | vö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Partitive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | ps-1
| oc
| oc
| &amp;ndash;
| a.c
| i.c
| uc
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | cö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Possessive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| núc
| on
| &amp;ndash;
| ná.c
| ní.c
| nóc
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | onö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Genitive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| súm
| os
| &amp;ndash;
| sá.m
| sí.m
| sóm
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | osö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Subjunctive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| &lt;sub&gt;au&lt;/sub&gt;b
| &lt;sub&gt;au&lt;/sub&gt;b
| &amp;ndash;
| u.b
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| bi
| bö
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Nominative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| la
| al
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| ol
| &amp;ndash;
| ol
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Passive
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| ľji
| jil
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| wul
| &amp;ndash;
| wul
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Accusative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| li
| il
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| ul
| &amp;ndash;
| ul
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Oblique
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| ľja
| jal
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| wol
| &amp;ndash;
| wol
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Ablative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| kur
| &lt;sub&gt;ia&lt;/sub&gt;k
| &amp;ndash;
| ka.r
| ki.r
| kor
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ki
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Lative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| mud
| &lt;sub&gt;ia&lt;/sub&gt;m
| &amp;ndash;
| ma.d
| mi.d
| mor
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | mi
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Locative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| núr
| &lt;sub&gt;ia&lt;/sub&gt;n
| &amp;ndash;
| na.r
| ni.r
| nor
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ni
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Iterative
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | p.s.
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | n-1
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;t
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| ut
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; | pr-1
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;q
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| uq
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|}

===Infix particles===
* '''e''' (pr+) - topical, vocative
* '''i''' (n+, vb+) - approximative (non-productive)
* '''o''' (vb+), '''u''' (q+) - adverbial (non-productive)

===Usage===
* The '''present''' particle, without other aspect markers, generally has the habitual aspect.
* The '''assertive aorist''' particle indicates an assertion that is presently true and (believed by the speaker to be) true forever.
* The '''incorporative''' particle:
** Makes objects inalienably possessed by the complement: &quot;A human ''has 2 arms''&quot;; &quot;The ''bricks'' of a building&quot; etc.; and
** Indicates fundamental properties or habits: &quot;He ''walks'' to school daily&quot;; &quot;All living things ''die'' eventually&quot;; &quot;Water ''is wet''&quot;, &quot;The sky ''is blue''&quot; etc.
* The '''partitive''' particle:
** Makes objects classes of which the complement is a member of: &quot;He ''is '''a''' student''&quot;;
** Indicates an indefinite quantity of the object: &quot;(Any) three pages ''of (a) book''&quot;; &quot;He has done ''(some) work''&quot;; &quot;He ate ''a'' slice ''of bread''&quot; etc.
* The '''possessive''' particle makes objects alienably possessed by the complement: &quot;He ''has a house''&quot;; &quot;His ''ship''&quot; etc..
* The '''genitive''' particle indicates:
** A generic relationship between the object and the complement: &quot;Speech ''about truth''&quot;, &quot;''His'' wife&quot; etc.; and
** Reported speech: &quot;''Good morning,'' said he&quot;; &quot;I thought ''it was there''&quot; etc.
* The '''subjunctive''' particle makes:
** A temporal clause when attached to the future tense particle; 
** A conditional clause when attached to the irrealis particle or the counterfactual particle; and
** A reason when attached to the past tense particle or the present tense particle or the stem of any verb, noun or adjective.

=== Verbal arguments ===
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; border: 1px solid #88a; border-collapse: collapse;  background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! width=&quot;16%&quot; |
! width=&quot;21%&quot; | Agent
! width=&quot;21%&quot; | Experiencer
! width=&quot;21%&quot; | Patient
! width=&quot;21%&quot; | Recipient
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Static
| 
| B
|
|
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Active
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Intransitive
| A
|
| 
|
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Transitive
| A
|
| C / D / E
|
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Ditransitive
| A
|
| C
| D / E
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Passive
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Intransitive
| 
| B / E
| 
|
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Transitive
| A / F
| B / E
| B / C / D
|
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Ditransitive
| A / F
| B / E
| C
| B / C / D
|}

* '''A''' is the '''nominative''' case.
* '''B''' is the '''passive''' case.
* '''C''' is the '''accusative''' case.
* '''D''' is the '''oblique''' case.
* '''E''' is the '''lative''' case.
* '''F''' is the '''ablative''' case.

All but cases E and F can be replaced by the '''topical''' case. Although more than one noun can be marked with any case, all cases must be used consistently within one sentence, that is, if the passive case is used to indicate the experiencer in a passive-ditransitive sentence, it cannot also be used to mark the recepient; however, two or more nouns may be marked with the passive case to indicate two or more experiencers.

There is also a very limited form of agreement between cases and nouns - when possible, people take the oblique case instead of the accusative and lative cases; and the nominative case instead of the ablative case. Paradoxically, the lative and ablative cases are also used for people as a sign of profound respect.

The choice of which case to use can slightly alter the meaning of a sentence, for instance, compare:
* röqukjil múzil. &quot;It was made clear to Roquk.&quot;
* röqukiam múzil. &quot;It was made clear for Roquk.&quot;
In this case, the passive case has an oblique function, and the lative case has a benefactive function. Note, the benefactive function can be positive or negative:
* röqukiam qópjiniril múzili. &quot;Roquk benefited from his rights being made clear.&quot;
* röqukiam qópjiniril núsi. &quot;Roquk suffered from his rights being taken away.&quot;

==Demonstratives==

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: auto; border: 1px solid #88a; border-collapse: collapse;  background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf;&quot;
! 
! 1st
! 2nd
! 3rd
! 4th
! Indet.
! Interr.
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Stem
| c-
| t-
| v-
| n-
| γ-
| d-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Personal prefix
| ac-
| at-
| av-
| an-
| uγ-
| id-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Polite personal prefix
| bó-
| kó-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | qó-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;ndash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Agent-marking affix
| -s&lt;sub&gt;u&lt;/sub&gt;.-
| -t&lt;sub&gt;u&lt;/sub&gt;.-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;ndash;
| -h&lt;sub&gt;u&lt;/sub&gt;.-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Agent-marked verb
| su.n-
| tu.s-
| &amp;mdash;
| &amp;mdash;
| &amp;mdash;
| hu.m-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Patient-marking affix
| ic-
| it-
| (iv-) -l&lt;sub&gt;ú&lt;/sub&gt;.-
| (in-) -l&lt;sub&gt;ú&lt;/sub&gt;.-
| (uγ-) -l&lt;sub&gt;ú&lt;/sub&gt;.-
| (id-) -h&lt;sub&gt;ú&lt;/sub&gt;.-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Patient-marked verb
| &amp;mdash;
| &amp;mdash;
| (iv)lú.p-
| (in)lú.p-
| (uγ)lú.p-
| hú.l-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Indeterminate prefix
| caùγ-
| taùγ-
| vaùγ-
| naùγ-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;mdash;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Demonstrative prefix
| ca-
| ta-
| va-
| na-
| γa-
| da-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Locative prefix
| cu'-
| to'-
| vo'-
| nu'-
| γu'-
| do'-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Personal pronoun
| aca.n-
| ata.n-
| ama.n-
| ana.n-
| uγa.n-
| ida.n-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Demonstrative pronoun
| cu'a.n-
| to'a.n-
| vo'a.n-
| nu'a.n-
| γu'a.n-
| do'a.n-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Locative pronoun
| cu.'-
| to.'-
| vo.'-
| nu.'-
| γu.'-
| do.'-
|-
! style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: right;&quot; | Locative verb
| cu.n-
| tu.n-
| vu.n-
| nu.n-
| γu.n-
| du.n-
|} 

The 1st, 2nd and 3rd person polite prefixes are derived from the humble, honorific, and respective prefixes respectively.

The agent-marked and patient-marked verbs are suppletive forms of the verb '' 'ur'' and '' 'úr'' respectively. It is from these that the agent-marking and patient-marking suffixes are derived. The locative verb is used instead of suffixing the locative particle to the locative pronoun.

The overt pronouns are used where it would be awkward to use affixes, or for emphasis. It is conjectured that the nominalising ''-an'' and verbalising ''-un'' suffixed to the pronouns are related to the irregular verb ''in'', to exist, or perhaps the absolutive participant particle, ''-an''.

Others say that the demonstrative ''n'', nominalising suffix ''-an'', verbalising ''-un'', absolutive participant particle ''-an'', locative particle ''-&lt;sub&gt;ai&lt;/sub&gt;n'' are all derived from a single root, '''''n'''''.

=Miscellaneous=
{|
| I want to become the person I would have become had I been born in (location).
|- 
| C: 'ádinnor acmúfúríb múricím muaril achusa. 
|-
| E: 'áninain múfûríbar čel múricíjam mwaril husa.
|}
* 'ádinnor &quot;Adin&quot; (n-'''loc'''-'''adv''')
** 'á &quot;place&quot; (n.pre)
** din &quot;peaceful&quot; (q)
* acmúfúríbičjil &quot;to become&quot; ('''1.pre'''-vb-'''ind'''-'''cf'''-'''subj'''-7a-'''1'''-'''pass''')
** mú &quot;to become&quot; (vb.pre)
** fúr &quot;to live&quot; (vb)
* múrcím &quot;to become (passive)&quot; (vb-'''perf'''-'''ind'''-'''cf'''-'''lat''')
* muaril &quot;to become (active)&quot; (vb-'''inf'''-'''acc''')
* achusa &quot;to want&quot; ('''1.pre'''-vb-'''ind'''-'''pres''')

{|
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights
|-
| C: ňja'imanvöpjinirul'ìökjimimuziael (ňjai'imanav pjiniril 'ìökim muziael)
|-
| E: ňä'imanvöpenirosöyökemimuzjajl (ňä'imanav peniros yökim muzjajl)
|}
* ňja'i &quot;person&quot; (n-5-7a)
* manvö &quot;living thing&quot; (n-'''corp'''-7a)
* pjinirul &quot;right&quot; (n-'''acc'''-7b)
** pji &quot;always&quot; (n.pre)
** nir &quot;permitted&quot; (q)
* 'ìökjimi &quot;universal&quot; (q-7a)
** 'ìö &quot;all&quot; (q.pre)
** kjim &quot;world&quot; (n)
* muziael &quot;declaration; clarification&quot; (vb-4-'''voc''')
** mu &quot;to cause to become&quot; (vb.pre) +
** zil &quot;to be clear&quot; (q)

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
:(Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)

{|
| C: 'ir ňja'imanoec qóqúormúqdastwol qópjinirtwol liuráq 'ìötiuráq múfúrá.
|-
| E: 'ir ňä'imanowc mav qúormúqnašťel peniřťel ljuraq yötjuraq múfûrá.
|}
* 'ir &quot;all&quot; (q-2) 
* ňja'imanoec &quot;human being&quot; (n-'''part'''-'''top''')
* qóqúormúqdastwol &quot;dignity&quot; ('''resp'''-vb-'''deg'''-'''iter'''-'''pass'''-'''adv''')
** qúor &quot;to raise&quot; (vb-5-6)
** múq &quot;to be seen&quot; (vb)
* qópjinirtwol &quot;rights&quot; ('''resp'''-n-'''iter'''-'''pass'''-'''adv''')
* liráuq &quot;free&quot; (q-'''ind'''-'''aor'''-'''iter'''-'''adv''')
* 'ìötiráuq &quot;completely equal&quot; (q-'''ind'''-'''aor'''-'''iter'''-'''adv''')
** tir &quot;equal&quot; (q)
* múfúrá &quot;to be born&quot; (vb-'''ind'''-'''aor''')
** mú &quot;to become&quot; (vb.pre)
** fúr &quot;to live&quot; (vb)

{|
| C: rikö'umadtil löqjattil ammiqutcáq,
|-
| E: rikö'umantil löqättil mjam qutcáq
|}
* rikö'umadtil &quot;ability to think logically&quot; (n-'''iter'''-'''acc''')
** rikö &quot;logical&quot; (q-7b)
** 'umö &quot;to think&quot; (vb)
** ad &quot;ability&quot; (n)
* löqjattil &quot;conscience&quot; (n-'''iter'''-'''acc''')
** lö &quot;good&quot; (n.pre)
** qjat &quot;heart&quot; (n)
* ammiqutcár &quot;to receive (from Designer)&quot; ('''3.pre'''-'''ben'''-7b-vb-'''perf'''-'''ind'''-'''pres'''-2)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Pne</title>
    <id>806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4202</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-17T18:18:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Hi! I'm me!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi! I'm Philip Newton. I'm also &quot;[[Wikipedia:en:User:Pne|Pne]]&quot; on Wikipedia.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Talk</title>
    <id>807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4125</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-24T15:35:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;discuss this page&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Discuss this page</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Henaudute ceremonial calendar</title>
    <id>808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4126</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-25T07:30:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Interesting ... I've always had a fondness for arbitrary calendars.  :-) [[User:Nik|Nik]] 23:30, 24 Jan 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Nik</title>
    <id>809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-26T03:13:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nik Taylor, member of the Conculture list and Ill Bethisad.  Creator of the [[Galhaf|Galhafan]] concultures.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galhaf</title>
    <id>810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43227</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-18T06:22:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galhaf''' is a planet in a binary star system, the fourth planet around its star.  The name is derived from the [[Ivetsian]] descendant of the [[Classical Kasshian]] ''wagallapa'' (Our World).  It is inhabited by humans, descendants of a failed Earth colony.

It, and its inhabitants, are the creation of [[User:Nik|Nik Taylor]]

*[[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf itself]]
*[[Suns of Galhaf|Galhaf's Star System]]
*[[Prehistory of Humanity on Galhaf|The ancient past]]
*[[Biology of the Chihazh System]]
*Galhafan Cultures
**[[Blafu]]
**[[Category:Kasshi|Kasshi]]
**[[Sanle]]
**[[Oppai]]
**Famous Galhafans
***[[Chalanya]]
***[[Chila]]
***[[Chinikan]]
***[[Chinrasta]]
***[[Dzesa]]
***[[Navesh]]
*Galhafan Languages
**[[Kasshian languages|Kasshi Family]]
***[[Classical Kasshian]]
***[[Ivetsian]]
**[[Sanle (language)|Sanle]]
***[[Classical Sanle]]
*Galhafan Religions
**The [[Laughing Mystics]]
**[[Kalpanism]]
**[[Nrastaism]]
***[[Council of Twelve]]
*Other
**[[Galhafan Biological Taxonomy]]
**[[Odiran Standard Units]]
**[[Galhafan Governments]]

[[Category:Galhaf|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Henaudute</title>
    <id>811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4203</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-25T15:46:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Why does Henaudute use the Greek alphabet?

:Ironically, convenience.  The phonology was patterened after ancient Greek's (though the morphology is too different to really help recall it) and it just seemed easier to represent it that way.  Plus, the aesthetics :p
:There actually *is* a native [[abugida]]; it looks like ...  [http://frath.net/images/lang/hena-curse.gif] (old version)... but it's rather complicated, being written [[TTB]], with lots of [[ligature|ligation]] involved, and I havn't designed a font for it yet.   —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:46, 25 Jan 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammar of Saxon English</title>
    <id>813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35212</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-09T13:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* GRAMMAR OF SAXON ENGLISH. */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is a section of ''[[Pure Saxon English]]'', a book published by [[Elias Molee]] in [[1890]], which thus should be public domain.  The character &quot;inverted i&quot; (in Unicode, U+1D09) has not been used here due to lack of font support, and has been replaced by the small capital ɪ.''
:This page is also available [[Media:Grammar of Saxon English.pdf|as a PDF]] (147 KB).
----

==GRAMMAR OF SAXON ENGLISH.==
===PHONETIC SPELLING WITH OLD LETTERS.===
''Ai'' always sounds as in the word aim (Ger. e); ''q,'' ah, arm; ''a,'' an (Ger. ä); ''o,'' on, or (Ger. soll); ''ö'' (or ''oe)'' earn, word; ''oi,'' oil; ''ei,'' eye; ''au,'' house; ''ɯ,'' rule; ''ɔ,'' oh, old; ''ü'' (or ''ue),'' as in German, ''für;'' French, ''dur;'' Greek and Scandinavian, ''y'' as in ''syd;'' ''ɪ,'' eel; ''u,'' full or but; ''i,'' it; ''e,'' met; ''z,'' hard ''tsee'' (as in [[High German|German]], in order to have a clearer, oral distinction between ''z'' and ''s); y,'' yard; ''sh'', she; ''ch,'' church; ''th,'' the, thin; ''w,'' we; ''ks,'' x; ''kw,'' qu; ''k,'' ch (Christ, Kreist).  ''E'' before ''r'' has the sound of ''a'' (an); final ''o'' and ''u'' are long.  ''Oe'' is equal to ''ö,'' and ''ue'' equal to ''ü.''  This substitution is also allowed in the German language.  Capitals for the inverted ''c, i,'' and ''m,'' are O·ɔ, I·ɪ, U·ɯ; A·q.  We can not invert capitals on account of not lining, and the capital Q looks odd for ''q.''  We therefore indicate the proper sound of the capital letters by means of an inverted period.  Inverted ''c, i, m,'' for ''oh, ee, oo'' are advocated, and partly used already in America, England, and France.  It is the only way I can see, by which to get along with old letters only, and they are as good as new letters would be to the reader.  The type-setter must invert them, but they might easily be made in the future, so as to need no turning.  The letter ''ɔ'' is written as the figure ''2'' is written; ''ɪ'' is simply inverted ''i;'' it is as easy to dot under as over the line, and the distinction becomes all the more conspicuous.  Inverted ''m,'' or ''ɯ,'' is written as ''u'' and ''i'' without the dot.  The corresponding capitals of ''ɔ, ɪ, ɯ,'' and ''q,'' have always an inverted period on their right side, thus: ''O·K, ɔk'' (oak); ''I·L, ɪl'' (eel); ''U·z, ɯz'' (ooze); ''A·MS, qms'' (alms).  In remodeling the language, it is sometimes better to modify the pronunciation than the spelling, in order to preserve the old appearance of the word, and to make it more international, as ''kom'' (not ''kum);'' German, ''kommen;'' Dutch ''kommen;'' Scandinavian, ''komme; kql'' (not ''kol)'' as ''a'' or ''q'' is used for the same word by our cousins.  That form which is most internationally Gothic, is best.  It is as easy to say ''kom'' as ''kum; bql'' as ''bol,'' etc.  With phonetic spelling, we can tell near enough for practical purposes how to pronounce.  No spelling can become fully phonetic without having about two hundred letters, according to Ellis, but we can use consistently those letters we have.  In the beginning, we can continue the old pronunciation of Saxon words.

===GRAMMAR.===
RULE 1.	To form the ''plural number,'' and to increase vowel euphony, add ''a'' (an, at; Ger. ''ä),'' after words ending on consonants; and add ''s'' after words ending on vowels, as, one ''hand,'' two ''handa;'' one ''boi,'' two ''bois'' (boys); two ''hausa.''  ''A'' is a very fine and extensive plural sound, and was much employed by our forefathers.  [[Anglo-Saxon]], ''an hand, twa handa;'' [[High German|German]] ''zwei hände'' (handai); Old Frisic, ''hond,'' plural ''honda;'' twɔ ''hausa;'' Scandinavian, ''to huse;'' Latin, ''regnum,'' plural ''regna;'' Greek ''petron'' (wing), plural ''petra;'' Slavonic ''grad'' (castle), plural ''grada,'' or ''gradje;'' Irish, ''seamrog'' (shamrock), plural ''seamroga.''  The final ''a'' has the same sound as in ''Florida, America, Mathilda,'' etc.

RULE 2.	To form the ''possessive case,'' add ''o'' (oh) after consonants, and ''no'' after vowels, as ''girlo hat'' (girl’s hat), and ''boino buk'' (boy’s book).  The possessive form may precede or follow, as, ''hat girlo.''  This ''o'' is a contraction of our possessive word ''own'' (ɔn, ɔnership).  When words end on a vowel, a euphonistic ''n'' is inserted to prevent hiatus, and to blend consonants and vowels for ease of pronunciation.  It looks like an abbreviated plural Greek possessive ''logon'' (of words).  ''Girlo'' (girl’s, girl own); ''Godo haus'' (God’s house).  The preposition ''of'' is also used as before; but ''o'' and ''no'' are used for the short possessive; plural possessive, ''handano'' (of the hands), ''laidiso,'' etc.  It will be as easy to form the possessive of the plural as of the singular, by adding ''o'' after ''s,'' or ''no'' after ''a;'' ''hausano.''  As final ''o'' has the sound of ''oh,'' we write ''o'' instead of ''ɔ.''

RULE 3.	To form the ''past tense,'' add ''o'' after consonants, and ''do'' (doh), after vowels, as, ''Ei lovo'' (I loved), ''Ei gɔdo, ei sɪdo'' (I went, I saw).  The fact that the possessive and past tense signs are alike is no objection, because a noun and a verb stand in such obviously different relations that no mistake can follow.  It is different with the plural and possessive sign ''s,'' both being added to the same part of speech.  ''O'' is chosen because it is historical, being used as a past tense sign by the Anglo-Saxons with ''n,'' and by our Gothic cousins, the Swedes, without ''n.''  It is the most proper and musical vowel we can find for this purpose.

The Anglo-Saxons formed the plural past tense with ''on,'' as ''waron, sindon'' (were).  In Swedish, the ''n'' is worn off, while ''o'' remains, as, ''vi spunno, vi kommo, vi funno'' (we spun, we came, and we found).  In Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, the past participle takes ''o; united'' and ''loved'' is ''unito,'' or ''unido,'' and ''amato,'' or ''amado.''  ''O·'' is a well tried past tense form.

RULE 4.	To form the present participle, add ''qnd;'' and to form the past participle, add ''en,'' as, ''Ei'' am ''skreibqnd,'' the ''runqnd hors.''  In the beginning we can use ''qnd'' only with the new words; but hɪ has ''loven, worken,'' etc.  The reason for having ''qnd'' for the present participle, when it is used as an adjective, instead of ''ing,'' is to prevent the extremely frequent repetition of the ringing sound of ''ing,'' which is still employed with verbal nouns.  The [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''and,'' or ''end,'' for the present participle, and ''ung,'' or ''ing,'' for verbal nouns.  [[Anglo-Saxon]], ''and;'' German and Dutch, ''end;'' Swedish, ''ande;'' Danish and Norwegian, ''ende;'' Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, ''endo,'' or ''ando;'' French, ''ent,'' or ''ant.''  The suffix ''en'' is a sign for the past participle in [[Anglo-Saxon]], and with all the Gothic people.  Being an easy flowing, liquid sound, it is made the only past participle form.  Chaucer, the morning star of English literature, employed ''and;'' but finally ''and'' and ''ing'' were confounded, as ''ed'' and ''en'' have been.

RULE 5.	To form the ''verbal noun,'' add ''ing,'' or ''ung,'' as, ''hɪring'' and ''erzɪung;'' and to form the ''infinitive noun,'' add ''qn,'' as, ''rɪdqn'' and ''skreibqn'' (Ger., ''lesen'' und ''schreiben;'' Scan. ''lesen'' og ''skriven).''  The infinitive noun will not be used much at first, but it will be convenient to be able to vary the expression at times.  The ''qn'' is the [[Anglo-Saxon]] infinitive ending, and the same method is used by the rest of our Gothic family.

RULE 6.	To form the ''masculine noun,'' add ''ɪ;'' and to form the ''feminine noun'' add ''in,'' and ''neuter it,'' as, ''frendɪ, frendin,'' and ''frendit.''  ''Ine'' is used in English—''hero, heroine;'' German and Dutch, ''in;'' Danish and Norwegian, ''inde;'' Swedish, ''ina.''  The suffix ''ɪ'' is a contraction from ''he,'' or ''hɪ,'' as the possessive sign ''o'' is a contraction from ''ɔn'' (own), and ''u'' from ''do'' (du).

RULE 7.	To verbalize a word, and to give it emphasis or make it more specific, add ''u'' from ''du'' (do); German, ''thu-en,'' as ''fy'' is from ''facio,'' in place of ''en, fy, ize, ate,'' etc., as, ''hqrdu'' (harden); ''raru,'' or ''rariku'' (rarify); ''erinu'' (memorize).  ''U'' is a contraction from ''du,'' and is very appropriate for this purpose, beside being a very easy sound to pronounce.  ''U'' is called by some orthoepists the natural vowel.  ''U'' is employed much in several languages as a final vowel, but especially in Latin, Italian, and Japanese.  It is used much in the vocabulary to distinguish a verb from an adjective or other part of speech.  In those words where ''u'' is a verbal sign, the verb and the noun remain alike, as, ''klasu,'' or ''klasiku'' (to classify), and ''klasu,'' or ''klasiku'' (classification).

RULE 8.	The ''definite article'' is before singular nouns ''the,'' as, ''the'' hand, ''the'' haus; but before plural nouns it is ''dɔ handa, dɔ hausa.''  ''Dɔ'' has been modified from the German ''die;'' Scandinavian ''de,'' and [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''dhe,'' or ''seo,'' so as to give us the best variety and clearest distinction from the singular, and from the plural sign ''a.''  ''Dɔ'' is different in consonant and vowel from the singular ''the,'' and the plural ending ''a.''  Both the Germanic and Romance languages have a plural form for the definite article.  French ''le'' (the) has plural ''les'' (dɔ); German, ''der,'' plural ''die;'' Scandinavian, singular ''den,'' or ''det,'' plural ''de.''  We have adopted a plural form in order not to be obliged to repeat ''the'' so extremely often; besides we need very much a plural form of the article to show whether the singular or plural is meant in hundreds of sentences.  Not to have a plural form for the article is a great defect.  We might use the article ''das'' before abstract nouns as ''das gudi,'' etc.

RULE 9.	When the ''adjective'' is used as a noun, it takes the plural sign, as, ''dɔ guda'' (the good ones).  This form will make the expressions clearer as to number.  This method prevails in all the Gothic tongues.  To have no plural form for the definite article, and no plural sign for the substantive adjective, appears to me to be very indefinite.  It is poor practice.

RULE 10.	To form the ''infinitive,'' add ''q'' to the indicative of those words that end on a consonant; as, to ''komq,'' to ''singq,'' to ''go,'' etc.  Words ending on vowels receive no addition.  This infinitive suffix ''q'' is a contraction of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] infinitive ending ''an,'' pronounced ''qn.''  Both the Gothic and Romanic people have a special infinitive form.  The French add ''er'' or ''ir, aimer'' (to lovq), ''finir'' (to finishq).  The Italians ''ere, ire,'' or ''are;'' as ''offendere'' (offendayray), ''punire,'' ''perdonare'' (perdohnahray).  Germans and Hollanders add ''en;'' the Anglo-Saxon ''an;'' the Danish and Norwegian ''e,'' and the Swedes ''a;'' as, att ''komma,'' att ''falla,'' att ''vandra'' (to ''komq,'' to ''fqlq,'' to ''wqnderq).''  This form will not only add many per cent. to the musicalness of our language, but make the imperative and indicative forms more easily distinguished.  We now say to ''come'' (infinitive), ''come'' (imperative), and I ''come'' (indicative); ''come, come, come.''  Only one form for all three ideas.  If we had a separate infinitive and imperative form, then would the indicative be clear to the eye and ear.  It can not be of more trouble to us to have an infinitive and imperative form than it is to other nations, and we need the form for clearness and euphony.  Even with the several vowels introduced, we will not have as many as the Italians or the Swedes.  Our English grammar is too simple and indefinite.

The infinitive form need not be used in the beginning.  The foregoing ten rules are the basis of Systematic English, which may or may not include phonetic spelling, but will include no new words.  Systematic English only systematizes the grammar without touching the vocabulary any further than to systematize the inflections.

===ADDITIONAL RULES OF SAXON ENGLISH.===
RULE 11.	The ''cardinal numbers'' are formed from the ten first units, and the higher numbers add ''tɪn'' (teen), ''ti'' (ty), ''hundred, thausand, heiyond'' (million, that is, high yonder), ''ɔveryond'' (billion), ''augyond'' (trillion, ''aug,'' eye, df. I): 1, ''an'' (one); 2, ''twɔ'' (pronounce ''w);'' 3, ''thrɪ;'' 4, ''fɔr;'' 5, ''feiv;'' 6, ''siks;'' 7, ''seven;'' 8, ''ait;'' 9, ''nein;'' 10, ''ten;'' 11, ''antɪn'' (an and ten, or tɪn); 12, ''twɔtɪn;'' 13, ''thrɪtɪn;'' 14, ''fɔrtɪn, feivtɪn, sikstɪn, seventɪn, aittɪn, neintɪn, twɔtɪ'' (twenty), ''twɔti-an'' (twenty-one), etc., ''thrɪti'' (thirty), ''fɔrti, feivti, siksti, seventi, aitti, neinti, hundred, thausand, heiyond'' (million), ''ɔveryond'' (billion), and ''augyond'' (trillion).  Only seventeen words need to be memorized by the world, and those short, easy, and well known ones.

RULE 12.	The ordinal numbers are formed by adding ''tq'' to the cardinal; Anglo-Saxon ''ta'' (pronounced ''tq);'' German and Dutch, ''te'' (pronounced ''tai);'' Danish and Norwegian, ''te;'' Swedish, ''ta'' (pronounced ''tq):'' feivtq, sikstq (5th, 6th); Anglo-Saxon, ''fif'' (five), ''fifta'' (fifth), ''sixta'' (sixth); German, ''fünfte, fünf'' (five); Danish and Norwegian, ''femte, fem'' (five); Swedish ''femta;'' Greek, ''pentos;'' Latin, ''quinta'' (pronounced ''quintq).''  We add ''tq'' rather than ''ta,'' because the latter ending is like our frequent plural sign ending ''a.''  This makes a fine historical suffix for ordinal numbers.  The numeral ''first'' is a general Gothic number, and hence preserved, but the regular forms are ''antq'' (first), ''twɔtq'' (second, pronounce ''w), thrɪtq'' (third), ''fɔrtq, feivtq, sikstq, seventq, aittq, neintq, tentq, antɪntq'' (eleventh), ''twɔtɪntq'' (twelfth), ''thrɪtɪntq, fɔrtɪntq, twɔtitq'' (twentieth), ''twɔti-antq'' (twenty-first), ''hundredtq'' (hundredth), ''thausandtq'' (thousandth), ''heiyondtq'' (millionth), etc.  The reiteratives are formed by simply adding ''teim: anteim'' (once), ''twɔteim'' (twice), ''thrɪteim, fɔrteim,'' etc.  The multiplicatives are formed by adding ''fɔld: anfɔld'' (simple), ''twɔfɔld'' (duplex), ''thrɪfɔld, fɔrfɔld,'' etc.  We also say ''annes'' (onenes), ''twɔnes'' (twones), etc.; also ''anhud'' (unity), ''twɔhud'' (duality), ''thrɪanikeit'' (trinity), ''thrɪanikeitlɔr'' (doctrine of the trinity), ''tenmanarɯl'' (decemvirate).  Inflections and compounds of known material are clearer, easier, and more comfortable than strange borrowing.  To denote fractional parts, ''el'' is added, an abbreviation from ''teil'' (part), ''fɔrel, feivel'' (fourth or fifth part); two-fifths is ''twɔ-feivtqs;'' nine-tenths is ''nein-tentqs,'' etc.

RULE 13.	Names of ''days'' and ''months'' are formed by simply taking the ordinal numbers and adding the first letter for ''day'' or ''month, d'' stading for ''day,'' and ''m'' standing for ''month;'' thus, ''antq'' is first, and by adding ''d,'' an abbreviation for ''day,'' we have ''Antqd'' (Sunday), ''Twɔtqd'' (Monday); and by adding ''m'' we have ''Antqm'' (January), ''Twɔtqm'' (February).  All must learn the ''numbers'' anyhow, and then by the slight addition of d and m they would know the names of the days of the week and the months; as, ''Antqd'' (Sunday), ''Twɔtqd'' (Monday), ''Thrɪtqd'' (Tuesday), ''Fɔrtqd'' (Wednesday), ''Feivtqd,'' ''Sikstqd'' and ''Seventqd. Months:  Antqm'' (January), ''Twɔtqm'' (February), ''Thrɪtqm'' (March), ''Tentqm'' (October), ''Antɪntqm'' (November), ''Twɔtɪntqm'' (December).  Here is a chance to show our good-will towards the whole world by making these names easy to learn, and at the same time use our own Saxon material.  The old names might be retained if desired, but they are longr and harder to learn and pronounce, and they are unnecessarily arbitrary.

RULE 14.	The ''personal pronouns'' remain as at present, with a very slight extension, as they are nearly alike in all the Gothic tongues, and are short and convenient, and all purely Gothic.

There is a defect in the feminine pronoun on account of ''her'' being both possessive and objective without any distinction in form.  This is too simple and indefinite to the eye and ear, hence ''her'' objective has been changed to ''shim'' from ''she,'' to compare with ''him'' from ''he.''  I saw ''him'' and ''shim'' (him and her).  Her is preserved for the possessive.  The personal pronouns are not very systematic, but they are short and well known, and they are so frequently spoken that they do not need to be systematic to be retained in the mind; besides, it is a great comfort to have as much familiar material upon which to rest the mind as possible.  Hence personal pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and adjectives remain as now, and they are nearly alike in all the Gothic languages.  The only change consists in phonetic spelling, and even that might be omitted with the personal pronouns.  Several grammarians have expressed a desire for a pronoun in the third person, applicable to both the masculine and feminine gender.  We have adopted ''ɪr, ɪro, ɪm'' for that purpose.  ''I·r'' is an old form of ''er'' (he); ''ɪro'' is 
''ɪr'' with the possessive sign ''o, ɪro'' (his or her); ''m'' being a general objective and dative sign, we have ''ɪm'' (Ger. ihm) for the objective.  By adopting ''ɪr, ɪro,'' and ''ɪm'' as a personal pronoun for the third person common gender, we give extra clearness to such words as ''hɪlɪr'' (he or she who heals); ''tɪchɪm'' (pupil), he or she who is being taught.  ''I·r'' as a suffix is used especially where we desire to indicate a higher class of actors, professional actors.  ''I·m'' is used to denote the recipient of an act; as, ''paiɪm'' (payee); ''selɪm'' (vendee).  The personal pronouns run thus:

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1st Person. || 2d Person. || Masculine. || Feminine. || Neuter. || Com. Gender. 
|-
| ei || thau || hɪ || shɪ || it || ɪr
|-
| mei || thei || his || her || its || ɪro
|-
| mɪ || thɪ || him || shim || itm (it) || ɪm
|-
| wɪ || yu || thai || thai || thai || (ɪra)
|-
| aur || yur || thair || thair || thair || (ɪrano)
|-
| us || yum (yu) || them || them || them || (ɪma)
|}

Adding ''o'' or ''no'' is the same as adding ''of,'' in case we desire to lessen the number of the little weakening words; as, ''fulo'' (full of); ''manino'' (many of).  The inflected noun may stand first or last, as in German; the ''haus Godo'' (Ger., “Das Haus Gottes”); ''theno'' (of the); ''dɔno'' (of the, plural); objective form, ''thim'' and ''dɔm'' (to the).

The pronouns are defective in all the Gothic tongues in the third person plural.  The masculine, feminine, and neuter are alike, and yet it would be both easy and convenient to have distinctions.  The Russians have very complete pronouns.  They can even show whether the speaker or the one spoken to is male or female.  I think it would frequently add clearness to stories if there were different plural forms for the masculine, feminine, and neuter.  As the plural is now formed by adding ''a'' after consonants, and ''s'' after vowels, we might easily develop a separate masculine plural by adding ''s'' to ''hɪ: hɪs'' (they, masculine), and ''shɪs'' (they, feminine), ''ita'' (they, neuter).  The possessive forms would be respectively, ''hɪso, shɪso,'' and ''itano;'' and the objective, ''hem, shem, tem'' (arbitrary for brevity).  Although plural forms would often be convenient, I have not made it a part of the system, believing that this is one of the points that can be inserted afterwards, if the American and English people desire more distinctions than they now have.  The rest of the Gothic people have no more distinctions in this respect than we have.

''Em'' is an extra objective suffix placed after an object when we wish it to appear first or come between the subject and predicate; as, ''James Johnem struck.''  In an ordinary sentence, we can see from the position; by this means we can have as much freedom of position as was enjoyed by the classical languages.

''Sich'' is a reflexive pronoun used by the Gothic tongues, and is equivalent to ''him-, her-,'' or ''itself;'' as, he or she hurt him or herself; ''hɪ hurt sich, shɪ hurt sich;'' French and Latin, ''se.''

''Mqn'' is an indefinite pronoun, very convenient.  French, ''on;'' Anglo-Saxon, German, Dutch, and Scandinavian, ''man; “mqn sai.”''  French, ''on dit;'' German, ''man sagt;'' Scandinavian, ''man siger,'' or ''man säger.''

RULE 15.	The ''auxiliary adjectives and verbs'' remain irregular as now, as they are more convenient as they are, being short, well known, and nearly alike in all Gothic languages.

====IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.====
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|width=&quot;50%&quot;|
1.	gud, beter, best.&lt;br&gt;
2.	bad, wors, worst.&lt;br&gt;
3.	litel, les, lɪst.
|width=&quot;50%&quot;|
4.	mani, mer, mest.&lt;br&gt;
5.	much, mɔr, mɔst.&lt;br&gt;
''Mer'' (number), ''mɔr'' (quantity).
|}
 
The regular adjective adds ''er'' and ''est;'' as, ''long, longer, longest.''

====IRREGULAR VERBS.====
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|width=&quot;50%&quot;|
1.	werden, wurdi, worden.&lt;br&gt;
2.	hav, had, haden.&lt;br&gt;
3.	am, art, is, qr, was, wer, bin.&lt;br&gt;
4.	wil, wud, wuden.
|width=&quot;50%&quot;|
5.	shal, shud, shuden.&lt;br&gt;
6.	kan, kud, kuden.&lt;br&gt;
7.	mai, meit, meiten.&lt;br&gt;
8.	du, did, don.
|}

The first auxiliary verb ''werden'' would be very convenient to us, and help us to employ the troublesome ''will'' and ''shall'' more in harmony with their nature and original usage.  ''Will'' and ''shall'' are used very abnormally.  We say I ''shall'' and you ''will,'' we ''should'' and they ''would.''  Other verbs are alike for all persons in conjugation; as, I can, you can, he can, we can, etc.  There is an increased tendency to ignore the superfine and useless distinctions between would and should.  In Scotland and in our Southern States ''would'' and ''should'' are confounded by high authorities; as, I ''would'' (should) not have thought so; we ''would'' (should) have been there.  ''Will'' is employed to advantage only where volition is concerned, and ''shall'' where duty, obligation, or command is thought of.  We can not say “The house ''wil'' burn,” but “the house ''werden'' burn.”  The house can not ''will'' to burn, or have a will.  ''Werden'' is therefore introduced and modified from the Anglo-Saxon ''weordhan;'' German and Dutch, ''werden;'' Danish and Norwegian, ''vorde;'' Swedish, ''värda.'' All Gothic people use this very convenient and clear auxiliary verb in the sense of futurity without implying volition.  To use ''will'' and ''shall'' for volition, and also for futurity, is too indefinite.  We need an extra auxiliary verb for futurity very much; still it will be used sparingly at first, as it is rather new with us, though our forefathers used it.  It is only a revival of what we have had.  ''Thai werden bekom sik,'' not they ''will'' becme sick, for they can have no such will.

RULE 16.	To form ''animal derivative names,'' we take the easiest and best known generic name, masculine or feminine, and add thereto ''ɪ'' for masculine, ''in'' for feminine, and ''et'' for the diminutive; as, ''lion'' (common gender), ''lionɪ'' (masculine), ''lionin'' (feminine), ''lionet'' (diminutive), ''lionetɪ'' (masculine diminutive), ''lionetin'' (feminine diminutive); ''dog, dogɪ, dogin, doget, dogetɪ, dogetin.''  This will be a very convenient method by which to name the more inferior animals, but ''man, horse,'' and ''ox'' are excepted from the rule.

RULE 17.	The ''descriptive power of participles and adjectives'' is much extended, as in Anglo-Saxon and all the other Gothic tongues, by employing them as descriptive personal nouns.  By adding ''i'' as a general personal sign to participles and adjectives, we can say ''the lovqndi'' (the loving one), and by adding the gender signs ''ɪ, in,'' and ''it,'' we can specialize the idea so as to indicate whether the loving one ''(lovqndi),'' is a male, female, or a thing in the abstract; as, the ''lovqndɪ, lovqndin, lovqndit.''  In the same way we can take the adjective ''fein,'' and say the ''feini'' (the fine one in general); the ''feinɪ'' (the fine man or male); the ''feinin'' (the fine woman or female); the ''feinit'' (fine thing).  German, ''das Schöne'' or ''Feine;'' Greek, ''to kalon.''  We can, of course, use a circumlocution to express the same ideas, as ''the fine man, the fine woman, the fine thing,'' but the expression loses its neatness and forcibleness.  Our language is far behind in picturesque power.  This power is possessed by the Anglo-Saxon and other Gothic languages.  The Germans use different articles for masculine, feminine, and neuter, but it is easier to denote thes ideas by special suffixes, and not be troubled by so many articles as in German and Scandinavian.  The past participle follows the same rule; as, the ''fqleni'' (the fallen in general), the ''fqlenɪ'' (masculine), the ''fqlenin'' (feminine), the ''fqlenit;'' the ''donit'' (German, ''das Gemachte), saienit (gesagte).''  By prefixing the plural article ''dɔ'' (df. do, du), and by adding the plural signs to substantive adjectives, we obtain clear plurals:  ''Dɔ lovqnda'' (the loving ones); ''dɔ lovena'' (the loved ones); ''dɔ lovqndɪs'' (the loving men or males); ''dɔ lovqndina'' (the loving women or females); ''dɔ lovqndita'' (the loving things).  These expressions need not be used much at first, but if we desire, as we naturally must do, a highly descriptive language not excelled by any other people, we need these points.  We need them to make our language more poetical and picturesque.  At present our grammar is very prosaic and generic.  The few extra points required can be mastered in one day, and we have forever a thing of comfort and utility.

RULE 18.	''Adjectives'' derived from ''proper nouns'' follow the general usage of other adjectives by adding ''anik, ik, lik, leik, ish, som,'' etc., so that we can tell the adjective from the noun, and the noun from the adjective; thus, a ''Dutchman'' who is a native of Holland is called a ''Hollander,'' and the adjective becomes ''Hollandik.''  A native of ''Frans,'' a ''Franser'' or ''Fransi,'' and ''French'' is called ''Fransik.''  The frequent names of ''English'' and ''German'' are excepted from the rule, and we say ''English'' instead of ''Englandik,'' and ''Doich'' instead of ''Doichlandik.''  The names of the inhabitants of all other lands are obtained by adding the regular personal endings ''er, qr, ɪr, ist, an'' (one).  Countries whose names end on ''a,'' generally add ''n;'' as, ''Amerika, Amerikan'' (one from or in America), ''Russia,'' and ''Russian;'' but the adjective is made different from the derivative noun by adding ''ik'' on words ending with ''an,'' the most general adjective sign in both Gothic and Romanic languages; as, ''Amerikanik, Russianik, Assianik, Indianik, Afrikanik.''

Names of persons, being guarded by individual rights, remain intact unless their owners wish to spell them according to sound.  Friends can easily ascertain each other’s method of spelling, but that will not affect the language proper.  Names of countries and cities should adopt phonetic spelling as soon as possible; as, ''Nu York.''  Inhabitants—''Cheinar'' (Chinese); ''Japaner'' (Japanese); ''Judan'' (Jew from Juda); ''Nazarether'' (Nazarene); ''Greelyer'' (Greelyite); Kalvinist.  Only ''er, qr, ɪr, lqr, nqr, an,'' and ''ist'' must be suffixes.

RULE 19.	''Personal and impersonal agents'' are distinguished by the suffix ''qr'' or ''er'' and ''el.  Thresher'' is the person that thershes, and very often the threshing machine itself is called ''thresher;'' but we have adopted the suffix ''el'' to denote the impersonal or thing actor or agent; as, ''threshel.''  ''El'' is much used for this purpose now in the Gothic tongues; as, ''shovel'' (the thing which shoves) and ''shover'' (person); ''handel'' and ''hander; rɪpel, rɪper'' (person).  ''El'' means the thing acting or acted upon, or the product of an act.  The context will show which is meant.  ''Er'' may be retained with old familiar names, instead of ''qr.''  This ''el,'' taken from ''shovel'' and ''handel,'' etc., is, for some purposes, similar to an abbreviation of the Scandinavian ''else,'' as in ''fɔrthbringel,'' product; Scandinavian, ''frembringelse.''  This ''el'' is also convenient as a thing name for many acts where we do not think of the action, but of the result of the action.  For instance, ''production'' and ''product; fɔrthbringing'' and ''fɔrthbringel.  L'' is a very liquid, flowing sound.  It is a defect in many languages not to have a distinction between so frequent and broadly different ideas as the personal and impersonal agent or actor.

RULE 20.	The ''personal affix A·r'' (qr).  In order to make it clearer to the eye and ear, we have modified ''er,'' which is both a comparative sign and a personal sign.  When a personal suffix, it becomes ''qr,'' as in ''scholar, liar.''  I have used ''er'' in the vocabulary, but ''qr'' can easily be substituted.  It is sometimes doubtful whether a word is a comparative adjective or a personal noun; as, ''steadier.''  What does it mean?  More steady, one who steadies, or a thing which steadies?  Now, if ''qr'' is personal, ''er'' comparative, and ''el'' a thing sign, it all becomes very clear—''stediqr'' (one who steadies); ''stedier'' (more steady), and ''stediel'' (a thing which steadies).  The suffix ''qr'' (ar) is used by the Saxons and all other Gothic people as a personal ending, more or less; but, of modern peoples, none employ it as much as the Swedes and the Russians.  It is as easy to write ''qr'' as ''er,'' and we have a fine open distinction, in reading and hearing, between the comparative adjective and the personal noun.  Where ''ɪr, an, lqr, nqr,'' or ''ist'' is used, the distinction is clear.  With such words as ''father, mother, together, er'' is not a personal suffix, but an integral part of the word.  ''Accent'' is generally on the syllable next to the last, as in Spanish and Welsh, unless we wish to emphasis the last syllable or the qualifying part of the word.  Pronunciation of all new words is strictly according to the spelling; and the key words, except final ''o'' and ''u,'' are ''oh,'' ''oo.''  The sound of ''u'' in ''but, hut, rut,'' being a peculiar sound, is not much used in Saxon English; ''u'' in ''full, pull,'' or as in ''moon, soon,'' takes its place.

The emphatic imperative and optative forms may add ''ai'' to verbs ending on consonants, which is much like the sound employed by the other Gothic tongues; as, ''komai'' (come thou); ''spɪkai'' (speak, or please speak).

&lt;small&gt;Points whichi I have omitted to state formally may be gathered from the specimens.  All points not mentioned remain as at present.&lt;/small&gt;

In case more vowels should be desired, we might, as in Anglo-Saxon, and the other Gothic tongues, add a vowel to all adjectives after the definite articles in singular and plural; as, the ''gudq man,'' dɔ ''feina hausa.''

If we desire, we might form the ''direct passive,'' as in the Scandinavian, by adding ''qs'' or ''s'' to the indicative; as, ''ei lovqs'' (I am loved), Latin, ''amor;'' thau ''lovqs'' (thou art loved), Latin, ''amaris;'' thau ''lovos'' (thou wert loved), Latin, ''amabaris.''  A short passive form seems to be favored as a variety.

''His'' and ''sein.''—We ought to have a distinction between ''his'' when demonstrative, and ''his'' when reflexive, to prevent such ambiguity as ''John gave his brother his book'' (which book?—his own or his brother’s?)  If ''sein'' were used when reflexive, and ''his'' in all other cases, such uncertainty would be avoided.  ''Sein'' and ''his'' are thus employed in the Scandinavian.

In order not to have the ''to, too, two'' (the ''to-''sounds) too frequently, the infinitive sign ''to'' is pronounced ''tɔ'' (toh); the preposition ''to'' pronounced ''tu,'' and the numeral ''two twɔ (w'' pronounced with ''ɔ).''

We may increase the variety of the structure of sentences by allowing the predicate to precede the subject whenever something has first been said in a sentence.  This is the case in all the Gothic tongues, and partially so in English; as, for instance, “I am ready, said the man” (not the man said); “when I went into the street, met I a friend.”  And in order to increase our freedom of position, so as to be able to place first or last any word to which we may desire to call special attention in speech or poetry, we have adopted the Gothic objective sign ''em'' (m).  This is to be used only where we wish the object to occupy a different position from the ordinary one.  The ''boyem'' the man found, or the ''manem'' the boy found, or the ''manem'' found the boy; him found he, him he found, or him found he.  Where we have an objective sign, we can see what is the object, wherever the word is placed.

No more forms or words should be introduced in the beginning than indicated in the “Specimen Readings.”

==BRIEF KEYS TO SPELLING AND GRAMMAR.==
===SPELLING KEY.===
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|width=&quot;25%&quot;|
''Ai,'' aim,&lt;br&gt;
''q,'' arm,&lt;br&gt;
''a,'' an (Ger. ä),&lt;br&gt;
''o,'' or, on,&lt;br&gt;
''ö,'' earn,&lt;br&gt;
''oi,'' oil,&lt;br&gt;
''ei,'' eye,&lt;br&gt;
''au,'' owl,
|width=&quot;25%&quot;|
''ɯ,'' rule,&lt;br&gt;
''ɔ,'' old,&lt;br&gt;
''ü,'' für,&lt;br&gt;
''ɪ,'' eel,&lt;br&gt;
''u,'' full, oo,&lt;br&gt;
''u,'' but,&lt;br&gt;
''i,'' it,&lt;br&gt;
''e,'' met,&lt;br&gt;
|width=&quot;25%&quot;|
''z,'' tsee,&lt;br&gt;
''y,'' yard,&lt;br&gt;
''sh,'' she,&lt;br&gt;
''ch,'' cheap,&lt;br&gt;
''th,'' the, thin,&lt;br&gt;
''w,'' we,&lt;br&gt;
''ks,'' x,&lt;br&gt;
''f,'' ph.
|width=&quot;25%&quot;|
'''CAPITALS.'''&lt;br&gt;
''A·q, O·ɔ, U·ɯ, I·ɪ.&lt;br&gt;
E'' before ''r'' has the sound of ''a'' in ''an.''&lt;br&gt;
Final ''o'' and ''u'' are ''oh'' and ''oo.''&lt;br&gt;
''Oe'' and ''ue'' equals ''ö'' and ''ü.''
|}

In writing draw a dash over the inverted ''ɯ'' to distinguish it from ''m'' or ''u'' and ''i.''

===GRAMMAR KEY.===
# Plurals add ''a'' after consonants, and ''s'' after vowels.
# The possessive case adds ''o'' after consonants, and ''no'' after vowels.
# The past tense adds ''o'' after consonants, and ''do'' after vowels.
# The present participle adds ''qnd,'' past participle ''en.''
# The verbal noun adds ''ing,'' the infinitive noun ''qn.''
# The masculine noun adds ''ɪ,'' the feminine ''in.''
# To verbalize a word, add ''u'' (gladu).
# Definite article—singular ''the,'' plural ''dɔ.''
# The substantive adjective takes the plural sign.
# To form the infinitive, add ''q.''
# Cardinals taken from the present numerals.
# Ordinals formed by adding to cardinals ''tq.''
# Names of days and months—add to ordinals ''d'' or ''m.''
# Personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs nearly as before.&lt;br&gt;
#:“ ''Sich'' and ''man'' (French, ''on)'' also employed.&lt;br&gt;
#:“ The suffix ''i'' after adjectives refers to persons in general.&lt;br&gt;
# Five irregular adjectives, and eight irregular verbs.
# Lion, lionɪ, lionin, lionetɪ, lionetin, lionet.
# Substantive adjectives add for sex, ''ɪ, in, it.''
# Adjectives from proper nouns regularly derived.
# The personal agent adds ''qr, ɪr,'' etc.; impersonal ''el.''
# The personal actor adds ''qr;'' comparative adjective ''er, est.''

''Accent'' generally on the last syllable but one, as in Spanish, or on the qualifying syllable.  ''His'' is demonstrative, and ''sein'' always reflexive; the subjunctive may add ''i.''  The emphatic imperative and the optative may add ''ai'' after consonants.  Points and words not provided for, remain as in English.  The Scandinavian passive adds ''qs'' to the present indicative, and ''s'' to the past tense; as, ''Ei lovqs'' (I am loved), Latin, ''amor; Ei lovos'' (I was loved).  ''Em'' added to a word to allow the object to precede the subject or predicate.  ''I·m,''  a recipient sign, ''ein,'' a receptacle sign; and ''to,'' an implement sign.  Not all the rules and words need be used at first.  The ''s'' for the third person singular present is abolished.

The “Specimen Readings” show the real Saxon English proposed; other forms are for future consideration.

==SYNOPSIS.==
===SYNOPSIS OF THE REASONS IN FAVOR OF ADOPTING A SYSTEMATIC, PURE SAXON ENGLISH.===
# Our scientific men and mechanics in general, and physicians in particular, could remember more facts with a self-defining speech.
# Country people and laborers could learn to read and write correctly, with systematic spelling and vocabulary, in from three to five years less time, and would understand and remember more of what they read.
# The sooner the elementary mechanical part of the language can be mastered, the more time will be left for the knowledge and practice of other things.
# By homogeneity we can economize affixes and basic words, and make the language easily acquired by the whole world, because more practical.
# The future mechanic and manufacturer will be obliged by foreign competition, which has come to the front within the last twenty-five years, to know more of nature, and this can only be acquired by an economical language.
# By regularity and simplicity of grammar we make our tongue easy to master by all foreign peoples with whom we deal, and by our infant population.
# By homogeneity we will make our language the chief representative and leader of the Gothic races, and make it easily learned, loved and supported by them, while, by promiscuous mixing of vocabularies, we can represent and lead no people well, mentally and emotionally.
# By the Saxon material our language will become international among the most commercial and intelligent people, who need an extra international language more than the rest of the world.
# Our own Gothic race can sympathize with us and understand us better than other races of men possibly can do. Every race has special inherited sentiments, as “history is a people’s intellectual soil, and language a people’s intellectual atmosphere.”
# By Saxon material we reconquer what we have lost through the Norman French Conquest, and preserve our good inheritance from our Saxon forefathers, as true and conservative children.  We become preservers, systematizers and refiners, and retain the beautiful picturesqueness and poeticalness of our ancient language; as, ''leaf-stalk'' for ''petiole.''  We shall not be innovators and iconoclasts in language, as we have been.  Other leading peoples have purified their language, and are still doing so.
# To simplify and purify is a duty we owe to rich and poor children, helping them to compete with the foreign schools having economical tongues.  We can not always have a virgin soil (U. S.) and monopolize commerce.
# We can not always play Romans and conquer territory, but must finally, as the Greeks, find more pleasure in art, poetry, music, science, philosophy, and higher literature; and “Pure Saxon English” prepares the way.
# With an easier understood and remembered language, people will find more pleasure in popular knowledge.
# More vowels will make our language more musical in conversation, in preaching, and singing at home, and become easier to pronounce by all men abroad.
# By a systematic Saxon English we will lessen taxation by at least one hundred millions per annum, and raise the average intelligence and happiness.
# Only a brief and simple grammar, as shown in “Russian Wolf Story” with 1800 new words, mostly self-defining, need to be learned, until final action is taken.  More new words in the beginning would weaken the effort.
# To facilitate education by means of systematization and simplification is in harmony with the spirit of our age and country.  Everything should be done for the benefit of the people that does not clash with legal, vested, and inherited rights.  An intelligent populace is safer and less subject to unreasonable fanaticism.
# This plan will make Saxon-Gothic English international, and be an everlasting honer to the powerful English-speaking people.

==SPECIMEN READINGS.==
===MATHU (MATTHEW).===
''(Pronounce q (ah); final o (oh), and final u (oo).  See the Beibel.)''
&lt;!-- originally in two columns, but this not easy in HTML --&gt;

'''HEDIT I.'''&lt;br&gt;
(Chapter I.)

The buk ov the geslekt (generation) of Jesus Kreist, the son ov David, the son ov Abraham.

2.  Abraham begeto isaak, and Isaak begeto Jakob; and Jakob begeto Judas and his brothera.&lt;br&gt;
''(And so on tu the sikstɪntq vers.)''

16.  And Jakob begeto Jɔsef, the husband ov Mairi, ov hum was birthen Jesus, hu is kqlen Kreist.

17.  So ql dɔ geslekta from Abraham tu David qr fɔrtɪn geslekta; and from David until the trqging (carrying) awai intu Babilon qr fɔrtɪn geslekta; and from the trqging awai intu Babilon untu Kreist qr fɔrtɪn geslekta.

18.  Nau the birth ov Jesus Kreist was on this weis.  When as his mother Mairi was betrothen (espoused) tu Jɔsef, befɔr thai komo tugether, shɪ was feinden mit cheild ov the Hɔli Geist (Ghost).

19.  Then Jɔsef her husband, bɪing (being) a gereitik (just) man, and not wiling to maik shim (her) an ofenli (public) beispɪl (example), was meinden to put shim awai heimli (privily).

20.  But wheil hɪ thinko on thɪs thinga, behɔld, the ainjel ov the Lord ersheino (appeared) untu him in a drɪm, saiing, Jɔsef, thau son ov David, fɪr not to taik untu thɪ Mairi thei weif, for that which is infqngen (conceived) in shim is ov the Hɔli Geist.

21.  And shɪ shal bring fɔrth a son, and thau shalt kql his naim JESUS: for hɪ shal ret (save) his folk from thair sina.

22.  Nau ql this was don, that it meit bɪ fulfilen which was spɪken ov the Lord bei the profet, saiing:

23.  Behɔld, a yungfrau (virgin) shal bɪ mit cheild, and shal bring fɔrth a son, and thau shal kql his naim Emmanuel, which bɪing twɪndoiten (interpreted) is, God mit us.

24.  Then Jɔsef bɪing raisen from slɪp did as the ainjel ov the Lord had biden him, and taiko untu him his weif.

25.  And nɔdo shim not til shɪ had bringen fɔrth her first birthen son: and hɪ kqlo his naim JESUS.

'''HEDIT II.'''&lt;br&gt;
(Chapter II.)

Nau when Jesus was birthen in Bethlehem ov Judea in dɔ dais ov Herod the king, behɔld there komo weis mana from the ɪst to Jerusalem,

2.  Saiing, Wher is hɪ that is birthen king ov dɔ Judana (Jews)? for wɪ hav sɪen his stqr in the ɪst, and qr komen to worship him.

3.  When Herod the king had hɪren thɪs thinga, hɪ was trubelen and ql Jerusalem mit him.

4.  And when hɪ had gatheren ql dɔ hed prɪsta and shriftlernika ov the folk sqmen (together), hɪ ferlqngo (demanded) ov them wher Kreist shud bɪ birthen.

5.  And thai saido untu him, In Bethlehem ov Judea, for thus is it skreiben bei the profet.

6.  And thau, Bethlehem, in the lqnd ov Juda, qr not the lɪst among dɔ fürsta (princes) ov Juda, for aut ov thɪ shal kom a staithɔldqr (governor) which shal rul mei folk Israel.

7.  Then Herod, when hɪ had heimli kqlen dɔ weis mana, nqkfrqgo (inquired) ov them fleisli (diligently) what teim the stqr ersheino.

8.  And sendo them tu Bethlehem, and saido:  Go and forsh (search) fleisli for the yung cheild; and when yɪ hav feinden him, bring me word agen, that ei mai kom and worship him qlso.

9.  When thai had hɪren the king, qbreiso (departed) thai; and lɔ, the stqr which thai sɪdo in the ɪst gɔdo befɔr them, til it komo and stando ɔver wher the yung cheild was.

10.  When thai sɪdo the stqr, thai erfroido (rejoiced) sich mit übermqsik (exceeding) grait froid (joy).

11.  And when thai wer komen intu the haus, sɪdo thai the yung cheild mit Mairi his mother, and fqlo daun and worshipo him; and when thai had ɔpenen thair shqtsa (treasures) thai fɔrthstelo (presented) untu him gifta, gɔld, rɪkel, and mira.

12.  And bɪing wqrnen ov God in a drɪm that thai shud not bakwend (return) tu Herod, qbreiso thai intu thair ɔn lqnd another wai.

13.  And when thai wer qbreisen, behɔld, the ainjel ov the Lord ersheino tu Jɔsef in a drɪm, saiing: Areis and taik the yung cheild and his mother, and flɪ intu Egipt, and bɪ thau ther until ei bring thɪ word; for Herod wil sɪk the yung cheild to umbring (destroy) him.

14.  When hɪ areiso, taiko hɪ the yung cheild and his mother bei neit, and qbreiso intu Egipt.

15.  And was ther until the deth ov Herod, that it meit bɪ fulfilen which was spɪken ov the Lord bei the profet, saiing: Aut ov Egipt hav ei kqlen mei son.

16.  Then Herod, when hɪ sɪdo that hɪ was mislɪden ov dɔ weis mana, was hɪ übermqsik roth, and sendo fɔrth, and slaido ql dɔ cheilda that wer in Bethlehem, and in ql dɔ kɔsta therov, from twɔ yɪra ɔld and under, anstimik (according) tu the teim which hɪ had fleisli nqkfrqgen ov dɔ weis mana.

17.  Then was fulfilen that which was spɪken bei Jeremi the profet, saiing,

18.  In Ramq was ther a stimi (voice) hɪren, wɔklqgi (lamentation) and wɪping, and grait mɔrning, Rachel wɪping for her cheilda, and wud not bɪ trɔsten (comforted), for that thai qr not.

19.  But when Herod was ded, behɔld, the ainjel ov the Lord ersheineth in a drɪm tu Jɔsef in Egipt,

20.  Saiing Areis and taik the yung cheild and his mother, and go intu the lqnd of Israel, for thai qr ded ho sɪko the yung cheildo leif.

21.  And hɪ areiso and taiko the yung cheild and his mother, and komo intu the lqnd ov Israel.

22.  But when hɪ hɪro that Archelaus did rul in Judea in the rɯm ov his fqther, Herod, was hɪ afraid to gɔ thither; notwithstanding, bɪing wqrnen ov God in a drɪm, wendo hɪ aseid intu dɔ teila (parts) ov Galilɪ.

23.  And hɪ komo and dwelo in a stqd (city) kqlen Nazareth, that it meit bɪ fulfilen which was spɪken bei the profeta.  Hɪ shal bɪ kqlen a Nazarether. 

===RUSSIAN WOLF STORY.===
[A very good and touching piece to speak at school exhibitions and at concerts.  It should be spoken slowly and distinctly.]

Som yɪra ago, a Russianik qdelman (nobleman) was reisqnd (traveling) on bisnes in the ineri (interior) ov Russia, hus wuda qr ful ov wolfa.  It was the beginning ov winter, but the frost had seten in erli.  His farein (carriage to fare in) rɔlo up to a gesthaus (hotel), and hɪ ferlqngo (demanded) a nuspan (relay) ov horsa to bring him tu the nekst standort (station), wher hɪ wisho tu spend the neit.  The gestkɪper telo him that ther was gefqr (danger) in reising (traveling) so lait, as dɔ wolfa wer aut.  But the qdelman thinko the gestkɪper ɔnli wisho to kɪp him so as tu fermɔr (increase) his rekening (bill) agenst him; hɪ saido, therfɔr, it was tu erli for dɔ wolfa to bɪ aut.  Hɪ then dreivo on mit his weif and cheild inseid the farein.

On the boks ov the farein was a leifɔnɪm (serf, slave), hu had bin birthen tu him on the qdelmano gɯt (estate), and tu hum hɪ was much tutein (attached), and hɪ lovo his master as hɪ lovo his ɔn leif.

Thai rɔlo over the hqrd sno, and ther sɪmo to bɪ no tɔken ov gefqr.  The mɯn shedo its soft leit on the silveri rɔd on which thai wer gɔing.  At length the litel girl saido tu her fqther: “What was the fremd (strange) haul that ei hɪro?”

“O·! nothing but the wind seiing thru dɔ forest trɪs,” ansero the fqther.

But sɯn shɪ saido agen:  “Listen, fqther; ’tis not leik the wind, ei think.”

The fqther listeno; and fqr, fqr awai in the qbstqnd (distance) beheind him, thru the klɪr frosti luft (air), hɪ hɪro lqrm (noise) ov which hɪ tu wel nɔdo (knew) the mɪning.

Hɪ then pulo daun the windo, and spɪko tu his dɪnqr (servant) and saido: “Dɔ wolfa qr after us, ei fɪr; maik haist; tel the man to dreiv faster, and get yur pistol redi.”

The dreivdɪnqr (postillion) dreivo faster.  But the saim mɔrnful laut (sound, noise) which thai had hɪren befɔr komo nɪrer and nɪrer.

It was klɪr a pak ov wolfa had smelen them aut.  The qdelman prüfo (tried) to stil the qnkstful fɪr ov his weif and doter.  At last the hauling ov the pak was doitli (distinctly) hɪren, so hɪ saido tu his dɪnqr: “When dɔ wolfa kom up tu us, pik thau aut an (one), and ei wil pik aut another; and, wheil the rest fersling (devour) them, wɪ shal get ahed.”

As hɪ pulo daun the windo, hɪ sɪdo the pak in ful krei beheind a grɔs (large) dogwolf at thair hed.  Two shota wer feiren and two wolfa fqlo.  The othera augblikli (instantly) ongrabo (attacked) them and ferslingo them, and meanwheil the farein rɔlo on and wino teim and graund.  But the smqk (taste) ov blud maiko them mɔr wütqnd (furious), and thai wer sɯn up tu the farein agen.  Agen two shota wer feiren, and two wolfa mɔr fqlo, and wer ferslingn.

But the farein was sneli (rapidly) ɔvertaiken, and the posthaus was yet fqr away in the qbstqnd (distance).  Then the qdelman ordero the dreivdɪnqr to lɯs (loose) an ov dɔ fɔrhorsa (leaders) that thai meit win a litel mɔr teim and graund.  This was don, and the qrm (poor) hors stürto (plunged) sich rqsqnd (frantically) intu the forest, and dɔ wolfa after him, and hɪ was kwikli zertaren (torn to pieces).  Then another hors was senden of and sharo the saim shiksql as the first.  The farein worko on as fast as it kud mit dɔ other horsa; but the posthaus was yet fqr awai.  At last the leifdɪnqr (serf) saido tu his master: “Ei hav dɪnen (served) yu ever sins ei was a cheild; ei lov yu as ei du mei ɔn leif.  Nothing kan ret (save) yu nau, auten (except) an thing.  Let mɪ ret yu!  Ei beten (pray) yu ɔnli to luk after mei weif and cheilda.”

The qdelman widerstreito (remonstrated), but nɔgivli (in vain).

When dɔ wolfa komo up agen the truful (faithful) dɪnqr thrɔdo sich among them.  Dɔ hqrdbrɪthing horsa hoplaufo (galloped) on mit the farein, and the gait ov the posthaus slɪso (closed) in after them as the fɪrful pak was on the point ov maiking the last deiik (fatal) ongrab (attack).  But the reisqnda (traveling ones) wer sicher (safe).

The nekst morning thai gɔdo (went) aut and sɪdo (saw) the plais wher the truful dɪnqr had bin pulen daun bei dɔ wolfa.  His bɔna ɔnli wer ther!  On that spot the qdelman aufrikto (erected) a thinkmqrk (monument), on which was skreiben, in grɔs gɔlden bukstafa (letters), thus:

&lt;center&gt;GRAITER LOV HATH NO MAN THAN THIS, THAT HI· LAI 
DAUN HIS LEIF FOR HIS FRENDA.&lt;/center&gt;

[REMARKS.—Before speaking the foregoing story at any school exhibition or concert, let the teacher or foreman explain to the audience that this is a proposed pure Saxon English language, and explain the formation of the plural possessive case, past tense, past participles, and plural article, ''dɔ.''  That will be enough for this piece.  Then pick out the words in parenthesis, and give their equivalents in English.  Then introduce the speaker, male or female, and the audience will be pleased.]

===RELIGIOUS SERVICE.===
Programme as usual.  Only a prayer and sermon given.
====GEBET.====
&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Prayer, ''gebet;'' Anglo-Saxon, ''gebed;'' German ''gebet;'' to pray, to ''beten.)''&lt;br&gt;Translated from Henry Ward Beecher.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
O Lord, aur God, in aur helplesnes help thau us.  For thau qrt qlsɪing, and wɪ kaum (scarcely) trunem (discern) at ql dɔ graiter thinga ov leif.  In our onstreivel (aspiration) wɪ flei but a litel wai, and tuwqrd the Unendik (Infinite) qr mqktles (powerless).

Daunkom (descend) then to us, sins wɪ kan not rɪch thɪ.  And bewilik (grant) tu us not ql nolej, but so much nolej ov theiself as that wɪ mai lov thɪ, and hav kindelen in aur hqrta dɔ teidinga mɔst froidful (joyful) that thau dost lov us, and qrt aur nurishing fqther, the dɪnqr (servant) ov mensha (men and women) in lov, that wɪ mai hav ql fɪr auflɯsen (dissolved) and ql ontrust (confidence) and hɔp befesten (established), and that aur leiva mai bɪ in thɪ.

And giv us the sens of thei qlbeibɪ (all-presence) on everi hand, trunemen (discerned) bei everi sens and bei everi fermögen (faculty), that aur leif mai bɪ heiden in thein.  For in thɪ wɪ liv and beweg (move) and hav aur bɪing.

And wɪ besɪch ov thɪ, O· God, that thau wilt qnnem (accept; Anglo-Saxon, nim) aur thanka for besunderik (special) bqrmhqrtikeita (mercies), for thinga entflɪen (escaped) which wɪ fɪro; for thinga erhɔlden (obtained) which wɪ kaum (scarcely) daro to hɔp for; for froid (joy) and lov, and for the weldu (benefaction) ov fernunft (reason) and its fɔrthdur (continuance), and for dɔ privilija ov leif, and, abov ql, for the nolej which thau qrt giving us ov thein ɔn self.

Annem (accept) aur thanka for dɔ teidinga ov seligkeit (salvation) thru Jesus Kreist, and for the ofenbarung (revelation) of the Godhed bei Him.

Bɪ gefqlen (pleased) to luk upon ql thɔs that qr fersqmelen (assembled) this morning hɪr mit fershɪdik (various) wanta; mit prüfunga (trials), mit worriinga, mit swqkheita (feebleness), mit siknes, mit wisha unerhɔlden (unobtained), mit fɔrhɔpa (aspirations) bleiten, under yɔka, under burdena; thɔs that qr in soro, thɔs that sit dqrkli in the tweileit ov kumer (grief), thɔs that qr ful ov fɪr, and luk aut from the dai intu the neit; ql that qr fersɪchen (tempted), ql that hav fqlen into fersɪching, and qr in qngest (anguish) ov gewisenpain (remorse, pain of conscience), ql that sɪm tu sichselfa tu hav ferlɪren (lost, df. loose) leif and spenden it unnutsli (uselessly), ql thɔs that hav lost hɔp.  Bɪ gefqlen (pleased) tu luk upon this fersqmelung (congregation) ov throbing hqrta, and thau qrt the hɪlɪr (physician), hɪl dɔ sika, strengthu dɔ wɪka, uplift thɔs that qr daunmutik (humble), giv mqkt (power) tu dɔ mqktlesa, and bring hɔm the herlikeit (glory) ov seligkeit (salvation) bei glaubi (faith) and lov tu everi wunden hqrt.

Taik kar of this grait lqnd ov Amerika.  As this is the tufleit (refuge) ov dɔ qrma (poor) and nɪdis, so fɔrthdur (continue), wɪ bɪsich thɪ, dɔ thota ov the heilikeit (sacredness) ov mensha.  Fɔrthdur thɔs grundlqga (foundations) on which aur fqthera stando to bild this grait fabrik, which is worthi ov the naim ov the tufleit ov dɔ qrma and ferlqsena (desolate).  Hɔld baak, wɪ beten (pray) thɪ, ql sinful (sinister) influsa (influences).  Giv grait mqkt tu ql weldnik (benificent) influsa.  Mai koleja and seminaris, academis and skula ov everi naim gedein (prosper).  Mɔr and mɔr mai inleit (intelligence) fɔrthhersh (prevail) among the folk (people).  Bewilik (grant) that ql kela (sources) ov nolej, ql paipera and ql buka, ql influsa that tend to fɪd the hunger ov the sɔl, mai bɪ klensen and reinikuen (purified), and maiken mɔr and mɔr mqktful.  We komend to thɪ the President ov dɔ Feranen Staita (United States) and thɔs that qr sqmfügen (joined) mit him in mqktreit (authority).  Wɪ beten (pray) thɪ, aur Fqther, that thau wil ɔpen thair auga (eyes) to dɔ wais ov truth and reinheit (purity).

Bles aur neibor-nashona.  Knit (k pronounced) us tugether mit them, not bei dɔ grɔb (rude) bonda ov selfishnes, but bei dɔ swɪter korder ov lov and mitfɪl (sympathy).  Wɪ beten for thei blesing upon ql nashona.  Erin (remember) dɔ folka that qr strugeling up slɔli, and sɪking festikeit (stability) in gereitikeit (justice) and nolej.  Let thei kingdom kom, let thei wil bɪ don on erth as it is in heven.
&lt;p align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;A·MEN.

====PRI·CHEL (SERMON).====
&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Translated from the Rev. Dr. Thomas.  Printed in the Chicago Times of January 27, 1890.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
TEKST—''“Mei lɔrsqts (doctrine) is not Mein, but His that sendo Mɪ.”''  John vii, 16.

The teil (part) that man ausfür (performs) in the thot and work ov the world is ersheinli (apparently) grɔs (large), and often worthi ov prais; but it is ferhɔldik (relative) and bethingish (conditional), rather than absolut.  Hɪ kan not sɪ mitaut leit, nor brɪth mitaut luft (air), nor think mitaut somthing to think abaut, and dɔ lqs (laws) ov thot bei which to think.  That which man kql his ɔn, in a heier sens is not his ɔn.  To bekom what hɪ is, and to erwerb (acquire) what hɪ has, hɪ has drqen upon other bakkela (resources); hɪ has borɔen from dɔ krqfta (forces) and mqkta (powers) ov natur, and leif, and fernunft (reason). Hens Jesus Kreist kud sai:  “Mei lɔrsqts is not Mein, but His that sendo Mɪ.”  Ther is a nɪdwendik (necessary), a selftherbɪik (self-existent) kel (source) from which ql is, a bɪing ov bɪinga, hum wɪ kql “Aur Fqther.”

The fqrmer mai sai: “Thɪs qr mei fɪlda, mei bqrna, mei herda.  Ei hav bezqlen (paid) for the land, ei hav planten, ei hav bilden,” and in this sens thai qr his.  But hu ɔn the erth?  Hu ɔn dɔ yɪrteima (seasons), the sunshein and the rain?  Hu ɔn the geheimli (mysterious) somthing that wɪ kql leif, and the leifik (vital) stuflɔr (chemistry) bei which the gras gro and the grain reipu?  Man skreib a buk, and kql it his ɔn, but hu ɔn dɔ kendɪda (facts) ov histori that it ertel (relates), or dɔ trutha ov grundlɔr (philosophy) that it unfɔld, or dɔ grunda (principles) ov wisenshqft (science) that it erklɪr (explains)?  Mana (men) entwerf (project) gestɪringa (governments) and relijona, but thai du not klem (claim) to hav ershaipen (created) or to ɔn dɔ grunda ov frɪhud (liberty) and gereitikeit (justice); thai hav ɔnli brauken (used; Anglo-Saxon, ''brukan)'' what qlredi, therbɪdo (existed) in sqmbilding (constructing) a republik or a monqrki.  And so mensha (men and women; Anglo-Saxon, ''mennisk)'' bild relijona upon thair begrifa (conceptions) ov God, but thai du not klem to ɔn the Unendik (Infinite).

Jesus stando (stood) befɔr the sitlik (moral) order and lqs (laws) ov the worldql (universe).  Hɪ inbodien (embodied) thɪs lqs and livo them, and sɪko to ofenbar (reveal) them tu othera. And it is in this qnrɯf (appeal) tu the absolut, and drqing upon it and bringing sɔla intu leifik bezɪung (relation) mit it, that wɪ qr to feind the erklɪru (explanation) ov His fɔrthdurik (continuous) mqkt ɔver the grait hqrt ov the world.

Alexander, and Cæsar, and Napoleon wer grait mqkta in thair dai; but thai lɪvo beheind sich the ferwüstung (desolation) ov krɪg (war), and their mqkt (power) has pasen awai.  Galileo, and Kopernikus, and Newton wer mqkta in the world ov wisenshqft (science); and deiing, thai lɪvo the skei, and dɔ stqra, and the godik (divine) order ov dɔ hevena, and mit them thai lɪvo the grait buk ov natur, and dɔ inbrɪthinga (inspirations) to go on tu stil heier errɪchela (attainments).

Jesus Kreist lɪvo us the mqkt ov His beispɪl (example) ov self-opferung (self-sacrifice), and dɔ leidena (sufferings) ov lov to ret (save); Hɪ lɪvo dɔ hevena ql aglo mit the erinel (memory) ov a grait nu dai ov frɪd (peace), and the gud wil and the brutherhud ov man.  Jesus bringo nɪr and maiko wirkli (real) Godo leif in man, and hens His mqkt fermɔr (increase) sich as dɔ yɪrhundreda (centuries) kom and go.

And thus qr ql tru tɪchera daunmutik (humble) and argiving (honor-giving, reverent; Anglo-Saxon, ar, honor, reverence), as thai stand befɔr dɔ grait trutha ov the worldql; thair mqkt is not in themselfa, but in dɔ trutha thai erklar (declare), and in bringing other meinda in leifik bezɪunga (relations) mit thɪs trutha.

Relijon is that which feranu (unites) the sɔl tu God.

[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]
[[Category:Auxlangs]]
[[Category:Public domain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Grammar of Saxon English.pdf</title>
    <id>814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4206</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-29T06:56:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>PDF of [[Grammar of Saxon English]], as of 28 January 2005.  </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">PDF of [[Grammar of Saxon English]], as of 28 January 2005.  </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Trentish Morphology</title>
    <id>816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4207</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-31T05:34:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hmm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Thinking out loud here.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 21:34, 30 Jan 2005 (PST)

We can have ordinary kinds of verbs in Trentish but by far the most usual type should be generic motion or state markers:

:''(motion)''
::khepwu &quot;move from one place to another&quot;
::khlede &quot;rise, ascend, move upward without effort&quot;
::krrngohnyoh &quot;add to what already exists&quot;
::la &quot;move quickly&quot;
::luphi &quot;climb, move upward with effort&quot;
::ƛohmupu &quot;take away by pieces from what already exists&quot;
::qu &quot;stand up&quot; 
::sohpohne &quot;to lead, go along in front of&quot;
::thabal &quot;walk, go by foot&quot;

:''(state)''
::aphel &quot;have more ends on one side (fringe, bifurcate)&quot;
::küpeqyi &quot;to exist for a long time&quot;
::mena &quot;move back and forth irrationally&quot;
::nohku &quot;be still and silent&quot;

:most generic:
::kwr &quot;be (doing)&quot;
::shano &quot;be (characterized by)&quot;

Stuff like this would if necessary be modified by... other kinds of modifiers.

Also, the incorporable nouns would be a small class like counters: a generic marker standing for a whole class of things. e.g. ''u'' as a noun means 'trent' but as an incorporated noun could stand for any kind of person.  Have to think about this. 


----</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galhaf (planet)</title>
    <id>817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44122</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-14T06:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #e9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Galhaf'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|'''Mean Distance from [[Suns of Galhaf|sun]]''': || 115,101,268 km&lt;br&gt;.7694 AU
|-
|Perhelion: || 107,540,594 km
|-
|Aphelion: || 122,661,942 km
|-
|'''Orbital Period''': || 259 d, 15 h, 36 m, 13.286 s (Earth)&lt;br&gt;244 d, 20 h, 53 m, 22.709 s (local)
|-
|'''[[Galhafan year|Mean Tropical Year]]''': || 259 d, 15 h, 28 m, 59.263 s (Earth)&lt;br&gt;244 d, 20 h, 46 m, 42.822 s (local)
|-
|'''Eccentricity''': || .065687
|-
|'''Sidereal day''': || 25 h, 20 m, 40.747 s
|-
|'''Solar day''': || 25 h, 26 m, 54.88 s
|-
|'''Diameter''': || 12,233 km
|-
|'''Surface area''': || 470,130,000 km²
|-
|'''Axial tilt''': || 20.2º
|-
|'''Mass''': || 5.28962×10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt; kg&lt;br&gt;(.88541 Earth-masses)
|-
|'''Gravity''': || 9.43389 m/s²&lt;br&gt;.961989 g
|-
|'''Number of moons''': || [[Moons of Galhaf|2]]
|}

'''Galhaf''' is the fourth [[Planets of Chihazh|planet]] orbiting [[Suns of Galhaf|Chihazh]].

The planet's landmasses are more spread-out than Earth, broken up into a dozen or so mini-continents and two major continents.

Major continents are:
*[[Odirá]]
*[[Kraya]]

[[Category: Planets of the Chihazh System]]
[[Category: Galhaf|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Spanish</title>
    <id>818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41150</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-22T03:38:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diphthongs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{workinprogress}}
'''Spanish''' is a [[Romance Languages|Romance]] language, native to [[Spain]] but spoken throughout Central and South America, and the United States.  The dialect known as '''[[Castilian]]''' is from Spain only and has grammatical and phonological differences from southern Spain and all other dialects of Spanish.   
{{Language|
| English = Spanish
| native = Español
| dialect english = 
| country = Spain (among many others)
| nativecountry = España
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 400 million native.
| family = [[Indo-European]]
| branch = [[Italic languages| Italic]]
| subbranch = Romance &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Latin]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Ibero
| wordorder = SVO,
| type = Inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 15th century C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = violet
| width = 33%
}}
=Phonology and Orthography=
==Consonants==

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod.||colspan=2| Inter-dental||colspan=2| Alveolar||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || ɲ || || ŋ
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || p || b || || || t̪ || d̪ ||  ||  || || || || || k || g || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || β || f || || (θ) || (ð) || s || || (ʃ) || (ʒ) || ç ||  || x || ɣ || (h)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || || ||  ||  || ʧ || (ʤ) || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants &amp; glides || ||   || || || || || ||  || || || || j
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || r || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Flap || || || || || || || || ɾ || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant ||  ||  || ||  || || || || l/ɫ
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
* Many of the orthographic sounds in Spanish are similar to their IPA equivalents: p, k, t, n, m, l and f.
* The three voiced stops often become their fricative equivalents when they are in a inter-vocallic case, or between vowels.  This means /d̪/ becomes /ð/, /g/ becomes /ɣ/, and /b/ becomes /β/.  
* Most of the time orthographic '''v''' becomes /b/ or /β/ according to the rule above.
* The digraph '''ch''' is used for ʧ, but in some dialects it is pronounced /ʃ/ instead.
* Spanish distinguishes the full trill /r/ from the flap /ɾ/.  The full trill starts a word, is after a '''d''', or is more generally spelt '''rr'''.  This can be important in phrases and names, for example '''Costa Rica''' /costa rika/ is turned into an adjective as '''costarricense''' where the spelling has changed to include a '''rr'''. The flap is only spelt '''r''' inside a word.  There are minimal pairs such as '''pero''' (but) versus '''perro''' (dog).
* The letter '''ñ''' is pronounced /ɲ/.
* The letter '''c''' is pronounced /k/ when before a back vowel (a, o, u) or any consonant.  In Castilian Spanish, when the '''c''' is in front of a front vowel (i, e) it becomes /θ/.  In most other variations it becomes /s/.
* The letter '''z''' is pronounced /s/ in most Spanish dialects but is pronounced /θ/ in Castilian.
* The letter '''y''' or the digraph '''ll''' represents /j/, but in some dialects it is pronounced /ʤ/ or /ʒ/ instead.
* The letter '''j''' is pronounced /x/ after back vowels (a, o, u) and /ç/ after or before front vowels and consonants. Some variations have it as /h/ but not commonly.
* The letter '''g''' is pronounced /g/ after back vowels and consonants, but when before '''i''' or '''e''' it becomes /ç/.  Some variations have it is /h/ but not commonly.  When the '''g''' has a '''u''' after it, and then a '''i''' or '''e''', the /u/ is not pronounced and the combination '''gui''' is pronounced /gi/ and '''gue''' is pronounced /ge/.  If it spelt '''güe''' or '''güi''' then it is pronounced /gwe/ or /gwi/ respectively.

==Vowels==
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|-
|  |||Front || Central || Back
|- 
| || Unround || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
| High || i || || u
|- 
| Mid || e  ||  || o
|-
| Low ||   ||  a
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
* All vowels are equivalent to the IPA forms. So '''i''' /i/, '''e''' /e/, '''a''' /a/, '''o''' /o/, '''u''' /u/.
* All vowels are either stressed or not stressed. Spanish, like most [[Romance Languages]], has penultimate stress (stress on the last syllable).  When the stress falls on a syllable other than the last, an accent is used.  This leads to '''í''', '''é''', '''á''', '''ó''', and '''ú'''.  The '''ü''' is used in Spanish to indicate when a /u/ would be pronounced after a '''g'''.  
* Accents on vowels are also used to show a difference in meaning.  This is important in question words, which have an accent when they are used as a question, and no accent when they are used in other ways, '''dónde''' vs. '''donde'''.  It's also used to show more specific meaning differences, such as '''el''' (the) vs. '''él''' (he), or '''tu''' (your) vs. '''tú''' (you).

==Diphthongs==
This is the list of diphthongs:
*'''ei''', '''ey''', '''ell''' /ej/
*'''ai''', '''all''', '''ay''' /aj/
*'''oi''', '''oy''', '''oll''' /oj/
*'''eu''' /ew/
*'''au''' /aw/
*'''ou''' /ow/
*'''ie''', '''lle''' /je/
*'''ia''', '''lla''' /ja/
*'''io''', '''llo''' /jo/
*'''iu''' /ju/
*'''ui''' /wi/
*'''ue''' /we/
*'''ua''' /wa/
*'''uo''' /wo/.

=Grammar=
==Nouns==
===Gender===
There are two genders in Spanish, Masculine and Feminine.  One sources uses the mnemonic L-O-N-E-R-S, to show which noun endings are masculine, and D-IÓN-Z-A for feminine nouns. 
*This would mean that words which ending in the first set of letters are almost always masculine, such as '''el baúl''' (trunk), '''el vino''' (wine), '''el pan''' (bread), '''el padre''' (father), '''el licor''' (liquor), and '''el dios''' (god).  The major exception in this group is the use of '''-e''' which is common for both genders.
*This would also mean that words ending in the second set of letters would be feminine, such as '''la verdad''' (truth), '''la mansión''' (mansion), '''la vejez''' (old age), and '''la pierna''' (leg).
There are certain endings which are usually one or the other.  An example would be that most nouns ending with '''-ma''' are masculine, such as '''el problema''', '''el programma''', '''el diploma''', '''el drama''', and more.

===Number===
Number in Spanish is fairly simple and straight forward.  The plural is usually formed by adding '''-s''' to a noun ending in a vowel, and '''-es''' to a noun ending in a consonant.  There are a few exceptions, but that's the basic system.

===Articles===
There are 2 kinds of articles in Spanish, definite and indefinite.  They also change by number and gender.  For the definite article ('''the''' in English), we have the following chart:
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! 
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Masculine''' || el || los
|-
| '''Feminine'''  || la || las
|}
The masculine article can also contract with the preposition '''á''' and '''de''' to make '''al''' and '''del'''.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
The indefinite article in Spanish is derived from the word for '''one''', '''uno''' (this also occurs in [[High German]] and [[English]] amongst many others).  There is a plural form, which is similar to the word '''some''' in English.  The chart is as follows:
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! 
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Masculine''' || un || unos
|-
| '''Feminine'''  || una || unas
|}

==Pronouns==
===Subject Pronouns===
Subject pronouns in Spanish are as follows:
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
!
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Singular
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Plural
|-
| '''First''' || yo || nosotros/nosotras
|-
| '''Second informal'''  || tú || vosotros/vosotras
|-
| '''Second Formal''' ||Usted || Ustedes
|-
| '''Third Masculine'''  || él || ellos
|-
| ''''Third Feminine''' || ella || ellas
|}
Because of the extensive verb endings, in most cases the subject pronoun may be dropped.  When it is included in speech it is usually an indicator of stress or emphasis, or otherwise it would differentiate endings, such as that between the verb endings which are the same, such as between the '''Usted''' form form the '''él/ella''' forms and likewise in the plural.
Notes:
'''tú''' is used on in cases of familiarity, so that includes friends, children, family, and others.  The plural form, '''vosotros''' is being used less and less in places other than Spain.  A new pronoun '''vos''' has been forming in Central and South America and has been replacing '''tú'''.
'''Usted''' is used in formal cases, or cases where '''Sir/Ma'am/Miss''' would be used in English.
'''nosotras''' or '''vosotras''' are only when the group mentioned (either we or you) is entirely female.  Otherwise, the masculine forms are used.

===Direct Object Pronouns===
===Indirect Object Pronouns===
===Reflexive Pronouns===

==Adjectives==
Adjectives have 4 forms, masculine singular, feminine singular, masculine (and feminine combined) plural, and feminine plural.  With adjectives ending with masc. sing. '''-o''', the fem. sing. '''-a''', masc. pl. '''-os''', and fem. pl. '''-as'''.  With adjectives ending in an consonant or ending with '''-e''', the form is the same for both singular cases, and the plural is '''-es''' for endings of consonants and '''-s''' in the case of ending with '''-e'''.
There are other rules which have endings of '''-a''' after a consonant (such as masc. '''español''' vs fem. '''española''')

==Adverbs==
The most common way for an adverb to end is '''-mente''', which is added to the feminine singular form of the Adjective.

==Prepositions==
==Conjunctions==
==Verbs==
&lt;i&gt; Main Article: [[Spanish Verbs]] &lt;i&gt;&lt;br&gt;
There are three major types of verbs, also called the three conjugations.  These depend on the ending of the infinitive, leaving with the three categories being called '''-ar''' verbs, '''-er''' verbs, and '''-ir''' verbs.
===Present===
The present tense in Spanish is equivalent to the Present, Present Progressive, and Emphatic tenses in English.  Remember that the Third person also includes &quot;Usted/Ustedes&quot; which are technically the Second Person.
The '''-ar''' verb '''amar''' (to love), the '''-er''' verb '''comer''', and the '''-ir''' verb '''vivir''' are conjugated in the Present tense as follows:
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || amo  || amamos || como || comemos || vivo || vivimos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || amas || amáis || comes || coméis || vives || vivís
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ama || aman || come || comen || vive || viven
|}

===Progressive===
The progressive in Spanish, which is similar to the English progressive, is formed with a form of the verb '''estar''' and an ending of '''-ndo''' ('''-ando''' for '''-ar''', and '''-iendo''' for '''-er''' and '''-ir''').  The present tense is usually used where the progressive might be used in English.  In Spanish, the progressive is often used as an adjective, although the verbal form is used as well.

===Preterite===

{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Preterite tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || amé  || amamos || comí || comimos || viví || vivimos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || amaste || amastéis || comiste || comisteis || viviste || vivisteis
|-
| '''3rd person''' || amó || amaron || comió || comieron || vivió || vivieron
|}

===Imperfect===
The imperfect past tense is used for things that happened habitually in the past.  Sometimes these things are continuing to the present, most this refers to the past really.
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Imperfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || amaba  || amábamos || comía || comíamos || vivía || vivíamos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || amabas || amabais || comías || comíais || vivías || vivíais
|-
| '''3rd person''' || amaba || amaban || comía || comían || vivía || vivían
|}

===Future===
There are two ways of forming the future tense in Spanish.  The first is the standard form, which is mentioned below.  It is used for describing things that will happen.
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Future tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || amaré || amaremos || comeré || comeremos || viviré || viviremos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || amarás || amaréis || comeréis || comeréis || vivirás || viviréis
|-
| '''3rd person''' || amará || amarán || comerá || comerán || vivirá || vivirán
|}
&lt;br&gt;
The second form involves a version of the verb '''ir''' (to go) + '''a'''.  This is equivalent to English '''to be going to'''.
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Future progressive tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || voy a amar || vamos a amar || voy a comer || vamos a comer || voy a vivir || vamos a vivir
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || vas a amar || vais a amar || vas a comer ||  vais a comer || vas a vivir ||  vais a vivir
|-
| '''3rd person''' || va a amar || van a amar || va a comer || van a comer || va a vivir || van a vivir
|}

===Conditional===
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Conditional tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || amaría  || amaríamos || comería || comeríamos || viviría || viviríamos
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || amaríais || amáis || comerías || comeríais || vivirías || viviríais
|-
| '''3rd person''' || amaría || amarían || comería || comerían || viviría || vivirían
|}

===Subjunctive===
====Present====

{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Subjunctive present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || ame || amemos || coma || comamos || viva || vivamos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || ames || améis || comas || comáis || vivas || viváis
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ame || amen || coma || coman || viva || vivan
|}
====Past====
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Subjunctive past tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || 	amara/amase || amáramos/amásemos || comiera/comiese || comiéramos/comiésemos|| viviera/viviese || viviéramos/viviésemos
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || 	amaras/amases || amarais/amaseis || comieras/comieses || comierais/comieseis || 	viviera/vivieses || vivierais/vivieseis
|-
| '''3rd person''' || 	amara/amase || 	amaran/amasen || comiera/comiese ||  comieran/comiesen || viviera/viviese|| vivieran/viviesen
|}
===Imperative===
The imperative has two different forms, the affirmative and negative.  The forms used for the Imperative are often similar to the Subjunctive forms.
====Affirmative====
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Imperative'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || - || amemos || - || comamos || - || vivamos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || ama || amad || come || comed || vive || vivid
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ame || amen || coma || coman || viva || vivan
|}
====Negative====
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Negative Imperative'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || - || no amemos || - || no comamos || - || no vivamos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || no ames || no améis || no comas || no comáis|| no vivas || no viváis
|-
| '''3rd person''' || no ame || no amen || no coma || no coman || no viva || no vivan
|}

===Compound tenses===
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Present perfect tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Amar''' To love || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Comer''' to eat ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Vivir''' to live
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || 	he amado || hemos amado || he comido || hemos comido || he vivido || hemos vivido 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || 	has amado|| habéis amado || has comido || habéis comido || has vivido || habéis vivido
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ha amado || han amado || ha comido || han comido || ha vivido || han vivido
|}

===The Verbs '''ser''', '''estar''' and '''ir'''===
Spanish has two standard verbs '''to be'''.  That with the verb '''to go''' are conjugated as follows:
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''ser''' To be || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''estar''' to be, to stay ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''ir''' to go
|-
| || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || 	soy || somos || estoy || estamos || voy || vamos 
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || 	eres || sois || estás || estáis || vas || vais
|-
| '''3rd person''' || es || son || está || estan || va || van
|}
===The Verb '''Haber'''===
The auxiliary verb '''haber''' is used mostly for compounding for the perfect tenses.  It is used for that meaning more constrictively, and other verbs are used for other forms of English '''to have''', such as '''tener''', used for possessing something.
{| class=&quot;bluetable {{{1}}}&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Present tense'''
|-
| '''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| '''haber''' To have 
|-
| || sing. || pl. 
|-
| '''1st person'''  || 	he || hemos
|-
| '''2nd person'''  || 	has || habéis 
|-
| '''3rd person''' || ha || han
|}

=Languages based on Spanish=

==Creoles and natural descendants==

[[Ladino]]. Spoken by descendants of Sephardi Jews expelled from Spain in the 15th century. It's spoken in certain areas around the world, mainly in Israel.

[[Portuñol]]. A mix of Spanish and Portuguese spoken in some southern Brazil areas.

==Constructed languages==
[[Montreiano]]

=External links=
[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/spanish.htm SAMPA for Spanish] &lt;br&gt;
[http://www.ling.northwestern.edu/~abradlow/bradlow-jasa95.pdf Comment about Spanish vowels.]  &lt;br&gt;
[http://www.studyspanish.com/ A good source for Beginners of Spanish, Study Spanish] &lt;br&gt;

=Sources=
The page is by [[Timothy Patrick Snyder]]


[[Category:Romance natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Voiceless velar stop</title>
    <id>819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48961</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T17:17:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;k&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || k
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;k&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Stop]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;DORSAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[+high]
|}

The voiceless velar stop is a common sound. Its voiced equivalent is [[Voiced velar stop|g]]. 

Velar stops often palatalize before front vowels; this effect may be seen in many languages' traditional pronunciations of Latin &quot;c&quot;, originally /k/. It is denoted as [k] in IPA and &lt;tt&gt;k&lt;/tt&gt; in X-SAMPA

== Features ==

Features of [k]:

* Its [[manner of articulation]] is [[stop]] , which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. 
* Its [[place of articulation]] is [[velar consonant|velar]]. 
* Its [[phonation]] type is voiceless, which means the vocal cords are not vibrating during the articulation. 
* It is a [[oral consonant]], which means air is not allowed to escape through the nose.
* It is a [[central consonant]], which means it is produced by allowing the airstream to flow over the middle of the tongue, rather than the sides.
* The [[airstream mechanism]] is [[pulmonic egressive]], which means it is articulated by pushing air out of the [[lung]]s and through the vocal tract, rather than from the [[glottis]] or the mouth.

===English===

It is a common phoneme in English, and can be represented with &lt;ch&gt; (chaos, /keIOs/), &lt;k&gt; (kit, /kIt/), or &lt;c&gt; (call, /kaL\/).


{{stub}}
[[Category:Phonetic segments|k]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Fn</title>
    <id>820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4211</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-13T08:42:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_{{{1}}}_back&quot; class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}}}#fn_{{{1}}}]&lt;/sup&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Fnb</title>
    <id>821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4212</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-13T08:44:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_{{{1}}}&quot;&gt;[[#fn_{{{1}}}_back|▲]]: &lt;/cite&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Stop</title>
    <id>822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47889</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-01T23:01:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expansion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''stop''' is a kind of [[consonant]] during which the flow of air through the mouth is entirely stopped.  Thus the term can refer to [[nasal]]s, though ''oral stops'' are usually meant.

[[Affricate]]s are also be subsumed under stops under the previous definition. The class of oral non-affricate stops is that of '''plosives'''.

Table of typical (non-affricate) stops:

{|
|-
! !! [[Labial consonant|Labial]] !! [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] !! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] !! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Epiglottal consonant|Epiglottal]] !! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! Voiceless stops
| [[Voiceless labial stop|p]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || [[Voiceless retroflex stop|ʈ]]
| [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]] || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] || [[Voiceless uvular stop|q]]
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Epiglottal stop|ʡ]]* || rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]*
|-
! Voiced stops
| [[Voiced labial stop|b]] || [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] || [[Voiced retroflex stop|ɖ]]
| [[Voiced palatal stop|ɟ]] || [[Voiced velar stop|g]] || [[Voiced uvular stop|ɢ]]
|-
! [[Nasal]] stops
| [[Labial nasal|m]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] || [[Retroflex nasal|ɳ]]
| [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || [[Uvular nasal|ɴ]]
| N/A || N/A
|}
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; The [[IPA]] symbol for the epiglottal stop has no voicing defined; the voiced/voiceless distinction does not apply to the glottal stop.

==Stops in languages==
All [[natural language]]s have plosives; all have at least three out of the four of labial, coronal, velar and glottal. (This is sometimes stated in terms of /p t k ʔ/; however, this does not work in cases where the only labial stop is voiced /b/.)

From this we can sketch out subtypes.
* Both languages with and without the glottal stop are commonplace.
* Languages without labial stops are found in the Americas, including [[Iroquioan]] languages and [[Tlingit]].
* Possibly the only language without any coronal stops or affricates is [[Hawaiian]], however even it has /n/. Among the [[Khoisan]] languages, N|u bizarrely turns up lacking /t d/. It does have /n ts/.
* Languages without velar stops are found sparsely, including the pacific [[Samoan]] and the Brazilian [[Xavante]].

Nasal stops are also found in most languages. In some, including African languages as well as Amazonian languages like [[Pirahã]], they may be allophonic with oral stops (more rarely, with other sonorants eg. [m] ~ [ɓ], or [n] ~ [l]), and thus, missing phonemically but not phonetically. Tlingit again works as an example where nasals are lacking also phonetically. The same goes for the quite minimal [[Rotokas]].

:[[ANADEW]]: [[Arabic]] and [[Hausa]] have no /p/. [[Pirahã]] has [m] only as an allophone of /b/, and [k] but possibly not /k/. [[Winnebago]] lacks /t/ but has /d/.

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Chlewey</title>
    <id>823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4214</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-02T20:28:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>&quot;intereses&quot; -&gt; &quot;interests&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Carlos Eugenio Thompson Pinzón'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''|| November 29, 1972; [[Wikipedia:Bogotá|Bogotá]], [[Wikipedia:Colombia|Colombia]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''|| [[Wikipedia:Electronics engineering|Electronics Engineer]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Languages:'''|| [[Wikipedia:Spanish Language|Spanish]], [[Wikipedia:English Language|English]], [[Wikipedia:Swedish|Swedish]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''||
[[AltHist:Alternate history|Alternate history]], [[Conlangcity:|Constructed languages]], [[Wikipedia:Vexillology|Vexillology]], [[Wikipedia:Telecommunications|Telecommunications]], [[Wikipedia:Data networks|Data networks]]
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''||
[http://chlewey.org/ The Chlewey Site]&lt;br&gt;
[[IBWiki:User:Chlewey|at Ill Bethisad Wiki]]&lt;br&gt;
[[AltHist:User:Chlewey|at Alternate History Wiki]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Conlangcity:User:Chlewey|at Conlang Wikicity]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Wikipedia:User:Chlewey|at Wikipedia]]&lt;br&gt;
|}
'''Carlos Eugenio Thompson Pinzón''', AKA '''Chlewey''' is also described in:
*[[IBWiki:User:Chlewey|IB Wiki]]
*[[AltHist:User:Chlewey|Alternate History Wiki]]
*[[ConlangWiki:Chlewey|Conlang Wiki]]
*[[Conlangcity:Conlang Wikicity]]
*[http://www.chlewey.org The Chlewey Site]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homonyms Across Languages</title>
    <id>824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28855</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-13T23:30:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category:collaborations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Please add any homonyms from your language to the list! This page is new, so we still need to determine &quot;rules&quot;:

;Homonym display
:How are we writing the homonyms down? IPA or X-SAMPA would seem the best choice for a multilingual list.
::* I vote for IPA in Unicode, even though this is somewhat cumbersome to type. [[User:Arthaey|Arthaey]] 23:58, 1 Mar 2005 (PST)

;Requirements for addition
:Part of the reason for having this list centralized on the wiki is to make it easy to add only one's own words to the list, rather than compare one's entire lexicon against all other languages' lexicons. But does this mean that we eventually ''want'' to have a single page with the collective lexicons of all languages, arranged &quot;alphabetically&quot; by IPA character? That seems like a whole lot of words -- then again, that might be exactly what this list is ''supposed'' to be, in which case it's a good thing. Thoughts?
::* I've added an /ɑ/ section with all the Asha'ille words beginning with that phoneme. I also removed syllable stress indication from the /ɑ/ entries. Is this how we want to proceed with additions? [[User:Arthaey|Arthaey]] 02:47, 2 Mar 2005 (PST)

== The Homonyms ==
=== A ===

*alba
**Gobldi Guk ''snob''
**Old Albic ''Elf''
**Tundrian ''dawn, daybreak''

*aldea
**Ilaini ''sorrow''
**Kash ''name''
**Quenya ''arboreal, connected to trees''
**Verdurian ''village''

*ando
**[[Nadarian]] ''head'' (андо)
**Quenya ''gate'', ''door''

*anna
**[[Nadarian]] ''she'' (анна)
**Quenya ''gift''
**Sindarin ''give''

*aran
**Ilaini ''twenty''
**[[Nadarian]] ''friend'' (аран)
**Quenya ''king''
**Sindarin ''king''
**Verdurian ''cradle''

=== ɑ ===
*ɑ
**Asha'ille ''she''
**Njaama ''water''
**Kelenala ''one''
**Kamakawi ''now''
*ɑbɛɹɑ
**Asha'ille ''monkey''
*ɑtʃjɑ
**Asha'ille interjection of direct address
*ɑkið
**Asha'ille ''warm''
*ɑd
**Asha'ille reflexive
*ɑdɑdʒiɹɪv
**Asha'ille ''to attack''
*ɑdɑɹɛv
**Asha'ille ''to bring''
*ɑdɑʃɑv
**Asha'ille ''to reply''

=== E ===
*etin
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''they (mixed gender)''
**[[Nadarian]] ''God'' (еθин)

=== F ===
*fenutaz
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''to use''
*firan
**Ilaini ''weaver''
**Verdurian ''to ferment''
**Lauranthea ''to do(past tense)''
**Faranit ''cord, string''
*fokin
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''we''
*futesh
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''journey''
**[[Lâmian]] ''family''

=== G ===
*gali
**Ayeri ''juice''
**[[Henaudute]] ''birds''
**Ilaini ''script''
**Verdurian ''bath''
**Xinkutlan ''to look''
**[[Lâmian]] ''head''
*gran
**Ilaini ''sane''
**[[Nadarian]] ''branch'' (гран)
**Verdurian ''border''
**Tundrian ''grain''
*grel
**Gweydr ''list''
**Ilaini ''clean-shaven''
**Verdurian ''hail''
**Lauranthea ''grassland''
*grelan
**Ilaini ''barber''
**Verdurian ''to hail''
*gula
**Ilaini ''to descend''
**Verdurian ''bile''
**Lauranthea ''to fall (over)''
**Xinkutlan ''to be empty''

=== H ===
*host
**Ilaini ''white''
**Verdurian ''bone''
**Tundrian ''host, guest''

=== J ===
*jorat
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''earth (planet)''

=== L ===
*lest
**Ilaini ''blue''
**Telendlest ''language''
**Verdurian ''unit of distance''

=== M ===
*maha
**Neo Patwa ''big, great''
*mena
**Ferrine ''after''
**Ilaini ''to give''
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''face''
**Kontaxta ''time''
**[[Nadarian]] ''change'' (мiенна)
**Sathir ''to release''
**Senyecan ''to await, to remain''
**Verdurian ''wave''
*mira
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''world''
*moba
**[[Nadarian]] ''language'', ''speech''; ''tongue'' (мобба)
*mura
**Ilaini ''to lie (flat)''
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''village''
**[[Nadarian]] ''laughter'' (мурха)
**Verdurian ''wonder''
**Xinkutlan ''(for) any reason''

=== N ===
*nebo
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''sky''

=== P ===
*pula
**Ilaini ''to harvest''
**Verdurian ''sphere''
**Lauranthea ''to change (intransitive)''

=== S ===
*sas
**[[Sasxsek]] ''Earth''
*sek
**[[Sasxsek]] ''say; state; communicate; communication; declare; mention; language''
*set
**[[Nadarian]] ''word'' (сеθ)
**[[Sasxsek]] ''set, group, flock, herd''
*sora
**Ilaini ''to hunt''
**Kontaxta ''curve''
**[[Nadarian]] ''hair'', ''beard'' (сорра)
**Senyecan ''to sour''
**Verdurian ''community''
**Xinkutlan ''body hair, fur''

=== T ===
*toran
**[[Kharos S'fik]] ''tower''
**[[Nadarian]] ''king'', also a first name (торан)
*torin
**Ilaini ''fame''
**Verdurian ''apart''

=== U ===
*ulu
**Kamakawi ''weak''
**Kelenala ''down''
**Neo Patwa ''dog''

[[Category:Trivia]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Dedalvs</title>
    <id>825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42389</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-28T20:08:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dedalvs</username>
        <id>27</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">David Peterson is a language creator who has created the [http://dedalvs.conlang.org/zhyler/ Zhyler], [http://dedalvs.conlang.org/kamakawi/ Kamakawi], [http://dedalvs.conlang.org/kelenala/ Kelenala], and [http://dedalvs.conlang.org/epiq/ Epiq] languages, among others.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Muke/Sandbox</title>
    <id>826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4217</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-17T22:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.9.89.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>testing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;h1&gt;Lupus — ''[[Project:Lingua Latina|Latine]]''&lt;/h1&gt;
__TOC__
{| style=&quot;width:98%; padding:5px&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|style=&quot;width:49%; border-right:solid darkgray 1px;&quot;|
===Appellatio===
:/ˈlupus/ ''(classice)''
:/ˈlupus/ ''(ecclesiastice)''
|style=&quot;width:49%&quot;|
===Formae aliae===
===Notatio===
A lingua prisca Indeuropaea ''*vlk&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;v&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;os''.
|}

===Nomen===
{| style=&quot;width:98%; padding:5px&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|style=&quot;width:49%; border-right:solid darkgray 1px&quot;|
'''I.''' '''lup'''|'''us, -i''' m, f: [[lupa]]
:√ Animal mammiferum speciei ''Canis lupus.''
----
'''Loci:'''
:Lupus et agnus pascentur simul. —''Vulgata''

'''Translationes:''' 
* Anglice: [[wolf]]:

|style=&quot;width:49%&quot;|
'''II.'''
* Piscis speciei ''Anarhichas lupus.''
----
'''Translationes:''' 
* Anglice: [[Atlantic]] [[wolffish]]:
|}

===Declinatio===
{| style=&quot;padding:5px; width:100%&quot;
! 
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| nom 
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| voc
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| acc
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| gen
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| dat
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| abl
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| sing
| [[lupus]] || [[lupe]] || [[lupum]] || [[lupi]] || [[lupo]] || [[lupo]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;whitesmoke&quot;| plur
| [[lupi]] || [[lupi]] || [[lupos]] || [[luporum]] || [[lupis]] || [[lupis]]
|}

===Dictiones derivatae===
* [[lupinus]]
* Francogallice: '''[[loup]]''', Hispanice: '''[[lobo]]''', Italice: '''[[lupo]]'''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Homonyms Across Languages</title>
    <id>827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-11T00:10:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Should this include related terms, like aran in Quenya and Sindarin?  And how similar would they need to be?

I think that are most known as ''faux-amis''.—[[User:Conlanger|Conlanger]] 12:55, 28 Sep 2005 (PDT)

== What about... ==

...languages that are written in other alphabets, different than Roman? And what if one language has a word e. g. ''aran'' and another has ''yaran'', should that count as different things? --'''[[User:Zlatiborica|George D. Bozovic]]''' &lt;small&gt;''([[User talk:Zlatiborica|talk]])''&lt;/small&gt; 17:33, 10 July 2006 (PDT)

==Confusion==
Um... if this is about homonyms, then why are there a lot of entries of only one language's meaning?</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Latin</title>
    <id>828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47465</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-22T08:40:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* History */ rm redlinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Latin''' is an [[classical language|ancient]] [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] originally spoken in the region around [[Rome]] called [[Latium]]. It gained wide usage as the formal language of the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire]]. An [[inflection]]al and [[synthetic language]], Latin relies little on [[word order in Latin|word order]], conveying meaning through a system of [[affix]]es attached to [[word stem]]s. The [[Latin alphabet]], derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], remains the most widely used [[alphabet]] in the world.

Although now widely considered an [[extinct language]] with very few fluent speakers, Latin has had a major influence on many languages that are still thriving, and continues to see wide use in areas such as [[academia]].  All [[Romance language]]s are descended from [[Vulgar Latin]], and many words adapted from Latin are found in other [[modern language]]s, such as [[English language|English]]. Moreover, in the [[Western world]], Latin was the ''[[lingua franca]]'', the learned language for scientific and political affairs, for more than a thousand years, eventually being replaced by French in the [[18th century]] and English in the late [[19th century|19th]]. [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] remains the formal language of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to this day, and thus the official language of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. The Church used Latin as its primary [[liturgical language]] until the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the [[1960s]]. Latin is also still used&amp;mdash;drawing heavily on [[Greek language|Greek]] roots&amp;mdash;to furnish the names used in the [[scientific classification]] of living things. The modern study of Latin, along with [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], is known as [[Classics]].

==History==
{{main|History of the Latin Language}}
[[Image:Duenos inscription.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Duenos inscription]], from the 6th century BC, is the second-earliest known [[Old Latin|Latin]] text.]]

Latin is a member of the family of [[Italic languages]], and its alphabet, the [[Latin alphabet]], is based on the [[Old Italic alphabet]], which is in turn derived from the [[Greek alphabet]]. Latin was first brought to the [[Italy|Italian]] peninsula in the 9th or 8th century BC by migrants from the north, who settled in the [[Latium]] region, specifically around the River [[Tiber]], where the [[ancient Rome|Roman civilization]] first developed. Latin was influenced by the [[Italo-Celtic|Celtic dialects]] and the non-[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[Etruscan language]] in northern Italy, and by [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] in southern Italy.

Although surviving [[Latin literature]] consists almost entirely of [[Classical Latin]], an artificial and highly stylized and polished [[literary language]] from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Also, although Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, [[Greek language|Greek]] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the [[Byzantine Empire]], Greek eventually supplanted Latin as both the written and spoken language.

===Legacy===
[[Image:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The language of [[ancient Rome|Rome]] has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]] [[Bible]] from AD 1407.]]

The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and [[dialect]]ized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct [[Romance language]]s beginning around the 9th century. These were for many centuries only spoken languages, Latin still being used for writing. For example, Latin was the official language of [[Portugal]] until 1296, when it was replaced by [[Portuguese]]. Many of these languages, including Portuguese, [[Spanish]], [[French]], [[Italian]], and [[Romanian]], flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time.

Classical Latin and the Romance languages differ in a number of ways, and some of these differences have been used in attempts to reconstruct Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance languages have distinctive stress, whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and [[Sardo logudorese]], there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Spanish only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that all Romance languages, excluding Romanian, have lost their case endings in most words, except for some pronouns. Romanian retains a direct case (nominative/accusative), an indirect case (dative/genitive), and a vocative.

There has also been a major [[Latin influence in English]]. Although [[English language|English]] is [[Germanic language|Germanic]] rather than Romanic in origin&amp;mdash;[[Britannia]] was a [[Roman province]], but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions&amp;mdash;English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words, drawing from ecclesiastical usage and from Romance languages like French. In fact, after the [[Battle of Hastings]], the new King of England, [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], spoke [[French]], and French became the accepted language of the court and nobility, drastically changing the pre-invasion English language ([[Old English]]). However, [[English grammar]] is independent of [[Latin grammar]], though [[prescription and description|prescriptive grammarians]] in English have been heavily influenced by Latin. Attempts to make English grammar follow Latin rules&amp;mdash;such as the prohibition against the [[split infinitive]]&amp;mdash;have not worked successfully in regular usage.

From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers created huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek roots. These words were dubbed &quot;[[inkhorn]]&quot; or &quot;inkpot&quot; words, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, but some remain. ''Imbibe'', ''extrapolate'', ''dormant'' and ''inebriation'' are all inkhorn terms carved from Latin words. In fact, the word ''etymology'' is derived from the Greek word ''etymologia'', meaning &quot;true sense of the word&quot;. It is said that 80% of all scholarly English words are derived from Latin, in a large number of cases by way of French.

===Grammar===
{{main|Latin grammar}}

Latin is a [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] [[inflection]]al language: [[affix]]es (which usually encode more than one grammatical category) are attached to fixed [[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s to express [[grammatical gender|gender]], number, and [[grammatical case|case]] in [[adjective]]s, [[noun]]s, and [[pronoun]]s, which is called [[declension]]; and [[grammatical person|person]], number, [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], and [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] in [[verb]]s, which is called [[Latin conjugation|conjugation]]. There are five declensions (''declinationes'') of nouns and four conjugations of verbs.

There are seven noun cases:

# [[Nominative case | Nominative]] (used as the subject of the verb or the predicate nominative), 
# [[Genitive case | Genitive]] (used to indicate relation or possession, often represented by the English ''of'' or the addition of '''s'' to a noun), 
# [[Dative case | Dative]] (used of the indirect object of the verb, often represented by the English ''to'' or  ''for''.  Common verbs used with this case include giving, showing, helping, trusting, and telling.)
# [[Accusative case | Accusative]] (used of the direct object of the verb, or object of the preposition in some cases), 
# [[Ablative]] (separation, source, cause, or [[instrumental case|instrument]], often represented by the English ''by'', ''with'', ''from''),
# [[Vocative]] (used of the person or thing being addressed),
# [[Locative case ]] (used for certain words such as &quot;house&quot;, &quot;ground&quot;, and &quot;countryside&quot;. The locative case also applies to city names such as &quot;Rome&quot;, &quot;Venice&quot; or &quot;Naples&quot;.)

Latin itself, being a very old language, is far closer to Proto-Indo-European than are most modern Western European languages; it has, in fact, about the same relationship with PIE as modern Italian or French has to Latin.

There are six general [[grammatical tense|tenses]] in Latin (technically they are tense/aspect/mood complexes). The indicative mood can be used with all of them.  The subjunctive [[Grammatical mood|mood]], however, has only present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses.  These tenses in the subjunctive mood do not completely correlate in meaning to the tenses in the indicative.  The following examples are of the first conjugation verb ''laudare'' (&quot;to praise&quot;) in the indicative mood and the active [[grammatical voice|voice]]: 

;Present system tenses
# [[Present tense | Present]] (''laudo'', &quot;I praise,&quot; &quot;I am praising&quot;)
# [[Imperfect tense | Imperfect]] (''laudabam'', &quot;I was praising&quot;; ''laudabat'', &quot;he was praising&quot;)
# [[Future tense | Future]] (''laudabo'', &quot;I shall praise,&quot; &quot;I will praise&quot;)

;Perfect system tenses
# [[Perfect aspect | Perfect]] (''laudavi'', &quot;I praised,&quot; &quot;I have praised&quot;)
# [[Pluperfect tense | Pluperfect]] (''laudaveram'', &quot;I had praised&quot;)
# [[Perfect aspect | Future perfect]] (''laudavero'', &quot;I shall have praised,&quot; &quot;I will have praised&quot;)

The future perfect tense can also imply a normal future idea (like in &quot;When I will have run...&quot;).

== Education ==
[[Image:Latin_dictionary.jpg|thumb|250px|A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the [[University Library of Graz]].]]

Although Latin was once the universal academic language in Europe, in recent years it has been supplanted by the study of many other languages; it is a requirement in relatively few places, and in some schools is not even offered. However, in Italy, Latin is still compulsory in secondary schools such as the ''[[Liceo Classico]]'' and ''[[Liceo Scientifico]]'', which are usually attended by people who aim to the highest level of education. In ''Liceo Classico'', [[ancient Greek]] is also a compulsory subject. In France, Latin is found in the Lycée Classique, and in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands at the highest level of high schools called [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]. Latin was once taught in many of the schools in Britain with academic leanings&amp;mdash;perhaps 25% of the total.[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/teachem2/thennow/] However, the requirement for it was gradually abandoned in the professions such as law and medicine, and then, from around the late 1960s, for admission to university.  After the introduction of the Modern Language [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]] in the 1980s, it was gradually replaced by other languages, although it is now being taught by more schools along with other classical languages.

The linguistic element of Latin courses offered in high schools or secondary schools, and in universities, is primarily geared toward an ability to translate Latin texts into modern languages, rather than using it in oral communication. As such, the skill of reading is heavily emphasized, whereas speaking and listening skills are barely touched upon. However, there is a growing movement, sometimes known as the [[Living Latin]] movement, whose supporters believe that Latin can, or should, be taught in the same way that modern &quot;living&quot; languages are taught, that is, as a means of both spoken and written communication. One of the most interesting aspects of such an approach is that it assists speculative insight into how many of the ancient authors spoke and incorporated sounds of the language stylistically; without understanding how the language is meant to be heard it is very difficult to identify patterns in Latin poetry. Institutions offering Living Latin instruction include the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and the [[University of Kentucky]]. In [[Great_Britain|Britain]], the [[Classical Association]] encourages this approach, and there has been something of a vogue for books describing the adventures of a mouse called [[Minimus]]. In the [[United States]], there is a thriving competitive organization for high school Latin students, the [[National Junior Classical League]] (the second-largest youth organization in the world after the Boy Scouts), backed up by the Senior Classical League for college students.

Many would-be [[international auxiliary language]]s have been heavily influenced by Latin, and the moderately successful [[Interlingua]] considers itself to be the modernized and simplified version of the language (''le latino moderne international e simplificate'').

Latin translations of modern literature such as [[Paddington Bear]], [[Winnie the Pooh]], [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]], [[The Little Prince|Le Petit Prince]], [[Max and Moritz|Max und Moritz]], and [[The Cat in the Hat]] have also helped boost interest in the language.

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}&lt;!--related to Latin as a language--&gt;
* [[Latin grammar]]
** [[Ablative absolute]]
** [[Latin declension]]
** [[Latin conjugation]]
** [[Word order in Latin]]
* [[Latin spelling and pronunciation]]
* [[Latin alphabet]]
** [[ISO/IEC 8859-1|Latin-1]]
* [[Latin literature]]
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[Greek and Latin roots]]
* [[List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
** [[Latin verbs]] with English derivatives
** [[Latin nouns]] with English derivatives
* [[List of Latin place names in Europe]]
{{col-2}}&lt;!--other less language-specific topics--&gt;
* [[Ancient Rome]]
* [[Internationalism]]
* [[Romance languages]]
* [[Simlish]]

* [[:Category:User la|List of Wikipedia users who speak Latin]]
{{col-end}}

== References ==
* Bennett, Charles E. ''Latin Grammar'' (Allyn and Bacon, Chicago, 1908)
* N. Vincent: &quot;Latin&quot;, in ''The Romance Languages'', M. Harris and N. Vincent, eds., (Oxford Univ. Press. 1990), ISBN 0195208293
* Waquet, Françoise, ''Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries'' (Verso, 2003) ISBN 1859844022; translated from the French by John Howe.
* Wheelock, Frederic. ''Latin: An Introduction'' (Collins, 6th ed., 2005) ISBN 0060784237

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=la}}
{{Wikibookspar||Latin}}
* [http://www.poetaexmachina.net/ Latin Poetry Text-to-Speech] Listen to a synthetic voice chant any poem in Latin.  Non-emotive but accurate.
* [http://latinforum.org/ Latin forum] Board for Latin learners. 
* [http://www.special-dictionary.com/latin/ Latin Phrases and Abbreviations] Large Collection of Latin phrases with search function. Special Dictionary.
* [http://latinquotes.net/ Latin quotes] Various topics.
* [http://latin-phrases.co.uk/dictionary/ Latin phrases dictionary] Alphabetical collection.
* [http://www.wheelockslatin.com/chapters/introduction/introduction.html Introduction to Latin Pronunciation] A page with spoken examples of pronunciation
* [http://www.jambell.com/latin.html Latin Phrases for after dinner conversation (Thanks to Elaine Poole)]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=lat Ethnologue report for Latin]
* [http://ephemeris.alcuinus.net Ephemeris] International news in latin and much more.
* [http://forumromanum.org/literature/index.html Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum] is a comprehensive webography of Latin texts and their translations.
* [http://www.alcuinus.net/GLL/index.htm Grex Latine Loquentium] mailing list IN Latin
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform?lang=Latin an interactive Latin dictionary].
* [http://lysy2.archives.nd.edu/cgi-bin/words.exe words by William whitaker] is a dictionary program online capable of looking up various word forms.
* [http://retiarius.org/ Retiarius.Org] includes a Latin text search engine.
* [http://www.nd.edu/~archives/latgramm.htm Latin-English dictionary and Latin grammar from U of Notre Dame]
* [http://latin-language.co.uk/ Latin language] History of Latin language, Latin texts with English translation and a collection of dictionaries.
* [http://avitus.alcuinus.net/scl/ Societas Circulorum Latinorum] gathers together Latin Circles all over the world.
* [http://www.mentalcode.com/latin Mentalcode Latin] - Interactive grammar and vocabulary exercises (free)
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/latin LearnLatin.tk] - Free online course in Latin (learnlatin.tk appears to be unavailable, the link directs to a mirror site)
* [http://www.latintests.net/ LatinTests.net] - Lets Latin learners test their grammar and vocabulary with self-checking quizzes.
* [http://thelatinlibrary.com/ The Latin Library] contains many Latin etexts
* [http://www.textkit.com/ Textkit] has Latin textbooks and etexts.
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Latin-english/ Latin&amp;ndash;English Dictionary]: from Webster's Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.language-reference.com/ Language reference] Cross-foreign-language lexicon powered by its own search engine. All cross combinations between Latin and French, German, Italian, Spanish.
* [http://comp.uark.edu/~mreynold/rhetor.html Rhetor by Gabriel Harvey] was originally published in 1577 and never again reprinted.
* [http://freewebs.com/omniamundamundis omniamundamundis] Latin hypertexts from fourteen ancient Roman authors.
* [http://www.saltspring.com/capewest/pron.htm Pronunciation of Biological Latin, Including Taxonomic Names of Plants and Animals]
* [http://www.yleradio1.fi/nuntii Nuntii Latini (News in Latin)], written and spoken (RealAudio) news in latin. Weekly review of world news in Classical Latin, the only international broadcast of its kind in the world, produced by [[Yleisradio|YLE]], the Finnish Broadcasting Company.
* [http://www.tranexp.com:2000/InterTran?url=http%3A%2F%2F&amp;type=text&amp;text=Replace%20Me&amp;from=eng&amp;to=ltt InterTran Latin], Translate from Latin to ENGLISH or vice versa.
* [http://avitus.alcuinus.net/schola_latina/ Schola Latina Universalis] is a school where you can learn to speak Latin.
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com Latin Vulgate] The Latin and English of the Old &amp; New Testaments in parallel, along with the Complete Sayings of Jesus in parallel Latin and English. 

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Latin]]

[[Category:Italic natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Vornskr</title>
    <id>829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4018</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-27T21:12:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vornskr</username>
        <id>28</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hello!  I'm Paul Sherrill (a.k.a. '''vornskr'''), student, conlanger, and complete wiki-newbie.  (Hence I'll probably be experimenting with formatting here until I'm more comfortable with all this.)

My conlangs include:
*[[Aèndelan]]
*[[Celo]]
*[[soshte]]

I've spent a little time investigating [[Marc Okrand]]'s conlang [[Atlantean]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Vornskr</title>
    <id>830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18548</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-14T03:04:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Locustaaquaerufae</username>
        <id>296</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Welcome!  If you need any help, just let [[User talk:Muke|me]] know and I'll do what I can.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 13:55, 27 Mar 2005 (PST)

Thanks!  Right now I'm learning a lot just by looking at how the various pages are put together.

Is there somewhere I should use to experiment, or is it alright if I do that in my profile?

[[User:Vornskr|Vornskr]] 18:51, 27 Mar 2005 (PST)

:You can either practice on your user page, or in ... well, the usual pagename for experimental edits is  [[Frathwiki:Sandbox]], which you may use (it's currently empty).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:09, 27 Mar 2005 (PST)

Hi!  My name is Lawrence Rogers.  I'm a university student too.  How can I get ahold of you?
ljrogers@mtu.edu  E-mail me, please.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilabial nasal</title>
    <id>831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-22T04:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>addition of faranit mikanah</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot;; style=&quot;float:right;&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#CCCCFF;&quot; colspan=2| &lt;big&gt;m&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot;| Pulmonic Consonant
|-
| [[IPA]]: || m
|-
| [[X-SAMPA]]: || &lt;tt&gt;m&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| [[Kirshenbaum]]: || m
|-
| Place of Articulation: || [[Bilabial]]
|-
| Manner of Articulation: || [[Nasal]] [[plosive]]
|-
| [[Phonological feature]]s: || [+consonantal] &lt;br&gt; [+sonorant] &lt;br&gt; [+contin-acous] &lt;br&gt; [+nasal] &lt;br&gt;  [+voice] &lt;br&gt; '''[+&lt;small&gt;LABIAL&lt;/small&gt;]''' 
|}

The bilabial nasal is among the most common sounds of natural languages. 

{{stub}}

===Alveolar nasals in natlangs===
'''[[Spanish]]'''
{|
| ''plain'' || m || mujer /muˈxer/ &quot;woman&quot;
|}

===Alveolar nasals in conlangs===
'''[[Esperanto]]'''
{|
| ''plain'' || m || mi /ˈmi/ &quot;I&quot;
|}

'''[[Faranit]]'''
{|
| ''plain'' || m || mikanah /mIkænæʔ/ &quot;raindrop&quot;

[[Category:Phonetic segments|m]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File talk:Qanaozjinaet.1000x253.png</title>
    <id>834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4224</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-29T16:20:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Cool!  Very [[Devanagari|Devanagaresque]].  Is it derived from it, or just inspired?  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 07:28, 29 Mar 2005 (PST)

Well, it's just similar looking. If anything, it's more like the [[Bengali script]]. (I like the sharp angles, curves and large blots better.) Not very inspired though, as you can see, there are only 8 core glyphs... It's almost as bad as [[Tengwar]], except the core glyphs are a bit more varied. - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]][[User talk:Zhen Lin|&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;]] 08:20, 29 Mar 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of rulers of the Yellow Empire</title>
    <id>836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-06T23:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category yellow empire</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">List of monarchs of the [[Yellow Empire]].  

* Hênate (Ἡνατε) the Legendary
* —
* Kenêna I (Κενηνα) the Famous
*:First ruler mentioned in historical records [though no dates] as father of Kentophre.  Hênate is described as being his χοδα, though this term is useless chronologically, as while its basic meaning is 'grandfather,' it may describe any number of relationships of greater distance [though not, at this time, of a non-familial nature, cf. the later use of χοδα as a term of respect].
* Kentophre (Κεντοφρε) the Inept [* 1492 AM – † 1547]
* Kenêna II [* 1509, r. 1547–1558]
* Kheuntophre (Χευντοφρε) [* 1533, r. 1558–1560]
*: [murdered—I forget how, grr, at the moment]
* Lema (Λεμα) [* 1540, r. 1560–1566]
*: Queen!
* Hênate II [* 1551]

[This appears to be time period relevant to the [[Henaudute]] language as described.  They haven't got much history yet!]

[[Category:Yellow Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bendeh</title>
    <id>837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T00:54:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bendeh''' is a conlang by [[Nathaniel Geoffrey Lew]]. It's an [[a priori conlang]] without any parts of speech. All words are classified as [[noun|nouns]].

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Monobook.css</title>
    <id>839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T10:50:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Note to self: put @import rules at the top, not anywhere else.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">/* edit this file to customize the monobook skin for the entire site */

/* &lt;pre&gt; */
@import url(&quot;/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&amp;action=raw&amp;ctype=text/css&quot;);

body, #globalWrapper { font-family: inherit !important; }

#bodyContent .plainlinks a {
    background: none !important;
    padding: 0;
}

/* &lt;/pre&gt; */</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Sitenotice</title>
    <id>1032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5379</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T21:35:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">-</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Sitesupport-url</title>
    <id>1066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4420</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-19T16:17:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">http://www.dreamhost.com/donate.cgi?id=1096</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:OlegPopov</title>
    <id>1179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4533</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T21:08:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OlegPopov</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hello!

My name '''Oleg Ivanovich Popov'''.

I live in Russia. My adress: Ryazan, RO 123056, 
Ul. Raketnaya D.85 Kv.13.

'''Education:''' Moscow State Institute of International Relations 
(University), 1992 to 1997 International Law School including three foreign languages: 
English, German, and Afrikaans. High Level Diploma - &quot;Several Aspects of International 
Copyright&quot;. Work Experience: Lawyer, International Law Firm Baker &amp; McKenzie, 
October 1998 to Present.

'''Skills &amp; Interests:''' Fluent in English, proficient in German, 
some knowledge of French and Afrikaans. Computer literate, large working 
experience on both PC (Windows and DOS) and Macintosh, have one of each at home. 
Some programming experience. I have 24/7 access to the Internet and my favourite hobby 
to read and study wiki sites :)

'''PS:''' I have the catalogue wiki sites - http://wiki4all.com/ and I shall be very 
grateful to the manager of this wiki site, if it will add wiki in my catalogue with 
the small description... :)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch</title>
    <id>1180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46849</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T13:59:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* My conlangs on this wiki */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{New talk}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big &gt;'''Benct Philip Jonsson, aka &quot;Melroch&quot;'''&lt;/big &gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Image:Paulasman.gif|center]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| 1 December, 1966; [[Wikipedia:Gothenburg|Göteborg]], [[Wikipedia:Sweden|Sweden]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Perpetual student (mainly of [[Wikipedia:historical linguistics|historical linguistics]])&lt;br /&gt;
translator, sometimes editor,&lt;br /&gt;
husband,&lt;br&gt;
dad
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''&lt;br /&gt;(In order of proficiency ↔ &lt;s&gt;deficiency&lt;/s&gt;!{{-)}}
|| [[Wikipedia:Swedish language|Swedish]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:English language|English]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:German language|German]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:Icelandic language|Icelandic]] (including [[Wikipedia:Old Norse language|Old Norse]]), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s&gt;[[Wikipedia:Russian language|Russian]]&lt;/s&gt;, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s&gt;[[Wikipedia:French language|French]]&lt;/s&gt;, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s&gt;[[Wikipedia:Italian language|Italian]]&lt;/s&gt;, &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:Latin language|Latin]], &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s&gt;Classical [[Wikipedia:Tibetan language|Tibetan]]&lt;/s&gt;, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;s&gt;[[Wikipedia:Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]&lt;/s&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Active created conlangs:'''
|| [[Sohlob]], [[Maerik|Mærik]], [[Slevan|Slvanjek]], [[Knoschke]] (aka &quot;B-Noric&quot;), [[Rhodrese]], [[Burgendish]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien's]] [[Wikipedia:Sindarin|Sindarin]] and [[Wikipedia:Quenya|Quenya]],&lt;br /&gt;
Ray Brown's [http://www.carolandray.plus.com/Briefscript/Index.html ~bax] [piˈaːʃi],&lt;br /&gt;
Jan van Steenbergen's [http://www.geocities.com/wenedyk/language/index.html Wenedyk]
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:Language|Language]],&lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:Buddhism|Buddhism]],&lt;br /&gt;
[[Conlangcity:|Constructed languages]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien]],&lt;br /&gt;
[[AltHist:Alternate history|Alternate history]],&lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:|Phonetics]]
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| (As if you needed any! ;-)&lt;br /&gt;[[IBWiki:User:BenctPhilip]]
|}

== Who? ==
'''Melroch 'Aestan''' {{IPA|[ˌmɛlrɔχ ˌɑɛ̯stan]}} aka '''Benct Philip Jonsson''' {{IPA|[ˌbeŋkt ˌfiːlip ˈʑunsːon]}},
creator of several conlangs, '''[[Sohlob]]''' (including [[Kijeb]]), a romlang called '''[[Rhodrese]]''' and its coterritorial Germanic language '''[[Burgendish]]''', which both belong to my [[Althist:ATL|Alternative Timeline]] '''[[Lucus]]''' are the ones I currently do some work on.
'''[[Maerik|Mærik]]''' is the best documented of my languages, although it may not be complete. I'm not active on it ATM.  '''[[Slevan|Slvanjek]]''' really needs some revision, which I'll come around to eventually. '''[[Baazraamani|Bâzrâmani]]''' is only a sketch and very much on the backburner. '''[[Knoschke]]''' (formerly called &quot;B-Noric&quot;) used to be essentially abandoned, but with some talk last summer on reviving the [[Noric]] project I returned to it and revised its spelling system, which still needs to be documented.  There are still other conlangs which never made it into the internet, of course.

__TOC__

I have started a table of [[Labels for local cases]].

[[User:Melroch/Rhodrese|Rhodrese]] is basically some weird phonological and orthographic ideas.  It is was provisionally called &quot;Romlang #3&quot; (&quot;R#3&quot; or &quot;R3&quot;), not because it is the third romlang I ever made, but since it was my third active romlang at the time I found it a good idea to start counting! '''&lt;span class=&quot;red&quot;&gt;{{-)}} &lt;/span&gt;'''

I'm putting together a page on [[User:Melroch/How to display your conscript on the wiki|how to display your conscript on the wiki]].

I begun a [[User:Melroch/Vulgar Latin|a description of Vulgar Latin]], or perhaps rather a romlangers' cookbook, but I'm not sure about the format.

Only after I renamed &quot;B-Noric&quot; as '''Knòškè''' did it occur to me that both '''Slvanjek''' and '''Knòškè''' mean 'language of (the) forest dwellers', but that they are separated by 2000 years and belong to different alternate timelines!

I'm also the perpetrator of the semiserious [[Ný AngloSaxon Speling]].  I am of the opinion that [[Wikipedia:English spelling|English spelling]] needs [[Wikipedia:Spelling reform|reform]], but also aware that the chances for it are slim, barring social and cultural upheavals humanity should probably better not experience!  After all it took a violent revolution to remove four unnecessary letters from [[Wikipedia:Russian orthography|Russian orthography]]!

There is also [[User:Melroch/Accents|a not so brief explanation of my use of accent marks]], namely a system to indicate stress and length with the standard three marks [[Wikipedia:acute accent|acute]], [[Wikipedia:grave accent|garve]] a nd [[Wikipedia:circumflex|circumflex]] found for '''a e i o u''' in [[Wikipedia:Latin-1|Latin-1]].

== My conlangs on this wiki ==

&lt;DPL&gt;
category=Conlangs by Melroch
namespace=
&lt;/DPL&gt;

==To-do list==
* Document the new [[Knoschke]] spelling.
* [[Template:Consonant table]]
* [[Template:Vowel table]]
* [[Kijeb#Verbs]]
*[[Labels for local cases]]
*&lt;s&gt;Create a [[Template:WIP|WIP template]] page.&lt;/s&gt; -- DONE!
*&lt;s&gt;Move/set up [[Maerik|Mærik]] vocabulary.&lt;/s&gt; -- DONE!
**&lt;s&gt;Change '''th &gt; tth''' and '''ch &gt; cch''' as appropriate?&lt;/s&gt; '''Nah!'''
*Move [[Sohlob]]/[[Sohlodar]] stuff.
**Finish [[Sohlodar ethnographical questionnaire]]!
*[[Slevan|Slvanjek]] vocabulary and grammar:
** Update grammar.
** Grand Master Plan (Hist. phonology).
*** &lt;s&gt;Discuss changes with JvS.&lt;/s&gt; &amp;mdash; Done.
**Vocabulary
*Put up some [[Maerik texts|Mærik texts]].
*Write a grammar description for [[Sohlob]].
*Move/rewrite [[Sohlob historical phonology]].
*Make a new Sohlodar map.
*&lt;s&gt;[[Template:IPA]]&lt;/s&gt; -- Done and improved by Muke.
*&lt;s&gt;[[Template:Sohlob]]&lt;/s&gt; -- Done.
*&lt;s&gt;[[Template:red]]&lt;/s&gt; -- Done.
*Finish [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]]
*&lt;s&gt;[[Longman Defining Vocabulary|The Longman Defining Vocabulary]]&lt;/s&gt; &amp;mdash; Done.
* &lt;s&gt;[[Free Unicode fonts]]&lt;/s&gt;

== Wiki maintenance ==

I have created some of utility stuff on this wiki.  I'll try to reference here:

* [[Help:Free Unicode fonts]]
* [[Help:Editing with an external editor in Windows]]

* I imported Wikipedias [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Template messages/Sources of_articles#Citations for footnotes and for linking|footnote system]] with [[Template:Ref]] and [[Template:Note]].

=== The wiki's style sheets ===

&lt;dpl&gt;
  namespace= MediaWiki
  titlematch= %.css
&lt;/dpl&gt;

=== My user pages ===

{{#dpl: namespace={{NAMESPACE}} | titlematch=%Melroch% }}

=== Pages I created ===

{{scroll box|
|width=75%
|content=
&lt;dpl&gt;
  createdby= Melroch
  notnamespace= Template
&lt;/dpl&gt;
}}

==== Templates I created ====

{{scroll box|
|width=75%
|content=
&lt;dpl&gt;
  createdby= Melroch
  namespace= Template
&lt;/dpl&gt;
}}

=== Pages I modified but did not create ===

{{scroll box|
|width=75%
|content=
&lt;dpl&gt;
  notcreatedby= Melroch
  modifiedby=Melroch
&lt;/dpl&gt;
}}

=== Pages I created which were last modified by someone else ===

I'm not paranoid, I just want to know when you guys improve on my work! {{smiley}}

{{scroll box|
|width=75%
|content=
&lt;dpl&gt;
 createdby= Melroch
 notlastmodifiedby= Melroch
&lt;/dpl&gt;
}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Slevan grammar outline</title>
    <id>1181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46878</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:20:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

'''Note:''' This version of [[Slevan|Slvanjec]] is outdated especially as regards the development of the vowels and hence some endings too.  It will be updated ASAP. BPJ 10:06, 16 Jul 2005 (PDT)


= Nouns and adjectives =

== Nouns ==

Nouns in Slevan inflect for number and case, and adjectives in addition inflect for gender. There are three main declensions, with a few subtypes within each declension.

=== First declension nouns ===

First declension nouns are typically feminine in gender. Those few masculines of the first declension that existed in Latin have as a rule been superseded by other formations, and loanwords that belong to the first declension masculine in Latin are normally assigned to the second declension in Slevan.

The paradigms for the first declension are '''roza''' 'rose' and '''vilja''' 'daughter, girl':

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|roza
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|roze
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|vilja
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|vilje
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|roze
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|rozár
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|vilje
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|viljár
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|roze
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|rozav
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|vilje
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|viljav
|}

=== Second declension nouns ===

The second declension in Slevan represents a merger of the second and fourth declension of Latin. The nouns belonging here are masculine, with a few exceptions like '''mán''' f. 'hand'. There is no neuter gender in Slevan, the neuter having merged into the masculine early on.

The paradigms for the second declension are '''mýr''' 'wall' and '''bánj''' 'bath':

{|  cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|mýr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|myry
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|bánj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|bani
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|myry
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|myrúr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|bani
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|banjúr
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|myru
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|myrov
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|banju
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|banjov
|}

The main subtypes of the second declension are represented by '''popol''' 'people' and '''lábelj''' 'lip'. Note the extra syllable in the nominative-accusative singular and the alternation between long and short vowel in the stem:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|popol
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|póply
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|lábelj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|labli
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|póply
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|póplúr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|labli
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|labljúr
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|póplu
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|póplov
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|lablju
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|labljov/lablv
|}

Two other subtypes are presented below. '''Áher''' 'field' is similar to the two previous types, while amec 'friend' together with other words which ended in ''-ICUS'' in Romance forms a subtype of their own:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|áher
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ahry
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|amec
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ameczi
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ahry
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ahrúr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ameczi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|amecúr
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ahru
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ahrov
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|amecu
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|amecov
|}

=== Third declension nouns ===

The third declension includes both masculine and feminine nouns, without any difference in inflection based on gender. There are however, like in the second declension, a number of subtypes due to differences in the final sound of the stem. The most distinctive trait of the third declension is the lack of an ending (but lengthening of the vowel of the final syllable of the stem) in the genitive plural.

The two basic types of inflection in the third declension are represented by '''súlj''' 'sun' and '''pastúr''' 'shepherd':

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|súlj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|sulje
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pastúr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pasturje
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|suli
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|súlj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pasturi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pastúr
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|suli
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|suljev
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pasturi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|pasturev
|}

Stems ending in '''cz''' and '''zs''' are represented by krcz 'cross' and '''ljézs''' 'law':

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krcz
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krcze
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljézs
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljezse
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krczi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krcz
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljezsi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljézs
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krczi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|krczev
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljezsi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|ljezsev
|}

== Adjectives ==

Adjectives in Slevan are declined exactly like nouns of the corresponding declensions and types.

=== First and second declension adjectives ===

The first and largest class of adjectives follow the first declension in the feminine and the second declension in the masculine, e.g. '''nóv''' 'new':

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Masculine
!valign=&quot;top&quot;| 
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Feminine
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|
|-
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|nóv
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novy
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|nova
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|nove
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novy
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novúr
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|nove
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novár
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novu
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novov
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|nove
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|novav
|}

=== Third declension adjectives ===

Third declension adjectives also are declined just like nouns. The adjectives '''hrúde''' 'big' and '''hrave''' 'stern' represent yet two other inflection types in this declension:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
!
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Singular
!valign=&quot;top&quot;|Plural
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Nominative, Accusative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrúdj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrúdje
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hráv
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hravje
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Genitive'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrúdi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrúdj
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hravi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hráv
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Dative'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrúdi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hrudjev
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hravi
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|hravev
|}

= Adverbs =

To be added

= Pronouns =

To be added

= Verbs =

Slevan verbs are traditionally, since the grammar of Pavel Mrác divided among three conjugations.  In reality the four conjugations of [[Wikipedia:Latin|Latin]] remain distinct in Slevan, but Mrác choose another categorization both in order to conform to the classification of other modern Romance languages, and because many Slevan verbs belong to conjugation 2.B. in the present but to 2.A. in the Simple past.

Slevan has three simple tenses &amp;mdash; ''Present'' ('''prezsátj'''), ''Imperfect'' ('''japravéc''') and ''Simple past'' ('''pasát''') &amp;mdash;, three compound tenses &amp;mdash; ''Perfect'' ('''pravéc'''), ''Pluperfect'' ('''plypravéc''') and ''Future'' ('''votýr''') &amp;mdash;, two moods &amp;mdash ''Indicative'' ('''jadecatív''') and ''Subjunctive'' ('''konjúcív''') &amp;mdash; and two voices &amp;mdash; ''Active'' ('''acív''') and ''Passive'' ('''pasív''').

== Simple tenses ==
=== The Indicative ===

{| style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
|+'''''Slevan simple tenses in the indicative'''''
|-
|  || ''1. conjugation'' || ''2. conjugation A'' || ''2. conjugation B'' || ''3. conjugation''
|-
| || ''Infinitive''
|-
|  || '''amár''' || '''taczér''' || '''rezser''' || '''dromír'''
|-
|  || 'love' || 'be silent' || 'rule' || 'sleep'
|-
| || ''Present''
|-
| 1. sg. || '''amu''' || '''taczu''' || '''rehu''' || '''dromesku'''
|-
| 2. || '''amaj''' || '''taczej''' || '''rezsi''' || '''dromeszi'''
|-
| 3. || '''ama''' || '''tacze''' || '''rezse''' || '''dromesze'''
|-
| 1. pl. || '''amám''' || '''taczém''' || '''rezsem''' || '''dromím'''
|-
| 2. || '''amátj''' || '''taczétj''' || '''rezsetj''' || '''dromítj'''
|-
| 3. || '''amú''' || '''tacza''' || '''rehú''' || '''dromeszú'''
|-
|  || ''Imperative''
|-
| Sg. || '''ám''' || '''tácz''' || '''rézs''' || '''dromesz'''
|-
| Pl. || '''amátj''' || '''taczétj''' || '''rezsetj''' || '''dromítj'''
|-
| || ''Imperfect''
|-
| 1. sg. || '''amaba''' || '''taczeba''' || '''rezseba''' || '''dromljeba'''
|-
| 2. || '''amabaj''' || '''taczebaj''' || '''rezsebaj''' || '''dromljebaj'''
|-
| 3. || '''amaba''' || '''taczeba''' || '''rezseba''' || '''dromljeba'''
|-
| 1. sg. || '''amabám''' || '''taczebám''' || '''rezsebám''' || '''dromljebám'''
|-
| 2. || '''amabátj''' || '''taczebátj''' || '''rezsebátj''' || '''dromljebátj'''
|-
| 3. || '''amabú''' || '''taczebú''' || '''rezsebú''' || '''dromljebú'''
|-
| || ''Simple past''
|-
| 1. sg. || '''amaj''' || '''taký''' || '''rjeszi''' || '''dromí'''
|-
| 2. || '''amajsti''' || '''takysti''' || '''rjeszesti''' || '''dromísti'''
|-
| 3. || '''amaj''' || '''taký''' || '''rjész''' || '''dromí'''
|-
| 1. pl. || '''amajm''' || '''takým''' || '''rjeszem''' || '''dromím'''
|-
| 2. || '''amajszt''' || '''takýszt''' || '''rjeszeszt''' || '''dromíszt'''
|-
| 3. || '''amajerú''' || '''takyjerú''' || '''rjeszerú''' || '''dromijerú'''
|}

=== The subjunctive ===
TO BE ADDED

= Conjunctions =

To be added

= Interjections =

To be added

= Syntax = 

To be added

BPJ 13:06, 27 Jul 2005 (PDT)


[[Category:Slevan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maerik</title>
    <id>1182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46828</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T12:55:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Possible identity of the Mærik speakers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Incipitmaerik.gif|Hic incipit lingua mærik]]

&quot;Here begins the Mærik language&quot; -- the Latin caption to the Mærik vocabulary in the manuscript.

= Mærik sections =

*[[Maerik grammar|Mærik grammar]]
*[[Maerik-English vocabulary|Mærik-English vocabulary]]
*[[English-Maerik vocabulary|English-Mærik vocabulary]]
*[[Maerik texts|Mærik texts]]

= About Mærik and its transmission =

One of the most valuable and unique, but also one of the least known manuscripts in the collections of the Swedish Royal Library is the so-called Buræan Glossary. Of its seventy-eight leaves scholars have generally been interested only in the first thirty leaves and the recto page of the thirty-first. These consist of a topically arranged list of Latin words with their Old Swedish translations.

At the top of the verso side of leaf 31 stand the Latin words ''Hic jncipit lingua mærik'' and there follows a seemingly random list of words with Latin translations. The problem with this second word list is that only the Latin words have appeared intelligible. Werner Schiöld, the only scholar who hitherto paid any attention to the latter 125 pages was of the opinion that these pages were either copied by a scribe who didn't know Old Swedish, it was a secret code or a secret language. Schiöld was actually on the right track since he favored the secret language explanation, but he said that &quot;an inspection of the Latin 'translations' [Schiöld's quotes] indicates that no new knowledge of Old Swedish vocabulary can be gained by cracking the code&quot;.

Although Schiöld thus used the term &quot;secret language&quot; he nevertheless took for granted that the non-Latin words of the latter 125 pages, apart from some inter­spersed Old Swedish words, were some kind of obfuscation of the corre­sponding Old Swedish words &quot;and probably a deliberate obfuscation, since even a scribe unfamiliar with Old Swedish would have got his transcriptions right most of the time&quot;. Schöld's foregone conclusion was thus that the text represented some kind of [[Wikipedia:Language game|language game]], similar to, but more complicated than, for example [[Wikipedia:Pig Latin|Pig Latin]].

A renewed inspection, especially of the syntax of the connected texts following the word-list and their Latin glosses, indicates that these strange words actually repre­sent a real language, distinct from both Latin and Old Swedish, even though the phonemic, or at any rate graphemic, shape of the language is deceptively similar to Old Swedish.

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 11:48, 6 May 2005 (PDT)

== Possible identity of the Mærik speakers ==

See [[Wikipedia:Hacker (folklore)]]!

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Maerik]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Conlangs by Melroch]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maerik grammar</title>
    <id>1183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46855</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:07:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Maerik/grammar]] moved to [[Maerik grammar]] over redirect: Yes, subpages are ugly in DPL lists!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Mærik grammar outline=
[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:31, 8 May 2005 (PDT)

[[Maerik|Mærik]] was a [[Wikipedia:language isolate|language isolate]] spoken in medieval Sweden. It is known from a wordlist with Latin glosses and some short fairy tales preserved in a single manuscript. The spelling relies quite heavily on that of Old [[Wikipedia:Swedish language|Swedish]] and the sound structure of Mærik also seems to strongly resemble that of Old Swedish, yet Mærik is ''not'' [[Wikipedia:Language family|genetically related]] to Old Swedish or other [[Wikipedia:Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]. Mærik words and sentences didn't make sense to somebody who only knew Old Swedish, and conversely Old Swedish would not have made sense to someone who only knew Mærik, although it is probable that all speakers of Mærik had also been speakers of North Scandinavian for very many generations. Although the [[Wikipedia:Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Wikipedia:Phoneme|phonemic]] similarities indicate some kind of [[Wikipedia:Sprachbund|Sprachbund]] relationship between Mærik and Old Swedish, there are on the other hand few similarities in vocabulary or grammatic structure.

==The name of the language==

''' Mærik''' or '''mæriik''' is actually the genitive of the first person plural exlusive pronoun. Speakers of North Germanic mistook the phrase '''mærik skaw''' as parallelling their own '''dansk tunga'''. Probably they didn't grasp that there were ''two'' first person plural pronouns in '''Mærik Skaw'''.

==Phonology==

Mærik phonology is very much similar to Old Swedish phonology, due to the Sprachbund relationship between the languages.

===Vowels===

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
!Front unrounded||Front rounded||Back unrounded||||Back rounded
|-
|i||y|| ||u/v||w
|-
|e||ø|| || ||o
|-
|æ|| ||a|| || 
|}

====Quantity====

Doubled vowels almost certainly represent long vowels. The status of '''u''' and '''w''' relative each other is not clarified. Possibly there is a single /u/ which is spelled '''w''' when long. Against this speaks the nonce occurrence of a '''ww''' spelling in '''nwwtlo''' 'ludere'. The other possibility is that there is one /u/ written '''w''' and one /ʉ/ written '''u/v''', and that the spelling normally fails to mark quantity for these phonemes.

It is also likely that stressed single-written vowels in open syllables are long as well.

Long ''i'' /i:/ is usually spelled '''ij''' rather than '''ii'''.

====Diphthongs====

Some diphthongs seem to be spelled with an &quot;extra&quot; following vowel, probably because Old Swedish lacked diphthongs of this type:
*'''browom''' phonologically /browm/,
*'''brøwegha''' phonologically {{IPA|/brøwɣa/ or /brøjɣa/ [brøɥɣa]}},
*'''gawana''' phonologically {{IPA|/gawna/}},
*'''jæwelia''' phonologically {{IPA|/jæwlja/ [jæɥlʲa]}},
*'''øwæmn''' phonologically {{IPA|/øwm/ or /øjm/ [øɥm]}},
*'''hæwey''' may be a spelling for {{IPA|/hæw/ [hæɥ]}},
*'''trøyel''' is probably {{IPA|/trøjl/ or /trøwl/ [trøɥl]}},
*'''øywe''' is probably {{IPA|/øje/ or /øwe/ [øɥe]}}.
*'''reyit''' is probably {{IPA|/rɛjt/}}.

====Umlaut====

There is i-umlaut caused by a following theme vowel '''*-i-''' which may be lost or preserved as '''-e-''', sometimes also spelled '''-i-'''.

===Consonants===

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
!||Labial||Dental||(Palatal)||Velar||(Labiovelar)||Glottal
|-
|'''Voiceless stops'''||''p''||''t''||(''ki'' {{IPA|[kʲ]}})||''k''||(''qw'' {{IPA|[kʷ/kw]}})|| 
|-
|'''Voiced stops'''||''b''||''d''||(''gi'' {{IPA|[gʲ]}})||''g''||(''gw'' {{IPA|[gʷ/gw]}})|| 
|-
|'''Nasals'''||''m''||''n''||(''ni'' {{IPA|[nʲ]}})||(''ng'' {{IPA|[ŋ]}})||(''ngw'' {{IPA|[ŋʷ/ŋw]}})|| 
|-
|'''Voiceless fricatives'''||''f''||(''th'' {{IPA|[θ, tθ]}})||(''hi'' {{IPA|[ç]}})||(''ch'' {{IPA|[x, kx]}})||(''hw'' {{IPA|[ʍ]}})||''h''
|-
|'''Voiced fricatives'''||''v/u/ffu'' {{IPA|[v]}}||''dh'' {{IPA|[ð]}}||''i'' {{IPA|[j]}}||''gh'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}}||''w''|| 
|-
|'''Sibilants'''|| ||''s''||(''si/ski'' {{IPA|[sʲ/ʃ]}})||||||
|-
|'''Lateral'''|| ||''l''||||||||
|-
|'''Trill'''|| ||''r''||||||||
|}

The letter '''z''' spells {{IPA|/ts/}} arising from underlying {{IPA|//ts//, //ds// or //ðs//}}, and similarly '''x''' spells {{IPA|/ks/}} arising from underlying {{IPA|//ks//, //gs// or //ɣs//}}.

It is not clear whether all these spellings represent distinct phonemes or whether they do so in all positions.

===Unresolved issues in the phonology===

The status of palatal(ized) and labiovelar sounds as phonemes or clusters also remains to be determined. Contemporary Old Swedish was in the process of developing palatal phonemes through palatalization of clusters ending in {{IPA|/j/}} and of velars before front vowels. In contemporary Old Swedish {{IPA|/sj/}} and {{IPA|/sk/}} before {{IPA|/j/}} and front vowels were probably in the process of developing into {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. If the same was true of Mærik cannot be determined. The nonce appearance of '''sch''' in '''schee''' 'adferre' is hardly decisive.

The status of {{IPA|/w/ vs /v/}} is also to be determined. The many cases of '''w''' between vowels as opposed to '''ffu''' between vowels (e.g. '''priffua''' 'consolare') suggest that {{IPA|/w/}} was indeed a separate phoneme and more widespread than the [w] of Old Swedish.  It is therefore assumed that '''w''' is {{IPA|/w/}} while
initial '''v''' before vowels and '''ffu''' between vowels is {{IPA|/v/}}.  There are even two occurrences of ''initial'' '''ffu''' before vowels, viz. '''fuaa''' 'wash clothes' and '''ffuea''' 'clear land'.

At the same time inherited {{IPA|/kʷ/ and /gʷ/}} were probably not monophonemic any more in Old Swedish, while {{IPA|[w]}} had become an allophone of {{IPA|/v/}}. As {{IPA|/w/}} was probably still a phoneme in Mærik it may be that '''qw''' and '''gw''' in spite of their low frequency should be analyzed similarly.

===Sandhi allophones===

The phonemic status of '''th ''' and '''ch ''' is not fully determined. It seems as if '''th ''' between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, always represents underlying phonemic {{IPA|/tð/}} and phonetically is {{IPA|[tθ]}}, and likewise '''ch''' between voiced sounds, or word finally after a voiced sound, represents phonemic {{IPA|/kɣ/}} and phonetic {{IPA|[kx]}}. Thus in Mærik {{IPA|[x] and [θ]}} only occur as assimilation of {{IPA|/ɣ/ or /ð/}} to a neighboring voiceless [[Wikipedia:obstruent|obstruent]]. On the other hand underlying {{IPA|//ðð// {and //ɣɣ//}} surface as {{IPA|/dd/ and /gg/}}, while '''ffu''' probably spells ''ungeminated'' voiced {{IPA|/v/}} in complementary distribution with geminated voiceless {{IPA|/ff/}} as in Old Swedish.

==Morphology==

===Nouns and Adjectives===

Case endings are as follows:

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
!||Modern name||Marker||English translation||Name in the manuscript
|-
|1||Nominative/Vocative:||'''-0''' (zero)||(subject) ||''nominativus vel vocativus''
|-
|2||Accusative:||'''-dh'''||(direct object)||''accusativus''
|-
|3||Dative:||'''-s'''||'for'||''dativus''
|-
|4||Genitive:||'''-k'''||'of'||''genitivus''
|-
|5||Ablative:||'''-r'''||'from'/'out of'||''ablativus''
|-
|6||Instrumental:||'''-gh'''||'with'||''ablativus instrumenti vel comitativus''
|-
|7||Locative:||'''-m'''||'at'/'in'||''ablativus loci''
|-
|8||Allative:||'''-i'''||'to'/'into'||''accusativus adeundi''
|}

The nominative marks the subject of the sentence.

The accusative marks the direct object.

Between these endings and the stem a theme vowel '''-e-''' or '''-o-''', sometimes appears. Variant spellings are '''-i-''' and '''-u/w-''' respectively. With the allative the front alternant is '''-ei/-ij/-i''' and the back alternant '''-oi/-ui/-wj'''.

====Suffixaufnahme====

Mærik has [[Wikipedia:Suffixaufnahme|Suffixaufnahme]] or &quot;case stacking&quot;, i.e. a noun carrying a genitive ending may take a further grammatical or local case ending, e.g. '''dølk''' 'the farmer's', '''dølks''' or '''dølx''' 'for the farmer's' (dative of genitive). The usual sandhi phenomena apply, such as ablative '''dølkær''' 'from the farmer's', accusative '''dølkth'''. Special note should be taken of the frequent instrumental genitives in '''-ch''', which suggest {{IPA|[kx]}} as a sandhi allophone for {{IPA|/kɣ/}}: '''dølch''' 'by the farmer's', '''hathfach''' {{IPA|[haθfakx] /haðfakɣ/}} 'by the horse's'.

====Plural====

The plural morpheme is '''-n'''. It appears written most often as '''-in''' and '''-un''' respectively, more rarely '''-en''' or '''-on/-wn'''. To these plural terminations the same case endings as in the singular are added as follows: 

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
|1||Nominative: || '''-n'''
|-
|2||Accusative: || '''-nd'''
|-
|3||Dative: || '''-ns/-nz'''
|-
|4||Genitive: || '''-nk'''
|-
|5||Ablative: || '''-nnær'''
|-
|6||Instrumental: || '''-ng'''
|-
|7||Locative: || '''-num'''
|-
|8||Allative: || '''-ni'''
|}

Note that in combining with the plural marker '''-n-''' the endings undergo some sandhi changes: the accusative '''-dh''' and the instrumental '''-gh''' become voiced stops. The dative has an optional epenthetic [t] (/nts/ written '''-nz''') and the ablative and locative receive [[Wikipedia:Svarabhakti|svarabhakti vowels]]. It is not clear whether the spelling '''-ni''' in the allative plural represents {{IPA|/ni/ or /nj/}}, since the spelling is deficient.

In ''Suffixaufnahme'' where the second ending takes the plural an [[Wikipedia:Epenthesis|epenthetic]] '''a''' vowel is inserted, e.g. '''vantkanz skonz''' 'for the men of the village'.

====Adjectives====

Adjectives inflect for case and number in congruence with their nouns, e.g. '''verghar trækker''' &quot;From a big house&quot;, '''hughand skond''' &quot;poor men (acc.)&quot;.

Sometimes the same word functions as an adjective and as a noun for the quality denoted by the adjective.

===Adverbs===

Most derived adverbs and some primary end in '''-m''' (with theme vowel). This formant is observed to coincide with the locative ending - probably not a coincidence!

===Pronouns===

Pronouns generally take adjectival inflection, i.e. with the plural ending '''-an'''

====Personal pronouns====
There are distinct inclusive and exclusive forms in first person plural.

'''wæll: ''' 'me - I'
'''wællk: ''' 'my/ mine'

'''ton: ''' 'you sg. (thou)'
'''tonk: ''' 'your(s) (thy/thine)'

'''ro: ''' 'he'
'''rook: ''' 'his'

'''ni: ''' 'she'
'''niik: ''' 'her(s)'

'''edd:''' 'it'
'''ettk/etk:''' 'its'

'''foott: ''' 'we incl.' ('I and you' or 'we and you')
'''foottuk: ''' 'our(s) incl.' ('Mine and yours' or 'Ours and yours')

'''mær: ''' 'we excl.' (We but not you)
'''mærik: ''' 'our(s) excl.' (Ours but not yours)

'''han: ''' 'you pl.'
'''hank: ''' 'your(s) pl.'

'''se: ''' 'they'
'''seek: ''' 'their(s)'

====Demonstrative pronouns====
'''ordh: ''' 'this', pl. '''ordhan''' 'these' (Lat. ''hic'')

'''ann: ''' that (nearby)' pl. '''annan''' 'those' (Lat. ''iste'')

'''edd: ''' 'that (far)' pl. '''eddan''' 'those' (Lat. ''ille'')


===== The enclitic demonstrative pronoun/definite article =====

The demonstrative pronouns are often enclitically postposed to a noun, in which case their meaning is similar to a definite article.  Both the noun and the &quot;article&quot; inflect for case.

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot;
|+ ''The enclitic demonstratives/article demonstrated on the noun ''luk'' 'child' ''
| || '''-ordh''' || '''-ann''' || '''-edd'''
|-
| ''Singular''
|-
| ''Nom.:'' || '''lukordh''' || '''lukan''' || '''luked''' || 'the child' (subject)
|-
| ''Acc.:'' || '''lukthord''' || '''lukthand''' || '''lukthed''' || 'the child' (direct object)
|-
| ''Dat.:'' || '''luxorz''' || '''luxanz''' || '''luxez''' || 'for the child'
|-
| ''Gen.:'' || '''lukkorthk''' || '''lukkank''' || '''lukketk''' || 'of the child'
|-
| ''Abl.:'' || '''lukrordhær''' || '''lukrannær''' || '''lukreddær''' || 'from the child'
|-
| ''Instr.:'' || '''luchordhgh''' || '''luchang''' || '''luchedg''' || 'with the child'
|-
| ''Loc.:'' || '''lukmordhum''' || '''lukmannum''' || '''lukmeddum''' || 'at/in the child'
|-
| ''All.:'' || '''lukiørdhi''' || '''lukiænni''' || '''lukieddi''' || 'to/into the child'
|-
| ''Plural''
|-
| ''Nom.:'' || '''lukunordhan''' || '''lukunan''' || '''lukuneddan''' || 'the children' (subject)
|-
| ''Acc.:'' || '''lukundordhan''' || '''lukundand''' || '''lukundeddan''' || 'the children' (direct object)
|-
| ''Dat.:'' || '''lukunzordhanz''' || '''lukunzanz''' || '''lukunzeddanz''' || 'for the children'
|-
| ''Gen.:'' || '''lukankordhank''' || '''lukunkank''' || '''lukunketank''' || 'of the children'
|-
| ''Abl.:'' || '''lukunærordhanær''' || '''lukunærannær''' || '''lukunæreddanær''' || 'from the children'
|-
| ''Instr.:'' || '''lukungordhang''' || '''lukungang''' || '''lukungeddang''' || 'with the children'
|-
| ''Loc.:'' || '''lukumordhanum''' || '''lukumannum''' || '''lukumeddanum''' || 'at/in the children'
|-
| ''All.:'' || '''lukuniørdhani''' || '''lukuniænni''' || '''lukunieddani''' || 'to/into the children'
|}

Note the frequent [[Wikipedia:Haplology|haplology]] in the plural of the '''-ann''' forms!  In practice it means that the plural marker of the '''-ann''' article disappears entirely, so that only the noun carries plural marking.  The locative plural is especially treacherous.

It should be observed that the '''-ann''' forms are often used where the context would properly call for the '''-ordh''' or '''-edd''' forms.

Where an adjective precedes the noun the preposed demonstrative is used: '''edd grøtth lukth''' 'that small child (acc.)'.

====Interrogative pronouns====
'''fiørn: ''' 'who?' pl. '''fiørnan'''

'''fann: ''' 'what?' pl. '''fannan'''

'''fwnn: ''' 'how much?' pl. '''fwnnan''' 'how many?'

'''følk: ''' 'which?' pl. '''følkian'''

'''faat: ''' 'when?' 

'''fedd: ''' 'where?'

'''fwdh: ''' 'why?'

====Relative pronouns====

'''iørn: ''' 'who' pl. '''iørnan'''

'''øll: ''' 'which' pl. '''øllian'''

'''aat: '''when

'''wdh: '''therefore

====Other pronouns====

'''vek: ''' 'self' (reflexive -- note genitive '''veck''' and dative '''vex'''!)
:pl. '''vekan''' 'selves'

'''hyyn: ''' 'each other' (pl.)

'''dødhzsk: ''' 'respectively' (formally a genitive singular)

'''sakt: ''' 'something, a thing' pl. '''saktan'''

'''gøm: ''' 'you, one, they (indefinite)' pl. '''gømian'''

'''siæn: ''' 'any'  pl. '''siænan'''

'''hwalt: ''' 'same'

===Verbs===

The present ends in '''-e/-o/-a''', probably derived from earlier long theme vowels ''*-ē, *-ō, *-ā''.

In not a few verbs the present marker contains a '''t''' (''*-tē, *-tō, *-tā''), most notably '''olto''' 'there is' and '''ganta''' 'not be'. Sometimes an intrusive '''-p-''' comes between the '''-t-''' present formant and a root ending in '''-m''' e.g. '''rampta''' 'know a person', with the past tense '''ramma'''.

The infinitive or gerund, the imperative and the supine all consist in the bare stem, and can be distinguished only by their function, except that the infinitive/gerund can be inflected like a noun and the imperative often but not always is followed by a pronoun in the nominative/vocative.

The past tense formant is '''-ma/-mo'''.

Where there is a '''-t-''' in the present tense formant this '''-t-''' disappears in the past tense: thus from the present '''olto''' there is the past '''olmo''', and from the present '''kræfte''' 'departs' there is the past '''kraffma''' (Note also the lack of i-umlaut in the past tense!). N.B. '''gamma''', the past of '''ganta''' (usually spelled '''gam̄a'''), and '''swmmo''' (also '''sunmo''') 'covered' from '''swnto'''. However sometimes the '''-t-''' is part of the root, e.g. '''lita''' 'hear', p.t. '''lijtma'''.

The subjunctive formant is '''-sa/-so'''.

These two are fused as '''-sma/-smo''' in past subjunctive.

Note that the subjunctive marker '''s''' goes after the present tense marker '''t''' if that is present, e.g. '''kræftza''' 'would depart', but before the past tense marker '''ma''', as in '''kræfsma''' 'would have departed'.

====Person inflection on verbs====

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
|''Singular'' 
|-
| 1. || '''-wl/-wVl/-l''' ('''-aw(a)l/-ew(e)l/-ol''')|| 'I'
|-
| 2. || '''-ck''' || 'you'(sg.), 'thou'
|-
| 3. || -∅ (zero)
|-
|''Plural'' 
|-
| 1. excl. || '''-ff''' || 'we'
|-
| 1. incl. || '''-rr''' || 'you and I', 'we and you'
|-
| 2. || '''-n''' || 'you'(pl.)
|-
|3. || '''-ss''' || 'they'
|}

====Participles====

There are active participles in '''-rt''' and passive participles in '''-t''' from both the present and past stems: 

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot; 
| Present active: || '''lekart'''  || &quot;speaking&quot;
|-
| Present passive: || '''lekat''' || &quot;being spoken&quot;
|-
| Past active: || '''leekmart''' || &quot;been speaking&quot;
|-
| Past passive: || '''leekmat''' || &quot;spoken&quot;
|}

=====Compound tenses=====
There are some compound tenses and moods using participles. The most important is the passive formed with '''fere''' 'be' and the present passive participle:

'''Ferewæl lekat''' 'I am spoken'.

There is also a perfect and a pluperfect using '''fere''' and the past active participle:

'''Ferewæl leekmart''' 'I have spoken',

'''Fermawal leekmart''' 'I had spoken'.

Lastly there is a future using '''boko''' 'become' and the present active participle:

'''Bokwol lekart''' 'I will/shall/am going to speak'.

These compound tenses are not used nearly as often as the corresponding forms in English and other modern Germanic languages. Thus the simple present is usually found for future reference and the simple past for perfect and pluperfect reference.

====Negation====

Negation is made with the verb '''ganta''' 'there is not' + stem form of the verb + instrumental of agent:

'''ganta lek mærikth skawdh niigh''' 'she doesn't speak our language' (lit. 'there is not speak our language by her').

{| border=0 cellspacing=5
!gan||-ta||-0||lek||-0||mæri||-k||-th||skaw||-dh||nii||-gh
|-
|not.be||-PRES||-3.sg.||speak||-SUP||we.exclusive||-GEN||-ACC||tongue||-ACC||she||-INSTR
|}

Since the object stands in accusative this is not a true ergative, but may be indicative of transition between types.

==Syntax==

The main constituent order is VSO.

Mærik is a ''[[Wikipedia:Pro-drop_language|pro-drop language]]''.  As Mærik is concerned this means that subject pronouns in the nominative are normally left out since the subject is sufficiently expressed by the person ending on the verb, but object pronouns have to be expressed since the object is not expressed in the verb.

There are many idioms involving in particular the locative and the dative where other languages would use nominative or accusative.

Verbs of perception and experiencing take the experiencer in the dative.

The genitive can be used in partitive function.

Many adverbs are formally locatives of nouns or adjectives and constructed accordingly.

[[Category:Maerik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CXS</title>
    <id>1184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48081</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-06T15:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Conlang Extended X-SAMPA */  Typos</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Conlang Extended X-SAMPA=

'''CXS''' (an [[wp:acronym|acronym]] standing for ''CONLANG eXtended SAMPA'' (SAMPA= ''Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet''), where CONLANG in turn stands for the [[Conlang-L FAQ|Conlang Mailing List]]) is an unofficial extension of the [[wp:X-SAMPA|Extended Speech Assessment Methods Phonetic Alphabet]] (X-SAMPA) that is used by members of the Conlang Mailing List with the intention of improving the system for use in [[wp:constructed language|language construction]].

The main differences between the transcription systems are:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Phone, diacritic or&lt;br/&gt;suprasegmental
!IPA
!X-SAMPA
!CXS
! Notes
|-
| [[wp:Close central unrounded vowel|Close central unrounded vowel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ɨ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | i\
| Original X-SAMPA symbol is also in use
|-
| [[wp:Close central rounded vowel|Close central rounded vowel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ʉ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | }
| align=&quot;center&quot; | u\
|
|-
| [[wp:Open front rounded vowel|Open front rounded vowel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ɶ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;\
|
|-
| [[wp:Near-open front unrounded vowel|Near-open front unrounded vowel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|æ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; valign=&quot;center&quot;| Same transcription as in the [[wp:Kirshenbaum|Kirshenbaum]] system
|-
| [[wp:Palatalization|Palatalization]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ʲ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ' &lt;!-- or _j --&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ; &lt;!-- or _j   but omit these alternatives since they aren't a difference --&gt;
|-
| Primary [[wp:stress (linguistics)|stress]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ˈ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ' or &quot;
|-
| Secondary stress
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|ˌ}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | %
| align=&quot;center&quot; | , or %
|-
| Tie bar (example)
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|g͡b}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | g_b
| align=&quot;center&quot; | gb)
|
|}

==See also==
* [[wp:International Phonetic Alphabet|International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA)
* [[wp:International Phonetic Alphabet for English|International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
* [[wp:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]]
* [[wp:SAMPA|SAMPA]], a language-specific predecessor of X-SAMPA.
* [[wp:SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA chart for English]]
* [[wp:Kirshenbaum|Kirshenbaum]], the other main [[wp:ASCII|ASCII]]fication system of the IPA.
* [[wp:List of phonetics topics|List of phonetics topics]]

== External links ==
* [http://listserv.brown.edu/conlang.html Conlang Mailing List]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ipa/ CXS Overview and IPA Online Converter]

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlodar ethnographical questionnaire</title>
    <id>1185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46933</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T15:21:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:WIP}}

= Sohlodar Ethnographical Questionnaire =


'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir to help in the description of [[conculture]]s, and can be found in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo]. I'll be filling it out intermittently.

__TOC__

== Questions of Place ==


=== Describe the geography of where your society calls home. ===


Sohlodar, the land of the Sohloshan, is located around the great lake known as the White Sohl, its tributary rivers Helender and Yahandar, and the river Linender which drains the White Sohl into the ocean, known as the Black Sohl. The Helender has its source in the Kejbrispeng mountains to the north, near the city of Kidil or Tidil. Between the Kejbrispeng mountains and the White Sohl lies the Doskoh or Green Plain, which is the main area of agriculture and settlement in Sohlodar. Where the Helender flows into the White Sohl lies Sohlel, the greatest of the three cities of Sohlodar. To the east lies Frohkehl, a desert plateau. West of the White Sohl the Linender river first flows through a rocky landscape before it reaches the coastal plain Xozdarkoh and empties itself into the Black Sohl under the walls of the city of Linel.

=== Describe the climate your society deals with. How severe are their seasons?===

The climate is rather hot and dry, although there is a cooler, rainy season when the Helender flows over and the Yahandar, which is dry at the height of the hot season, runs full with water. Most of the rainfall is over the Kejbrispeng, and the water is then relayed to the Doskoh by the Helender. It is the precipitation over the Kejbrispeng and the Frohkehl, transported to the White Sohl by the rivers, which makes the region, which would otherwise be a desert, amenable to agriculture (similar to ancient Egypt in our world).

The Xozdarkoh plain along the coast the soil is less fertile, so that the Lindeshan import their grain from the Doskoh area, but they keep their own sheep and cattle and have an important fishing economy.

=== What kinds of natural disasters has this society gotten used to?===

Mostly earthquakes and the Helender river occasionally changing its course. The bedrock of Sohlodar is of volcanic origin, but there were no active volcanoes in recorded history.

=== What are the most commonly-grown foods?===

Grain, vegetables and fruit.

=== What are the most commonly-eaten meats?===

Mutton and fowl. Fish along the coast.

=== What foods are considered exotic or expensive?===

Beef. The higher up in society you are, the more beef you eat, while at the bottom of society you usually eat none at all.

=== What forms of alcohol are common? Rare?===

Wine and beer are common. Wine is rare among the lower classes. Distilled spirits are unknown.

=== Is there usually enough food and water for the population?===

Yes.

=== What is this place's most abundant resource?===

Grain, vegetables, fruit, sheep (and thus wool), linen.

=== What is its most valuable resource?===

Diamonds. They are exported to foreign sea-faring peoples at Linel.

=== What resource is it most lacking?===

=== How do people travel from one place to another?===

On foot, horseback or horse-drawn carriages. Ox-carts are not unknown but usually not used for person transports.

=== Are the borders secure? In what way?===

Semi-secure, in that the land is surrounded by mountains, ocean and desert. The Sohloshan themselves invaded from the north at the beginning of recorded history, and there has been one notable later invasion.

=== How many people live here?===

Betweeen one and two million.

=== Where in this place to they congregate?===

The cities; mainly Sohlel.

=== What part of this place do they avoid? Why?===

The uninhabited area between the central plain and the coastal plain. It is haunted by outlaws and wild beasts.

=== What are the most common domesticated animals here? And what are they domesticated for?===

Sheep, used for food, clothing and leather. Goats, used for milk and leather. Fowl, used for eggs and food. Cows used for milk, food and leather. Dogs, used for guarding and herding. Cats, used for mousing. Horses used for transportation and racing.

=== What are the most common wild animals?===

Several wild bests are mentioned in the literature. Lions were both feared and admired.

=== Which animals are likely to be pets? Which ones won't be?===

Cats and dogs and the occasional lamb. Some upper-class people keep singing birds. It would be odd to keep e.g. snakes as pets.

==Questions of Time==

===How far back does this society's written history go?===

Maybe two thousand years.

===How far back do its people believe it goes?===

Since creation.

===What is the worst disaster they believe they've faced?===

A year-long solar eclipse in mythological history. The Invasion.

===What was the best thing that every happened to them?===

Finding the land.

===What in their past makes them feel ashamed?===

Not being able to repel the Invaders.

===What in their past makes them proud?===

Founding the Empire and establishing peace among the Sohloshan.

===What are they afraid of happening again?===

An invasion

===What are they hoping will happen? Do they think it likely?===

N/A

===What do they assume the future will hold?===

The present state of affairs continuing forever.

===How has this society changed? Do its current members realize this?===

From a pastoral society to an agriculturall society to a semi-urbanized society. Class distinctions and differences in wealth have increased in the process. The current members are not aware of this; they think the current state of affairs has applied since shortly after creation.

===What are the most popular stories about the past?===

About the gods, spirits and heroes between creation and the founding of the Empire.

===Who in the past is the greatest hero? The worst villain?===

The king who founded the Empire is the greatest hero.

===Do people think the present better or worse than the past?===

Worse.

===Do people believe the future will be better or worse than the present or past?===

This is a matter of debate. Theologians are divided between Optimists and Pessimists. Many nobles are concerned how a future invasion may be prevented or repelled. There is a practical problem in having a standing army that usually has nothing to do.


==  Questions of Sex and Family ==

===How many spouses may a man or woman have?===

A man may have as many spouses or lovers as he can afford, while a woman may have only one husband. Ruling queens have been known to flout the rule on women not having many lovers. Commoners usually have only one wife, and only the highest nobles or riches citizens have more than one.

===Who decides on a marriage?===

People usually marry between the ages of 15 and 20, and then their parents decide, although the wishes of the spouses-to-be are usually listened to among the lower classes. A man over the age of 25 may decide on his own marriages, and so may in practice a widow over that age.

A marriage is more of a legal contract than of a religious matter, although sex and especially child-bearing have religious overtones. When a marriage is arranged a bride-price is usually payed by the groom or his family.

===Can a marriage end in divorce? How?===

A man may freely divorce a wife, although he has to see a lawyer about it. In theory the husband should return the bride-price, though the actual sum may be smaller, due to stipulations in the marriage contract, or if the wife is keen on getting divorced. A woman usually has to seek divorce through her close male relatives, although cases where a grown woman has gone to court to seek divorce due to physical maltreatment by the husband are not unheard of.

===Who usually takes custody of children if a marriage ends for some reason?===

Usually the father takes custody, though the opposite is not unheard of, in which case it is regulated by the divorce contract. In practice if a wife has born only daughters a father may be keen on getting rid of them along with the mother.

===How is adultery defined? What (if any) is the punishment? Who decides?===

Adultery is defined as a married woman having sex with someone else than her husband. Men may have lovers, though excessive and protracted neglect of a wife is seen as proper reason for a woman to seek divorce through her brothers. A husband may divorce an adulterous wife, in which case any yet unborn children come under her custody. A husband may bring a wife's lover to court and have him fined and/or flogged.

===How are families named?===

Only very noble families have actual family names.

===What happens to orphans?===

They should be taken care of by their father's family. Sometimes it is the mother's family instead, if they have a higher social status, or if they are more willing.

===How are boy and girl children treated differently?===

===Are premarital relations allowed?===

In theory they are allowed for men but not for women. There are prostitutes, and in practice nobody exercises any control over widows or divorcées -- even comparatively young ones.

===How does your society define incest? Rape? How do people react to these?===

Incest is sex between close relatives, including inlaws. Cousin marriges occur among high nobles and royals, but are frowned upon. Rape is the taking of someone by violence, and is punishable. Rape of a virgin may even be punished by death, though that would require that she is noble and the rapist is not. Rape within marriage is another matter, though it is generally frowned upon and is seen as just cause for divorce. There may be a problem of proving it if the matter is taken to court. Paedophilia is punishable but nobles get away with it; among commoners the perpetrator will get beaten up sooner or later.

===What, if anything, is considered a good marriage gift?===

Money, precious metals or stones, cattle, land or goods, all depending on the status of the involved families. When a widow or divorcée remarries the marriage gift may be wholly symbolic, like a ring.

===What secret vice is believed to be widely practiced?===

Homosexuality among the nobles. Bestiality with sheep among country boys. It is believed that young wives and concubines of older men have sex with each other or servant girls.

===What secret vice actually is practiced?===

Homosexuality. Bestiality occurs but is not as common as is supposed. As for the young wives and concubines lesbianism is probably not as common as supposed. In practice young wives of rich older men often have male lovers.

===What sexual habits are widely believed common among foriegners?===

Sodomy with women and bestiality.

===How do people react to homosexuality?===

It is frowned upon but not punishable. It is more accepted, and supposedly more common, among nobles.

===How do the genders dress?===

The common dress is squares of fabric wrapped around the body and held in place by belts and brooches. Women's dress is longer than men's. City women and noble women would normally not expose their breasts, although peasant women may do so in certain contexts.

===Is prostitution legal? How are prostitutes viewed? Is this accurate?===

Female prostitution is legal but frowned upon.

===What professions or activities are considered masculine?===

Being a warrior and being a miner are the only male-only professions.

===What professions or activities are viewed as feminine?===

Looking after children and the household.

===What inanimate or sexless things are considered male or female?===

This is an area that needs more research. The Sun is considered male and the Moon female, but they are also considered animate.

===What is the biggest sexual taboo?===

Mother-son incest. It leads to both mother and son being executed, whereas father-daughter incest would normally only lead to the father being executed. Father-son incest would probably be very taboo, but it is not even thought of.

===Does this society connect the ideas of marriage with love?===

In theory, but it is only in the lower classes that marriage is actually based on love.

===What does this society mean by the word &quot;virgin&quot; and how important it it?===

It means an unpenetrated female, and it is very important at a woman's first marriage. 


==  Questions of Manners ==

===Who speaks first at a formal gathering?===

The most noble, eldest and most influential person, which qualities should ideally coincide.

===What kinds of gifts are considered in extremely bad taste?===

===How do younger adults address their elders?===

With honorific terms. Adressing an old person as &quot;father&quot; or &quot;mother&quot; when they are not your actual parent is considered condescending.

===What colors are associated with power? With virtue? With death?===

===If two men get into a fight, how is this supposed to be resolved?===

Among young men it would lead to actual fighting. Nobles may duel with swords if grave matters of honor are involved. Normally more sober men are expected to intervene.

===If two women get into a fight, how should that be resolved?===

Women are not expected to fight physically. As with men intervention is expected.

===When is it rude to laugh at something funny?===

In the presence of an elder or a person nobler than yourself, or during a ceremony.

===What kinds of questions cannot be asked in public? In private? At all?===

Questions about sex are avoided in public and in polite company.

===How do people demonstrate grief?===

Crying is expected.

===What does this society do with their corpses?===

They are burned and the ashes buried.

===What kinds of jewelry do people where? And when?===

Necklaces, rings, chains fingerrings and earrings of precious metals, sometimes with precious stones. They are worn all the time but more at joyous ceremonies and festivities. Women are expected to were more jewelry than men, and nobles more than commoners. Brooches are used to pin clothes together, and are usually of precious material among nobles. Noble women often were jewelled head-dress, as do kings.

===Who inheirits property? Titles? Position?===

Sons, or in their absence brothers or brother's sons or unmarried/divorced daughters inherit property. It is usual for a wife to remain in possession of her husbands property until she dies. Titles and positions are in theory all bestowed rather than inherited, though ones basic social status as noble or common is inherited from the father at birth. In those rare cases where a noble woman has married a common man the children are considered noble; normally the man will have been ennobeled by the king before the marriage.

===What happens to those suffering from extreme mental illness?===

They will be looked after by their relatives. If they have no relatives who are able to look after them they become beggars.

===What are the most popular games? How important are they?===

Various boardgames, ballgames and forms of play and sport exist. The only organized sports are chariot-racing and wrestling, which are very popular.

===What parts of the body are routinely covered?===

The genitals, the backside, and among noble women or women otherwise concerned about their virtue the breasts. Adult peasant women routinely go with their breasts bare while working in the fields or while feeding their babies.

===How private are bodily functions like bathing or defecating?===

Defecating and urinating are private. Men may urinate rather more openly than women. Bathing is not considered private, though most women wouldn't, unlike men or children, bathe entirely naked.

===How do people react to physical deformity?===

It depends on the nature of the deformity.

===When and how does someone go from child to adult?===

Usually between age fifteen and age twenty, by marrying.  Philosophers however argue that a person is fully mature only at age twenty-five.  This is also the age when a priest is considered fully qualified to perform rites.

==  Questions of Faith ==

===Is there a formal clergy? How are they organized?===

Yes there is. They are organized into different ranks based on experience and seniority.

===What do people believe happens to them after death? How, if at all, can they influence this?===

The Sohloshan believe in rebirt. They believe that if the body isn't cremated after death rebirth will not happen untill the body has decomposed. Most religiously uneducated people believe that they will be reborn as people, but with their social position determined by their actions in this life. There are speculations about rebirth as higher or lower beings among certain clergy and certain sects.

===What happens to those who disagree with the majority on questions of religion?===

They are frowned upon but left alone as long as they do not protest against the religious habits of the majority.

===Are there any particular places considered special or holy? What are they like?===

There are holy trees, holy stones and holy caves. There are also temples to the celestial deities. The White Sohl is considered holy in its entirety.

===What are the most popular rituals or festivals?===

The festivals of the solistices.

===What do people want from the god or gods? How do they try and get it?===

===How do their religious practices differ from their neighbours?===

===What is the most commonly broken religious rule?===

===What is the least-violated religious rule?===

===What factions exist within the dominant religious institutions? How do they compete?===

===Are there monastic groups? What do they do and how are they organized? How do you join one?===

===How are those who follow different faiths treated?===

===What relationship do religious and political leaders have?===

===What superstitions are common? What kinds of supernatural events/beings do people fear? ===

== Questions of Government ==

===Who decides whether someone has broken a law? How?===

===What kinds of punishments are meted out? By whom? Why?===

===How are new laws created or old ones changed?===

===Is there some form of clemency or pardon? What is involved?===

===Who has the right to give orders, and why?===

===What titles do various officials have?===

===How are the rules different for officials as opposed to the common person?===

===How do government officials dress?===

===Is the law written down? Who interprets it?===

===Once accused, what recourse does someone have?===

===Is torture allowed? What kinds?===

===How are people executed?===

===Who cannot rise to positions of leadership?===

===Is bribery allowed? Under what circumstances?===

===What makes someone a bad ruler in this society? What can be done about it?===

===What are the most common or dangerous forms of criminal? ===

==  Questions of War ==

===Who declares war?===

The King. In practice the Sohloshan haven't started a war since the establishment of the empire, with the exception of the war of liberation from the Invaders. It was started by a minor noble, but he was made king of Sohlel after he conquered the city.

===Who has the power to declare conditions of peace?===

The king, but in practice the commander in the field would be the one actually negotiating the terms.

===What happens to prisoners taken in battle?===

===What form of warfare does this society use?===

===Who are the Elite warriors? What distinguishes them?===

===How does someone get command of troops?===

===Where do the loyalties of military units lie?===

===Are there professional soldiers? Do they make up the bulk of the military?===

===Has this society ever attacked another? Do they want to? What would make them do so?===

===Who are their enemies? Who's winning?===

===What do soldiers do when there's no war? ===

Harass the peasants. ☺

==  Questions of Education ==

===Does this society have its own language? Its own writing?===

===How common is literacy? How is literacy viewed?===

===What form and value are books?===

===Who teaches others? How do they teach?===

===Who decides who learns to read or write?(f) Who teaches professions, like carpenter or scribe?===

===Are foreigners ever brought in to teach new skills? Who does that?===

===How do this society's doctors try to treat wounds and sickness?===

===Which medical assumtions of this society are wrong? ===

==  Questions of Art ==

===What are the favorite artforms?===

===What are the least-favorite?===

===How respected are artists?===

===Do artists require official or unofficial protection?===

===What kinds of trouble are artists in particular likely to find themselves in?===

===How might a very successful artist live?===

===What forms of theatre does your society have?===

===How naturalistic or stylized is your society's art?===

===What shapes are most common in your society's arts, like embroidery or architecture?===

===Which artforms get the most and least respect?===

===What form does censorship take?===

===Who may not be an artist?===

===What qualities equal &quot;beauty&quot; in this society?===

===What makes a man or woman especially beautiful?===

===How do people react to tattoos? Piercings? Facial hair? Make-up? ===

== Questions of sex and marriage ==

===Is sex confined to marriage?===

===Or, is it supposed to be? What constitutes aberrant behavior?===

===Is there anything about this culture or religion in that culture that specifically addresses sexual conduct?===

===Are there laws about it? What about prostitution?===

===How old should someone be in your culture to be having sex?===

===What is considered too great a difference in age for a couple?===

===Do relationships allow multiple partners?===

===Should sex be a one-to-one experience? Or are groups allowed?===

===And, of course, what about homosexuality? Is it frowned on? Encouraged? ===

==  Questions of death and burial ==

===What is their understanding of death and dying?===

===Do they cremate their dead? Or, how are dead bodies disposed of?===

===Is the family responsible for the body?===

===What part do the priests play?===

===Are there cemeteries at all?===

===Or, does everyone have a crypt in back with all the relatives in it?===

===Do people visit the dead? If so, how often and why? ===

==  Questions of suicide ==

===What do people in this culture think about suicide?===

===Is it the greatest sin one can commit? Or is it a sin at all?===

===Is it the great and last comfort of a tormented soul?===

===Is it worse than murder? ===

[[Category:Sohlodar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Work in progress</title>
    <id>1186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40037</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-21T21:52:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;a major edit _or series of edits_&quot; - this conforms better to actual usage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate metadata&quot; id=&quot;inuse&quot; style=&quot;background: #cfc; border: 1px solid #aaa; margin: 0 2.5%; padding: 0 10px&quot;&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''This article is currently undergoing a major edit or series of edits.'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''The contents are incomplete and in need of elaboration and/or change!'''&lt;br/&gt;
As a courtesy, please do not make edits to this article while this message is displayed, in order to avoid [[Wikipedia:Edit conflict|edit conflicts]].  If you need to know who is working on the article and when the edit session began, please check the [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=history}} edit history][[Template:Inuse|.]]
&lt;/div&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:WIP</title>
    <id>1187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24419</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-11T14:49:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Turned into redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Template:Work in progress]]</text>
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    <title>Template:Wip</title>
    <id>1188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24418</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-11T14:45:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Turned into redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Template:Work in progress]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Templates</title>
    <id>1189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22681</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-01T22:42:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/EllWya|EllWya]] ([[User_talk:EllWya|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Melroch|Melroch]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== What is a template? ==

The [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]] software used by FrathWiki has support for templates. This means standardized text chunks (such as [[Wikipedia:Template messages|boilerplate]] text) can be inserted into articles. For example, typing &lt;nowiki&gt;{{stub}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; will appear as:

{{stub}}

=== List of all templates on this wiki ===

Some of them are documented through &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;...&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tags, some in their talk pages, but most not at all.
If you know what an undocumented template does, please add documentation in your spare time! {{-)}}

&lt;DPL&gt;
namespace = Template
&lt;/DPL&gt;

===Instructions===
To create a new user message, you need to make an article under the name '''Template:TEMPLATENAME'''. 

Messages can be used in two ways: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:TEMPLATENAME}} and {{TEMPLATENAME}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;. &lt;tt&gt;subst&lt;/tt&gt; copies the user message into the text of the article you are working on. Without &lt;tt&gt;subst&lt;/tt&gt; the text of the user message is retrieved from the template space each time the article is opened. &lt;nowiki&gt;{{msg:TEMPLATENAME}} does the same thing as {{TEMPLATENAME}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

If you create a new user message, please keep the list below updated.

== General-use templates ==

=== ABC ===
This [[Template:ABC]] replaces the table of contents with links to the headings of an alphabetized list such as a vocabulary. To insert it type &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:ABC}} &lt;/nowiki&gt; at the top of the edit window and save the page, then create headings named
&lt;pre&gt;
== A == 
== B == 
== C == 
&lt;/pre&gt;
etc.

&lt;center&gt;
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D|D]] - [[#E|E]] - [[#F|F]] - [[#G|G]] - [[#H|H]] - [[#I|I]] - [[#J|J]] - [[#K|K]] - [[#L|L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#O|O]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#Q|Q]] - [[#R|R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T|T]] - [[#U|U]] - [[#V|V]] - [[#W|W]] - [[#X|X]] - [[#Y|Y]] - [[#Z|Z]]
&lt;/center&gt;

There's also [[Template:widetoc]] which does similar.

=== Work in progress ===

To show that a page is under construction, under revision or otherwise incomplete you can type &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Workinprogress}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; at the top of of the page and it will appear as the following boilerplate:

{{Workinprogress}}

Equivalent code is &lt;nowiki&gt;{{WIP}} or {{Wip}} or {{wip}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

===See also===

This [[Template:Seealso|template]], using this code:

:::''&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Seealso|this}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

will insert the following text:

{{Seealso|this}}

=== User page template ===

This [[Template:Userpage]] is a ripoff of [[User:Chlewey]]'s elegant user page.
You can use it as a help to create your own user page.  To include it in your own page type &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Userpage}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; into your edit window, then save your page, then open your edit window again and edit the table that now appears.  Replace the text in UPPERCASE with information relevant to yourself.

===Disambiguation===

If ever you find the need for a disambiguation page, [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]] has copied the Wikipedia &lt;nowiki&gt;{{disambig}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; template over to Frath, including the image.

== Language templates ==

===Language summary===

This [[Template:Language|template]] was designed by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg]] as a base for your language descriptions.  It contains a box in the upper right corner with basic language data (location, timeline/universe, number of speakers, genealogical classification) modelled after the similar boxes found in Wikipedia language articles.  To include it in your page, type 
&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Language}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; into your edit window, then save your page, then open the edit window again and edit the table that now appears.

I suggest for a posteriori conlangs to use the colour of the family used in the Wikipedia.  For your own families, choose a colour that suits you.

===Language summary II===

An [[Template:Infobox|alternative template]] was designed by [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]] for more comprehensive language summarising (what an oxymoron, truth be told), including linguistic typology. It also uses a light grey background and smaller text than Jörg's template. To use this template, use the follwing code:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Infobox|name=|pronounce=|tu=|species=|in=|no=|script=|tree=|morph=|ms=|wo=|creator=|date=}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;''&lt;/div&gt;

Open the link above to find out what each parameter stands for.

===Phonology===

For a simple table to use to describe your language's phonology, try [[Template:Consonants|this template]] for consonants and [[Template:Vowels|this one]] for vowels, by using ''&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Consonants}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' or ''&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Vowels}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' in your language's page, saving the page, and editing the table that appears afterwards. The above templates are designed with spaces for the most common sounds of natural languages and the symbols thereof pre-included. As the templates are meant to be inserted by means of a ''subst:'' command line, users are free to add necessary spaces or delete extraneous ones according to their needs.

=== Swadesh template ===

This template, adapted from the [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Swadesh template|Wiktionary:Swadesh template]] can be used to demonstrate the vocabulary of a conlang.  It can be seen [[Template:Swadesh|here]].
To include it in your own page type &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Swadesh}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; into your edit window, then save your page, then open your edit window again and edit the table that now appears.

=== IPA transcription ===

The [[Template:IPA|IPA Template]] can be used to select fonts for displaying special characters correctly in Internet Explorer.  It will also display a tooltip saying &quot;IPA transcription&quot;.  See [[Template talk:IPA]] for usage instructions.

===Transliteration===

Meant for the more elaborate language designers, [[Template:Translit|this template]] alerts readers to the existence of more than one transliteration system in the article, which may be due to, depending on the article and its subject, conworld political reasons, conlang etymological reasons etc. Made by [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]].

==Conworld templates==

[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]] has designed a [[Template:Succession box|template]]  that allows easy referencing between empires on a territory, dynasties of an empire, rulers of a dynasty, reign names of a ruler etc. Designed to be placed at the bottom of the page, although the top will do just fine as well.

== Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire ==

'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir to help in the description of [[conculture]]s, and was placed by him in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo], and adapted for the wiki by [[User:Melroch|BPJ]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Swadesh</title>
    <id>1190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45940</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-11T19:05:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>delinking entries - what is this, wikipedia?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This template shows the number and English for each word on the [[Swadesh List]].

Because of width limitations only a small number of languages can be shown on
a single page.  This template can be used as a basis for illustrating further
languages.

PLEASE DO NOT EDIT THIS PAGE. THIS IS A TEMPLATE ONLY. SEE [[Swadesh List]] FOR A LISTING OF SPECIFIC SWADESH LISTS (OR TO ADD NEW ONES THERE).

{| border=1
|i=No|  №
!c=en|  [[English]]
!c=01|  Lang1
!c=02|  Lang2
!c=03|  Lang3
!c=04|  Lang4
!c=05|  Lang5
!c=06|  Lang6
!c=07|  Lang7
!c=08|  Lang8
|-
|i=No| 1
|c=en| I
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 2
|c=en| thou&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(singular)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 3
|c=en| he
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 4
|c=en| we
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 5
|c=en| you&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(plural)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 6
|c=en| they
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 7
|c=en| this
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 8
|c=en| that
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 9
|c=en| here
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 10
|c=en| there
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 11
|c=en| who
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 12
|c=en| what
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 13
|c=en| where
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 14
|c=en| when
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 15
|c=en| how
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 16
|c=en| not
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 17
|c=en| all
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 18
|c=en| many
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 19
|c=en| some
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 20
|c=en| few
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 21
|c=en| other
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 22
|c=en| one
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 23
|c=en| two
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 24
|c=en| three
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 25
|c=en| four
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 26
|c=en| five
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 27
|c=en| big
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 28
|c=en| long
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 29
|c=en| wide
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 30
|c=en| thick
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 31
|c=en| heavy
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 32
|c=en| small
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 33
|c=en| short
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 34
|c=en| narrow
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 35
|c=en| thin
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 36
|c=en| woman
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 37
|c=en| man&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (male)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 38
|c=en| person
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 39
|c=en| child&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a youth)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 40
|c=en| wife
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 41
|c=en| husband
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 42
|c=en| mother
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 43
|c=en| father
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 44
|c=en| animal
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 45
|c=en| fish
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 46
|c=en| bird
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 47
|c=en| dog
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 48
|c=en| louse
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 49
|c=en| snake
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 50
|c=en| worm
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 51
|c=en| tree
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 52
|c=en| forest
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 53
|c=en| stick&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of wood)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 54
|c=en| fruit
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 55
|c=en| seed
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 56
|c=en| leaf
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 57
|c=en| root
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 58
|c=en| bark&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of tree)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 59
|c=en| flower
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 60
|c=en| grass
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 61
|c=en| rope
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 62
|c=en| skin&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of a person)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 63
|c=en| meat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in flesh)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 64
|c=en| blood
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 65
|c=en| bone
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 66
|c=en| fat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (noun)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 67
|c=en| egg
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 68
|c=en| horn
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 69
|c=en| tail
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 70
|c=en| feather&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not down)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 71
|c=en| hair
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 72
|c=en| head
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 73
|c=en| ear
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 74
|c=en| eye
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 75
|c=en| nose
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 76
|c=en| mouth
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 77
|c=en| tooth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not molar)
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 78
|c=en| tongue
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 79
|c=en| fingernail
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 80
|c=en| foot
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 81
|c=en| leg
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 82
|c=en| knee
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 83
|c=en| hand
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 84
|c=en| wing
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 85
|c=en| belly
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 86
|c=en| guts
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 87
|c=en| neck
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 88
|c=en| back
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 89
|c=en| breast
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 90
|c=en| heart
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 91
|c=en| liver
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 92
|c=en| to drink
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 93
|c=en| to eat
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 94
|c=en| to bite
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 95
|c=en| to suck
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 96
|c=en| to spit
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 97
|c=en| to vomit
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 98
|c=en| to blow&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as wind)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 99
|c=en| to breathe
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 100
|c=en| to laugh
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 101
|c=en| to see
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 102
|c=en| to hear
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 103
|c=en| to know&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a fact)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 104
|c=en| to think
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 105
|c=en| to smell&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (sense odor)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 106
|c=en| to fear
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 107
|c=en| to sleep
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 108
|c=en| to live
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 109
|c=en| to die
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 110
|c=en| to kill
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 111
|c=en| to fight
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 112
|c=en| to hunt&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (transitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 113
|c=en| to hit
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 114
|c=en| to cut
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 115
|c=en| to split
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 116
|c=en| to stab&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (or stick)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 117
|c=en| to scratch&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (an itch)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 118
|c=en| to dig
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 119
|c=en| to swim
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 120
|c=en| to fly
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 121
|c=en| to walk
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 122
|c=en| to come
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 123
|c=en| to lie&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as on one's side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 124
|c=en| to sit
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 125
|c=en| to stand
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 126
|c=en| to turn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (change direction)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 127
|c=en| to fall&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in drop)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 128
|c=en| to give
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 129
|c=en| to hold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (in one's hand)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 130
|c=en| to squeeze
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 131
|c=en| to rub
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 132
|c=en| to wash
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 133
|c=en| to wipe
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 134
|c=en| to pull
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 135
|c=en| to push
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 136
|c=en| to throw
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 137
|c=en| to tie
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 138
|c=en| to sew
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 139
|c=en| to count
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 140
|c=en| to say
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 141
|c=en| to sing
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 142
|c=en| to play
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 143
|c=en| to float
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 144
|c=en| to flow
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 145
|c=en| to freeze
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 146
|c=en| to swell
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 147
|c=en| sun
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 148
|c=en| moon
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 149
|c=en| star
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 150
|c=en| water
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 151
|c=en| to rain
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 152
|c=en| river
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 153
|c=en| lake
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 154
|c=en| sea&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in ocean)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 155
|c=en| salt
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 156
|c=en| stone
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 157
|c=en| sand
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 158
|c=en| dust
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 159
|c=en| earth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in soil)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 160
|c=en| cloud
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 161
|c=en| fog
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 162
|c=en| sky
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 163
|c=en| wind&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in breeze)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 164
|c=en| snow
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 165
|c=en| ice
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 166
|c=en| smoke
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 167
|c=en| fire
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 168
|c=en| ashes
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 169
|c=en| to burn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (intransitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 170
|c=en| road
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 171
|c=en| mountain
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 172
|c=en| red
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 173
|c=en| green
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 174
|c=en| yellow
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 175
|c=en| white
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 176
|c=en| black
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 177
|c=en| night
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 178
|c=en| day&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (daytime)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 179
|c=en| year
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 180
|c=en| warm&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 181
|c=en| cold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 182
|c=en| full
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 183
|c=en| new
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 184
|c=en| old
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 185
|c=en| good
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 186
|c=en| bad
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 187
|c=en| rotten&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as, a log)
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 188
|c=en| dirty
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 189
|c=en| straight
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 190
|c=en| round
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 191
|c=en| sharp&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 192
|c=en| dull&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 193
|c=en| smooth
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 194
|c=en| wet
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 195
|c=en| dry&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (adjective)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 196
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (correct)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 197
|c=en| near
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 198
|c=en| far
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 199
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 200
|c=en| left&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 201
|c=en| at
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 202
|c=en| in
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 203
|c=en| with&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (accompanying)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 204
|c=en| and
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 205
|c=en| if
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 206
|c=en| because
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|-
|i=No| 207
|c=en| name
|c=01| [[]]
|c=02| [[]]
|c=03| [[]]
|c=04| [[]]
|c=05| [[]]
|c=06| [[]]
|c=07| [[]]
|c=08| [[]]
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Userpage</title>
    <id>1191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4545</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-14T17:35:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''MY NAME'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| HERE IS PLACE FOR A PICTURE, MAYBE A PICTURE OF ME! :)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| MY DATE OF BIRTH; MY PLACE OF BIRTH, MY COUNTRY OF BIRTH
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| MY PROFESSION
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| NATURAL LANGUAGES THAT I SPEAK/READ/WRITE
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| CONLANGS THAT I HAVE CREATED
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| CONLANGS THAT I KNOW/USE/AM INERESTED IN THAT OTHERS HAVE CREATED
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| MY INTERESTS
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| MORE INFORMATION
|}

ANY TEXT OF MY CHOICE</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlob</title>
    <id>1192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46929</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T15:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Sohlob]] is the name both of a [[wp:language family|language family]] and of one of [[Sohlob languages|the members of that family]], more properly called [[Classical Sohlob]].  The [[Sohloçan]] didn't make any systematic distinction between [[wp:Dialect#.22Dialect.22_or_.22language.22|language and dialect]] the way we do, mainly because most of the languages they dealt with were more or less obviously related; thus a situation similar to that of [[wp:Varieties of Chinese|'dialects' of Chinese]] in our world.

== The Languages ==

* [[Sohlob sound system|Sound system]]
** [[Sohlob romanization|Romanization]]
** [[Sohlob writing|Writing]]
** [[Sohlob historical phonology|Historical phonology]]
* [[Sohlob languages|The languages]]
** [[Kijeb|Kijeb]] the Ancient Language
**:Not quite the proto-language, but really archaic [[Kidilib]]!
*** [[Kijeb writing]]
***[[Kijeb texts]]
** [[Kidilib (Sohlob)|Kidilib]], the Language of the Ancient City
*** [[Old Kidilib (Sohlob)|Old Kidilib]]
**** [[Old Kidilib script (Sohlob)|Old Kidilib script]]
** [[Classical Sohlob|Classical Sohlob]], the language of books and of ceremony
** [[Heleb (City Sohlob)|Heleb]], the 'City language'
** [[Nandrab (River Sohlob)|Nandrab]], the Language of the River Valley
** [[Yahab (Southern Sohlob)|Yahab]], the Language of the South
** [[Linjeb (Western Sohlob)|Linjeb]], the Language of the West
* [[:Category:Sohlob writing|Writing]]
** [[Kijeb writing (Sohlob)|Kijeb writing]] 
**: A syllabary characterised by phonological underspecification.
** [[Old Kidilib script (Sohlob)|Old Kidilib script]] 
**: A younger version of the Kijeb syllabary.
** [[Sohlob alphabet]] 
**: The alphabet used to write the younger [[Sohlob languages|Sohlob languages]].  While it shares some features — notably phonological underspecification — with the Kijeb script there is no clear evidence how it may be derived from it.

== The Culture ==

* [[Sohlodar|The Land]]
* [[Sohlosjan|The people]]
* [[Sohlodar ethnographical questionnaire]]

== All pages in [[:Category:Sohlob]] ==

(Obviously some overlap with the above!)

&lt;dpl&gt;
  category= Sohlob
&lt;/dpl&gt;

----
[[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]]

[[Category:Sohlob]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Conlangs by Melroch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Latinization of Sohlob</title>
    <id>1193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46905</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:38:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Romanization]] moved to [[Latinization of Sohlob]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Letter values in Sohlob romanization are like IPA, except for the following:

'''p, t, c, k''' are aspirated.

Voiced stops and fricatives are devoiced word-finally before a voiceless sound and utterance-finally.

'''f''' is {{IPA|[v]}} word-internally between voiced sounds.

'''c''' is {{IPA|[tɕʰ]}}. Alternative transcriptions are &lt;tt&gt;tj&lt;/tt&gt; and '''ch'''.

'''j''' is {{IPA|[dʑ] or [ʑ]}}. Alternative transcriptions are &lt;tt&gt;dj&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;zj&lt;/tt&gt;. The {{IPA|[ʑ]}} &lt;tt&gt;zj&lt;/tt&gt; variant occurs mainly before '''d'''. A ''j'' not preceded by any of the letters &lt;tt&gt;d, s, t,&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;z&lt;/tt&gt; can only be {{IPA|/dʑ/}}, since in the ASCII transcription ''j'' is not used outside these digraphs.

'''ç''' is {{IPA|[ɕ]}}. Alternative transcriptions are &lt;tt&gt;sj&lt;/tt&gt; and '''sh'''.

'''y''' is {{IPA|[j]}}, except in Linjeb where it is actually the vowel {{IPA|[y]}}!

'''æ''' is (surprise ☺) {{IPA|[æ]}}. It may be written &lt;tt&gt;ae&lt;/tt&gt; without confusion, since the rules of Sohlob vowel harmony don't allow '''a '''and''' e''' together in the same word.

'''e''' is {{IPA|[ɨ]}} in Classical Sohlob and Heleb. In Kidilib and Linjeb it is {{IPA|[ɛ]}}.

'''o''' is {{IPA|[ɒ]}} in Classical Sohlob, Heleb and. Kidilib. In Linjeb it is {{IPA|[ɔ]}}.

'''ny''' is {{IPA|[ɲ]}}, except in Linjeb.

'''ng''' is {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, except in '''ngr''', which is actually {{IPA|[ŋɡr]}} and '''ngl''', which is actually {{IPA|[ŋɡl]}}.

'''hl''' is {{IPA|[ɬ]}}.

'''hr''' (Kidilib) is {{IPA|[r̥]}} (voiceless trill).

'''çr''' (Classical Sohlob) is {{IPA|[ʂ]}}.

'''hy''' (Kidilib) is {{IPA|[ç]}}.

In Kidilib '''t, d, s''' before '''i, e''' are pronounced as '''c, j, ç''', i.e. dentals and palatals merge before front vowels, and are pronounced as palatals but spelled as dentals in this position!

== The letter ñ ==

Some may wonder that I don't use the letter '''ñ''' for '''ny''' {{IPA|[ɲ]}}.
Alternately some people familiar with [[Wikipedia:J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien's]] use of '''ñ''' for {{IPA|[ŋ]}} may wonder why I don't adopt that usage.  The answer is, as you may already have guessed, exactly the fact that I've encountered conflicting usages of '''ñ''', and so they make me confused, and I decided to use neither.  In fact I do use '''ñ''' for [[Kijeb]] ''{{IPA|ŋ}}'' in my private vocabulary database, since it doesn't accomodate Unicode!

== Heleb peculiarities ==

The Heleb dialect has a distinct pair of front rounded vowels ''ü'' and ''ö'' pronounced {{IPA|[y]}} and {{IPA|[œ]}}.  The Heleb counterpart pf '''æ''' is '''ä'''
but this is only a difference in transcription.

Heleb has distinctive vowel length.  Long vowels are transcribed with doubled vowel letters.

'''e''' and '''a''' are fully back unrounded vowels {{IPA|[ɯ]}} and {{IPA|[ɑ]}} in Heleb.

'''ll''' indicates a velar(ized) {{IPA|/ɫ/}} or {{IPA|/ʟ/}} distinct from palatal '''l''' {{IPA|/ʎ/}}.  This arose when front-back vowel harmony caused some formerly back vowels to become front and ''vice versa'', since formerly ''*l'' had had a palatal allophone before front vowels and a velar allophone before back vowels; this difference became phonemic as the liquid retained its old quality when the following vowel changed its front/back value.  There was a similar allophony in ''*r'', but the palatal allophone  merged with '''y'''.  The remaining Heleb 'rhotic' '''r''' was probably realized as a retroflex fricative {{IPA|[ʐ]}} or {{IPA|[ɻ]}}.  

In the native script '''ll''' was written (from right to left) as {{Sohlob|rr}}, '''l''' as {{Sohlob|ir}} and '''r''' as {{Sohlob|r}}, if they were distinguished at all.

[[Category:Sohlob]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlob sound system</title>
    <id>1194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46918</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:44:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Sound system]] moved to [[Sohlob sound system]] over redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

==Classical Sohlob==

===Classical Sohlob vowels===

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot; 
| ||''Front''||''Central''||''Back''
|-
|''High''|| '''i''' || '''e''' {{IPA|/ɨ/}} || '''u'''
|-
|''Low''|| '''æ''' {{IPA|/æ/}} || '''a''' || '''o''' {{IPA|/ɒ/}}
|}

===Classical Sohlob consonants===

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot; 
| ||''Labial''||''Dental''||''Palatoalveolar''||''Velar''||''Glottal''
|-
|''Voiceless stops''||'''p''' {{IPA|/pʰ/}}||'''t''' {{IPA|/tʰ/}}||'''c''' {{IPA|/tɕʰ/}}||'''k''' {{IPA|/kʰ/}}|| ('''h''' {{IPA|/ʔ/}})
|-
|''Voiced stops''||'''b'''||'''d'''||'''j''' {{IPA|/dʑ/}}||'''g'''|| 
|-
|''Voiced nasals''||'''m'''||'''n'''||'''ny''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}}||'''ng''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}}|| 
|-
|''Voiceless fricatives''||'''f'''*||'''s'''||'''ç''' {{IPA|/ɕ/}}||'''x'''||'''h'''
|-
|''Voiced fricatives''||'''v/f''' {{IPA|/v/}}*||'''z'''||('''j''' {{IPA|[ʑ]}})||'''q''' {{IPA|/ɣ/}}|| 
|-
|''Voiceless lateral fricative''|| ||'''hl''' {{IPA|/ɬ/}}|| || || 
|-
|''Voiced lateral''|| ||'''l'''|| || || 
|-
|''Voiceless trill''|| ||('''çr''' {{IPA|[r̥]}})|| || || 
|-
|''Voiced trill''|| ||'''r'''|| || || 
|-
|''Voiced approximants''||'''w'''|| ||'''y''' {{IPA|/j/}}|| || 
|}

:&amp;#42;Between voiced sounds '''f''' denotes {{IPA|/v/}}, but next to a voiceless sound or at the beginning or end of a word it denotes {{IPA|/f/}}.

== Kidilib ==

=== Kidilib Vowels===

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot; 
| ||''Front''||''Central''||''Back''
|-
|''High''|| '''i''' || || '''u'''
|-
|''Low''|| '''e''' {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || '''a''' || '''o''' {{IPA|/ɒ/}}
|}

===Kidilib consonants ===

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot; 
| ||''Labial''||''Dental''||''Palatoalveolar''||''Velar''||''Glottal''
|-
|''Voiceless stops''||'''p''' {{IPA|/pʰ/}}||'''t''' {{IPA|/tʰ/}}||'''c''' {{IPA|/tɕʰ/}}||'''k''' {{IPA|/kʰ/}}||  ('''h''' {{IPA|/ʔ/}})
|-
|''Voiced stops''||'''b'''||'''d'''||'''j''' {{IPA|/dʑ/}}||'''g'''|| 
|-
|''Voiceless nasals''||'''hm''' {{IPA|/m̥/}}||'''hn''' {{IPA|/n̥/}}||'''hny''' {{IPA|/ɲ̊/}}||'''hng''' {{IPA|/ŋ̊/}}|| 
|-
|''Voiced nasals''||'''m'''||'''n'''||'''ny''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}}||'''ng''' {{IPA|/ŋ/}}|| 
|-
|''Voiceless fricatives''||'''f'''||'''s'''||'''ç''' {{IPA|/ɕ/}}||'''x'''||'''h'''
|-
|''Voiced fricatives''||'''v/f''' {{IPA|/v/}}||'''z'''||('''j'''{{IPA|[ʑ]}})||'''q''' {{IPA|/ɣ/}}|| 
|-
|''Voiceless lateral fricative''|| ||'''hl''' {{IPA|/ɬ/}}|| || || 
|-
|''Voiced lateral''|| ||'''l'''|| || || 
|-
|''Voiceless trill''|| ||'''hr''' {{IPA|/r̥/}}|| || || 
|-
|''Voiced trill''|| ||'''r'''|| || || 
|-
|''Voiceless approximant''||'''hw''' {{IPA|/ʍ/}}|| ||'''hy''' {{IPA|/ç/}} || || 
|-
|''Voiced approximants''||'''w'''|| ||'''y''' {{IPA|/j/}|| || 
|}
:&amp;#42;As in Classical Sohlob '''f''' between voiced sounds denotes {{IPA|/v/}}, but next to a voiceless sound or at the beginning or end of a word it denotes {{IPA|/f/}}.

[[Category:Sohlob]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlob alphabet</title>
    <id>1195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47321</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-17T20:17:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Remarks */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Used to write [[Sohlob]], [[Kidilib]] and [[Linjeb]].

[[Image:Sohlobalph.png|500px]]&lt;br&gt;
(Click on the image to see it in a larger size)
[[Category:Sohlob]]
[[Category:Sohlob writing]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]

:[[Media:Sohlob.ttf|Download the Sohlob alphabet font!]]

==Remarks==

*The diacritical marks -- the superscript dot for changing pronunciation and the underscore to indicate digraphs -- were usually only used to resolve perceived risk of incorrect reading.  In practice Sohlob writing was often ambiguous, since a scribes perception of risk of incorrect reading may differ from his readers'.

*The digraphs {{Sohlob|yd ys yt}} using '''y''' to indicate '''c, ç, j''' were normal in Kidilib writing, while the alternative graphies {{Sohlob|j ç c}} or {{Sohlob|z x xt}}  were usual in Classical Sohlob and Heleb.  Linjeb did not have these sounds.  Lindjeb also sometimes used {{Sohlob|ir}} '''ry''' to write /l/.

*Kidilib did not distinguish {{Sohlob|æ}} '''æ''' and {{Sohlob|e}} '''e''', but used the unadorned letter {{Sohlob|e}} for /ɛ/.

*The signs for voiceless stops {{Sohlob| K T P}} using a superimposed {{Sohlob|h}} '''h''' were the usual ones in Linjeb.  In the other dialects voiceless and voiced stops were not usually distinguished in writing.

*The form {{Sohlob|s}} for '''s''' looking like '''hh''' was in fact the usual one.  The form {{Sohlob|S}} looking like an '''h''' with a dot was only used where a scribe had inadvertently omitted one of the strokes of {{Sohlob|s}}.

*Lindjeb used a further digraph {{Sohlob|iu}} '''ui''' to write /y/.  Sometimes {{Sohlob|ü}}, which in the other dialects would be read as '''w''' was used.
----
The phrase {{Sohlob|bolhos qreç}} at the bottom of the image is a misspelling for {{Sohlob|bolhos qres}} '''serq sohlob'''.  I'm going to fix that eventually!</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Sohlob</title>
    <id>1196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46932</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T15:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Sohlob]] is a family of [[A priori conlangs]] by [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]].  They are spoken in [[Sohlodar]].

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Sohlodar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:A priori conlangs</title>
    <id>1197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46341</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:46:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link main article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''[[a priori conlang]]''' is a conlang that is ''not'' based on a [[Wikipedia:Natural language|natural language]].

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:A posteriori conlangs</title>
    <id>1198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30242</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-26T07:34:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''A posteriori conlang''' is a conlang that ''is'' based on a [[Wikipedia:Natural language|natural language]].

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Maerik</title>
    <id>1199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:11:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Maerik]] is an [[A priori conlangs|A priori conlang]] by [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]].

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A priori conlang</title>
    <id>1200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46342</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:48:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>morcat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''a priori conlang''' is a [[conlang]] whose vocabulary is primarily not based on a [[natural language]].  A conlang whose vocabulary is primarily based on a natural language is called [[a posteriori conlang|a posteriori]].

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:A priori conlangs|!]]
[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category talk:A priori conlangs</title>
    <id>1201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22364</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:17:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">How come the category link to this page still appears red in the [[Sohlob]] page?  I have cleared the cache and it doesn't help.

:Works for me.  Perhaps the change hadn't yet hit the server's cache.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 08:34, 20 May 2005 (PDT)

::Weirdly I had to make a change to the Sohlob page, save that and '''then''' it worked!

:::You need to purge the server's cache. [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=purge}} Refresh this page]. - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]][[User talk:Zhen Lin|&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;]] 17:41, 21 May 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>League of Lost Languages</title>
    <id>1202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46024</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-13T09:48:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The languages of the LLL */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''League of Lost Languages''' ('''LLL''') is a collaborative project about
the survival of languages that existed or could have existed in
the world we live in, but disappeared without leaving any living
descendants. The idea is that in the LLL world, some languages
survived that died out here, without changing the world more than
necessary to accomodate the languages in question. The LLL world
is essentially our world with the same history and geography,
just with a few extra languages.

Examples include European languages of pre-Indo-European origin, modern East Germanic languages, fictional branches of
Indo-European, sister groups of real-world families and isolates, etc. Of course, this is not limited to Europe. An LLL language could
be yet another of the many diverse languages of the North American Pacific coast, a modern-day descendant of Sumerian or a
pre-Bantu language in the Congo basin. It is also not ultimately necessary that the languages are spoken today; they might be extinct
but having left written records.

The participants would contribute their conlangs, say where and when they are spoken, and write fake scholarly papers and similar
stuff about them. 

A language contributed to the LLL must fulfill the following criteria:

# It is ''naturalistic'', i.e. it is plausible as a human language.
# It is ''spoken by humans''; non-human races (even Neanderthal survivals etc.) are out of bounds. (The [[Elves]] and [[Dwarves]] speaking [[Albic]] and [[Coric]] are no exception to this: they are humans, not the usual fantasy races.) 
# Its ''history is consistent'' with the known history of the real world. This means that all the major events are the same as in our world. This rule puts limits on conculturing, but it also helps avoiding awkward political and religious debates, and concentrating on the languages. 
# It is either ''extinct'' (having left behind written records) or spoken by a community ''small'' enough not to make a difference. (This is pretty much an implication of the criterion above.)

The LLL conducts its business on the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs lostlangs mailing list].

==The languages of the LLL==

{|
!Language
!Location
!Author
|-
| [[Albic]] family
| British Isles
| [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]
|-
| [[Channel Island Siouxan]]
| Channel Islands
| [[Kuroda]]
|-
| [[Continental English]]
| Unknown (Europe)
| [[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]]
|-
| [[Coric]] family
| British Isles
| [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]
|-
| [[Føtisk]]
| Denmark
| Tristan McLeay
|-
| [[Fusangese]]
| Mexico
| [[Kuroda]]
|-
| [[Germanech]]
| Trier, Germany
| [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]
|-
| [[Hairo]]
| Rügen, Germany
| Christian Thalmann
|-
| [[Hattic]]
| Russia
| [[User:IJzeren Jan|Jan van Steenbergen]]
|-
| [[Hifahoshaj]]
| Texas
| Bob Thornton
|-
| [[Kilda Kelen]]
| Kamchatka Peninsula
| [[Kuroda]]
|-
| [[Kuman Tyli]]
| Russia/Ukraine
| Isaac Penzev
|-
| [[li~Rumaninu]]
| Congo
| Patrick Dunn
|-
| [[Lu]]
| Southern France and Northern Italy
| [[User:Humancadaver101|Schwhatever]]
|-
| [[Mærik]]
| Sweden
| [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]]
|-
| [[Noric]] family
| Austria
| the group
|-
| [[Orinoco English]]
| Venezuela
| Rodlox R
|-
| [[Thagojian]]
| Egypt/Palestine/Israel
| Paul Bennett
|-
| [http://wycoval.googlepages.com Tseeyo]
| Guinea
| Wycoval 
|}

==Seleted articles from the lostlangs list==

{|
! Date
! Author
! Title
|-
| 2004/07/03
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/9 Some thoughts about the linguistic landscape of Europe]
|-
| 2004/07/03
| Christian Thalmann
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/12 Hairo Script Brainstorming]
|-
| 2004/07/05
| Patrick Dunn
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/22 li~Rumaninu]
|-
| 2004/07/10
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/39 pre-Homo sapiens languages; Vinca script]
|-
| 2004/07/10
| Bob Thornton
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/44 Hifahos^aj]
|-
| 2004/07/19
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/72 The British Isles Linguistic Area]
|-
| 2004/07/22
| Isaac Penzev
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/75 First info about Kuman Tyli]
|-
| 2004/07/22
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/77 Some facts about Caucasian languages]
|-
| 2004/07/23
| Christian Thalmann
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/78 Hairo Grammar Brainstorm]
|-
| 2004/09/04
| Bob Thornton
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/139 Possessives within Hifahoshach]
|-
| 2004/09/12
| Bob Thornton
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/178 Hifahoshach Verb Conjugation]
|-
| 2004/10/03
| panchakahq
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/197 Turkish Loans in Neo-Khitanese]
|-
| 2004/10/05
| Christian Thalmann
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/205 Hairo Page in Progress]
|-
| 2004/11/29
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/260 Degrees of volition in Old Albic]
|-
| 2004/12/29
| Bob Thornton
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/263 Revised Hifahoshach phonology]
|-
| 2005/02/20
| Jörg Rhiemeier
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/289 Some Old Albic calendar and mythology stuff]
|-
| 2005/03/27
| Angel
| [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/295 Ynglesh Lawngwedg (Preview)]
|}


[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mærik</title>
    <id>1203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4558</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-26T15:39:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.253.3.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Maerik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albic</title>
    <id>1204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29108</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T18:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
|| British Isles and elsewhere
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
|| [[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||--
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||'''Albic'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Proto-Albic]](†)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[South Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Old Albic]](†)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Low Elvish]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Macaronesian]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[North Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Caledonian]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Alfheimian]](†)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[West Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Iverinian]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Borgarnesian]](†)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2000-
|}

The '''Albic''' language family constitutes the main conlanging project
of [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is a family of languages spoken in the
British Isles and the Canary Islands (and a few other places where [[British Elves]] settled) in the [[League of Lost Languages]].
The name &quot;Albic&quot; is from the Old Albic self-designation '''Alba'''.
[[Old Albic]] was the dominant language of Britain before the immigration
of the Celts; its speakers, the [[British Elves]], were the bearers of a
unique ancient civilization which gave rise to the Celtic and Germanic
traditions of [[Elves]], the Greek tradition of Hyperborea and possibly
also of the Atlantis myth. They were essentially humans who behaved
pretty much like the Elves of J. R. R. Tolkien (whose languages were
influential on the creation of the Albic languages). The modern Albic
languages ([[Low Elvish]], [[Caledonian]], [[Iverinian]] and [[Macaronesian]])
are spoken by tiny minorities; they descend from various vernacular
dialects of Old Albic.

Three branches of the Albic family can be distiguished: ''South Albic'',
consisting of Classical Old Albic, Low Elvish and Macaronesian;
''North Albic'', represented by Caledonian; and ''West Albic'',
to which belongs Iverinian.  These three branches evidently already existed
as dialectal divisions in classical times, with Classical Old Albic showing
characteristic features of the South Albic branch.

The Albic languages seem to be distantly related to Indo-European (see [[Europic]])
and share a number of features (such as VSO word order and initial
mutations) with the Celtic languages of the British Isles as well as
with the [[Coric]] family; these three families thus form a linguistic
area (see [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/72 this article]
for details).  The Albic languages are active-stative languages
of the [[fluid-S]] subtype; other interesting features include
autosegmental behaviour of vowel features (leading to various
umlaut and vowel harmony phenomena),
marking of [[degrees of volition]] by various noun cases, 
[[suffixaufnahme]] (i.e., possessors agree with the possessee
in number and case in addition to their own number and case marking),
and a duodecimal (base 12) number system.

==The Albic languages==

* [[Proto-Albic]] (reconstructed, Britain)
* ''[[South Albic]]''
:* [[Old Albic]] (classical, Britain)
:* [[Low Elvish]] (modern, southwestern Britain)
:* [[Macaronesian]] (modern, Macaronesian islands)
* ''[[North Albic]]''
:* [[Caledonian]] (modern, Scotland)
:* [[Alfheimian]] (extinct, Sweden)
* ''[[West Albic]]''
:* [[Iverinian]] (modern, Ireland)
:* [[Borgarnesian]] (extinct, Iceland)

[[Category:Albic]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Noric</title>
    <id>1205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29138</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Noric''' is a language family spoken in the Austrian [[Alpine languages|Alps]]
(with some outliers in other areas in central Europe) in the
[[League of Lost Languages]].  The Noric languages descend from
[[Proto-Noric]], which is assumed to have been spoken somewhere
between Vienna and Salzburg about 3000 years ago.  Soon after that,
Indo-European speakers entered the area and pushed Noric into the
deep valleys of the Austrian Alps, where some of the Noric languages
have survived until today.  All surviving Noric languages are spoken
only by very few speakers, all of whom are bilingual in German
(standard or the local dialect), and have no official status
in Austria.  Thus, the future of Noric remains uncertain.

Noric is a group effort; we are currently working out [[Proto-Noric]],
the common ancestor of the individual Noric languages.  When done that,
individuals and groups of members of the list will work out the
daughter languages.

==Noric languages==

{| border=0 cellpadding=6
!Language
!Location
!Author
|-
| [[Proto-Noric]] || Austria || the group
|-
| [[Knoshke]] || [[Wikipedia:Carpathians|Carpathians]] || [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]]
|-
| &quot;[[P-Noric]]&quot; || ? || Paul Bennett
|}

[[Category:Noric]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Proto-Noric</title>
    <id>1206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22643</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-30T13:07:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Syntax */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Proto-Noric''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the [[Noric]]
languages.  It was probably spoken about 3000 years ago in central
Austria, somewhere between Vienna and Salzburg.

An essential part of the project is the [http://noric.allhyper.com/index.php Proto-Noric Dictionary and Root Generator].

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

{|
| || Labial || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Uvular || Glottal
|-
| Stops, voiceless
| '''*p''' || '''*t''' || || || '''*k''' || '''*q'''
|-
| Stops, voiced
| '''*b''' || '''*d''' || || || '''*g''' ||
|-
| Stops, aspirated
| '''*ph''' [pʰ] || '''*th''' [tʰ] || || || '''*kh''' [kʰ] || '''*qh''' [qʰ]
|-
| Affricates, voiceless
| || '''*ts''' || '''*tc''' [tʃ] || || ||
|-
| Affricates, voiced
| || '''*dz''' || '''*dx''' [dʒ] || || ||
|-
| Affricates, aspirated
| || '''*tsh''' [tsʰ] || '''*tch''' [tʃʰ] || || ||
|-
| Fricatives, voiceless
| || '''*s''' || '''*c''' [ʃ] || || ||  || '''*h'''
|-
| Fricatives, voiced
| || '''*z''' || '''*x''' [ʒ] || || ||
|-
| Nasals
| '''*m''' || '''*n''' || || || ||
|-
| Liquids
| || '''*l,*r''' || || || ||
|-
| Glides
| '''*w''' || || || '''*j''' || ||
|}

===Vowels===

* Short: '''*a, *e, *i, *o, *u, *y''' [ɨ]
* Long: '''*â, *ê, *î, *ô, *û'''

===Root structure===

C(R)VC or CV(R)C

''Words'' however are minimally C(R)VCV or CV(R)CV and must end in a vowel (or vowel + sonant?)

==Morphology==

(to be filled in)

==Syntax==

(to be filled in)

==Semantic Spaces==

(Paul Bennett)

Do we need to discuss the partitioning of semantic space? It is obvious that the Noric people were subjected to and survived several waves of outside dominant cultures (by my eye Italo-Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Ugric and/or Turkic and Germanic again, more or less). That cultural overlay is going to lead to loan-words and the loaning of which things are culturally significant enough to have special terms for them. For instance, Noric people are likely to have grown wheat and barley, driven goats or sheep, drunk wine and mead --knowledge of both probably came with IE speakers (wine in turn probably came from Caucasian people (something like /ɣwinja/ IIRC)), and beer came later (around 1AD?) from the Romans (Latin ''cerevisia''), who got it from the Egyptians. They would have known about horses but probably not donkeys (knowledge of the horse (PIE *''ek^uo'') probably came with IE speakers), and had a concept of a home consisting of an entrance area and an inner area with a hearth. They would probably have had separate words for a village and a town (actually, the PIE word for &quot;town&quot; (cf. Greek ''polis'') was apparently borrowed from an unknown source -- might be worth thinking about). Plausibly, they traded in slaves (with a word for &quot;slave&quot; distinct to &quot;man&quot;, and a word for &quot;buy/sell slave(s)&quot; distinct from the general &quot;buy/sell&quot;). Plausibly they would draw a line between a libation and a &quot;regular&quot; drink, and maybe between sacrificial killing, killing in battle/&quot;slaying&quot;, and &quot;regular&quot; killing.

:Would they really have &quot;towns&quot; as opposed to &quot;villages&quot;.  BTW Greek ''polis'' may well be from Pelasgian -- that would be my first hypothesis lacking other evidence. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 13:35, 2 Jun 2005 (PDT)

:At some point, yes they would. I'm not sure of the age of the ''polis'' words, but we're talking about a culture from the Copper or Bronze age all the way through to modern times. At some point, I suspect they'd have need of a distinction. [[User:PaulBennett|Pb]] 08:25, 3 Jun 2005 (PDT)

:Wouldn't they take up whatever word the dominant culture used, be it ''civitas, Stadt'' or ''város'' or whatever? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 12:55, 3 Jun 2005 (PDT)

:Possibly. Probably, in fact. However, the question is going to be at what point in time did the borrowing occur, and what was the dominant language at that time? Would there have been a *''bherg^h-''/''polis'' term as well as something in the ''Stadt'' range? I beleive *''bherg^h''s developed somewhere between villages and true cities, and indeed that's what they are. I think ''Stadt'' would make a perfectly servicable borrowing c. X to XV century (ish), when true cities became a reality. I think  *''bherg^h-'' would be borrowed to describe, well, a *''bherg^h-'' [[User:PaulBennett|Pb]] 15:02, 3 Jun 2005 (PDT)

:Agree.  Real towns would come only with the Romans, probably. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 00:03, 4 Jun 2005 (PDT)

[[Category:Noric]]
[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coric</title>
    <id>1207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33830</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-07T14:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300  class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Coric'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||British Isles
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||'''Coric'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Proto-Coric]](†)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2005-
|}

'''Coric''' is a conlang family by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]
that is spoken in the British Isles (by the &quot;British [[Dwarves]]&quot;) in the [[League of Lost Languages]].  So far, only a few cursory notes on Coric exist. The Coric languages
share a number of features (such as VSO word order and initial mutations)
with the [[Albic]] and Insular Celtic languages, though they are not
(known to be) related to any of the two. Rather, the three families in
question form a linguistic area (see
[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/lostlangs/message/72 this article]
for details). The Coric languages show [[dechticaetiative]] ergative argument marking.

[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Coric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Noric</title>
    <id>1208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6002</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:12:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Noric''' is a language family spoken in the Austrian Alps in the [[League of Lost Languages]].

[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:LLL</title>
    <id>1209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46824</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T12:44:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added cat conlangs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''League of Lost Languages''' is a collaborative project about the survival of languages that existed or could have existed in the world we live in, but disappeared without leaving any living
descendants.

[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Conworlds]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elves</title>
    <id>1210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4565</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T19:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.253.6.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples of contemporary Elvish conlangs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elves''' are a fictional race that has attracted conlangers
ever since the days of J. R. R. Tolkien.  However, there are
about as many different ideas of Elves as there are people
writing about them.

The origin of the concept lies in ''Germanic mythology'', where
Elves are a kind of middling race between humans and gods.
Similar beings (called '''Tuatha Dé Danann''' or '''Daoine Sidhe''')
also occur in Celtic mythology.  The elves survived Christianization
in folktales, but only in increasingly diminished form. In Victorian
fairy-tales, they are tiny (from mouse-sized to insect-sized), luminous,
playful and often winged.

==Elves in modern fantasy fiction==

It is the merit of J. R. R. Tolkien to reinstate the Elves into their
old nobility.  Tolkien's Elves are similar to humans but wiser,
stronger, more beautiful etc. and immortal (or rather, extremely
long-lived).  Gone were defacing traits such as the minute size
and the gossamer wings.  Tolkien also invented languages spoken
by the Elves, most notably [[Quenya]] and [[Sindarin]] - or rather,
he invented the Elves to have speakers for his languages.

Tolkien's Elves have been the main model for Elves in modern
fantasy fiction, and Tolkien's example popularized the idea
that these beings speak languages of their own.  Since then,
numerous conlangers have made up their own Elvish languages.

==Examples of contemporary Elvish conlangs==

Andreas Johansson is the inventor of [[Meghean]], a language
spoken by Elves in a fantasy world of his own devising.
Andreas's Elves are a separate species, not interfertile
with humans.

Danny Wier has been working on and off for years on an
Elvish language named [[Tech]]. Little is known about Tech,
except that it is a very complex language with a huge
phoneme inventory, based on the hypothetical [[Nostratic]]
language family. Danny tries to avoid Tolkienian clichés,
and his Elves are actually incarnate djinn.

[[User:Teamouse|Herman Miller]] has invented several languages for Elves from another planet, in a con-universe where most sapient beings are cute and furry.

[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] developed, or rather is still developing,
the [[Albic]] languages, a family of languages spoken by the
[[British Elves]] in the [[League of Lost Languages]].
These Elves are entirely human.

==More info about Elves==

[[Wikipedia:Elf]]

[[Category:Races]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Elves</title>
    <id>1211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27033</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-25T16:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''British Elves''' are the focus of an incipient [[legendarium]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  They are not really a separate race, but humans with
an 'Elvish' culture (similar to Tolkien's [[Elves]]). They were the
bearers of an ancient civilization that existed in the British Isles
before the immigration of the Celts, and are the source of the
Germanic and Celtic traditions of elves (hence 'British Elves'),
as well as the Greek tradition of Hyperborea.  It is possible that
the Atlantis myth is based on a memory of the civilization of the
British Elves.

While tending to be tall and slender, they look like normal humans
of European origin (that means that they don't have large pointed
ears or any other non-human features commonly associated with 'elves').
They speak [[Albic]] languages; in Old Albic, they called themselves
'''Elbi''' (singular '''Alba''').  This self-designation was borrowed
into Germanic as ''*albaz'', hence English ''elf''.  The old
Celtic name of Britian, ''Inis Albion'', means 'Island of the Elves'.

Elvish society was egalitarian, liberal and democratic. There never
was an 'Elvish empire', only a loose confederacy of self-governed
polities with elected leaders, with a 'High Table' ('''Theleca Tara''')
set up as a coordinating and arbitrating council of representatives
elected in the polities.  The British Elves were great mariners and
sailed the Atlantic, establishing tradeposts along the shorelines.

The Elves believed that the purpose of humankind was to preserve
the world and enrich it by creating new and beautiful things,
and that in order to fulfill their Purpose, people had to be
free.  The social ideal was that of the free-lance artisan.

The Elves used a lunisolar calendar based on the Metonic cycle
(19 years = 235 months); the year 1 of the Elvish calendar
was the year 1823 BCE, the date of their legendary landtaking.
This is actually based on the date of the foundation of the
'''Theleca Tara''' which was in 815 BCE and said to have happened
'seven gross years after the landtaking'.  The year began on
the first new moon after the spring equinox.

Elvish astronomy was highly advanced, and Elvish scholars developed
a 'Copernican' cosmology, with the planets (including the Earth)
orbiting the Sun rather than the Earth, more than 300 years before
Aristarchos of Samos.

Elvish philosophy of nature was similar to modern morphic field theory.
Every living being has a soul ('''nára'''), and even inanimate objects 
have a '''phanara''', a kind of form-giving entity, gestalt, or morphic 
field that resonates with other '''phaneri'''. Everything, from the whole 
universe down to the smallest particles of matter has (or rather,
''is'') a '''phanara''', and thus the universe is a grand hierarchy
of nested '''phaneri'''; a '''nára''' is an espcially strong
'''phanara''' specific to an individual being.

The Elvish civilization reached the peak of its development around the 
year 600 BCE. A few decades later, wars with Phoenicians and Celts, 
combined with inner strife, brought fourth its demise, and the British 
Isles became dominated by Celtic tribes immigrating from continental 
Europe, absorbing the Elvish population.

[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Albic]]
[[Category:Races]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hairo</title>
    <id>1212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22440</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-13T00:40:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Yv4B9v|Yv4B9v]] ([[User_talk:Yv4B9v|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:- andrew|- andrew]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://www.cinga.ch/langmaking/hairo.html Hairo - the Lost Ancient Language of Central Europe]

[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hattic</title>
    <id>1213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-14T21:54:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed ugly invisible spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://steen.free.fr/khadurian/hattic_grammar.html Hattic grammar]

[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germanech</title>
    <id>1214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46390</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T22:09:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Nouns */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300  class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99FF00&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Germanech'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Germany
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 5,000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Wikipedia:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Wikipedia:Italic languages|Italic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Wikipedia:Romance languages|Romance]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Western Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Germanech'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO (V2), SOV in subclauses
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99FF00&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]|| 2001
|}

'''Germanech''' ([ʒɛʀ'manɛç], also known as ''Mosel Romance'') is a conlang
invented by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is a Romance language of
Germany which was inspired by Andrew Smith's ''Brithenig''.
In the world of the [[League of Lost Languages]], it is spoken
in a few villages in the vicinity of Trier, Germany.

Germanech has undergone certain sound changes similar to the ones of German, 
including the High German consonant shift and i-umlaut. Otherwise, it is a 
pretty normal Romance language without any &quot;cool&quot; features.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

Germanech has the following consonant phonemes:

{|
| || Labial || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar
|-
| Voiceless stops || /p/ || /t/ || || || /k/
|-
| Voiced stops || /b/ || /d/ || || || /g/
|-
| Voiceless affricates || /pf/ || /ts/ || /tʃ/ || ||
|-
| Voiced affricates || || || /dʒ/ || ||
|-
| Voiceless fricatives || /f/ || /s/ || /ʃ/ || /ç/ || [x]
|-
| Voiced fricatives || /v/ || [z] || /ʒ/ || ||
|-
| Nasals || /m/ || /n/ || || || /ŋ/
|-
| Lateral || || /l/ || || ||
|-
| Trill || || || || || /ʀ/ (uvular)
|-
| Semivowel || || || || /j/ ||
|}

[x] is an allophine of /ç/ that occurs after back vowels.
[z] is an allophone of /s/ that occurs between vowels.

===Vowels===

Germanech has the vowels /a ɛ i ɔ u/ (spelled '''a é i o u''') plus the front rounded vowels /œ y/ (spelled '''ö ü''') and schwa (spelled '''e''').  The letter '''ä''' represents the same vowel as '''é'''; it is used where the vowel represents an
umlauted /a/.

===Alphabet and pronunciation===

The alphabet of Germanech is the Latin alphabet with the special letters '''ä''', '''ö''' and '''ü''' (sorted as '''ae''', '''oe''', '''ue''', respectively).  There is also an accented '''é''' (sorted as '''e''').

The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following
exceptions:

{|
| '''c''' || like ''sh'' before front vowels, like ''k'' elsewhere
|-
| '''ch''' || as in German
|-
| '''cj''' || always like ''sh''
|-
| '''dj''' || like ''j'' in ''job''
|-
| '''g''' || like ''s'' in ''measure'' before front vowels, like ''g'' in ''good'' elsewhere
|-
| '''gj''' || like ''s'' in ''measure''
|-
| '''gu''' || as in ''guitar'' before front vowels
|-
| '''h''' || very lightly pronounced if at all
|-
| '''j''' || like ''y'' in ''yes'' (but see '''cj''', '''dj''', '''gj''' and '''tj''')
|-
| '''qu''' || like ''k'' before front vowels
|-
| '''r''' || uvular ''r'' as in French
|-
| '''s''' || always as in ''sing''
|-
| '''tj''' || like ''ch'' in ''chin''
|-
| '''x''' || the same as '''s'''
|-
| '''z''' || the same as '''s'''
|}

The vowels are pronounced as in German.

===Accent===

Accent falls on the last full (non-schwa) vowel.

==Morphology==

===Articles===

Germanech has a definite and an indefinite article.  The definite article is inflected for gender and number:

masc. sg. '''il''', masc. pl. '''los'''&lt;br&gt;
fem. sg. '''la''', fem. pl. '''las'''

The masculine definite article elides after prepositions that end in vowels:

'''a''' + '''il''' &gt; '''al'''&lt;br&gt;
'''de''' + '''il''' &gt; '''del'''

The indefinite genitive plural is expressed by the preposition '''des'''.  

The indefinite article is the same for both genders:

sg. '''un''', pl. '''uns'''

Common nouns are always accompanied by an article, except mass nouns.

===Nouns===

Nominal morphology in Germanech is rather simple.

There are two genders, ''masculine'' and ''feminine''.  The Latin neuter has merged with the masculine.

The Latin case system has not survived in Germanech; thus, the noun is only inflected for number (''singular'' and ''plural'').   The plural is indicated by the suffix '''-s''' ('''-es''' after '''s''', '''z''', '''tz''', '''cj''', '''dj''', '''gj''', '''tj''').  Examples:

'''brach''' 'arm', pl. '''brachs'''&lt;br&gt;
'''camer''' 'room', pl. '''camers'''&lt;br&gt;
'''cas''' 'house', pl. '''cases'''&lt;br&gt;
'''catz''' 'cat', pl. '''catzes'''

There are a few irregular plurals, e.g.

'''corfs''' 'body', pl. '''corfres'''&lt;br&gt;
'''pfazer''' 'father', pl. '''pfatres'''

[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Thagojian</title>
    <id>1215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29248</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:11:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Thagojian''' is (or was) an Indo-European language, used up until the 
tenth or eleventh century along Mediterranian coastal regions between 
approximately Port Said and Tel Aviv. The language is known from very few 
extant documents, and research is currently at a very early stage. 

It is written in a script derived from uncial Greek (much like Coptic), and 
indeed shares a few additional glyphs with Coptic (specifically
''shai'', ''hori'' and ''qima''). There are also glyphs borrowed from
Hebrew (specifically ''yod'', ''ayin'' and ''tzadi''). There is also a 
single letter, which stands in the position of ''digamma'', and seems to 
have the same value (that is /u/), but the origin of the symbol itself 
(which looks like a roman-alphabet ‘s’) is unclear at this time.


Here’s the Latin-1 alphabet, with a following apostrophe on a consonant representing an acute.

a b g d e u ts é th i ë k l lh m n n' ks o p r s t ï ph kh ps ó s' h q

There are a number of phonetic readings of these letters, what follows seems to be the best average:

/A b g d e u ts) E T i @ k l K m n N ks) o p r\ s t i\ f x ps) O S h ?/

The greatest variation in pronunciation is in the realisation of
'''q''', which is variously thought to be any one of a number of uvular, 
pharyngeal, epiglottal or glottal sounds. What is certain is that it is 
the reflex of the PIE laryngeals '''*h2''' and '''*h3'''.

There is another transcription scheme, known as the “Germanic” scheme, which makes the following graphic and phonetic substitutions:

'''é''' -&gt; '''ä''', '''ë''' -&gt; '''ö''' /2/, '''ï''' -&gt; '''ü''' /y/, and '''ó''' -&gt; '''å'''

The value of '''r''' as /r\/ is somewhat disputed, but the main proof 
comes from the fact that Semitic ‘tapped’ ''resh'' is borrowed as '''d''' and not as '''r'''.

Since '''s''' and '''h''' are both valid single letters, in plain text,
a digraph is distinguished from two consecutive characters by placing a 
period between the latter. In typeset text, the intervening period becomes 
an underdot on the second letter.

The close vowels '''i''', '''ï''' and '''u''' seem to be able to be 
used as consonants, almost certainly representing the equivalent 
approximants (the most common consensus is /j/, /M\/ and /w/). Some authors transcribe these cases as '''y''', '''ÿ''' and '''w''',
but this is not consistent, and has lead to some minor controversy in 
cases where the syllabicity of a close vowel is unclear.

The most that can be said about the genealogy of the language at this 
stage (beyond its Indo-European heritage) is that it is more specifically 
of the ''satem'' branch, that it retains the PIE laryngeal phonemes in some positions, and that the sound changes from PIE seem to be very simple   
and straightforward, perhaps indicating that the phonological development 
of the language was somehow slowed down or frozen in place. There is 
speculation that the use of the language as a liturgical language is 
responsible in some way for this degree of conservatism, although the 
fraction of extant texts that are indeed liturgical is not especially 
high. Some doubt is also cast upon this theory by the degree of 
''grammatical'' change which has occured, which is very significant. 
Thagojian is quite inflectional, much more so than other Indo-European languages, and much more so than either Arabic or Hebrew. Some would say it is almost polysynthetic, although that is probably an overstatement.

[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dwarves</title>
    <id>1216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48366</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-14T02:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Longrim</username>
        <id>1289</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples of contemporary Dwarvish conlangs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dwarves''' are a race almost as popular as speakers of conlangs as are 
[[Elves]]. Like the Elves, they originate in Germanic mythology and survived 
Christianization in folktales. The modern fantasy tradition of Dwarves is 
mostly based on J. R. R. Tolkien, who built his Dwarves on mythological 
models. He designed a conlang for the Dwarves named [[Khuzdul]].

==Examples of contemporary Dwarvish conlangs==

[[Andreas Johansson]] designed a (yet unnamed) language for Dwarves in his own fantasy conworld.

[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]'s [[Coric]] languages are spoken by Dwarves who are actually humans, but with a Dwarvish culture (including a strong tradition of mining and metalworking).

[[User:Zlatiborica|George D. Bozovic]]'s [[Sethic languages]] are spoken by the Dwarves who live in the fictional world of [[Moynna]].

[[Toms Deimonds Barvidis]] has made a groups of related Dwarven tongues for his Dwarven Concultures.

==More info on Dwarves==

[[Wikipedia:Dwarf]]

[[Category:Races]]
[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Races</title>
    <id>1217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:12:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Not all speakers of conlangs are humans!  There are many different '''races''' involved.

[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Suffixaufnahme</title>
    <id>1218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T09:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Suffixaufnahme''' is a grammatical device that occurs in some languages 
with case systems. It means that possessors are inflected for the case and 
number of the possessee as if they were adjectives. Here a few examples from 
[[Old Albic]]:

(1) '''mbar os nderos''' ‘the house of the man’

(2) '''mbaral orol nderorol''' ‘at/in the house of the man’

(3) '''mbaran oron nderoron''' ‘to the house of the man’

This can be nested:

(4) '''mbaran attoran nderomoloran''' ‘to the house of the father of the man’

In the last example, '''nderomolaran''' consists of the stem '''ndero''' 
‘man’, a locative ending (marking the inalienable possession) '''-mol''',
a genitive ending '''-as''' agreeing with the genitive of '''atto'''
‘father’, and the allative ending '''-an''' ‘to’ agreeing with the ending 
of '''mbar''' ‘house’.

For more on suffixaufnahme, and natlangs showing this phenomenon, see
[[Wikipedia: Suffixaufnahme]].

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Degrees of volition</title>
    <id>1219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T09:31:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Degrees of volition''' are a category of the noun that is expressed
by various subject cases or other formal means in some languages, such as [[Tokana]] and the [[Albic]] languages. (There may be natlangs with degree-of-volition marking, but I know of none.)

In [[Old Albic]], the degree of volition of an agent is marked by the case the 
agent appears in. If the agent acts out of its own volition, it is in the 
''agentive'' case. This is the unmarked degree. If it acts accidentally, 
it is in the ''dative'' case. If its action is the result of an external 
force, it is in the ''instrumental'' case, and the verb does not carry an 
agent agreement marker. The latter is the only degree of volition possible 
with an inanimate 'agent'. With verbs of perception, dative case marks 
cursory perception, and agentive case marks deliberate observation. Some 
examples:

{|
| (1a) || '''Ibretara o ndero am phath.'''
|-
| || AOR-break-3SG:P-3SG:A M-AGT man-AGT I-OBJ knife-OBJ
|}
{|
| (1b) || '''Ibretara on nderon am phath.'''
|-
| || AOR-break-3SG:P-3SG:A M-DAT man-DAT I-OBJ knife-OBJ
|}
{|
|(1c) || '''Ibreta ømi nderømi am phath.'''
|-
| || AOR-break-3SG:P M-INST man-INST I-OBJ knife-OBJ
|}

All three sentences can be translated as 'The man broke the knife', but 
(1b) emphasizes that the man did not mean to break the knife, but broke it 
accidentally, and (1c) that he was forced to break the knife.

The same kind of degree-of-volition marking applies to agentive intransitives.

See also [[fluid-S]].

[[category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fluid-S</title>
    <id>1220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T02:49:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category:grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fluid-S''' language is a language in which not so much subject and 
object are distinguished from each other but ''agent'' and ''patient''.
The subject of an intransitive verb is marked the same way as a transitive 
subject if it is an agent, and like a transitive object if it is not. Here 
are a few examples from [[Old Albic]]:

{|
| (1) || '''Ibretara o ndero am phath.'''
|-
| || AOR-break-3SG:P-3SG:A M-AGT man-AGT I-OBJ knife-OBJ
|-
| || `The man broke the knife.'
|}

{|
| (2) || '''Obosca o ndero.'''
|-
| || AOR-flee-3SG:A M-AGT man-AGT
|-
| || `The man fled.'
|}

{|
| (3) || '''Acara om nderom.'''
|-
| || AOR-sit-3SG:P M-OBJ man-OBJ
|-
| || `The man sat.'
|}

Both markings may be used with the same verb, depending on the agency of the subject:

{|-
| (4) || '''Acvamsa atto maso.'''
|-
| || AOR-come-3SG:A father-AGT 1SG-GEN-AGT
|-
| || `My father came.'
|}

{|
| (5) || '''Acvama gratath thas.'''
|-
| || AOR-come-3SG:P letter-OBJ 2SG-GEN-OBJ
|-
| || `Your letter came.'
|}

In the examples (2) and (4), the subject acts out of itself, it is an agent; hence it receives the same marking as the transitive subject in (1). The subjects in (3) and (5) are not agents, and are thus marked like the object in (1).

See also [[degrees of volition]].

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nostratic</title>
    <id>1221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27031</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-25T16:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nostratic''' is a hypothetical language family consisting of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], Uralic, Altaic, Kartvelian, Dravidian, Afro-Asiatic, and, according to some authors, miscellaneous other languages.  A similar hypothetical family, which may be a subfamily of Nostratic, is [[Eurasiatic]], consisting of Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Eskimo-Aleut, and a few other languages.

The majority of historical linguists is doubtful of Nostratic and Eurasiatic. This is because the evidence is considered insufficient, and several mutually exclusive reconstruction attempts are in circulation. The most commonly cited reconstructions are one by the Russian scholars Vladimir Illich-Svitych and Aaron Dolgopolsky (now in Israel), and one by Allan Bomhard and John Kerns. The two teams use different sound correspondences: at most one of the two correspondence sets can be correct - and it may very well be that ''both'' are wrong.  Clearly, a method that yields so many false positives must be unreliable.

Nevertheless, this gives opportunities for conlanging, and there are indeed Nostratic conlangs. (Of course, an Indo-European or Semitic conlang would be Nostratic by the definition above.) Danny Wier bases [[Tech]] on Nostratic, using roots reconstructed by Bomhard; [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]’s [[Albic]] family is related to Indo-European and thus also Nostratic, though the Nostratic theory has little bearing on this project and the author doesn't assume that Nostratic is valid (nor does he assume the opposite).

==See also==

* [[Wikipedia:Nostratic]]

[[Category:Protolanguages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Old Albic</title>
    <id>1222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41437</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-01T20:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300  class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Old Albic'''&lt;br&gt;'''''Elbirin'''''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||British Isles
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||extinct
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
:[[South Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
::'''Old Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Basic word order]]:
||VSO/head-initial, free
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Morphological type]]:
||agglutinating &gt; fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Morphosyntactic alignment]]:
||active, fluid-S
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] || 2001-
|}

'''Old Albic''' (native name '''Elbirin''' 'Elvish') is the oldest [[Albic]] language attested in writing.
The oldest surviving text fragments date back to the 7th century BCE.
Old Albic was the language of the [[British Elves]] prior to the
[[Tartessian War]] and the Celtic takeover in Britain.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

The Old Albic consonant system consists of 18 consonant phonemes.  The language has labial, dental and velar ''stops'', voiceless and voiced: '''p''', '''t''', '''c'''; '''b''', '''d''', '''g'''. These stops have two allophones each: lenis when following a vowel, and fortis everywhere else. If a stop-initial word is phonetically linked to a vowel-final word, the initial stop is lenis. The so-called ''aspirates'' transcribed '''ph''', '''th''', '''ch''' evidently already were fricatives [f θ x] in Classical times.  But while they are phonetically fricatives, they phonemically behave like stops. This indicates that they were stops in an earlier stage of the language. (This is also evidenced by the fact that they correspond to stops in North and West Albic languages; a stop articulation is also described as occuring in some rural dialects of Old Albic.) The aspirate '''th''' is dental (like voiceless English ''th''), in contrast to the alveolar '''s'''. The two phonemes thus did not fall together; it is certainly due to the heavy functional load of the distinction between '''th''' and '''s''' (cf. 2nd vs. 3rd person pronouns and endings!) that the merger was avoided. Other ''fricatives'' are the sibilant '''s''' and the laryngeal '''h''', which are preserved unchanged except in clusters composed of '''*s''' and another consonant, wherein '''s''' is deleted and the following consonant, if a stop, changed into a homorganic aspirate: '''*sp''' &gt; '''ph''', '''*st''' &gt; '''th''', '''*sc''' &gt; '''ch'''. The phoneme '''h''' occurs only before a vowel; in all other positions, it deletes and the preceding vowel is lengthened.

Sonorants are the nasals '''m''', '''n''', '''ŋ''' (the latter being velar as in ''sing''), the liquids '''l''', '''r''' (the latter is an alveolar flap), and the semivowels '''j''' (like ''y'' in English ''yes'') and '''v''' (like English ''w''). 

The full consonant inventory is thus as follows:

{|
|| ||Labial||Dental||Alveolar||Palatal||Velar||Glottal
|-
||Stops, voiceless||'''p'''||'''t'''|| || ||'''c'''||
|-
||Stops, voiced||'''b'''||'''d'''|| || ||'''g'''||
|-
||Fricatives||'''ph'''||'''th'''||'''s'''|| ||'''ch'''||'''h'''
|-
||Nasals||'''m'''||'''n'''|| || ||'''ŋ'''||
|-
||Lateral|| || ||'''l'''|| || ||
|-
||Flap|| || ||'''r'''|| || ||
|-
||Semivowels||'''v'''|| || ||'''j'''|| ||
|}

====Consonant alternations====

There are several consonant alternations observable in Old Albic: 

''Grassmann's Law'': every other aspirate in a word is turned into a voiceless stop. Precedence is from right to left, i.e. the penultimate aspirate is de-aspirated.
 
''Rhotacism'': intervocalic '''s''' becomes '''r'''.  However, many cases of rhotacism are removed by analogical levelling which restored the '''s'''.
 
''Metathesis'' of stops followed by '''s''', e.g. '''ts''' -&gt; '''st'''. 

'''h''' deletes with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel when not followed by a vowel.

===Vowels===
Old Albic has seven vowels: '''a, e, i, o, u, ø, y''', which occur both short and long (transcribed as '''á, é, í, ó, ú, ǿ, ý'''). Of these, '''ø''' and '''y''' are mid and high front vowels, respectively. The long vowels alternate with short vowels followed by the consonant h before vowels in various forms. Long vowels are tense /a: e: i: o: u: ø: y:/ while short vowels are lax /ɐ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ œ ʏ/.
 
The classical Elvish grammarians describe the vowels of Old Albic in terms of combinations of three features ('wide', 'sharp' and 'round', or, in modern terminology, open, front and rounded), and they are represented that way in the Old Albic script. Each of the seven vowels corresponds to one combination of features: 

{|
|| ||a||e||i||o||ø||u||y
|-
||[open]||+||+||-||+||+||-||-
|-
||[front]||-||+||+||-||+||-||+
|-
||[round]||-||-||-||+||+||+||+
|}

The harmony vowel '''°''', which occurs in several affixes and assimilates to the nearest vowel, can be considered an eighth vowel phoneme that lacks all three features and thus borrows the features from the neighbouring vowel. It is more useful, however, to consider what it actually is, namely a vowel position to which no features are attached. 

In lexical roots, the closed vowels ('''i, u, y''') are rare, and '''°''' does not occur. On the other hand, closed vowels and especially '''°''' occur frequently in affixes, while only few affixes contain open vowels. (See Morpheme structure.) 

====Umlaut====

The vowels '''a''', '''i''' and '''u''' (both short and long) cause changes in preceding vowels. These changes are called umlaut. According to the three umlaut-causing vowels, there are three kinds of umlaut: a-umlaut lowers high vowels, i-umlaut fronts back vowels, and u-umlaut rounds unrounded vowels. The changes are summarized in the following table: 

{|
||Radical||a-umlaut||i-umlaut||u-umlaut
|-
||'''a'''||'''a'''||'''e'''||'''o'''
|-
||'''e'''||'''e'''||'''e'''||'''ø'''
|-
||'''i'''||'''e'''||'''i'''||'''y'''
|-
||'''o'''||'''o'''||'''ø'''||'''o'''
|-
||'''ø'''||'''ø'''||'''ø'''||'''ø'''
|-
||'''u'''||'''o'''||'''y'''||'''u'''
|-
||'''y'''||'''ø'''||'''y'''||'''y'''
|}

Umlaut takes precedence from right to left. For example, if an '''a''' precedes an '''i''', it is umlauted to '''e''' and thus does not trigger a-umlaut in the vowel preceding it. If the vowel preceding the umlauting vowel belongs to a bisyllabic morpheme, both vowels of that morpheme are umlauted. Example: '''meceli''' 'by means of flesh' (from '''macal''' 'flesh' with instrumental ending '''-i''').

====Vowel harmony====

Many affixes undergo ''vowel harmony'': the vowel in the affix always matches the nearest vowel of the stem. The classical Elvish scholars analyzed this phenomenon as an eighth vowel phoneme that has none of the three possible vowel features and thus borrows them from the neighbouring vowel. Such a featureless vowel position in an affix is represented by the symbol '''°'''. 

====Ablaut====

Other vowel alternations occur in some derivations. The open vowels '''e''', '''o''' and '''ø''' alternate with the closed vowels '''i''', '''u''' and '''y'''; similarly, '''a''' alternates with '''°''' or zero. These alternations, known as ablaut, can be considered alternations in the feature [open]. There are also cases of schwebeablaut in which a vowel changes its position in the morpheme: '''CaRC''' ~ '''CRaC'''. 

====An autosegmental view of the vowel features====

The behaviour of vowel features in Old Albic can be aptly described by an ''autosegmental'' approach. This means that the vowel features are assumed to exist on a structural tier separate from the segmental tier. The segmental tier contains the consonants and the vowel positions; the vowel features exist on a tier on their own and bind not directly to vowel positions but to ''morphemes'' (which also means that no morpheme may have two vowels of different quality). In the phonetic realization, the vowel features are associated with the vowel positions and thus produce the vowels observed in actual speech. Umlaut and vowel harmony involve spreading of vowel features to neighbouring morphemes. 

Consider, for example, the word form '''semelbredimil''', which is the plural locative of '''semelbrad''' 'wheat bread'. This word consists of four morphemes: '''semel-''' `wheat', '''brad-''' 'bread', '''-im''' `plural' and '''-°l''' `locative'. On the segmental tier, the structure of the word is '''s°m°l-br°d-°m-°l'''. The first morpheme has the features [+front] and [+open] attached (giving '''semel-'''), the second morpheme [+open] (giving '''-brad-'''), the third, [+front] (giving '''-im'''), while the last morpheme has ''no'' vowel feature attached. The feature [+front] of the third morpheme spreads leftward (i-umlaut) such that both [+open] and [+front] attach to '''-br°d-''' giving '''-bred-''' and rightward (vowel harmony) resulting in the locative ending realized as '''-il'''. Graphically: 

&lt;pre&gt;
 [+open]  [+open]          [+open] [+open]
 [+front]  |  [+front]     [+front] |  [+front]
    |      |     |            |     |  /  |  \
  s°m°l- br°d-  -°m -°l --&gt; s°m°l- br°d- -°m -°l --&gt; semel-bred-im-il
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Phonotactics===

Most Old Albic syllables are CV or CVC, but CCVC, CVCC and even CCVCC syllables occur. Two-consonant onsets generally consist of an obstruent followed by a liquid or semivowel, or of a stop preceded by a homorganic nasal. Two-consonant codas consist of a liquid followed by an obstruent or nasal, or a nasal followed by a homorganic obstruent. Zero onsets occur, but only word-initially or after an open syllable. No more than three consonants may occur together between two vowels.

===Accent===

Old Albic has a phonetic stress accent that depends on syllable weight. Words with one or two syllables are always stressed on the first syllable. In words with three or more syllables, the accent falls on the antepenultimate (third-last) syllable if the penultimate syllable is light (i.e., it is open and has a short vowel), otherwise on the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable ends in a stop followed by a liquid or semivowel (e.g., '''cv''', '''thr'''), the accent is on the antepenultimate syllable.

===Linking===

In Old Albic, neighbouring words are often phonetically ''linked'', similar to the ''liaison'' in French. Linking occurs between the elements of a noun phrase, as well as between a verb or a preposition and the following adverb or noun phrase. While each of the linked words has its own stress, the words are phonetically run together. If two words are linked of which the first ends in a vowel and the second begins with a stop, that stop is pronounced as a lenis stop just like a stop following a vowel in the same word. Thus, Old Albic shows a subphonemic ''initial mutation''.

==Morphology==

Old Albic has a wealth of derivational and inflectional morphology. The noun distinguishes four genders, three numbers and eight cases; adjectives agree with the nouns in all these categories and have four degrees of comparison; verbs distinguish eight tense/aspect/mood forms and are conjugated for the person and number of their core arguments. Most of the Old Albic morphology is regular and agglutinating, though umlaut and other morpho-phonemic alternations cause several apparent irregularities in the paradigms.

===Morpheme structure===

====Roots====

Most lexical roots in Old Albic are of one of the forms CVC, CRVC or CVRC (wherein R is a resonant and V is a short vowel). There are a few roots with an initial homorganic nasal-stop cluster, e. g. '''ndar-''' 'man'. Some roots are of the form CV:C or CRV:C, with a long vowel V:. There are also bisyllabic roots with the structure CVCVC (e. g. '''macal-''' 'meat', '''semel-''' 'wheat'). In such bisyllabic roots, the two vowels always have the same quality. 

There are a few constraints regarding the distribution of stops in the root. In a true monomorphemic root, no two voiceless stops occur (forms such as '''tolt-''' '8' are actually compounds, in this example '''to-lt-'''); aspirates do not co-occur with voiced stops. The root vowel is '''a''' in the more than half of all roots; '''e''' and '''o''' also occur in a number of roots, while '''i''' and '''u''' are rare and '''ø''' and '''y''' do not occur.

====Affixes====

Affixes have rather simple structures. There are far more suffixes than prefixes. Most suffixes have the shape -C, -V, -VC or -CV; -CVC also occurs. Prefixes are usually CV-, sometimes C- or V-. Inflectional affixes do not contain voiceless stops. The vocalism of affixes is markedly different from root vocalism. The most common vowel in affixes is '''°''' (i. e., there is no vowel feature attached to the affix), also common are '''i''' and '''u'''. The open vowels '''a''', '''e''' and '''o''' occur only in few affixes. 

The striking differences in root and affix vocalism can be explained by the working of ablaut in conjunction with a Proto-Albic accent on the root syllable. Under this accent, the root was in full grade and thus its vowel received the feature [+open]. The affixes, being unaccented, were in reduced grade with the feature [-open].

===Word formation===

A word in Old Albic consists of at least one root to which zero or more derivational and/or inflectional morphemes are affixed. Verbs always carry at least one inflectional affix; in contrast, there are nouns consisting of a bare root, but derived nouns are more common. If both derivational and inflectional affixes are present, the derivations are closer to the root than the inflections. For example, '''maneri''' 'thinkers' is a word ('''man-''' 'think' + '''-°r''' 'agent' (derivation) + '''-i''' 'plural' (inflection)), while '''#meniir''' ('''man-i-°r''') is not.

====Derivation====

Derivation is mostly done by suffixing, though a few derivational prefixes (such as '''na-''' 'not, non-') exist. Derivational prefixes never change the word-class of the word (though they may change the valency of a verb), while suffixes often do.

====Compounding====

Compounding is a highly productive process in Old Albic. Compounds are generally head-final; the second element thus determines the word-class of the compound (which can, however, be changed by a derivational suffix). The first element of a compound is a bare stem (short objective stem in case of an animate noun); if the stem ends in an obstruent, a vowel matching the stem vowel of the first element is infixed between the first and second element of the compound. Example: '''att-''' 'father' + '''landa''' 'land, country' -&gt; '''Attalanda''' 'fatherland'. Most compounds are nouns. The largest group of nominal compounds are attributive compounds, i. e. the first element specifies the second one, e. g. '''semelbrad''' 'wheat bread'. There are also externally headed (''bahuvrihi'') compouds.

===Nouns===

====Animate and inanimate nouns; gender====

Nouns in Old Albic fall into one of two major classes: ''animate'' and ''inanimate''. Animate nouns denote living beings, spirits, collective entities of living beings, and a small number of other things which were for some reason (mostly mythological) considered animate, such as heaven, the earth, celestial bodies and certain forces of nature. Most nouns referring to non-living objects (both natural and man-made) are inanimate. Most abstract nouns are also inanimate, but there are exceptions. 

The importance of the animate-inanimate distinction for grammar is paramount. The animate noun has a greater number of cases; these extra cases are missing from the inanimate paradigm because certain arguments, such as agents, are ''required'' to be animate. 

Within the animate noun class, three ''genders'' are distinguished: ''masculine'', ''feminine'' and ''common/neuter''. These are marked by final vowels:

{|
||Masculine||'''-o'''
|-
||Feminine||'''-e'''
|-
||Common/Neuter||'''-a'''
|}

The masculine and feminine genders are used only for entities of the corresponding natural gender, i.e. male or female, respectively. Whenever the gender is unknown to the speaker, irrelevant to the discourse, or not applicable (e.g. in case of collective entities), the common form is used. There are a few mythologically motivated exceptions: '''Nabo''' 'heaven' and '''Sino''' 'moon' are masculine, '''Dage''' 'earth' and '''Are''' 'sun' are feminine. 

Many nouns exist in different gender forms, such as words for animal species, ethnic groups, professions etc. For example, the word for 'dog' is '''chvana'''; 'male dog' is '''chvano''' and 'female dog' is '''chvane'''. 'Elf' is '''alba''', 'male Elf' '''albo''', and 'female Elf' '''albe'''. A few nouns have fixed gender because the gender is part of the semantics of the word: '''atto''' 'father', '''amme''' 'mother'. Entities to which no gender can be ascribed are always common/neuter. This includes collective entities such as '''tamba''' `family', forces of nature such as '''phaja''' 'fire', or abstract notions such as '''phanara''' 'morphic field'. 

Inanimate nouns do not distinguish gender. 

====Number====

The Old Albic noun has three numbers: '''singular''', '''dual''' and '''plural'''. The dual is used only for matched pairs, e.g. of eyes, shoes, husband and wife, etc. It is no longer productive, and verbs agreeing with animate dual nouns take plural forms. 

Animate nouns take the number suffixes '''-u''' for dual and '''-i''' for plural. In the common/neuter gender, these suffixes replace the gender vowel '''-a'''. In the masculine and feminine genders, the suffix is affixed to the gender vowel, e.g. '''chvanei''' 'bitches'. In words with fixed gender, the number marker replaces the gender vowel: '''nderi''' 'men'. The number suffixes of the inanimate noun are '''-um''' for dual and '''-im''' for plural.

====Case====

In Old Albic, the noun is inflected for ten ''cases: agentive, genitive, dative, partitive; objective, instrumental, locative, allative, ablative, perlative''. Only animate nouns have forms for all these cases; inanimate nouns have a defective paradigm without agentive, genitive, dative and partitive cases. 

The cases are based on two ''case stems'', the ''agentive stem'' (AS) and the ''objective stem'' (OS). Animate nouns have an AS and an OS, while inanimate nouns have only an OS. The animate agentive stem is the noun root with the gender/number vowel as discussed above. The objective stem is normally formed by adding '''-m''' to the agentive stem. Examples: '''cvastam''' 'human', '''chvanem''' 'bitch', '''elbim''' 'Elves'.  Another way of forming the OS, most commonly found in poetry, is the so-called ''short objective stem'', which is formed by clipping off the gender vowel. This is possible only in the singular.

The agentive, genitive, dative and partitive cases are formed from the agentive stem, the other cases from the objective stem using the following endings: 

{|
||Agentive     ||AS-Ø 
|-
||Genitive     ||AS-'''s'''
|- 
||Dative       ||AS-'''n''' 
|-
||Partitive    ||AS-'''l'''
|-
||Objective    ||OS-Ø 
|-
||Instrumental ||OS-'''i'''
|- 
||Locative     ||OS-'''°l'''
|- 
||Allative     ||OS-'''°n'''
|-
||Ablative     ||OS-'''°d'''
|-
||Perlative    ||OS-'''°th'''
|}

This means that inanimate nouns have no agentive, genitive, dative or partitive case as said above.


Examples: '''alba''' 'Elf', '''ont''' 'stone'.

{|
|| ||Singular ||Plural ||Singular ||Plural
|- 
||Agentive ||'''alba''' ||'''elbi''' ||--||-- 
|-
||Genitive ||'''albas''' ||'''elbis''' ||--||--
|- 
||Dative ||'''alban''' ||'''elbin''' ||--||-- 
|-
||Partitive ||'''albal''' ||'''elbil''' ||--||--
|-
||Objective ||'''albam''' ||'''elbim''' ||'''ont''' ||'''øntim'''
|-
||Instrumental ||'''albemi''' ||'''elbimi''' ||'''ønti''' ||'''øntimi'''
|-
||Locative ||'''albamal''' ||'''elbimil''' ||'''ontol''' ||'''øntimil'''
|-
||Allative ||'''albaman''' ||'''elbimin''' ||'''onton''' ||'''øntimin'''
|-
||Ablative ||'''albamad''' ||'''elbimid''' ||'''ontod''' ||'''øntimid'''
|-
||Perlative ||'''albamath''' ||'''elbimith''' ||'''ontoth''' ||'''øntimith'''
|}

The ''agentive'' is used to mark the animate, autonomous agent of the action denoted by the verb. Typically, the agent acts volitionally (see Degrees of volition, below). 

The ''genitive'' marks the (animate) alienable possessor of an object. The case of the possessum is marked on the genitive by suffixaufnahme. 

The ''dative'' has several functions: it marks the (animate) experiencer, the mentally affected object and the agent acting involuntarily out of accident (see Degrees of volition); it is also used with some prepositions that require an animate object. 

The ''partitive'' marks the whole something is part of, and (sometimes) the inalienable possessor (more commonly, inalienable possession is expressed by a possessor-possessum compound). It undergoes suffixaufnahme. It is also used with prepositions.

The ''objective'' marks the (animate or inanimate) undergoer of an action or event, or the entity that is in a particular state. 

The ''instrumental'' marks the (typically inanimate) instrument, way or means of an action, event or state, and is used to derive adverbs from adjectives. It also expresses an animate agent acting involuntarily under external force (see Degrees of volition). Furthermore, it is used as a comitative case (`together with') in which case it undergoes suffixaufnahme. 

The ''locative'' marks the place of an action or event, also (for inanimate nouns) the whole something is part of, and (sometimes) the inalienable possessor (more commonly, inalienable possession is expressed by a possessor-possessum compound). In the latter usage, it undergoes suffixaufnahme. It is also used with prepositions. 

The ''allative'' marks the direction or goal of an action or event.  Inanimate indirect objects also take the allative case.

The ''ablative'' marks the origin or source of an action or event.

The ''perlative'' marks the path along or space within an event takes place.

====Suffixaufnahme====

Whenever a noun modifies another noun, it acts like an adjective. It does not only carry its own case marker, but is also marked for the gender, number and case of the head noun. For example, the locative plural of 'the father's houses' is '''mberimil attøsimil''', wherein the analysis of the form '''attøsimil''' is composed as follows: '''atto''' 'father' + '''-s''' genitive + '''-im''' plural OS + '''-°l''' locative. This phenomenon is known as ''suffixaufnahme''. Suffixaufnahme is only mandatory if the dependent noun is moved away from the head noun; in ordinary speech, the secondary endings are usually omitted. 

====The construct state====

A noun modified by a possessor (genitive or locative) is in the ''construct state'': it is definite without taking a definite article. Often, the case and number marking on the noun is left out and only the bare short OS appears, as these categories are expressed on the possessor (suffixaufnahme).

===Adjectives===

The inflection of adjectives follows that of nouns; they agree with the head noun in animacy, gender, number and case. The ''singular objective stem'' of the adjective is the simplest form, consisting of the base of the adjective, i.e. the root or the root with derivational morphemes attached to it. The dual and plural OSs are formed by adding the suffixes '''-um''' (dual) or '''-im''' (plural) to the singular OS. Each adjective has three animate singular agentive stems, one for each gender, formed by adding the respective gender vowel ('''-o, -e, -a''') to the singular OS. The dual and plural ASs are formed with the vowels '''-u''' and '''-i''' suffixed to the singular OS; the dual and plural OSs from these ASs by adding '''-m'''. 

Sample paradigm ('''ban''' 'beautiful'): 

{|
|| ||AS||OS
|-
||Inanimate singular ||-- ||'''ban'''
|-
||Masculine singular ||'''bano''' ||'''ban'''
|-
||Feminine singular ||'''bane''' ||'''ban'''
|-
||Common animate singular ||'''bana''' ||'''ban'''
|-
||Dual (*) ||'''bonu''' ||'''bonum'''
|-
||Plural ||'''beni''' ||'''benim'''
|}

(*) The dual number of the adjective already was a dying category in classical times. There are numerous examples of dual nouns accompanied by plural adjectives, and in Late Old Albic the dual number of the adjective had faded away completely. 

====Comparison====

''Comparison'' is a morphological category particular to the adjective. The ''positive degree'' is unmarked. The ''comparative degree'' is marked with the suffix '''-°r ''' .  The ''superlative degree'' is marked with the suffix '''-°th ''' .  There is also an ''equative degree'' ('as ... as'), which is marked with the suffix '''-°ch ''' .  These forms are the singular OSs; non-singular number forms and agentive stems are formed from them as shown above. The ''standard of comparison'' (i.e., the entity to which is compared) is in the locative case. Examples: '''banach albamal''' 'as beautiful as an Elf'; '''banar chvanal''' 'more beautiful than a dog'; '''banath''' 'most beautiful'.

====Adverbs from adjectives====

The instrumental case of the adjective also serves as adverb: '''beni''' 'beautifully'. 

===The definite article===

Old Albic has a definite article, but no indefinite article. The definite article agrees with the noun in gender, number and case. It has the following forms:

{|
|| ||AS ||OS
|-
||Masculine singular ||'''o''' ||'''om'''
|-
||Feminine singular ||'''e''' ||'''em'''
|-
||Common animate singular ||'''a''' ||'''am'''
|-
||Inanimate singular ||-- ||'''am'''
|-
||Dual ||'''u''' ||'''um'''
|-
||Plural ||'''i''' ||'''im'''
|}

The cases are formed normally from the agentive and objective stems.

===Prepositions===

Compared to a language like English, Old Albic makes rather little use of prepositions, as many of the relations expressed by prepositions in English are expressed by noun cases. Nevertheless, there are several prepositions in Old Albic.  They are essentially case forms of inanimate nouns and govern the partitive (for animate objects) or the locative (for inanimate objects).

====Local prepositions====

An important subclass of prepositions are those expressing specific ''local relations'' such as 'above', 'below', 'inside', etc. These prepositions are actually inanimate ''nouns'' that are in turn inflected for case. Example: 

{|
||'''tharal amal(al) mbaral(al)''' (locative) 'behind the house'
|-
||'''tharan amal(an) mbaral(an)''' (allative) 'to behind the house'
|-
||'''tharad amal(ad) mbaral(ad)''' (ablative) 'from behind the house'
|}

(The suffixes in parantheses are secondary case suffixes (see suffixaufnahme) that are not mandatory, and usually omitted.) 

====Prepositional pronouns====

When the object of a preposition is a pronoun, the pronoun precedes the preposition (which thus acts as a postposition) and is combined with it into a single word.

===Pronouns===

The animate/inanimate opposition is a characteristic feature of the Old Albic pronoun system. With the exception of 1st and 2nd person pronouns (for obvious reasons), each pronoun has different, often suppletive, animate and inanimate forms. Prounouns are generally inflected like nouns.

====Personal pronouns====

The 1st and 2nd person pronouns are always animate. In the dual and plural, there is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive 1st person pronouns. The difference is that the inclusive pronouns are used if the addressee is a member of the 'we'-group. The pronouns have the following agentive stems:

{|
|| ||Singular ||Dual ||Plural
|-
||1st person (exclusive) ||'''ma''' ||'''mu''' ||'''mi'''
|-
||1st person (inclusive) || ||'''vu''' ||'''vi'''
|-
||2nd person (familiar) ||'''tha''' ||'''thu''' ||'''thi'''
|-
||2nd person (deferential) ||'''la''' ||'''lu''' ||'''li'''
|}

The objective stems are formed by adding '''-m''' to the agentive stems. The cases are formed in the same way as for nouns. Pronominal core arguments are redundant and usually omitted, but the pronouns are used emphatically.

====Anaphoric pronouns====

The anaphoric ('3rd person') pronouns have different animate and inanimate forms. The animate pronouns have masculine, feminine and common gender forms. The agentive stems of the animate forms are '''so''' 'he', '''se''' 'she', '''sa''' 'he/she/it'. The dual and plural ASs are '''su''' 'they both' and '''si''' 'they', respectively. The objective stems are formed, as with the 1st and 2nd person pronouns, with the suffix '''-m'''. The OS of the inanimate anaphoric pronoun is '''tath''' 'it' (dual '''tothum''', plural '''tethim'''). 

There is also a ''switch reference'' pronoun. It is '''ra''' in the agentive case and '''ram''' in the objective case. The form '''ra''' is corefernt with the patient, the form '''ram''' with the agent of the preceding clause. There is a poetic device called ''braiding'' in which chains of reciprocal action are narrated using these pronouns to switch the core arguments back and forth.

====Demonstratives====

There are three demonstratives: '''san''' 'this (near me)', '''than''' 'that (near you)', '''an''' 'that (over there)'. They are inflected like adjectives and are placed at the end of the NP which also has a definite article, e.g. '''am ont san''' `this stone' (lit. 'the stone this'; inanimate objective singular), '''in chvenin mechin thenin''' 'those large dogs' (lit. 'the dogs large those'; common gender animate dative plural).

====Interrogative pronouns====

The animate interrogative ('who?') has the agentive stem '''chva''' (OS '''chvam'''); the inanimate interrogative ('what?') is '''man'''.
 
====Table of correlatives====

{|
|| ||Which? ||This ||That ||Yon ||Some ||Every ||No
|- 
||Person (AS) ||'''chva''' ||'''sana''' ||'''thana''' ||'''ana''' ||'''hana'''   ||'''cvana''' ||'''nana'''
|-
||Person (OS) ||'''chvam''' ||'''sanam''' ||'''thanam''' ||'''anam''' ||'''hanam''' ||'''cvanam''' ||'''nanam''' 
|-
||Thing (OS) ||'''man''' ||'''san''' ||'''than''' ||'''an''' ||'''han''' ||'''cvan''' ||'''nan'''
|-
||Place ||'''mal''' ||'''sal''' ||'''thal''' ||'''al''' ||'''hal''' ||'''cval'''   ||'''nal'''
|- 
||Time ||'''mai''' ||'''sai'''  ||'''thai''' ||'''ai''' ||'''hai''' ||'''cvai'''   ||'''nai'''
|- 
||Way  ||'''meni''' ||'''seni''' ||'''theni''' ||'''eni''' ||'''heni''' ||'''cveni'''|| '''neni'''
|-
||Reason  ||'''mar''' ||'''sar''' ||'''thar''' ||'''ar''' ||'''har''' ||'''cvar''' ||'''nar'''
|}

===Verbs===

The Old Albic verb is inflected for tense, aspect and mood, and conjugated for the person and number of subject and object. The overall structure of the finite verb is

    A-PV-STEM-TM-OC-AC-M 
wherein the abbreviations stand for the following: 

{|
||A ||Augment: the first vowel of the verb is repeated to indicate perfective (aorist) aspect. 
|-
||PV ||Preverb: this is a prefix that raises an oblique argument to direct object. 
|- 
||TM ||Tense/Mood marker (see below). 
|-
||OC ||Objective conjugation. On transitive verbs, this refers to the direct object; on non-active intransitive verbs, to the subject. 
|- 
||AC ||Agentive conjugation; used only on active verbs, and only if the subject is in agentive or dative case. 
|-
||M ||Middle voice.
|}

====Active vs. stative verbs====

A very important distinction in Old Albic, as in all Albic languages, is between ''active'' and ''stative'' verbs. Active verbs are verbs referring to actions performed by the subject; stative verbs are all the others. Verbs of perception and emotion are a subclass of active verbs. Some verbs, especially verbs of motion, are ''fluid'' verbs, i.e. they can be active or stative, depending on whether the subject moves out of itself or not. 

All transitive verbs are active. Active verbs take agentive conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the subject; transitive verbs also take objective conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the object. Stative verbs take objective conjugation suffixes indicating person and number of the subject. 

This distinction also affects case marking. Subjects of active verbs are marked with the agentive or dative case, depending on the degree of volition of the subject. The basic case marking is agentive, except verbs of perception and emotion that usually take the dative case. (This also means that the subject ''has to'' be animate, though a zero-agent construction with an inanimate adjunct in instrumental case can be used to express notions such as 'The stone smashed the pot'.) In contrast, subjects of stative verbs as well as direct objects are marked with the objective case. 

====Strong vs. weak verbs====

Verbs can be divided into ''strong'' and ''weak'' verbs after the structure of the stem. Strong verbs are the more basic ones; their stem consists of a single root, or a root with a prefix, but no suffix. Weak verbs are verbs derived from nouns, adjectives, other verbs etc. All verbs with a derivational suffix are weak. This includes nominal and adjectival predicates. Verbs with a root-closing nasal or with two or more root-closing consonants are also weak. Strong and weak verbs differ in the form of certain inflectional markings, especially the imperfect and conditional, which have more regular, agglutinative forms with weak verbs. Thus, while the stem structure of weak verbs is more complex, their inflections are simpler.

====Preverbs====

Some verbs can take derivative prefixes called ''preverbs''. A preverb forms a transitive verb by raising an oblique NP to direct object status. If the underlying verb is transitive, the old object was demoted to instrumental case. 

====Tense/Mood/Aspect====

There are two ''moods'': indicative and subjunctive; the latter is also used as an imperative. In both moods, two ''aspects'', imperfective and perfective (aorist) are distinguished; the imperfective indicative is in turn divided into four ''tenses'': present, imperfect (past), future and conditional.

The ''present tense'' refers to an ongoing event in the present. It is marked by the suffix '''-a-''' following the stem. This suffix and the 3rd person singular objective suffix coalesce into '''-á-''': '''labáma''' 'I love him/her'.

The ''imperfect tense'' refers to an ongoing event (seen as uncompleted) in the past. The imperfect tense of a weak verb is marked by a suffix '''-°n-'''. In case of a strong verb, the suffix is '''-n-'''; if the root ends in a stop or fricative, the nasal is ''infixed'' before the final consonant, assimilating to the point of assimilation of the obstruent, e.g. '''boc-''' 'flee' -&gt; '''boñc-'''; '''boñcma''' 'I was fleeing'. Otherwise, the nasal is suffixed: '''sel-''' 'shine' -&gt; '''selna''' 'it shone'. An example of a weak verb: '''marar-''' 'kill' -&gt; '''mararanara''' 'he was killing him'. 

The ''future tense'' is used for ongoing events in the future. It is marked with a suffix '''-u-'''. 

The ''conditional'', morphologically a cross between imperfect and future (as in so many languages), is used to refer to hypothetical events, especially in antecedents of conditional clauses. It is marked by '''-u-''' suffixed to the imperfect, e.g. '''bongcu-''', '''sølnu-''', '''mararonu-'''. 

The ''aorist'' usually refers to completed events in the past and is used as the narrative tense. It thus contrasts mainly with the imperfect. However, an event referred to by the aorist need not be in the past; the aorist is also used to express ''anteriority'' in relation to another event, even if the event referred to is still ongoing or altogether in the future. For example, in a sentence such as 'When the sun sets, we will open the feast', the antecedent when the sun sets would be put in the aorist: 

'''Sí evessa Are, pathymi am matanal.'''
 
Another use of the aorist is the ''gnomic aorist'', which expresses timeless truth. The aorist is marked by the ''augment'', a prefix '''°-''' consisting of the root vowel. If the root has an initial vowel, an h is inserted between the augment and the root-initial vowel: 

'''Ahaussa Are.''' 'The sun has risen.' ('''aus-''' `to rise') 

The ''subjunctive'' is marked by the suffix '''-i-'''. The aorist subjunctive is marked by augment and '''-i-'''. The aorist subjunctive is used as a 'hearsay form' ('it may have been that...').

====Objective conjugation====

The objective conjugtion suffixes agree with an argument of the verb that appears in the objective case. This is the direct object of a transitive verb or the subject of a stative verb such as '''dat-''' 'to fall'.

{|
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||1st person ||'''-ha'''||'''-hi'''
|-
||2nd person ||'''-cha'''||'''-chi'''
|-
||3rd person ||'''-a'''||'''-i'''
|}

The verb agrees in number with the object only if the object is animate. If the object is inanimate, the conjugation is always singular ('''-a'''), regardless of the number of the object.

A ditransitive verb such as '''dan''' 'to give' also agrees with the indirect object.  For this purpose, the same endings are used (except that a 3rd person singular indirect object is indicated by zero if the direct object is also 3rd person singular), with the indirect object conjugation suffix preceding the direct object suffix: '''danacháma''' (&lt; '''dan-a-cha-a-ma''') 'I give it to you'.

====Agentive conjugation====

The agentive conjugation suffixes are used with active verbs and mark agreement with an agentive or dative subject (see degrees of volition below). A instrumental-case (instrumental) 'subject' triggers no agreement as it isn't really a subject but an oblique adjunct to a zero-agent clause.

{|
|| ||Singular ||Plural
|-
||1st person ||'''-ma''' ||'''-mi'''
|-
||2nd person ||'''-tha''' ||'''-thi'''
|-
||3rd person ||'''-sa/-ra''' ||'''-si/-ri'''
|}

The 3rd person suffixes have several allomorphs. The forms '''-ra''' and '''-ri''' appear after vowels and '''r'''; after '''l''', the suffixes take the forms '''-la''' and '''-li'''. In all other cases, the suffixes are '''-sa''' and '''-si''', which are the underlying forms (the post-vocalic '''-ra''' and '''-ri''' forms result from rhotacism of intervocalic '''*s''', the forms that occur after '''l''' and '''r''' from assimilation). However, if the suffix follows a stop (including '''ph''', '''th''' and '''ch'''), metathesis occurs and the '''s''' of the suffix precedes the stop (example: '''obosca''' 'he fled').

====Middle====

The ''middle voice'' is marked with the suffix '''-r'''. It has two functions. Used intransitively, it has reflexive meaning; used transitively, it denotes the so-called ''subject version'', i.e. that the subject acts on behalf of itself. The middle ''never'' functions as a passive.

====Verbal noun====

The Old Albic verb has a single infinite form, the ''verbal noun'', an inanimate noun referring to the action/event/state denoted by the verb.  The verbal noun is formed by adding the suffix '''-°nth''' to the verb stem.  The arguments of the verbal noun are coded as possessors, with the agent appearing in the genitive case and the patient in the partitive or locative case:

'''hatanth ndarol chvanas''' 'the biting of the man by the dog'

The locative case of the verbal noun is used in a way similar to a participle.  Herein, the semantic role of the noun modified by the locative verbal noun is
indicated by a genitive or partitive/locative pronoun referring back to the
head noun:

'''ndaro terenthelo sorolo''' 'a seeing man' (lit., 'a man at his (gen.) seeing')&lt;br&gt;
'''ndaro terenthelo sololo''' 'a man being seen' (lit., 'a man at his (part.) seeing')

==Syntax==

The syntax of Old Albic is characterized by great freedom of word order, due to the rich inflectional morphology of the language, especially its extensive case marking. Nevertheless, there is a basic, unmarked order that is generally adhered to in normal speech as well as prose writing; the full freedom of word order is only exploited in poetry. In the basic order, the heads generally precede their dependents. Thus, adjectives follow nouns, and adverbs and arguments (unless topicalized) follow the verb.

===Clause structure===

====Phrase order====

The normal phrase order is Verb-Subject-Object (VSO); however, this order is often overridden by ''topicalization'', which moves the topic noun phrase (NP) into sentence-initial position. The topic NP can be any of the core arguments or an oblique argument. Hence, most main clauses practically have the verb in the second position after the topic, but subclauses are usually VSO. In poetry, ''any'' word order can be encountered.

====Zero-agent and zero-object constructions====

In Old Albic, there is neither a passive nor an antipassive voice. Instead, the grammar allows to leave away any (even both) of the core arguments. This also means that the verb takes no conjugation affix corresponding with the deleted NP. Such a construction can still take oblique complements. 

Thus, the Old Albic equivalent to a zero-agent passive (such as English `The ball is thrown') is the ''zero-agent construction'': the transitive verb is treated like a stative verb with the direct object as the sole core argument. Similarly, a transitive verb an be detransitivized by the ''zero-object construction''. Both constructions can even be combined in order to express notions such as `There was singing'. 

====Degrees of volition====

The subject of an active verb can appear in different cases depending on the ''degree of volition''. The normal case marking for a subject of an active verb (except for verbs of perception or emotion) is the ''agentive''; in order to express that the subject is acting accidentally rather than volitionally, it can be put in the ''dative'' case.

To ''negated'' verbs, this applies such that the agentive indicates that the subject purportedly fails to act, while the dative indicates that it fails to act out of error, e.g. attempts the action but fails, or forgot about it. Clearly, the dative case is the more neutral and more polite form to use with a negated verb.

''Verbs of perception and emotion'' normally take a ''dative'' subject. The subject, however, can also be put in agentive case to express an act of ''deliberate observation'' rather than cursory perception. For example, '''On nderon terara am chvan''', with dative subject, means 'The man sees the dog', while '''O ndero terara am chvan''', with agentive subject, means 'The man watches the dog'.

In a sense, there is a third degree of volition expressed by the ''instrumental''case. This expresses that the subject acts under external force, possibly against its will. If the subject is in instrumental case, the verb takes no agentive conjugation suffix. This is really nothing else than a zero-agent construction with an instrumental adjunct. The instrumental-case 'subject', unlike an agentive or dative subject, can be inanimate. 

Stative verbs naturally do not distinguish any degrees of volition, and their subjects are always marked with the objective case. ''Fluid'' verbs such as verbs of motion, however, distinguish degrees of volition normally when used as active verbs. Thus, they allow four different case markings on subjects. Examples:

{|
||'''O ndero achvamsa.''' (agentive) 'The man has come (volitionally).'
|-
||'''On nderon achvamsa.''' (dative) 'The man has come (accidentally).'
|-
||'''Ømi nderømi achvam.''' (instrumental) 'The man has come (under force).'
|-
||'''Om nderom achvama.''' (objective) 'The man has come (being carried).'
|}

These examples also demonstrate the different use of conjugation suffixes. 

====Nominal predicates====

Nouns and adjectives can be used as predicates. There is no explicit copula; instead, the predicate noun (or adjective) is inflected like a verb. Such predicate nouns are weak stative verbs. The verb stem is the objective stem, agreeing with gender (if animate) and number with the subject.

===The Noun Phrase===

In the noun phrase (NP), the article (if present) goes first; next come numerals. These elements precede the noun. Adjectives and attribute NPs (genitive or locative) follow the noun; so do relative clauses. Demonstratives are always placed at the end of the NP; only relative clauses, if present, are placed after the demonstrative. All elements are inflected to agree with the noun in gender, number and case. Adnominal genitives and locatives are treated like adjectives (suffixaufnahme); however, a possessed noun counts as definite and needs no article - it is in the construct state. Because of this extensive case marking, the elements of the NP can be rearranged quite freely in poetry, even placed at different locations in the clause with the verb or elements of other NPs in between!

====Possession====

There are two kinds of possession in Old Albic: ''alienable'' and ''inalienable'' possession. The difference is that alienably possessed items could be given away, sold, or otherwise change their possessor, while inalienably possessed items could not. Typical alienably possessed items include personal items (such as clothing), money, houses and other things, while body parts are inalienably possessed. Kinship terms also fall into the class of inalienably possessed nouns. 

These two kinds of possession are expressed differently. An alienable possessor is put in the genitive case, e. g. '''chat leitiros''' 'the wizard's hat', '''sach mas''' 'my shoe'. The common way of expressing inalienable possession is forming a possessor-possessum compound, e. g. '''chvanarath''' 'the dog's head' ('''chvana''' `dog', '''rath''' 'head'), '''manára''' 'my soul' ('''ma''' 'I', '''nára''' 'soul'). Another way of expressing inalienable possession is to put the possessor in the locative case, e. g. '''rath leitiromol''' 'the wizard's head'.

===Subclauses===

====Relative clauses====

Relative clauses usually follow the NP they modify. The relative clause is linked to the head noun by the particle, which is identical to the definite article and agrees with the gender, case and number of the head noun. In the clause itself, the verb occupies the first position. If the head noun occupies an oblique role in the relative clause, the relative clause contains a ''resumptive pronoun'' that refers back to the head noun. This resumptive pronoun is an anaphoric pronoun that agrees with the head noun in gender. If the head noun occupies a core (agentive or objective) role in the relative clause, the resumptive pronoun is not necessary. 

Examples:

{|
||'''o ndaro o matara am brad''' 'the man who eats the bread'
|-
||'''am brad ''am matara o ndaro''''' 'the bread which the man eats'
|-
||'''am coth am matara o ndaro am brad tathal''' 'the house which the man eats the bread in'
|}

Because the relative particle is inflected for the gender, case and number of the head noun, the relative clause can be moved to another position (e.g., to the end of the sentence to avoid center-embedding with nested relative clauses) without causing ambiguity: in the sentence 

'''O ndero melara im hinim o matara am mbas.'''

the relative clause '''o matasa am brad''' can only belong to '''o ndaro''' because '''o''', like '''o ndaro''', is masculine agentive singular (and the verb in the relative clause has a singular agent). If it belonged to the object '''im hinim''', the sentence would be 

'''O ndaro melara im hinim im materi am brad.'''
 
(Note also that the verb in the relative clause has a plural agent here.) 

====Complement clauses====

A complement clause is a clause that serves as the object of a verb (the matrix verb). These follow a similar syntax as relative clauses. The clause is introduced by the particle '''am'''; within the clause, the verb precedes its arguments. The matrix verb takes a singular objective conjugation suffix. 

Example: 

'''Terama am matara o ndaro am brad.''' 'I see that the man eats the bread.' 

However, this construction with a finite verb in the complement clause was already giving way in classical times to a construction with a verbal noun, in which the agent appears in the genitive and the patient in the locative case: 

'''Terama matanth amal bradal os ndaros.''' 'I see (the) eating of the bread by the man.'

==Selected Conlang mailing list articles on Old Albic==

''Attention'': The older of these posts predate later revisions of the language and are now partly out of date.

* (2004/06/22) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0406A&amp;L=conlang&amp;P=R1449 Suffixaufnahme]
* (2004/06/23) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0406D&amp;L=conlang&amp;P=R2756    Some bits on Old Albic culture]
* (2004/06/24) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0406D&amp;L=conlang&amp;P=R7972 Something about Albic religion and demonology]
* (2004/07/27) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0407D&amp;L=conlang&amp;P=R15311  Degrees of volition in Old Albic]
* (2005/05/20) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0502C&amp;L=CONLANG&amp;P=R17236&amp;I=-3&amp;m=120227 Some calendar and mythology stuff]
* (2005/08/07) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0508a&amp;L=conlang&amp;F=&amp;S=&amp;P=10112 Fluid-S pivot]
* (2005/09/04) [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0509a&amp;L=conlang&amp;F=&amp;S=&amp;P=10933 An autosegmental view of the vowel features]

==Old Albic texts==

These texts are old and written in a partly outdated version of the language.

* [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0410d&amp;L=conlang&amp;F=&amp;S=&amp;P=9827 Babel Text]
* [http://steen.free.fr/relay10/old_albic.html Am talal am ñgohama ara am henam] (from the 10th Conlang Translation Relay)
* [http://www.theiling.de/conlang/relay11/old_albic.html A kitchen recipe] (from the 11th Conlang Translation Relay)

[[Category:Albic]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Albic</title>
    <id>1223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-18T20:55:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Albic''' language family constitutes the main conlanging project of [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is a family of languages spoken in the British Isles and the Canary Islands in the [[League of Lost Languages]]. The name &quot;Albic&quot; is from the Old Albic self-designation '''Alba'''.

[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Knoschke</title>
    <id>1224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46825</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T12:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;b&gt;(formerly known as &quot;B-Noric&quot;)&lt;/b&gt;

'''Knoschke''' [ˈknɔʂkɛ] is a [[Noric]] language spoken in the [[Wikipedia:Carpathians|Carpathians]], perhaps attested in [[Wikipedia:Roman Empire|Roman]] times, and then possibly remaining extant long enough to be again recorded in the ninth or tenth century.

When I first made a sketch of the phonology for a descendant of  [[Proto-Noric]] it had as yet no name.  In the meantime I called it &quot;B-Noric&quot;, short for &quot;[[User:Melroch|Benct's]] Noric language&quot;.

= History =

(To be filled in)

= Phonology =
== Sound system and transcription ==

Knoschke is transcribed into Latin letters as follows.  Unless otherwise indicated letters have their IPA values.

* An '''h''' following '''p, t '''or''' k''' indicates aspiration {{IPA|[ʰ]}}.
* A '''j''' following another consonant indicates palatalization {{IPA|[ʲ]}}.
* The vowel '''y''' is (still) {{IPA|[ɨ]}}.  In Knoschke it may also occur long. 
* Grave accent is used to indicate low mid vowels, so that '''è''' is {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and '''ò''' is {{IPA|[ɔ]}}.
* Vowels with acute accent are long: '''á''' {{IPA|[aː]}}, '''é''' {{IPA|[eː]}}, '''í''' {{IPA|[iː]}}, '''ó''' {{IPA|[oː]}}, '''ú''' {{IPA|[uː]}}, '''ý''' {{IPA|[ɨː]}}.  Note especially '''ê''' for {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and '''ô''' for {{IPA|[ɔː]}}!
* The letters '''š '''and''' ž''' indicate retroflex fricatives {{IPA|[ʂ]}} and {{IPA|[ʐ]}}, with '''tš '''and''' dž''' for the corresponding affricates {{IPA|[ʈʂ]}} and {{IPA|[ɖʐ]}}.
* The letter '''q''' is used for the voiced velar fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}}.
* The letter '''ñ''' is used to indicate nasalization of the preceding vowel. 
 Should this be replaced with '''µ'''?

''NB:'' If the [http://www.melroch.se/conlang/noric/b-noric.php B-noric sound-change applier] is run with the &quot;show the steps of the derivation&quot; option checked a number of forms with partly deviant letter-values are shown.  These transcriptions are a pure expedient of easy programming.  The values are as follows (with some letters changing their significance during the process):

* áéíóú are internal notation for long vowels
:Note that at a later stage èò are used for low-mid vowels
* àèìòùý are internal notation for stressed short vowels
:Note that at a later stage áéíóúý are used for long vowels
* âêîôû are internal notation for stressed long vowels
:Note that at a later stage êô are used for long low-mid vowels.
* þ is internal notation for {{IPA|[ʔ]}}
* ð is internal notation for {{IPA|[ɾ]}}
:Note that at no stage are there any dental non-sibilant affricates in Knoschke!
* c is internal notation for {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
* ç is internal notation for {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
* x is {{IPA|[x]}}!
* æ is long {{IPA|[æ:]}}, ä is short {{IPA|[æ]}}, Æ is stressed long {{IPA|['æ:]}}, ã is stressed short {{IPA|['æ]}}

12:25, 21 Jun 2005 (PDT)

== Historical sound changes ==

A Proto-Noric to B-Noric sound change applier program (not yet bug-free) is found [http://www.melroch.se/conlang/noric/b-noric.php here]. Unfortunately it doesn't work in Internet Exporer; try [http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox/ Firefox] instead!

''NB'' that the description of the phonology below is not yet brought up-to-date.  Wherever the output of the program differs from what the text makes you expect the program is more reliable!

Transcriptions preceded by * are [[Proto-Noric#Phonology|the agreed-upon transcription]]. Other transcriptions (not always in slashes/brackets) are [[IPA]].

=== Before loss of unstressed vowels ===

&lt;big&gt;Liquid metathesis&lt;/big&gt;

'''*CVLC''' tends to be realized as '''CLVC''' when the first '''C''' is a stop.

&lt;big&gt;Obstruent weakening&lt;/big&gt;

Obstruents are weakened between vowels or between a vowel and a liquid, except where the [[wikipedia:Verner's law|except where the preceding vowel is stressed]]:

{| border=0 cellpadding=6
| '''*b''' &gt; [β] || '''*p''' &gt; [b] || '''*ph''' &gt; [f] || '''*tc''' &gt; [ʃ] || '''*ts''' &gt; [s] || '''*s/*c''' &gt; [h]
|-
| '''*d''' &gt; [ɾ] || '''*t''' &gt; [d] || '''*th''' &gt; [h] || '''*tch''' &gt; [ʃ] || '''*tsh''' &gt; [s] || '''*x''' &gt; [j]
|-
| '''*g''' &gt; [ɣ] || '''*k''' &gt; [g] || '''*kh''' &gt; [x] || '''*dx''' &gt; [ʒ] || '''*dz''' &gt; [z] || '''*h''' &gt; [ɦ]
|-
| || '''*q''' &gt; [ʔ] || '''*qh''' &gt; [h] ||
|}

Obviously this leads to some mergers in this position: '''*tc/*tch, *ts/*tsh, *dz/*z, *th/*qh/*s/*c''' and '''*x/*j'''. OTOH the phonemes '''*b/*p, *d/*t, *g/*k''' and '''*th/*h''' do not actually merge, although there was possibly some realignment.

&lt;big&gt;Merger of ''q(h)'' with ''k(h)''&lt;/big&gt;

Remaining '''*q''' and '''*qh''' merge with '''*k '''and''' *kh''' respectively.  The relative dating of this merger is impossible to determine.

&lt;big&gt;Prothesis of ''j'' and secondary palatalization&lt;/big&gt;

Front vowels ('''*i, *î, *e, *ê''') develop a prothetic [j] and  consonants are palatalized before the same vowels (though not before '''*y''').  Consonants before inherited '''*j''' of course palatalize as well.

Palatalized dentals and velars merge with each other.  They however remain distinct from the old &quot;palatals&quot; '''*tc, *tch, *dx, *c, *x''', the latter perhaps becoming retroflex, except for [ɣʲ] which merges with '''*j'''.  These two sets will be called ''primary palatals'' and ''secondary palatals'' respectively.  It should be noted that after primary palatals both primary and secondary '''j''' is lost, the preceding sibilant retaining its &quot;hard&quot; quality. 

Note that there also arises a series of palatalized or palatal sonants /ɲ ʎ rʲ/ contrasing with non-palatal(ized) /n l r ɾ/.  The non-palatal(ized) /l/ was probably realized with velarization ([ɫ] or [lˠ]) and perhaps non-palatal(ized) /r/ and /ɾ/ were also realized as velarized ([rˠ] and [ɾˠ]).

&lt;big&gt;Vowel palatalization&lt;/big&gt;

Vowels before /j/ front/palatalize.  For a while there were probably front rounded vowels, but these eventually merged with the unrounded front vowels.

: '''*a(:)j &gt; æ(:)j'''
: '''*o(:)j &gt; e(:)j'''
: '''*u(:)j &gt; i(:)j'''
: '''*yj &gt; ij'''

&lt;big&gt;Vowel labialization&lt;/big&gt;

Unrounded vowels round/retract before '''*w'''.  The front vowels probably become rounded central vowels at first, but eventually they become back rounded.  There arises no new phonemes, since '''*aw/*âw''' merge with '''*ow/*ôw''' as [o:].

: '''*a(:)w &gt; o(:)w'''
: '''*e(:)w &gt; o(:)w'''
: '''*i(:)w &gt; u(:)w'''
: '''*yw &gt; uw'''

&lt;big&gt;Monophthongization&lt;/big&gt;

All '''*VjC '''and''' *VwC''' sequences become '''V:C''', but there arises only one new phoneme /æ:/ from '''*ajC'''.


As a result of these changes the secondary palatals become distinct phonemes.

&lt;big&gt;Assimilation of [ɣ]&lt;/big&gt;

The [ɣ] allophone of /g/ merges with /j/ after /æ(:)/, /e(:)/ and /i(:)/ but with /w/ after other vowels.

&lt;big&gt;Labiodentalization of palatalized labials&lt;/big&gt;

Palatalized labial stops become labiodental fricatives. The [β] allophone of /b/ merges with the new /v/; /mʲ/ merges with /w/.

&lt;big&gt;Stopping of [w] (and sometimes [j])&lt;/big&gt;

Word initially and before vowels /w/ merges with /g/, probably by way of [gw].  Sporadically /j/ becomes /dʲ/ under the same circumstances, suggesting that there existed a dialect where the parallell change of '''j &gt; gj &gt; dʲ''' was general.

&lt;big&gt;Loss of unstressed short vowels&lt;/big&gt;

Unstressed short vowels are weakened and eventually lost.

This change is easy to describe, but has far-reaching consequences for the structure of the language.

&lt;big&gt;Shortening of unstressed long vowels&lt;/big&gt;

Unstressed long vowels shorten.  Perhaps distinctive stress is lost at the same time.

=== After loss of unstressed vowels ===

The consonant clusters that arose through the loss of unstressed short vowels are partly simplified through assimilation, dissimilation or loss.

&lt;big&gt;Loss of cluster-medial consonants&lt;/big&gt;

In any cluster of three or more consonants the middle consonant(s) drop.

&lt;i&gt;Main exceptions:&lt;/i&gt;

: All /VjC/ become /ViC/ and all /VwC/ become /VuC/ -- there is no ''phonetic'' change, but the /w/ phoneme disappears.

: Dentals before '''*j''' merge with the secondary palatals.  Also /xʲ/ and /hʲ/ ([ç]?) merge with /sʲ/, and [ɦj] merges with /j/.

: After palatals /j/ drops. The transcription of Knoschke however masks this fact.

: Non-sibilant consonants before a sibilant drop; thus '''C(C)SC''' becomes '''SC'''.  This affects affricates as well, so that they lose their closure part.

: A [d] next to an obstruent becomes [ɾ], except if that obstruent is [d], [z] or [ʒ].

&lt;big&gt;Assimilations&lt;/big&gt;

Progressive voicing assimilation between obstruents; /ʔ/ counts as a voiceless obstruent.

Complete assimilation of /ʔ/ to any neighboring consonants, except for /ʔ/ + sibilant which becomes an affricate.

&lt;big&gt;Fricative and stop cluster reorganization&lt;/big&gt;

All clusters of obstruent + obstruent become fricative + stop.  Exceptions:

:: '''pp, tt, kk, bb, dd, gg, ff, xx''' remain.

:: '''bv/vb &gt; bb, gɣ/ɣg &gt; gg, pf/fp &gt; ff, kx/xk &gt; xx'''.

&lt;big&gt;Assimilation of /h/ to fricatives&lt;/big&gt;

/h/ is wholly assimilated to an adjacent fricative.  After an affricate this means loss of /h/.  Non-affricate sibilants become geminate.

&lt;big&gt;Sibilants become affricates after sonants&lt;/big&gt;

Sonant + sibilant becomes sonant + affricate.

&lt;big&gt;Palatalization assimilation/dissimilation&lt;/big&gt;

Secondary palatals before non-palatalized sounds are de-palatalized, while dentals and velars before secondary palatals become palatals.

&lt;big&gt;Labial &gt; /v/ after velars&lt;/big&gt;

Velar + labial becomes velar + /v/.

&lt;big&gt;Rise of new voiceless stops and voiceless sonants&lt;/big&gt;

Any stop + /h/ or /h/ + stop becomes a voiceless aspirated stop, and sonant + /h/ or /h/ + sonant becomes a voiceless sonant.

Initial voiceless or voiced stops not standing in a cluster or followed by '''r/l/ɾ''' become voiceless aspirated stops.

&lt;big&gt;Loss of initial nasals before consonants&lt;/big&gt;

An initial nasal + voiceless stop becomes aspirated voiceless stop.

An initial nasal before a voiced stop is lost.

An initial nasal before a liquid becomes a voiced stop.

&lt;big&gt;Assimilation of nasals to preceding stops&lt;/big&gt;

/t/ + nasal becomes /tt/.  Also /pm/ becomes /pp/ but /pn/ remains.

Labial, dental or palatal voiced stop + nasal becomes geminate nasal with the point of articulation of the stop, while /g/ + nasal becomes/remains /gn/.

&lt;big&gt;Loss of initial sonants before stops&lt;/big&gt;

An initial sonant before a stop is lost.

&lt;big&gt;Simplification of initial geminates&lt;/big&gt;

Initial geminates are simplified.

&lt;big&gt;Metathesis of initial consonant + sibilant&lt;/big&gt;

Where an initial consonant is followed by a sibilant the two sounds metathesize, so that the sibilant comes to stand before the other consonant.

&lt;big&gt;Rise of geminate sonants&lt;/big&gt;

Clusters of '''l''' and another sonant become geminated '''ll''': '''nl/ln/rl/lr/ɾl/lɾ &gt; ll'''.

In clusters of two nasals the first is assimilated to the second:  '''mn &gt; nn''', '''nm &gt; mm'''.

A nasal preceding a rhotic ([r] or [ɾ]) is assimilated to the following sound: '''nr/nɾ/mr/mɾ &gt; rr'''.

The trill [r] is reanalysed as a geminate sound /rr/ when following a vowel '''Vr &gt; Vrr'''.  At the same time the tap [ɾ] when following a vowel is reanalysed as a non-geminate /r/ '''Vɾ &gt; Vr'''.  In other contexts the two sounds [r] and [ɾ] merge, probably realized either as a trill or tap depending on context.

&lt;big&gt;Rise of vowel tenseness distinction and loss of vowel length&lt;/big&gt;

The distinction of length in stressed vowels is replaced by a tenseness distinction, while all short vowels are laxed.  There are some mergers:

* ɪ/e &gt; e
* ɛ/æ/æː &gt; ɛ
* a/a: &gt; a
* ʊ/o &gt; o
* ɔ &gt; /ɔ/

&lt;big&gt;Merger and reallocation of /i/ and /ɨ/&lt;/big&gt;

The two phonemes /i/ and /ɨ/ merge, so that the new phoneme is realized as [i] after secondary palatals and /j/ and as [ɨ] elsewhere.

Later initial /ji/ becomes [i], so that a new marginal surface distinction between the two sounds arises.

&lt;big&gt;Loss of /ʔ/ and /ɦ/ and rise of new diphthongs and long vowels&lt;/big&gt;

/ʔ/ and /ɦ/ disappear, giving rise to a great variety of new diphthongs.  High mid vowels become high before and after other vowels ('''eV &gt; jV, Ve &gt; Vi,oV &gt; wV/vV, Vo &gt; Vu''', except '''ee &gt; e: and oo &gt; o:''' giving '''Vi''' and '''Vi''' diphthongs.  By contrast low-mid and low vowels merge completely with a preceding vowel '''Va/Vɛ/Vɔ &gt; V:''' give new long vowels.

Another source of long vowels is /h/ following vowels, since '''Vh''' becomes '''V:'''.  This also gives rise to new non-diphthongal vowel sequences, e.g. '''jéa''' 'one' '''&lt; *jiha &lt; *î`qha'''.

Initial /h/ remains.  It is also likely that a non-phonemic [ʔ] remains before initial vowels when the preceding word ends in a vowel.

&lt;big&gt;Final vowel + simple nasal becomes nasalized vowel&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;Final geminates are simplified&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;Rise of epenthetic vowels&lt;/big&gt;

When a sonant follos another consonant at the end of a word an epenthetic vowel arises as follows:

:before /r l n v/ the epenthetic vowel is /ɔ/ ('''ò''');

:before /rʲ ʎ ɲ/ the epenthetic vowel is /ɛ/ ('''è''');

:before /m/ the epenthetic vowel is /u/.

&lt;big&gt;De-fricativization of final '''v'''&lt;/big&gt;

Final '''Vv''' becomes '''Vw''', with '''uv''' becoming '''û'''.

=== Noric words 26.6.2005 ===

'''*`abî''' Num twelve '''&gt; ave'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`abîdxa''' Num twelfth '''&gt; ave&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*a`cu''' Num ten '''&gt; ho'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*a`cudxa''' Num tenth '''&gt; hod&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*a`mâ''' N mother '''&gt; ma &gt; mama'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`anta''' Num five '''&gt; ant'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`antadxa''' Num fifth '''&gt; and&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*a`tê''' pron I (1st pers.sing.) '''&gt; tje'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*a`tega''' N house, dwelling '''&gt; tjèg'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*ba`bâ''' N father '''&gt; ba &gt; baba'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`badi''' Adj yellow '''&gt; phadj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`banki''' N hill '''&gt; phantj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*bne`gâ''' adj big, large '''&gt; ma'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`cerka''' N ox '''&gt; &amp;#353;èrk'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`côli''' V heal '''&gt; &amp;#353;olj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`côphê''' N human being '''&gt; &amp;#353;ofè'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*cu`ju''' Num four '''&gt; &amp;#353;o'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*cu`judxa''' Num fourth '''&gt; &amp;#353;od&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`daqû''' Num nine '''&gt; thako'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`daqûdxa''' Num ninth '''&gt; thako&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`dawno''' N river '''&gt; thoñ'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*-dxa''' suffix derives ordinal numbers from cardinals '''&gt; -d&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*dxê`lê''' N red deer '''&gt; d&amp;#382;èlje'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`gwîno''' N wine '''&gt; gyñ'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`gyrdy''' N enclosure, courtyard '''&gt; khyrd'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`hatû''' Num seven '''&gt; hato'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`hatûdxa''' Num seventh '''&gt; hato&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*-ima''' suffix denotes inhabitant of X '''&gt; -m &gt; -um'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ipe''' N partridge '''&gt; jef'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*î`qha''' Num one '''&gt; jéa'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*î`qhadxa''' Num first '''&gt; jéad&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*iw`ka''' pron (2nd pers.sing.) thou '''&gt; joka'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`îwsi''' N garden, field '''&gt; jusj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`jûlthê''' N cow '''&gt; julhjè'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`kantu''' V hold '''&gt; khant'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`khorja''' N star; a constellation? '''&gt; khòrj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*khrê`tha''' N roe deer '''&gt; khrjêa'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`kôri''' N tree bark '''&gt; khorj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`korpi''' N forest '''&gt; khòrf'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`kûrdo''' Adj deaf '''&gt; khurd'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`kyrsa''' N bread '''&gt; khyrts'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`laki''' N fish '''&gt; latj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`lintu''' N bird '''&gt; ljent'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*lî`tcu''' N fox '''&gt; lje&amp;#353;o'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`methu''' N mead '''&gt; khèth'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`mîtho''' N badger '''&gt; khyth'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`muto''' V cut '''&gt; mot'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`nola''' N wood '''&gt; nòl'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*no`ltcî''' N tree '''&gt; t&amp;#353;y'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*ô`jtsi''' Num one thousand '''&gt; etsje'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*ô`jtsidxa''' Num one thousandth '''&gt; etsjed&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`pali''' N mountain '''&gt; phalj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`pâre''' V show '''&gt; pharj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`pasa''' N anger '''&gt; phas'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`pasima''' N barbarian '''&gt; phasum'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`phloka''' N cloth '''&gt; phlòk'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qimâ''' N sky '''&gt; thjema'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qûnâ''' N mountain '''&gt; khuna'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qy-''' prefix place for X, place with X '''&gt; khy-'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qylaki''' N pond '''&gt; khyldj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qynoltcî''' N coppice, grove, forest '''&gt; khynt&amp;#353;e'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qytshima''' N valley dweller '''&gt; khysum'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`qytsho''' N valley '''&gt; khys'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`rêsi''' N grain, cereal '''&gt; rjesj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*ri`wgu''' N marmot '''&gt; rjogo'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`riwma''' N squirrel '''&gt; rjuñ'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`runthu''' `N child '''&gt; ronh'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`selta''' N bridge '''&gt; sjèlt'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*ta`ndu''' N ibex '''&gt; to'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tchâqho''' N chamois '''&gt; &amp;#353;akh'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tcholtsî''' N marten '''&gt; &amp;#353;òltsje'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*tcî`by''' N Alpine cough '''&gt; t&amp;#353;evy'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`têrzo''' N tree '''&gt; thjerdz'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tôci''' N rope '''&gt; tho&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tsâhu''' Num two '''&gt; tsá'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tsâhudxa''' Num second '''&gt; tsa&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tsho''' adposition down '''&gt; sò'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*twa`tâ''' Num eight '''&gt; thra'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*twa`tâdxa''' Num eighth '''&gt; thrad&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`tylpa''' Adj mute '''&gt; thylp'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ûba''' Num three '''&gt; ub'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ûbadxa''' Num third '''&gt; ub&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*u`do''' Num twenty '''&gt; rò'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*u`dodxa''' Num twentieth '''&gt; ròd&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ukhi''' Num one hundred '''&gt; othj'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ukhidxa''' Num one hundredth '''&gt; ot&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`urnô''' N man '''&gt; ornò'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`warda''' N clan-house '''&gt; khard'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`wewga''' ADJ wide '''&gt; khog'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*xu`lê''' N pheasant '''&gt; &amp;#382;lje'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ytce''' Num eleven '''&gt; yt&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ytcedxa''' Num eleventh '''&gt; y&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`yto''' Num six '''&gt; yt'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ytodxa''' Num sixth '''&gt; yt&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*`ziwy''' N hare '''&gt; zjog'''&lt;br&gt;
'''*zu`lkâ''' N aurochs '''&gt; zga'''&lt;br&gt;

=== Examples ===

(Not yet debugged)

&amp;#42;kûdxî`lî &gt; kho&amp;#382;eli&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;khitî`do &gt; tjrjedò&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;uro`phâ &gt; fa&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tcunhû`nzâ &gt; &amp;#353;ondza&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;duxi`jû &gt; thyju&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`âtcâza &gt; at&amp;#353;az&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`axurhe &gt; a&amp;#382;èrj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`dzîltshize &gt; dzisj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`diwdemo &gt; thjunj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;thu`negî &gt; tjèdje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`jarilda &gt; jarjd&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;wî`kajdxâ &gt; kheged&amp;#382;a&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;aqhi`zî &gt; si&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;uba`tsû &gt; sfu&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`inwâtshô &gt; jengasò&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`zûjara &gt; zuir&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;î`quthê &gt; juthjè&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;râ`rûsu &gt; rarrus&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tci`dxâqî &gt; &amp;#353;atje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;dîwû`zê &gt; thjogozje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;â`rnery &gt; arnjèr&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`othohi &gt; òthj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tsîse`jnu &gt; tsjesjèno&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;sâdi`ba &gt; sarjba&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tsi`dâlnô &gt; lanò&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`îbadu &gt; ibòr&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;putcû`rgâ &gt; &amp;#353;porqa&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`bidxîbu &gt; ved&amp;#382;eu&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tchu`lnarha &gt; &amp;#353;narh&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tcîlî`je &gt; t&amp;#353;eljejè&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`isâzâ &gt; jesaza&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;bu`môqî &gt; motje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;î`dûkhû &gt; jerukho&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`ôwîmâ &gt; ojema&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`thedxûda &gt; thjèd&amp;#382;or&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;uzi`xû &gt; tsju&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;dxu`qhyla &gt; &amp;#382;yl&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;thûco`nxa &gt; tho&amp;#353;&amp;#353;a&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;âlku`qi &gt; alije&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;upu`gû &gt; ku&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`tchopajthi &gt; &amp;#353;òpèthj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tshî`nôtcho &gt; sjeno&amp;#353;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;îmbja`zê &gt; jeñvzje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;blo`khînu &gt; zjbyñ&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;ûtsô`co &gt; osô&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`ûrkharî &gt; urje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;etlî`tu &gt; ljedo&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`dxusûqhi &gt; d&amp;#382;ososj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`utelu &gt; otjòl&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;âtshu`tû &gt; asru&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;râ`ltshatû &gt; rassato&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;u`nilse &gt; njeltsj&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;tû`myru &gt; thomyr&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;obla`tche &gt; &amp;#353;fè&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;hinzu`kha &gt; zqa&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`olmadzî &gt; òldzje&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;u`thapha &gt; haph&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;a`zômba &gt; tsomb&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`rarcadô &gt; ra&amp;#353;rò&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#42;`akumu &gt; akòu&lt;br&gt;

== Spelling differences ==

This is a list of Knòškè words as spelled in the standard transcription, in the Latin alphabet of Roman times and in Hungarian runes (transcribed into standard Hungarian orthography).

There is now a revised, Hungarian-based [[Knoschke/Orthography|Latin-letter Knoschke orthography]] which replaces the old &quot;standard transcription&quot;, which thus con-historically nver existed!
The ancient Latinizations may however be con-historically the same anyway.

{|
! &quot;Knòškè&quot; || Latin || Hungarian runes
|-
| šakh || SACH || sak
|-
| šèrk || SERC || serk
|-
| šo || SO || so
|-
| šodž || SOZ/SODZ || sodzs
|-
| šofè || SOFE || sofe
|-
| šolj || SOL || soly
|-
| šòltsje || SOLTIE || salcje
|-
| žlje || ZLIE || zslye
|-
| andž || ANZ || andzs
|-
| ant || ANT || ant
|-
| ave || AVE || ave
|-
| avež || AVEZ || avezs
|-
| ba || BA || ba
|-
| baba || BABA || baba
|-
| -dž || -Z/DZ || -dzs
|-
| džèlje || ZELIE || dzselye
|-
| etsje || ETIE || ece/etye
|-
| etsjedž || ETIEZ || ecjedz
|-
| gyñ || GIN/GYN || gi
|-
| hato || HATO || hato
|-
| hatož || HATOZ || hatozs
|-
| ho || HO || ho
|-
| hodž || HOZ || hodz
|-
| jéa || IEA || jéa
|-
| jéadž || IEAZ || jéadzs
|-
| jef || IEF || jef
|-
| joka || IOCA || joka
|-
| julhjè || IVLHIAE || juhlje
|-
| jusj || IVS || jus/jusj
|-
| khant || CHANT || kant
|-
| khard || CHARD || kard
|-
| khèth || CHAETH || ket
|-
| khog || CHOG || kog
|-
| khòrf || CHORF || karf
|-
| khorj || CHOR || korj
|-
| khòrj || CHOR || karj
|-
| khrjêa || CHRIAEA || krjéa
|-
| khuna || CHVNA || kuna
|-
| khurd || CHVRD || kurd
|-
| khy-
|-
| khyldj || CHILZ || kilgy
|-
| khyntše || CHINTIE || kincse
|-
| khyrd || CHIRD || kird
|-
| khyrts || CHIRS || kirc
|-
| khys || CHIS || kis
|-
| khysum || CHISVM || kisum
|-
| khyth || CHITH || kit
|-
| latj || LAC || laty
|-
| lješo || LIESO || lyeso
|-
| ljent || LIENT || lyent
|-
| ma || MA || ma
|-
| mama || MAMMA || mama
|-
| mot || MOT || mot
|-
| nòl || NOL || nal
|-
| ornò || ORNO || orna
|-
| otš || OZ || ocs
|-
| othj || OTH || oty
|-
| phadj || PHAD/PHAZ || pagy
|-
| phalj || PHAL || paly
|-
| phantj || PHANT || panty
|-
| pharj || PHAR || parj/pajr
|-
| phas || PHAS || pasz
|-
| phasum || PHASVM
|-
| phlòk || PHLOC || plak
|-
| rjesj || RIES || rjes/rjesj/rjejs
|-
| rjogo || RIOGO || rjogo
|-
| rjuñ || RIVM || rju
|-
| rò || RO || ra
|-
| ròdž || ROZ/RODZ || radz
|-
| ronh || RONCH || rohn
|-
| sjèlt || SIELT || selt/sjelt
|-
| sò || SO || sza
|-
| tševy || ZEBI/CEBI || csevi
|-
| tšy || ZI/CI || csi
|-
| thako || THACO || tako
|-
| thakož || THACOZ || takozs
|-
| thjema || THIEMA || tyema
|-
| thjerdz || THIERZ || tyerdz
|-
| thoš || THOS || tos
|-
| thoñ || THON || to
|-
| thra || THRA || tra/tara
|-
| thradž || THRAZ || tradzs/taradzs
|-
| thylp || THILP || tilp
|-
| tje || TIE || tye
|-
| tjèg || TIAEG || tyeg
|-
| to || TO || to
|-
| tsá || ZA/TIA || cá
|-
| tsaš || ZAS/TIAS || cás
|-
| ub || UB || ub
|-
| ubž || UBZ || ubzs
|-
| -um || VM || um
|-
| yš || IS || is
|-
| yt || IT/YT || it
|-
| ytš || IZ/ITS || ics
|-
| zga || SGA || zga
|-
| zjog || ZOG || zsjog
|}

= Grammar =
== Numerals ==


{|
| one: || '''*î`qha &gt; jéa''' ||first: || '''*î`qhadxa &gt; jéad&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| two: || '''*`tsâhu &gt; tsá''' ||second: || '''*`tsâhudxa &gt; tsa&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| three: || '''*`ûba &gt; ub''' ||third: || '''*`ûbadxa &gt; ub&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| four: || '''*cu`ju &gt; &amp;#353;o''' ||fourth: || '''*cu`judxa &gt; &amp;#353;od&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| five: || '''*`anta &gt; ant''' ||fifth: || '''*`antadxa &gt; and&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| six: || '''*`yto &gt; yt''' ||sixth: || '''*`ytodxa &gt; yt&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| seven: || '''*`hatû &gt; hato''' ||seventh: || '''*`hatûdxa &gt; hato&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| eight: || '''*twa`tâ &gt; thra''' ||eighth: || '''*twa`tâdxa &gt; thrad&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| nine: || '''*`daqû &gt; thako''' ||ninth: || '''*`daqûdxa &gt; thako&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| ten: || '''*a`cu &gt; ho''' ||tenth: || '''*a`cudxa &gt; hod&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| eleven: || '''*`ytce &gt; yt&amp;#353;''' ||eleventh: || '''*`ytcedxa &gt; y&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| twelve: || '''*`abî &gt; ave''' ||twelfth: || '''*`abîdxa &gt; ave&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| twenty: || '''*u`do &gt; rò''' ||twentieth: || '''*u`dodxa &gt; ròd&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| hundred: || '''*`ukhi &gt; othj''' ||hundredth: || '''*`ukhidxa &gt; ot&amp;#353;'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| thousand: || '''*ô`jtsi &gt; etsje''' ||thousandth: || '''*ô`jtsidxa &gt; etsjed&amp;#382;'''&lt;br&gt;
|}

02:48, 23 Jun 2005 (PDT)
----
--[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 03:28, 27 Jun 2005 (PDT)

[[Category:Noric]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs by Melroch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>P-Noric</title>
    <id>1225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4582</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-03T15:36:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PaulBennett</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[Noric]] language. Right now, the page and language is in a very volatile state.


==Phonology==

===Consonants===

{|
| || Labial || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
| Stops, voiceless
| '''*p''' || '''*t''' || || || '''*k''' || '''*q''' [ʔ]
|-
| Stops, voiced
| '''*b''' || '''*d''' || || || '''*g''' ||
|-
| Stops, aspirated
| '''*ph''' [pʰ] || '''*th''' [tʰ] || || || '''*kh''' [kʰ] ||
|-
| Affricates, voiceless
| || '''*c''' [ts] || '''*č''' [tʃ] || || ||
|-
| Affricates, voiced
| || '''*dz''' || '''*ǰ''' [dʒ] || || ||
|-
| Affricates, aspirated
| || '''*c' ''' [tsʰ] || '''*č' ''' [tʃʰ] || || ||
|-
| Fricatives, voiceless
| || '''*s''' || '''*š''' [ʃ] || || || '''*h'''
|-
| Fricatives, voiced
| || '''*z''' || '''*ž''' [ʒ] || || ||
|-
| Nasals
| '''*m''' || '''*n''' || || || ||
|-
| Liquids
| || '''*l,*r''' || || || ||
|-
| Glides
| '''*w''' || || || '''*j''' || ||
|}

===Vowels===

'''a''' /a/, '''ae''' /ɛ/, '''ai''' /aj/, '''ao''' /aw/, '''aw''' /ɔ/, '''e''', '''i''', '''o''', '''u''', '''y''' /ə/


==Sound Changes==


Before stress: 

a: &gt; aa 

e &gt; ai

e: &gt; aai

o &gt; au 

o: &gt; aau 

aa &gt; a3 


On or after stress: 

a: &gt; 3a 

e: &gt; ɛ 

i: &gt; ji 

o: &gt; ɔ 

u: &gt; wu 


Anywhere:

3h &gt; 3 

_h3 &gt; 0

3C &gt; C3

33 &gt; 3

? &gt; C[+v][=POA][+stop] / # _ {V,R}

R &gt; C[+v][=POA][+stop] / R _ R


The symbol &quot;3&quot; becomes the location of the pitch accent. Syllables before the accent are low tone, syllables including and after the accent are high tone. Depending on where in a diphthong the accent falls, diphthongs may also be rising tone, shown with a caron.


âêîôû

áéíóú

čšž


Some words, including a new romanization:


`wîlô &gt; wjiláu (More work required here for sure) &gt; wyjláo (?) Maybe /Ojlaw/?

`âdâ &gt; áda

qê`na &gt; daina

iw`ka &gt; iwka &gt; üka

`qotse &gt; doce

`wûdxa &gt; wwúdxa &gt; wúdža (?)

tsha:'xo &gt; ts_ha3Zo &gt; ts_haZ3o &gt; tsha_L.Zo_H |c'ažó|

'qu:tsy &gt; ?wuts)1 &gt; bwuts)_L |bwuc|

'a:nru: &gt; 3anrwu &gt; 3andwu &gt; an_H.dwu_H |ándwu| (syllable break position?)

e:'he &gt; a3ihe &gt; a_M.i_H.he_M &gt; aj_R.he_H |ǎihe|

'a:re &gt; 3are &gt; a_H.re_H |áre|

qa'tca &gt; ?atSa &gt; da_LtSa_L |dača|

o:'na &gt; a3una &gt; |ǎona| /aw_R.na_H/

aw'ku &gt; awku &gt; |aoku| /aw_L.ku_L/

'a:ko: &gt; 3akO &gt; |ákaw| /a_H.kO_H/

qa:'da: &gt; ?a3d3a &gt; dad3a &gt; |dadá| /da_L.da_H/


[[Category:Noric]]
[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:League of Lost Languages</title>
    <id>1226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-30T09:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I removed links to Mærik posts, as these are superceded by the [[Maerik|Mærik]] page. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 02:54, 6 Jun 2005 (PDT)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
How do you undo the redirect from &quot;Talk:Kilda Kelen&quot; to here?
If you want to say something about Kilda Kelen, do you have to say it here?
If you try to say something about Kilda Kelen, why does it just disappear into the bit-bucket, instead of showing up in the wrong place (namely here)?

:When you are redirected, below the title a line appears saying &quot;Redirected from [''link to page redirected from'']&quot;.  

:: Yes, that is true.

:You can click on that and edit the page, removing the #REDIRECT line if you want to remove the redirect; 

:: No, that is not true.

:::# Click on the link in the &quot;Redirected from [''page'']&quot; page. You are taken to the page.  Its displayed content will be &quot; http://wiki.frath.net/skins/common/images/redirectltr.png [''link to page it is a redirect to'']&quot;
:::# Click &quot;edit&quot;.  The source will display &quot;#REDIRECT [''wikilink to page it is a redirect to''].&quot;  
:::# Remove this #REDIRECT line.  &quot;#REDIRECT&quot; is the magic word making the page a redirect.
:::# Add whatever content you wish.
::: When you edited [[Talk:Kilda Kelen]] you neglected the third step; [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=Talk:Kilda_Kelen&amp;curid=2668&amp;diff=12899&amp;oldid=12854&amp;rcid=10252 I did it for you.]  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 02:43, 30 August 2006 (PDT)

:if #REDIRECT remains any other information on the page is considered to be a comment on the redirect and is normally not displayed.  —

:: That explains why my comment disappeared.

[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 14:52, 29 August 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Theiling</title>
    <id>1227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:23:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I'm [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling], the current owner of the [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html CONLANG mailing list], and the following are my conlang projects:

* [[Fukhian]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s1/]: Agglutinative
* [[Tyl Sjok]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s2/]: Ambiguous
* [[Qþyn/gài]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s7/]: Polysynthetic
* [[Da Mätz se Basa]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s9/]: German Pidgin
* [[Tesäfköm]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s11/]: Univalent
* [[Þrjótrun]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s17/]: Romance/Icelandic
* [[Nıbuzıgu]] [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s21/]: Musical

==Links==
I also host a page for CXS/X-Sampa-IPA conversion with online converter and modules for several languages:
* [http://www.theiling.de/ipa/ IPA/CXS conversion]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ My Homepage]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:PaulBennett</title>
    <id>1228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4584</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T13:44:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PaulBennett</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I'm Paul Bennett, a member of the Conlang mailing list, and the Livejournal conlang community. I'm more of a tinkerer than a serious language creator. I have several new projects a week, and occasionally actually do stuff to one of my more stable projects. These currently are a [[Noric]] language (currently under just a code name), [[Thagojian]], [[Br'ga]] and [[Lizardman]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Br'ga</title>
    <id>1229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20015</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-12T14:46:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul.w.bennett</username>
        <id>301</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* =Affixes */ Typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page is a collection of notes. One day, I'll organise them.

Last major org was Feb 17, 2006.

=Phonology=

''Vowels''

IPA

{|
| i || || || || ɯ || u
|-
| || e || || ə ||ʏ || o
|-
| || || | a || || ɑ || ɒ
|}

''Consonants''

{|
| p b
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| t d
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| k g 
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| ʙ
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| r
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| ʀ
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| f
| s̪
| s
| ʃ
| &amp;nbsp;
| x
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| h

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| tʃ
| cç
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| ʋ
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| j
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| w
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| l
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| ʟ
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| n
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|}

Phonemic /n/ assimilates to the following consonant, even through a vowel. Phonemic /n/ without a following non-nasal consonant assimilates to the previous consonant, even through a vowel. Orthographically, /n/ is represented by n before apical sounds, ñ before laminal or dorsal sounds, and m before labial sounds.

=Orthography=

{|
| i || || || || ı || u
|-
| || e || || ʼ || ə || o
|-
| || || | ä || || a || å
|}

{|
| p b
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| t d
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| k g 
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| br
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| dr
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| gr
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| f
| z
| s
| sh
| &amp;nbsp;
| x
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| h

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| ch
| tj
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| v
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| y
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| w
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| l
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| ll
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| n
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;

|}

=Word Structure=

Every word consists of noun.stem-verb.stem.

A noun-stem is any root followed by any sequence of zero or more suffixes that ends with a noun-class suffix or root.

A verb-stem is any root followed by any sequence of zero or more suffixes that ends with a verb-class suffix or root.

===Affixes===

Some example verb→verb suffixes are:

{|
| -lun || makes an agent-focussed verb into a benefective-focussed verb, for instance learn→teach
|-
| -na || the reverse of that action, for instance learn→forget
|}

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Sandbox</title>
    <id>1230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4586</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-21T19:54:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">á&lt;sup&gt;̄&lt;/sup&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan, Swadesh List</title>
    <id>1231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:36:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Curlyjimsam</title>
    <id>1232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4097</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-26T06:54:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curlyjimsam</username>
        <id>35</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Removed dead links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big &gt;'''Curlyjimsam'''&lt;/big &gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top|&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:picture.png|A non-existent picture]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Country:'''
|| United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
|-
|valign=top|'''Languages fluent in:'''
|| [[English]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Also able to speak:'''
|| French, German
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| [[Vixen]], [[Telarian]], various others
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Conlanging, conworlding, and not a huge amount else.
|}

'''Curlyjimsam''' likes to think of himself as a conlanger. This is not entirely true. He is not much good. Nevertheless, nobody's complained - yet.

Updates to this page are highly unlikely, despite its incredible shortness.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vixen</title>
    <id>1233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29254</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:14:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Vixen''' is a conlang created by [[User:Curlyjimsam|Curlyjimsam]]. It is spoken on the planet Vix-Or (Venus) is his Alternate Solar System. 

In terms of a general conlang rating, Vixen is not very good. Its previous incarnation was even worse.

No examples of Vixen are as yet available, and the (revised) grammar is currently unfinished and therefore won't be posted here.
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Telarian</title>
    <id>1234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29247</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telarian''' (''Telaro'') is a conlang spoken widely on the Moon in Curlyjimsam's Alternate Solar System. Despite having a grammar which has reached a length which its creator would formally have regarded as impossible, it can hardly be described as a well-done piece of work, and will almost certainly be subject to a major revision in a few years time. Telarian is currently unfinished: ''Es giĺin'' ('I am metal') is the only grammatically correct extract of the language currently available.
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:B-Noric</title>
    <id>1237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45984</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T14:01:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>dubbelredirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Knoschke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ithkuil</title>
    <id>1238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48208</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-08T00:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>linkfix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ithkuil''' (I&amp;#355;kuîl) is an extremely complicated [[constructed language|constructed human language]] created by American [[linguist]] [[John Quijada]] between 1978 and 2004.

In the author's description of Ithkuil: ''&quot;A Philosophical Design for a Hypothetical Language&quot;'', it appears as a cross between an [[a priori]] [[philosophical language]] and a [[logical language]]. The creator attempts to show how human languages could or may function. Ithkuil is designed to convey large amounts of linguistic information using fewer and shorter words than naturally-evolved languages; most sentences in other languages will be shorter when translated into Ithkuil.

==Language description==
*'''Lexicon''': The lexicon potentially consists of about 3,600 [[Root|word roots]] (of which only about a thousand are implemented so far), each consisting of 2 or 3 [[consonant]]s; any root may be changed by extremely complex rules of grammar that make it possible to create a large number of [[Derivation|derivative]]s.
*'''Phonology''': Ithkuil uses a complicated [[phonology|phonological]] system (65 [[consonant]]s and 17 [[vowel]s]) based on sounds from a variety of languages such as [[Chechen]] or [[Abkhaz]].  It may be very difficult for a speaker of a typical western Indo-European language to pronounce some of the sounds.
*'''Morphophonology''': Ithkuil is primarily [[synthetic language|synthetic]] and secondarily [[agglutinative]]. Ithkuil [[morphophonology]] utilizes both [[Consonant_mutation|consonantal]] and vocalic mutation, shifts in syllabic stress and tone, and many different kinds of [[affix]]es, including prefixes, suffixes, infixes and interfixes.

==Possible advantages==
The [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] states that the language that a person speaks may affect his way of thinking. Stanislav Kozlovsky speculates&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.computerra.ru/offline/2004/550/34762/]&lt;/sup&gt; that a fluent speaker of Ithkuil, accordingly, would think up to five times faster than a speaker of a typical natural language. One may also argue that, Ithkuil being an extremely precise, [[synthetic language|synthetic]] language, its speaker would also have a clearer and deeper understanding of the world.

There exists no human who can speak Ithkuil, including its creator: “I don't speak Ithkuil, never have, never will, never claimed to.” — said John Quijada &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?p=220511&amp;#220151]&lt;/sup&gt;.

After the publication of an article about Ithkuil in the Russian magazine ''Computerra''&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.computerra.ru/offline/2004/550/34762/]&lt;/sup&gt;, several Russian-speakers contacted Quijada and expressed interest in learning the language. Quijada recently stated &lt;sup&gt;[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0507b&amp;L=conlang&amp;D=0&amp;P=4360]&lt;/sup&gt; that he has &quot;worked out a complete revision of the language's morpho-phonology to reduce the number of phonemes from 82 to 62 in order to
make the language easier to pronounce (as requested by several people who claim they want to learn it)&quot;, but will not have time to revise the reference grammar website for some time to come.

== References ==
*[http://www.computerra.ru/offline/2004/550/34762/ «&amp;#1057;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;», &amp;#1057;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1081;] — (Russian) ''Speed of thought'' by Stanislav Kozlovsky, ''Computerra'', &amp;#8470;26-27, June 20, 200

==External link==

* [http://www.ithkuil.net/ithkuil-intro.htm Ithkuil grammar]

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senyecan Alphabets</title>
    <id>1239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:33:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bâzrâmani</title>
    <id>1240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43151</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-15T09:37:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Baazraamani]] moved to [[Bâzrâmani]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">= Bâzrâmani (or Bazramæni) =

{{last changed}}

Note that this Romano-Persian lang has undergone a name change. It used to be Râmâniyân, but is now '''Bâzrâmani''' &lt; VÓCEM RÓMÁNICAM.

== Phonemes ==
=== Consonants ===
{| cellspacing=28
| p
| t
| ch /tʃ/
| k
|-
| b
| d
| j /dʒ/
| g
|-
| f
| s
| sh /ʃ/
| kh /χ/
| h
|-
| v
| z
| zh /ʒ/
| gh /ɣ/
|-
| m
| n
| ny /ɲ/
|-
| || r
|-
| || l
|-
| || || y /j/
|}

=== Vowels ===
{| cellspacing=56
| i
| u
|-
| e
| o
|-
| a /æ/
| â /ɑ/
|}


== Bâzrâmani Grand Master Plan ==

=== Vowels ===
{| border=1 cellpadding=6
!Latin sounds 
! #_, C_C !! _C*{i,î} !! _C*{u,û} !! _#
|-
!a, â, au 
| /æ/ a || e || o || -e
|-
!e, ae 
| /(j)æ/ ((y)a) || (y)e || (y)o || Ø
|-
!o 
| /æ/ a || e || o || Ø
|-
!i 
| e || e || i || Ø
|-
!u 
| o || u || u || Ø
|-
!ê, î, oe 
| i || i || i || Ø
|-
!ô 
| /ɑ/ â || â || â || â 
|-
!û 
| u || u || u || Ø
|}

=== Consonants ===

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot;
! Latin sounds 
! #_ {{ref|geminates}} !! V_V !! _C !! _r/l !! #_r/l !! _#
|-
! k
| k || g || kh /χ/ || kh || kha || g
|-
! nc
| || ng|| || ng 
|-
! qu
| kh || kh
|-
! k /_{i,e}
| ch /tʃ/ || z || ch || ch || che
|-
! qu /_{i,e}
| k || g
|-
! nc /_{i,e}
| || nz || || nj 
|-
! sc /_{i,e}
| sh /ʃ/ || sh || sh ||sh || she
|-
! x (cs)
| sh || sh || sh || sh
|-
! g
| g || gh /ɣ/ || gh || gh || ga
|-
! g _{i,e}
| j /dʒ/ || z || j/z || j/z || je/ze
|-
! gn, mn, gm, nn
| ny /ɲ/ || ny
|-
! t
| t || d || s || s || ta || d
|-
! d
| d || y || z || z || da || y
|-
! n
| n || n || n || n || || Ø ||
|-
! nt
| || nd || || nd
|-
! s
| h || h || s || h || kha || h
|-
! p
| p || b || f || f || fa || (b)
|-
! b, v
| b || v || v || b/v || ba/va || v
|-
! m
| m || m || m || m || || Ø ||
|-
! mp
| || mb || || mb
|}


{{note|geminates}} [1] Geminate consonants are treated as if initial.

=== Special contexts ===

{| cellspacing=28
! liV, leV    
|     yV
|-
! tiV, teV    
|     sV
|-
! diV, deV    
|     zV
|-
! niV, neV, miV, meV      
|     nyV
|-
! riV, reV    
|     zhV /ʒ/
|-
! ll    
|     y
|-
! -cul-, -gul- 
| ly &gt; y

|-
! viC   
|     guC, e.g. '''vitium''' &gt; gus
|-
! -Cicum#     
|     Ci#
|-
!  -ellum 
| -oy &gt; ey
|-
! vo    
|     u
|-
! al,el,ol 
| u / _C e.g. '''altus''' &gt; ud.
|-
! ôl,ul,ûl 
| u / _C.
|-
! il,îl,êl 
| i / _C.
|}

As the last consonant in a cluster '''l'''  becomes /r/: '''Cl &gt; Cr''' e.g. '''clarus &gt; kharor'''.

Latin '''rd''' &gt; '''l''', e.g. '''ardore &gt; alar'''.

It will be seen that the consonant changes are essentially an outline of the changes between Old and Middle Persian with an occasional Old Iranian or Romance feature rearing its head. They are of course subject to future refinement.

The transcription '''zh''' for ''ry'' is actually somewhat inaccurate.  Lemontaigner as Râmani writers choose this transcription in order to more clearly distinguish ''ry'' '''ژ''' from ''ri'' '''ري''' in Arabic script.

== Morphology == 
=== Plurals of nouns ===
Bâzrâmani plurals continue the Latin accusative plurals. There has however been metathesis of the vowel and the final ''h'' &lt; {{sc|S}}. Thus we find:

{| cellspacing=28
! -âs
| -(e)hi (by analogy)
! fem'nae, rôtae, cistae
| famnhi, râdhi, chestehi
|-
! -ôs
| -(a)hâ
! caballôs, cattôs, diurnôs
| kaveyhâ, kotahâ, zornhâ
|-
! -ês
| -(e)hi
! ratiônês, fontês
| rasânhi, fantehi
|}

As in other Romance languages neuters have merged with the masculine, and the fourth declension has merged with the second,
thus {{SC|*genôs}} &gt; ''janhâ'' 'knees'.

Adjectives have become indeclinable, unless substantivized

=== Verb inflection ===

;amâre : amar
;amô : amâ
;amâs tû : amâst
;amat : amad
;amâmus : amomho, amomoh
;amâtis : amedhe, amedeh
;amant : amand


[[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Log/delete</title>
    <id>1241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4228</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-09T10:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>219.93.174.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Special:Log/delete]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ill Bethisad</title>
    <id>1242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32972</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-16T18:31:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elemtilas</username>
        <id>98</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ill Bethisad''' is a collaborative [[alternative history]] and [[alternative culture]] universe. Its history stretches back to the mid 1990s when Andrew Smith set out to devise a conlang that would plausibly answer the question &lt;i&gt;what would a modern British Romance language look and sound like?&lt;/i&gt; Akin to French, which is Vulgar Latin on a Gaulish substrate; he ended up with [[Brithenig]], Vulgar Latin on a Brythonic substrate. In short order, Brithenig was given some speakers and a country to be spoken in. In late 1997, several Interested Persons began discussing the language with Andrew. Within a few years, the language itself was largely settled and other people began to take an interest in the wider world. As of last count, some threesocre people have left their mark on this shared world.

While the project began as a conlanger's collaboration, and indeed the present iteration of the project is home of many conlangs, the languages themselves no longer play such a central role. Cultural and historical description is now the order of the day.

See [http://www.bethisad.com IB's homepage] for more!
----

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Slevan</title>
    <id>1243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18343</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-10T10:05:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted vandalism, user blocked 1 year.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">= Unresolved questions with the revision of Slevan =
(for the two Jans primarily)

I have been thinking of how best to map the Vulgar Latin and Common Slavic vowel systems to each other.  As Jan van Steenbergen pointed out to me it's quite unrealistic that VL ē maps to CS *ě and VL ĕ to CS *e; rather it should be the other way around with VL ĕ eventually becoming '''je''', or to state it abstractly vowel ''quality'' should be more important than vowel ''quantity'' in the mapping of VL to CS!

OTOH I do think it's realistic to have VL ō become '''u''' since in CS *u&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; developed from *ō which in turn developed from *au, and VL au in fact merged with ō, so that the product of this merger could have been qualitatively identified with CS *ō &lt; *au before this was raised to [u].

I'm now quite certain that ''unstressed'' VL ē and ō merge with ĭ and ŭ (*ь and *ъ) respectively -- ''except'' in absolute final position, since I need to &quot;preserve&quot; certain endings, notably the ablative singular of the second declension, the first person singular present indicative of verbs and the nom/acc plural of the third declension.

I've cheated with the liquid metathesis, having no qualitative change.  As JvS pointed out Mrác's ancestors should have been MORTIUS rather than MARTIUS!  Should I let myself get away with this?

----
''Consonants:'' I have decided that VL dj and gj become '''j''' à la Slovene since Slvanjec badly needs postvocalic '''j'''s.  So '''dz''' is out; MEDIUS becomes '''mjej''' and Mr. '''Hrodzán''' becomes '''Hroján'''; also MAGIS becomes '''maj''' by way of *MAGIUS. 

Last but not least I have cheated with the third palatalization and VL ct, assuming '''c, z''' in ''all'' contexts.  Actually I'm not too keen on changing this because I want more '''c'''s.
What do you think?  Is such an over-generalization permissible in a hybrid language? BPJ 10:37, 16 Jul 2005 (PDT)

== Jan I's comments ==

:''I have been thinking of how best to map the Vulgar Latin and Common Slavic vowel systems to each other.  As Jan van Steenbergen pointed out to me it's quite unrealistic that VL ē maps to CS *ě and VL ĕ to CS *e; rather it should be the other way around with VL ĕ eventually becoming '''je''', or to state it abstractly vowel ''quality'' should be more important than vowel ''quantity'' in the mapping of VL to CS!''

Indeed, the other way around would be more logical. However, in Wenedyk I finally decided to stick with what I already had: 
*VL '''ē''' and '''oe''' match with CS '''ě'''
*VL '''ĕ''' and '''ae''' match with CS '''e'''
I know it is against my own advise, and I seriously contemplated the change. But my ultimate conclusion was that it would change Wenedyk beyond recognisability. And frankly, also beyond my taste; strange enough almost every example I tried with the &quot;new&quot; system just felt plain wrong to my intuition. So I decided to keep the old system. And I'm happy with it. ;)

:''OTOH I do think it's realistic to have VL ō become '''u''' since in CS *u&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; developed from *ō which in turn developed from *au, and VL au in fact merged with ō, so that the product of this merger could have been qualitatively identified with CS *ō &lt; *au before this was raised to [u].''

I agree, that's totally realistic. Frankly, I can't see why there should by any tension between this and point 1. If anything, the fronted counterpart of this would be '''e''' &gt; '''i''', which frequently happens in Slezan.

:''I'm now quite certain that ''unstressed'' VL ē and ō merge with ĭ and ŭ (*ь and *ъ) respectively -- ''except'' in absolute final position, since I need to &quot;preserve&quot; certain endings, notably the ablative singular of the second declension, the first person singular present indicative of verbs and the nom/acc plural of the third declension.''

That's an interesting thought. I haven't thought about that. Can you come up with a few samples? I just might adopt this idea into Wenedyk (provided that I won't have to rewrite 1/3 of my entire lexicon).

:''I've cheated with the liquid metathesis, having no qualitative change.  As JvS pointed out Mrác's ancestors should have been MORTIUS rather than MARTIUS!  Should I let myself get away with this?''

Why not? Names tend to behave a little differently from &quot;normal&quot; vocabulary. Another thing is that often names are from much later date than the era of the Roman (even in romlangs). And finally, ''Mrác'' could have other sources in Latin as well: Mǐratius or whathaveyou.

:''Consonants: I have decided that VL dj and gj become '''j''' à la Slovene since Slvanjec badly needs postvocalic '''j'''s.  So '''dz''' is out; MEDIUS becomes '''mjej''' and Mr. '''Hrodzán''' becomes '''Hroján'''; also MAGIS becomes '''maj''' by way of *MAGIUS. ''

A very sensible choice! I didn't know it happens in Slovene as well, but I dó know that it is standard in (most?) Romance languages. In fact, I think it is a great improvement; according to my sources, ''dj'' and ''gj'' were already pronounced /j/ in the Vulgar Latin period (Italian forms like ''maggio'' IIRC seem to be later scientific reborrowings).
&lt;br&gt;And of course, you always have the option of turning ''dj'' into ''dz'' anyway in certain cases, which then can very simply be explained as an early scientific reborrowing!

:''Last but not least I have cheated with the third palatalization and VL ct, assuming '''c, z''' in ''all'' contexts. ''

Could you please tell me what the exceptions are? I just might to change that in Wenedyk, because frankly, I think I ended up with a little too much of ''c''!

:''Actually I'm not too keen on changing this because I want more '''c'''s. What do you think?  Is such an over-generalization permissible in a hybrid language? ''

IMO it is. It's your language after all. Especially because Slvanjec is based on Slovak far more loosely than Wenedyk is based on Polish, I think you have quite some freedom in setting some of your own rules when that helps the final result.

Cheers, [[User:IJzeren Jan|IJzeren Jan]] 14:43, 16 Jul 2005 (PDT)

==BPJ's comments on Jan I's comments==

=== On ē and ĕ ===

:''Indeed, the other way around would be more logical. However, in Wenedyk I finally decided to stick with what I already had:

:    * VL ē and oe match with CS ě
:    * VL ĕ and ae match with CS e'' 

I think leaving things as they are would also decrease the number of medial '''je'''s, which from my æsthetic POV would be a Good Thing, since there are '''dj lj nj tj''' all over the place already -- it's becoming a bit too parodic!

=== On ''e'' and ''o'' becoming jers ===

I'm not too sure about Ē and Ō becoming ĭ and ŭ if I don't change the reflexes of Ĕ and Ē.  I don't want to get jers all over the place and certainly not Ī and Ū coming up &quot;strong&quot; in the wrong places (where they wouldn't even be strong in Southern Romance) all over the place. BPJ 08:35, 17 Jul 2005 (PDT)

=== Slovene *dj &gt; j ===

It's actually only *dj which becomes ''j'' in Slovene, but letting DJ and GJ behave the same makes sense from a Romance POV.

Still I'm not totally convinced by your argument on Italian DJ: why would ''mezzo'' be a borrowing?, and at least NDJ becomes ''nz'' everywhere! Cf. Old French where even MJ and NJ often become /ndʒ/ e.g. SIMIA &gt; ''singe''.

=== Exceptions to third palatalization ===

Basically when an ''u'' or ''o'' vowel follows.  Strangely with following ''a'' the outcome is variable.  One book I read suggested that it may have to do with wether a preceding *i was from PIE *ī or *ei and that following ''u'' is the only sure exception, but Jan II and his wife (who is the family linguist) wouldn't agree! BPJ 15:01, 16 Jul 2005 (PDT)

==Jan I's comments on BPJ's comments on Jan I's comments==

:''I think leaving things as they are would also decrease the number of medial '''je'''s, which from my æsthetic POV would be a Good Thing, since there are '''dj lj nj tj''' all over the place already -- it's becoming a bit too parodic!''

Fully agreed. So that's settled then! :)

:''I'm not too sure about Ē and Ō becoming ĭ and ŭ if I don't change the reflexes of Ĕ and Ē.  I don't want to get jers all over the place and certainly not Ī and Ū coming up &quot;strong&quot; in the wrong places (where they wouldn't even be strong in Southern Romance) all over the place.''

Again, I agree. I've given it a little thought and finally decided against it. FWIW, in the development of Polish, stress didn't play a role at all.

:''Still I'm not totally convinced by your argument on Italian DJ: why would ''mezzo'' be a borrowing?, and at least NDJ becomes ''nz'' everywhere! Cf. Old French where even MJ and NJ often become /ndʒ/ e.g. SIMIA &gt; ''singe''.''

Yes, that's true. I must check my resources.

=== Exceptions to third palatalization ===

:''Basically when an ''u'' or ''o'' vowel follows.  Strangely with following ''a'' the outcome is variable.  One book I read suggested that it may have to do with wether a preceding *i was from PIE *ī or *ei and that following ''u'' is the only sure exception, but Jan II and his wife (who is the family linguist) wouldn't agree!''

I can't give any conclusive answer. From what I understood from Grzegorz Jagodziński's pages (if I recall correctly), third palatalisation happens very irregularly and most often doesn't take place at all. 
&lt;br&gt;But the way you formulated it, I got the impression that there are also exceptions to the KT &gt; TS rule. I that true?

Cheers, [[User:IJzeren Jan|IJzeren Jan]] 12:30, 18 Jul 2005 (PDT)

:Basically that same book as had strange ideas on the contexts of palatalization also had the idea that originally only *kti/*ktī becomes '''c''i'''''.
::The idea with the preceding monphthong/diphthong was of course meant to explain ''why'' 3d palatalization is irregular -- basically claiming that it is regular, but that it actually precedes monophthongization, and this influences its occurrence, to which the Havlišes objected. BPJ 13:41, 18 Jul 2005 (PDT)

== Jan II.'s comments ==

I am far from being competent to introduce your Slavo-romance discussion, but I can add some hints on history of Slavic lang:


'''On III. palatalisation:'''

It happens after '''i''', '''soft jer''' and '''e-nasal''' if the palatalised consonant is followed by vowel. If there is cluster '''V-C-hard jer''' (grěšnica X grěšnikU) or '''V-C-y''' (kUne.ndzI X kUne.gyni), the terminal '''hard jer''' or '''y''' prevented palatalisation of C, when V fulfils conditions for it. Quite often morphological “equilibration” has happened (nom. grěšnikU, gen. grěšnika). Quite often appeared doubletons (je.ga/je.dza). It should happen along with II. palatalisation, although there are not unified opinions on when in happened. It is also unclear when it begun. What is sure, it happened almost '''100 years after''' monophthongisation.


And here is the discussed topic, the Slavic glottochronology. The source 2 is newer and I found it more competent because of other issues. And for sure, source 2 knew source 1 and used it.

source 1 – G. Shevelov, The historical phonology of Common Slavic, 1964

source 2 – A. Lamprecht, The Common Slavic, 1987


{| border=1
! type of change
| source 1
| source 2
|-
! s &gt; ŝ (š, ch)
| before 400 EC
| before 400 EC
|-
! k’, g’ &gt; s, z
| before 400 EC
| before 400 EC
|-
! a, o &gt; å
| before 400 EC
| before 400 EC
|-
! I. palatalisation
| 400-500 EC
| 400-475 (±25) EC
|-
! monophtongisation
| 500-600 EC
| 510-585 (±15) EC
|-
! II. palatalisation
| 500-600 EC
| 575-650 (±25) EC
|-
! III. palatalisation
| 600-850 EC 
| 575-675 (±25) EC
|-
! palatalisation of alveolars
| N/A
| 675-750 (±25) EC
|-
! epenthetic l’
| N/A
| 710-785 EC
|-
! metathesis of liquids
| 700-850 EC
| 750-825 (±25) EC
|-
! appearance of nasals
| 600 EC
| 750-825 (±25) EC
|-
! appearance of jers
| 800 EC
| 800 EC
|-
! dispalat. ‘ě &gt; ‘a in Pol.
| N/A
| 850-925 EC
|-
! extinct. of nasals
| N/A
| 950-1025 EC
|-
! contraction VjV
| 900 EC
| 875-950 EC
|-
! vocalisation of jers
| 900-1150 EC
| 950-1025 EC
|}

===Benct's comments to Jan II's comments===

:''happens after '''i''', '''soft jer''' and '''e-nasal''' if the palatalised consonant is followed by vowel.''

Check. So far I got things right in Slvanjec.

:''terminal '''hard jer''' or '''y''' prevented palatalisation ''

Alas I wasn't aware of this restriction, hence the name of the lang is not '''Slvanjek ''' &lt; SILVÁNICUM, and because the name of the lang is quite well established I'm ''very'' reluctant to &quot;correct&quot; this.  Perhaps it will be permissible to over-apply 3. palatalization in a hybrid language, since having -ICUM become '''-jec''' rather than '''-jek''' gives a more distinct &quot;flavor&quot; to the language compared to other Romance languages!  

One possible reason might be that the Roman contingent in the original mix of peoples didn't grasp the restriction and over-generalized the palatalization, but alas that doesn't tally very well with the dating you give -- even though I'm suspicious of any absolute dating of pre-historic changes!  

Another possibility is that Vulgar Latin short U (hard jer) became a schwa-like sound earlier than what happened in true Slavic languages and so failed to block the 3. palatalization.  

In a way I ''would'' now have liked Slevan to agree better both with Wenedyk and the Slavic languages in this respect, but OTOH I feel a reversal of this feature to be too drastic at this point.  Also I don't want there to be too few instances of '''c''' and '''z''' in Slevan, and input to the 2. palatalization is already scarce as it is.  What do you (both) think? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] -- written at the library and hence no proper log-in or signing! :-(

::Why not to implement some &quot;morphological equilibrations&quot;? E.g. the genitive forms underwent the palatalisation and had affected the nominatives... thus it would be _slvanjec_ and not _slvanjek_ (I deduce, that NOM.SING had ending -ekU, but the genitive had vowel other than U or y). Or you may simply ignore this restriction (see, only one vowel _u_ in both forms '''u''' /ECSL/ &gt; '''U''' /CCSL/ or '''u:''' &gt; '''y''' stopped the III. palatalisation). [[User:Jan II.|Jan II.]]

:::There was analogical leveling out between the second and fourth declension, so that at some point the gen.sg. of all words from the 2. declension became '''-y''', e.g.   '''slváncy'''; otherwise it would be **'''slvánczi'''. Also the -ICU ending does not become -ekU, but the '''je''' is from a strong soft jer.  I looks like I will simply ignore this restriction, but I still would like an explanation for doing so. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 09:26, 19 Aug 2005 (PDT)

=== Jan I's comments on Jan II's comments and on Benct's comments to Jan II's comments ===

First of all, thanks for the interesting scheme you provided, Jan. If I may ask: which of the two columns has your own preference? And where do prof. Večerka's opinions fit?

Regarding third palatalisation: like I said before, I don't use it very often in Wenedyk. Grzegorz Jagodziński's pages were not clear about the circumstances under which it occurs, and therefore I mostly adopted the notion that it happens &quot;irregularly&quot;. In other words, I use it when it fits my taste. Jan II's input might cause some changes, though: I didn't know all that either, but it makes sense.

All in all, I think the principle of &quot;analogical levelling&quot; gives us plenty of space to follow our own tastes. Indeed, both Wenedyk and Slezan use something based on '''Slьvanьkъ''', fem. '''Slьvanьka'''. That might have spawned something like '''*slvanjek, *slvanjca''', which then became '''Ślewanik''', '''Ślewańka''' in Wenedyk and '''Slvanjec''', '''Slvanjca''' in Slevan. 

Of course, there '''is''' a remote possibility of having the whole pair. Say, '''slvanjek''' for the adjective, and '''slvanjec''' for the language (from '''LINGUA SILVANICA &gt; *lęgva sьlvanьka &gt; ljadzva slvanjca'''). 

Since I recently got into contact with Grzegorz himself, I might as well ask him personally what he thinks about 3rd palatalisation. 

--[[User:IJzeren Jan|IJzeren Jan]] 06:25, 20 Aug 2005 (PDT)

====Benct's comments on Jan I's comments on...====

Of course it is not the 3. palatalization that applies irregularly, but analogical levelling that happens irregularly!

It is a very good idea that analogy in Slevan may have started from the feminine.  I didn't think of that! Alas the name of the language can hardly be derived from '''LINGUA SILVANICA''': that would be adjectival use while language ''names'' in Latin are normally neuter; that's why you have '''Latinum, Italiano, Español, Français''', not '''Latina, Italiana, Española, Française'''.  BTW the current form of the feminine is '''Slvánca''' -- one of the changes between version 3 and 3.5. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 13:07, 20 Aug 2005 (PDT)

==== Jan II's comments on Jan I's comments on Jan II's comments and on Benct's comments to Jan II's comments ====

''First of all, thanks for the interesting scheme you provided, Jan. If I may ask: which of the two columns has your own preference? And where do prof. Večerka's opinions fit?''

As I said, the second column has my definite preferences. Our old Slavistic/Indoeuropeistic gang in Brno (Večerka-Lamprecht-Blažek) seems to be quite reliable. They included lots of new findings, which made their work quite rigorous. The is already a new generation (Rejzek-Palasová), with them I am in contact (although it looks they are not happy with any slaviconlanging). I have also ordered within amazon.co.uk a book about Slavic glottochronology by Alexander M. Schenker, but amazon is VERY slow in obtaining the copy for me.

Problems with III. palatalisation might be that different Slavic langs treated differently the new forms, as mentioned above. [[User:Jan II.|Jan II.]]

==== Input from Grzegorz Jagodziński ====

I asked Grzegorz Jagodziński (whose pages about Polish sound changes were a major inspiration to me in the creation of Wenedyk) about his opinion. He tried to edit this page himself, but was blocked for some reason. After that, he sent me a long mail instead. For now, I'll reproduce the Polish text below (sorry Bengan, but I though that's better than nothing); tomorrow, I hope to translate it into English. --[[User:IJzeren Jan|IJzeren Jan]] 13:11, 22 Aug 2005 (PDT)


&lt;FONT color=#008000&gt;'''On III. palatalisation'''&lt;BR/&gt;It happens after '''i''', '''soft jer''' and '''e-nasal''' if the palatalised consonant is followed by vowel.&lt;/FONT&gt;

&lt;FONT face=&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot; size=2&gt;According to the handbooks it also happens after syllabic ''ŕ̥'' (''&amp;lt; ьr &amp;lt; ir''). I know only two examples from OCS (Old Church Slavonic): ''mŕ̥cati'' 'to grow dusk' and ''rastŕ̥zati'' (''rastŕ̥ʒati'') 'to tear up'. Equivalents in other Slavic languages (including Polish) don't have palatalisation (Old Polish ''mierzkać'', now ''zmierzchać się'' with irregular ''ch'' instead of ''k''). Perhaps this is due to the fact that in West Slavic sonants appeared later, while in East Slavic they never appeared at all. After all, palatalisation ought not to take place after the group ''-ьr-''; and it didn't.

Not surprisingly, there were also differences between dialects: even the 2nd palatalisation didn't take place identically in all Slavic languages: ''*kwaita- &amp;gt; *květъ || *cvětъ'' (Polish ''kwiat'', but Russian ''cvet''). Besides, forms like ''kěna'' instead of Common Slavic ''cěna'' are known in the neighbourhood of Novgorod. So, perhaps there were dialects that did not undergo 2nd palatalisation at all.&lt;/FONT&gt;


&lt;FONT color=#008000&gt;If there is cluster '''V-C-hard jer''' (grěšnica X grěšnikU) or '''V-C-y''' (kUne.ndzI X kUne.gyni), the terminal '''hard jer''' or '''y''' prevented palatalisation of C, when V fulfils conditions for it. Quite often morphological “equilibration” has happened (nom. grěšnikU, gen. grěšnika). Quite often appeared doubletons (je.ga/je.dza).&lt;/FONT&gt;

&lt;FONT face=&quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot; size=2&gt;If 3rd palatalisation was indeed prevented by ''y'' or ''ъ'', we would have expected it when followed by another vowel. But ''-ika'' and ''-ica'' occur almost equally often! Likewise, we can equally often encounter -''ьca'' and ''-ьka, ''-''ьce'' and ''-ьko'', etc. For example: ''*polьʒa'' 'use' (OCS), but ''*ulьga'' 'relief' (Polish, with a different prefix); Old Polish has simultaneously ''jajce'' and ''jajko'' 'egg', ''miejsce'' and ''miastko'' ('place'; &amp;lt; ''*městьce'' || ''*městьko''), etc.

In my opinion one needs to look for: 1) morphological conditions (as assumed already by Jan Otrębski, who died in 1971), 2) dialectal differences. Here are a few examples:
* ''*děvica'', but ''*děvьka'' (OCS ''děvica'' 'virgin, girl', Pol. ''dziewica'' 'virgin', ''dziewka'' 'girl' (a little oldfashioned) - note that neither ''*děvikъ'' nor ''*děvьkъ'' exists,
* ''*žitnica'' 'stodoła' (OCS, ''żytnica'' was known even in Old Polish, I think), but (OCS) ''bližika'' 'close relative', ''ǫžika'' 'id. (relative)' - one can see that ''-ica'' is an impersonal noun and ''-ika'' a personal noun; however, we also have ''*děvica'' (personal!),
* OCS has ''naricaty'' 'to be called', ''dviʒati'' 'to move', Polish has only ''narzekać'' (with an entirely different meaning), ''dźwigać'',
* the hard jer didn't prevent palatalisation at all: ''*otьcь'' 'father', ''*zajęcь'' 'hare', ''*měsęcь'' 'month, moon', ''*pěnęʒь'' 'coin' (borrowed from Germanic), ''*kъnęʒь'' 'prince', ''*vьśь'' 'whole, entire' - all these words are derived from forms with hard stems: ''*otьkъ, *zajękъ, *měsękъ, *pěnęgъ, *kъnęgъ, *vьxъ'' - and none of these forms was preserved in any of the Slavic languages.
As you can see, it cannot be said that -''ъ'' stops 3nd palatalisation automatically. Of course, we almost exclusively have forms on -''ikъ'', and if the word in question is a male person , then the female equivalent is -''ika'', not ''-ica''. This is of course mainly a matter of equalising the forms of both genders. However, when the masculine form has a different meaning than the feminine form, or when only one of these forms exists, then this equalisating does not take place (compare Polish ''kierownik'' 'boss, chief' (person) with ''kierownica'' 'steering wheel' - the female person is ''kierowniczka'').

As for palatalisation being prevented by -y, things get more complicated. There are preciously little formants that start with ''-y-''. Above all, we have the formant ''-y'', gen. ''-ъve'' (f.ex.: ''*kry, *krъve'') or ''-ene'' (f.ex. ''*kamy, *kamene''), as well as the formant ''-yni''. Little nouns of this type existed in Common Slavic, and their inflection was complicated and not very transparant. Therefore a tendency existed to preserve the forms without 3rd palatalisation. However, things are more complicated than that. In Polish we have for example the masculine nouns ''obrońca, władca'' 'defender' resp. 'ruler' with their female equivalents ''obrończyni, władczyni''. It is hard to tell whether these forms are Common Slavic - the Polish forms would suggest a rivalling affix ''-ini'' (and 1st palatalisation): ''*obornьca, *voldьca : *obornьčini, *voldьčini &amp;lt; *-ikā : *-ikīnī''.

Obviously ''-y'' does not prevent palatalisation when it constitutes an ending: instr.pl. ''*vĺ̥ky'' 'wolves', ale ''*otьci'' 'fathers'. When necessary OCS adds the endings of the soft declension like in the acc.pl. ''*otьcę'' (according to *''mǫžę''), but ''*vĺ̥ky''. This also testifies that the choice between palatalised and non-palatalised forms is conditioned morphologically rather than phonetically.

As for these dialectal differences: forms with 3rd palatalisation occur in Old Church Slavonic more frequently than in Polish, where either the process was weaker or the effect of analogy was stronger. Polish remained unwritten for a longer time, and as long as there was no literary tradition, it was easier to replace forms with 3rd palatalisation by equalised forms without palatalisation.&lt;/FONT&gt;


&lt;FONT color=#008000&gt;It should happen along with II. palatalisation, although there are not unified opinions on when in happened. It is also unclear when it begun. What is sure, it happened almost '''100 years after''' monophthongisation. &lt;/FONT&gt;

&lt;FONT face=Arial size=2&gt;It is generally assumed that the 3rd palatalisation took place later than the 2nd, in the period when Common Slavic unity was falling apart, because the phenonemon is less universal. Besides, theorically it ought to take place also after ''-e-, -ě-'', but as far as I know, there is not a single example of that.&lt;/FONT&gt;


&lt;FONT color=#008000&gt;And here is the discussed topic, the Slavic glottochronology. The source 2 is newer and I found it more competent because of other issues. And for sure, source 2 knew source 1 and used it.

source 1 – G. Shevelov, The historical phonology of Common Slavic, 1964&lt;br&gt;
source 2 – A. Lamprecht, The Common Slavic, 1987 
&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;DIV&gt;
&lt;TABLE border=1&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;type of change &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;source 1 &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;source 2 &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;s &amp;gt; ŝ (š, ch) &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;k’, g’ &amp;gt; s, z &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;a, o &amp;gt; å &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;before 400 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;I. palatalisation &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;400-500 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;400-475 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;monophtongisation &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;500-600 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;510-585 (±15) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;II. palatalisation &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;500-600 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;575-650 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;III. palatalisation &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;600-850 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;575-675 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;palatalisation of alveolars &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;N/A &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;675-750 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;epenthetic l’ &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;N/A &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;710-785 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;metathesis of liquids &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;700-850 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;750-825 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;appearance of nasals &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;600 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;750-825 (±25) EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;appearance of jers &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;800 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;800 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;dispalat. ‘ě &amp;gt; ‘a in Pol. &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;N/A &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;850-925 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;extinct. of nasals &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;N/A &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;950-1025 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;contraction VjV &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;900 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;875-950 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;vocalisation of jers &lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;900-1150 EC &lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;950-1025 EC &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TABLE&gt;&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/FONT&gt;

&lt;FONT face=Arial size=2&gt;The opinions differ strongly here. Czesław Bartula (''Podstawowe wiadomości z gramatyki staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiej na tle porównawczym'', PWN Warszawa 1981) gives:
* 1st palatalisation: beginning of our era (1 A.D.) - turn of the 2nd/3rd century (200 A.D.)
* 2nd palatalisation: 4th - 6th century
* 3rd palatalisation: end of 7th century
Zdzisław Stieber (''Zarys gramatyki porównawczej języków słowiańskich'', Warszawa 1969) gives a different chronology:
* 1st palatalisation: 3rd and 4th century
* 2nd palatalisation: &quot;after the 6th century&quot;, i.e. the 7th of 8th century
* 3rd palatalisation: beginning of the 8th century

The confusion of PIE ''a, o &amp;gt; a'' is generally considered a very old phenomenon, dating back to the Proto-Indo-European era. After all, the vowels ''a'' and ''o'' kept their distinctness only in the Italic and Celtic languages as well as in Greek; everywhere else they got confused (even in Anatolian and in Tocharian). One should of course add PIE schwa here (with the exception of syllables near the end of a word, where it usually disappeared). Also, there is no reason at all to reconstruct ''å'' in the old days: even in the period of Slavic expansion it was most certainly pronounced as a short ''a''! Personally I believe that the rounding of Slavic ''a &amp;gt; o'' is a phenomenon dating back to the years 700-800, shortly before the appearance of the oldest written sources in Slavic. 

In any case, 1st palatalisation was already dead when the Slavs got in touch with the Goths. Indeed, at the moment I can think of only one example of a Germanic loan that underwent 1st palatalisation: ''*šelmъ'' (Old Polish ''szłom'', nowadays only ''hełm'' 'helmet', from Germanic ''*xelmaz''). Otherwise, words of Gothic descent only have 2nd palatalisation: ''ocьtъ'' 'vinegar' from Gothic ''aket'', ''*cęta'' from Gothic ''kintus'' 'name of a small coin'. 1st palatalisation was most certainly already dead by the time of Slavic expansion, which could have started a little before the year 500 A.D. In any case, when the ancestors of the Slovenians reached the territories where they live nowadays, they borrowed the name of the river ''Gīla'' as ''Zilja''.

Also, I don't understand why Lamprecht dates the appearance of nasals so late. As it seems, at least the appearance of ''ę'' must have preceded 3rd palatalisation: after all, it's easier to imagine the process ''-ęk- &amp;gt; -ęc-'' niż ''-enk- &amp;gt; -enc-''. The disappearance of nasals happens of course not in all Slavic languages: even nowadays nasals exist in Polish, and also in certain Slovenian dialects (hardly known to anybody). 

Finally, the contraction VjV was an irregular process, conditioned by usage frequency or by morphological factors. Even nowadays we have Russian ''stojat''' = Polish ''stać''. And even in Polish we have, next to the infinitives ''wiać, stać, bać się'', the uncontracted forms ''wieje, stoję, boję się''. Numerous other forms did not undergo contraction at all: ''kajać się, krajać'', even though contraction of ''-aja-'' seems easier than contraction of ''-oja-'' (''*stojati, *bojati sę'') or ''-ěja-''.

At last, the &quot;vocalisation of jers&quot; is a very imprecise concept. First of all, it didn't follow the same pattern in the various languages: in Russian and Polish the strong jers (on the even positions counting from the end of a word) mixed with other vowels. But in Bulgarian the hard jer kept its own, different pronunciation. In Polabian, on the other hand, jers in the first syllable were preserved as vowels with a particular colour. In some cases initial jers were kept in the East Slavic languages. In Kashubian and in the Sorbian languages there is the principle, that in words with more than two syllables the two final jers are weak. Thus, the changes of the jers happened differently (and in different times) in the various Slavic languages, and they don't have much in common with the Common Slavic era.

Similar remarks can be made about &quot;metathesis&quot; of liquids, which in East Slavic was no metathesis at all (but the insertion of a full vowel instead). We know that something similar happened also in Old Polish, namely f.ex. ''*-or- &amp;gt; *-ъro-'', and not immediately ''-ro-'' as it was once assumed. OCS kept a number of unmetathesised forms (albeit ''alkati''). Likewise ''-ar-'' is the norm in Kashubian, and certain words were kept in Polish until recently (''karw'', now entirely out of use and supplanted by ''wół'' 'ox' and ''byk'' 'bull').&lt;/FONT&gt;

==== Jan II.'s comments on Input from Grzegorz Jagodziński ====

My Polish is nothing special, but I already see there few issues:

1) Polish did not preserve old Slavic nasals, but they appeared ''de novo'' in similar or same position. That is what you can read in any historical glottochronology of Slavic, AFAIK.

2) Pleophony (polnoglasie) also went through metathesis of liquids, but went further (better, different way), according to my knowledge.

Definitelly, I need to read it in English :p and with Shevelov and Lamprecht by the hand ;) Anyway, if Slavists agree on anything one day, that would be a reason for a big festivity with flags, brass band and gallons of mead :)))) Jan II.

==== And comments from Grzegorz Jagodziński himself ====

My cordial greeting to everyone here,

1) Polish DID preserve old Slavic nasals. I do not know what literature you have studied but you (and the authors of the books) are simply wrong. However, there are two things everybody should know if he wants to tell people things on Polish nasals.
a) There were 2 nasal vowels in Common Slavic (or, Late Proto-Slavic), that is nasal ''e'' and nasal ''o'' (there are views according to which there were 4 nasals initially, those two plus nasal ''i'' and nasal ''u'' but it is nowhere attested). At the very end of Proto-Slavic language community there were 4 nasals again, as the two vowels both had two variants - a short one and a long one (it was connected with Slavic intonation) [anyway, it was so in the Western and Southern branches]. In prehistoric Polish (prehistoric means before any written documents were written) the nasals merged, preserving their length. So, in the Middle Age we had two nasals: a short one and a long one. Notice that they had never lost their nasality up to those time and the view that they appeared &quot;de novo&quot; is exotic. In the beginning of the Modern Age all pairs of short and long vowels differentiated in their pronunciation place or / and level while the length became the same for all vowels. Some of the differences have survived until the modern language: ''ó'' (earlier long ''o'') is pronounced just like ''u'' now, and the previous long nasal is ''ą'' (&quot;nasal ''o''&quot; - the spelling is confusive) while the previous short nasal is ''ę'' (&quot;nasal ''e''&quot;).
b) To tell the truth, in modern Polish, no nasal vowels exist at all (contrary to French for example). Instead, groups of a slightly nasalized vowel and a consonant are pronounced. For example, ''trąba'' reads [tromba], and ''kąta'' (gen.sg. of ''kąt'' 'corner') and ''konta'' (nom.pl. of ''konto'' 'account') are pronounced the same. Before a spirant (mainly s, z) and word-finally a nasal diphthong is pronounced, the second part of which is a kind of nasal [w] or a kind of fricative [&amp;#331;] (nga).
c) Despite the point b, it is commonly said that Polish is the only Slavic language which has never lost nasals. It is so because nasals became oral vowels in all the other Slavic languages (except some Slovene dialects, to be exact, but not in the literary Slovene). Even if old Slavic nasal vowels are not nasal vowels any longer in Polish, they are still nasal.

2) The hypothesis about polnoglasie is also wrong. The argument is the development of Polish prepositions. As you surely know, a yer was in a weak position when the next syllable contained a &quot;full&quot; vowel, a strong yer, or if the yer was a final vowel (a vowel in a final syllable). And a yer was strong before a syllable with a weak yer. Some Polish propositions have two variants, one of them were used before a word with a weak yer in the initial syllable, and the other were used elsewhere. It is because the composoition of a preposition and a noun developed as a single word. For example ''we/w, ze/z, pode/pod'' etc. Compare ''pode mną'' &lt; ''pod&amp;#1098; m&amp;#1100;noj&amp;#491;'' 'under me' and ''pod tobą'' &lt; ''pod&amp;#1098; toboj&amp;#491;'' 'under you'. In modern Polish analogical development and tendency to eliminate the ''-e'' variants blurred the picture but in Middle Aged Polish we can see clearly what I said. And, if there was a metathesis in the first syllable, the preposition is always in the strong version. If there is a consonant cluster but no yer and no metathesis, the preposition is in the weak version, so the test is correct. Example: ''*(j&amp;#1100;)z&amp;#1098; korljestva &gt; *(j&amp;#1100;)z&amp;#1098; k&amp;#1098;roljestva &gt; ze krolestwa'' (today '' z królestwa'').

Please forget any Western literature on Slavic, it is useless most often, especially if you do not know any of the native Slavic literature. It is very pitiful but sometimes the Western authors do not even know any Slavic language. And, as a rule, they heve not even read one book written in a Slavic language. Contrary, the literature on Slavic in Slavic languages is abundant. If you are really interested in Polish historical grammar, you really should start from ''Gramatyka historyczna języka polskiego'' by Z. Klemensiewicz, T. Lehr-Spławiński and S. Urbańczyk, edited many times by PWN (I have the 4th edition from 1981). It is the absolutely basic source of knowledge. Of course it IS in Polish and no one could do anything with this. If you are interested in a (existing) language X, you really must learn it, next you should acknowledge yourself with the literature written in this language. And only then compare your knowledge with the stuff written by Western writers.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>New AngloSaxon Spelling</title>
    <id>1244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46069</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-15T14:43:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Abandoned|username=Melroch|realname=BPJ|date=2007,&lt;br&gt;because it got too messy and I could go on fiddling with it forever without being satisfied.  I'd now prefer a system with only diacritics and '''þ''' like '''ċurċ, ṡip, ġuġ, róṣṣ, meṩr, yard(!), strut(!), kút, ċẙs''', since it is my contention that diacritics are more readable than new letters.  But how distinguish {{SC|mouth}} and {{SC|foot/goose}}? '''mẘþ, fůt''' or '''můþ, fo̊t'''; which is worse indeed!?}}

----

__TOC__
==Vowels==
{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot;
|Letter || Value || Example || TO || IPA || Name
|-
|'''i''' || {{IPA|ɪ}} || '''kit''' ||  || {{IPA|kɪt}} || {{IPA|ɪt}}
|-
|'''e''' || {{IPA|ɛ}} || '''dres''' || ''dress'' || {{IPA|drɛs}} || {{IPA|ɛt}}
|-
|'''a''' || {{IPA|æ}} || '''trap''' ||  || {{IPA|træp}} || {{IPA|æt}}
|-
|'''o''' || {{IPA|ɒ}} || '''lot''' ||  || {{IPA|lɒt/lɑt}} || {{IPA|ɒt/ɑt}}
|-
|'''y''' || {{IPA|ʌ}} || '''stryt''' || ''strut'' || {{IPA|strʌt}} || {{IPA|ʌt}}
|-
|'''u''' || {{IPA|ʊ}} || '''fut''' || ''foot'' || {{IPA|fʊt}} || {{IPA|ʊt}}
|-
|'''é''' || {{IPA|iː}} || '''flés''' || ''fleece'' || {{IPA|fliːs}} || {{IPA|iː}}
|-
|'''á''' || {{IPA|eɪ}} || '''fás''' || ''face'' || {{IPA|feɪs}} || {{IPA|eɪ}}
|-
|'''í''' || {{IPA|aɪ}} || '''prís''' || ''price'' || {{IPA|praɪs}} || {{IPA|aɪ}}
|-
|'''œ''' || {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || '''cœs''' || ''choice'' || {{IPA|tʃɔɪs}} || {{IPA|ɔɪ}}
|-
|'''ů (u)''' || {{IPA|uː}} || '''gůs''' || ''goose'' || {{IPA|ɡuːs}} || {{IPA|uː}}
|-
|'''ó''' || {{IPA|əʊ/oʊ}} || '''gót''' || ''goat'' || {{IPA|ɡəʊt/ɡoʊt}} || {{IPA|əʊ/oʊ}}
|-
|'''ú''' || {{IPA|aʊ}} || '''múþ''' || ''mouth'' || {{IPA|maʊθ}} || {{IPA|aʊ}}
|-
|'''ý''' || {{IPA|juː}} || '''kýt''' || ''cute'' || {{IPA|kjuːt}} || {{IPA|juː}}
|-
|'''ér''' || {{IPA|ɪə/ɪɹ}} || '''nér''' || ''near'' || {{IPA|nɪə/nɪɹ}} || 
|-
|'''ár''' || {{IPA|ɛə/ɛː/ɛɹ}} || '''skwár/squár''' || ''square'' || {{IPA|skwɛə/skwɛː/skwɛɹ}} || 
|-
|'''ór''' || {{IPA|oː/oɹ}} || '''fórs''' || ''force'' || {{IPA|foːs/foɹs}} || 
|-
|'''ýr''' || {{IPA|jʊə/jʊɹ}} || '''kýr''' || ''cure'' || {{IPA|kjʊə/kjʊɹ}} || 
|-
|'''ar''' || {{IPA|ɑː/ɑɹ}} || '''start''' || ''start'' || {{IPA|stɑːt/stɑɹt}} || 
|-
|'''or''' || {{IPA|ɔː/ɔɹ}} || '''norþ''' || ''north'' || {{IPA|nɔːθ/nɔɹθ}} || 
|-
|'''ur''' || {{IPA|ʊə/ʊɹ}} || '''pur''' || ''poor'' || {{IPA|pʊə/pʊɹ}} || 
|-
|'''yr''' || {{IPA|ɜː/ɜɹ}} || '''nyrs''' || ''nurse'' || {{IPA|nɜːs/nɜɹs}} || 
|-
|'''å''' || {{IPA|ɔː}} || '''þåt''' || ''thought'' || {{IPA|θɔːt}} || {{IPA|ɔːs}}
|-
|'''(a)''' || {{IPA|ɑː}} || '''faþer''' || ''father'' || {{IPA|fɑːðə/fɑːðɹ}} || {{IPA|ɑːk}}
|}

==Consonants==

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid&quot;
|Letter || Value || Example || TO || Name
|-
| '''C c''' || {{IPA|tʃ}} || '''cyrc''' || ''church'' || {{IPA|tʃiː}}
|-
| '''Ç ç (S s)'''{{ref|cee}} ||  {{IPA|s}} || '''çíkl, ráç''' || ''cycle, race'' || {{IPA|siː}}
|-
| '''Ʒ ʒ'''{{ref|jay}} || {{IPA|dʒ}} || '''ʒyʒ''' || ''judge'' || {{IPA|dʒiː}}
|-
| '''J j''' || {{IPA|j}} || '''jard''' || ''yard'' || {{IPA|jeɪ}}
|-
| '''{{Esh}} ʃ'''{{ref|esh}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || '''ʃip, fiʃ, {{Esh}}å''' || ''ship, fish, Shaw'' || {{IPA|ɪʃ}}
|-
| '''Ƨ ƨ/Z z'''{{ref|zed}} || {{IPA|z}} || '''róƨeƨ, zéró''' || ''roses, zero'' || '''Ƨƨ''' {{IPA|[ziː]}}, '''Zz''' {{IPA|[zɛd]}}
|-
| '''Þ þ''' || {{IPA||θ, ð}} || '''þéƨ klóþƨ''' || ''these clothes'' || {{IPA||θɔɹn}}
|}}

:{{note|cee}} '''Çç''' is used only for etymological ''c'' in foreign words, else '''Ss''' is used: '''sé''' ''see'', '''mís''' ''mice''.
:{{note|jay}} Where {{IPA|/dʒ/}} represents etymologic ''j'' a dotted '''ʒ̇''' may be used.
:{{note|esh}} NB '''{{Esh}}''' is only a place-holder until Unicode includes a capital ʃ looking like {{Esh}}, since the sigma-like symbol feels quite wrong. U+A784 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER INSULAR S '''Ꞅ''' can also be used if available, but U+A785 LATIN SMALL LETTER INSULAR S '''ꞅ''' looks too much like an '''r''' in most fonts.
:{{note|zed}} '''Zz''' is used only in foreign words. '''Ƨƨ''' is used in both native and foreign words for etymologic ''s''.

The sound {{IPA|/ʒ/}} is spelled differently depending on etymology: '''Áƨja''' ''Asia'', '''mèƨýr''' ''measure'', '''azýr''' ''azure'', '''Ƹƹ''': '''garàƹ'''.

(Perhaps '''Zz''' should be used for all instances of {{IPA|/z/}} and '''Ƹƹ''' for all instances of {{IPA|/ʒ/}}?)

The plural ''and'' possessive ending is always spelled ''' 'ƨ''' ('''bœ'ƨ''' ''boy's, boys, boys'&amp;zwnj;''), and the past tense ending is always spelled ''' 'd''' ('''kep'd, skor's, fád'd''').

== The Ʒ ʒ character ==

The preferred shape of the letter '''{{IPA|Ʒ ʒ}}''' is '''''not''''' like the IPA ''ezh'', but like the [[Wikipedia:Insular G|Insular ''G'']], &lt;big&gt;'''{{IPA|ᵹ}}'''&lt;/big&gt; (\u1D79), the capital version of which however is not adopted in Unicode yet.  I use '''{{IPA|Ʒ ʒ}}''' (''ezh'') provisionally  since the capital version of Insular ''G'' is not adopted in Unicode yet, and the small letter also is missing from most Unicode fonts.  The preferred shape is shown in this image:

[[Image:Nasdzh.gif]]

It should be noted that in NAS this letter denotes the phoneme {{IPA|/dʒ/}} and not the phoneme {{IPA|/ʒ/}} which is written as if it were {{IPA|/zj/}} or with '''Ƹƹ'''.

== The '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' character ==

In place of '''SC sc''' one may use the '''ʃ''' character with its IPA value.  Note that it should have a descender, unlike the Latin letter Long s '''ſ''', in order to be maximally distinct from '''f'''.  The preferred capital form is {{Esh}}, like a J turned 180 degrees or an Armenian Ր, in order to distinguish it from the lower-case form, and from  capital '''S'''.  Since this capital form is unavailable in standard fonts the forms '''{{MUFI|}}''' (the Insular capital '''S''') or '''{{IPA|Ʃ}}''' (the 'African' capital '''{{IPA|ʃ}}'''&amp;nbsp;) may be used, though care should be taken to distinguish '''{{MUFI|}}''' from '''{{MUFI|}}/{{IPA|Ʒ}}'''.

== Alternative graphies ==

Letters with acute diacritics may be replaced with digraphs as follows '''á &gt; aa, é &gt; ee, í &gt; ij, ó &gt; eo, ú &gt; ou, ý &gt; yy, œ &gt; oe, {{IPA|ů}} &gt; uo, å &gt; oa'''.

'''Þ, þ''' may be replaced with '''Th th''', '''{{Esh}} ʃ''' may be replaced with '''Sh sh''' or '''Sj sj''' and '''{{IPA|Ʒ ʒ}}''' may be replaced with '''Cg cg''' or '''Gj gj'''.

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 02:04, 25 February 2006 (PST)
[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 05:14, 3 August 2006 (PDT)

== Alternative vowel glyphs  — NASS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ==

[[Image:NASS2.svg|thumb|200px|center|Due to font problems the alternative vowel glyphs have to be shown as an image]]
=== The ɑ a {{ei}} glyphs ===
My preference would be to use '''{{big|ɑ}}ɑ''' for {{sc|trap}} and {{sc|father}} but ordinary '''{{big|A, a}}''' for {{sc|face}} (with '''''&lt;span class=big&gt;{{EI}}, {{ei}}&lt;/span&gt;''''' as cursive form). In the meantime '''{{big|ɑ}}ɑ''' {{big|A, a}} as free variants for {{sc|trap}} and {{sc|father}} and &lt;span class=big&gt;{{EI}}, {{ei}}&lt;/span&gt; for {{sc|face}} is preferable, since even unligatured ƐƖ ɛɩ is preferable to losing the distinction! Thus although I'd prefer example (1) below (2) is clearer.

[[Image:Nass2examples.svg|thumb|700px|center|Due to font problems the examples must be shown as an image]]

It's all a service to the Anglo ''terror diacriticorum'' anyway: if nearly all other languages uses diacritics, then why not English?

Last changed by [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 06:26, 2 August 2006 (PDT)

== A forerunner ==

None less than [[wp:Alexander Melville bell|Alexander Melville bell]] has been down the same road as I with his [http://www.archive.org/details/worldenglishuniv00bell World English Spelling]].  But why on Earth not '''ī''' for {{IPA|[aɪ]}} when he otherwise used the macron for the 'long' values? Funny how his [ʍ] is as close as can be to my [ju] '''ꝡ'''! [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 13:50, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

[[Category:Conscripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:IJzeren Jan</title>
    <id>1245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22366</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:21:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IBWiki:User:IJzeren Jan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Teamouse</title>
    <id>1246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4600</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-03T01:19:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Herman Miller'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| HERE IS PLACE FOR A PICTURE, MAYBE A PICTURE OF ME! :)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| Nov. 22, 1964; Lansing, Michigan, USA
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Software Engineer
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| English
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| Minza, Tirelat, Jarda, etc.
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| Esperanto
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Music, reading, video games
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| MORE INFORMATION
|}

This page is intended to contain information about the world of [[Azir]] and the languages spoken by the non-human inhabitants of Azir, in particular the [[Zireen]]. As a first step, I intend to document the basics of the Zireen language [[Yasaro]]. Pages describing [[Zireen music]] and other aspects of Zireen culture will also be included here. More to come....

* [[Azirian numbers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Yasaro</title>
    <id>1247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29255</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T11:14:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Yasaro (''níñsi jasǎro'') is one of around 70,000 [[Zireen]] languages spoken on the planet Rishai. This is a brief introduction to the language, which will eventually grow to include more aspects of phonology, grammar, and vocabulary.

Consonants:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| p
| th [t̪]
| t
| 
| č [tʃ]
| k
|-
| m
| nh [n̪]
| n
| 
| ň [ɲ]
| ŋ
| ñ*
|-
| v
| l
| s [s~z]
| r [ʐ]
| j
| h
|}

* /ñ/ is the Yasaro syllable-final nasal phoneme, contrasting with /m/ (in some dialects) and /ŋ/. See below for pronunciation.

Vowels:

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| i
| 
| u
|-
| e
| 
| (ɔ)
|-
| (ɛ)
| a
| 
|}

Pronunciation of vowel + syllable-final nasal /ñ/:
*short vowel + homorganic nasal before stops: ''lèñpa'' = [ˈlɛ̂mba], ''tòñtu'' = [ˈtɔ̂ndɯ]
*a long and nasal vowel before fricatives: ''níñsi'' = [ˈnɪ̌ː̃zi], ''kelòñra'' = [keˈlɔ̂ː̃ʐa]
*short and non-nasal at end of words: ''jasǎro(ñ)'' = [ʝaˈsǎʐɔ]

Final [ɛ] (from -/eñ/) contrasts with /e/ in some words. Before /ñ/, the distinction between /a/ and /u/ is neutralized to an [ɔ] sound, which is represented here as a phoneme /o/ (since it contrasts with both /a/ and /u/ at the ends of words).

Pitch accent:
Underlying stress can fall on any syllable of the main root, but word-final syllables are never stressed. Stressed syllables on non-final syllables are pronounced with a falling tone. When a word ends with a syllable that would ordinarily be stressed, the preceding syllable gets the stress instead, but is pronounced with a rising tone. The stress remains on the final syllable of the root if a suffix is added (for example, ''tóñpa'' [ˈtɔ̌mba] &quot;head&quot;, but ''toñpà-ta'' [tɔmˈpâɾa] &quot;my head&quot;).

== Writing ==

Yasaro is written using the [[Lelimi]] script (Yasaro ''lelímī'' &quot;alphabet&quot;), which is closely related to the Vlika script. The spelling of native Yasaro words is largely based on the pronunciation of an earlier stage of the language, Middle Yasaro, while retaining some features of Old Yasaro pronunciation. Borrowed words are spelled in various ways depending on when the words were borrowed and from which language.

Long vowels in modern Yasaro were still diphthongs in the Middle Yasaro period when the spelling conventions were established, so for instance /vǐ:la/ &quot;reed organ&quot; is spelled ‹veilá›, and /čěte:/ &quot;ice&quot; is spelled ‹tletéu›. The spelling of /č/ is especially variable; it developed from various consonant clusters such as /tl/ and /kr/, as well as /k/ before /i/. (Most occurrences of /ki/ in modern Yasaro are from /ke/ in Old Yasaro.) Yasaro spelling also preserves syllable-final consonants which were lost, as in the words /čâ:ŋa/ ‹krávga› &quot;to eat&quot; and /mǐra/ ‹birás› &quot;sun&quot;. Double consonants such as ‹ss› and ‹hh› represent lengthened consonants in earlier versions of the language which are pronounced as single consonants in the modern language. The name of the language itself has one of these double consonants: ‹jassavráň›.

== Vocabulary ==
[[Yasaro Colors|Colors]]

[[Zireen music]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zireen</title>
    <id>1248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4602</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T00:36:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Zireen are small, furry humanoid people who live on the planet [[Rishai]] (one of the worlds in the alternate reality of [[Azir]]). They have around 70,000 different languages.

== Languages ==
* [[Jaradh]]
* [[Simik]]
* [[Tenai]]
* [[Virelli]]
* [[Vizaki]]
* [[Yasaro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Zireen-colors.png</title>
    <id>1249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4603</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-27T00:57:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A chart of Zireen colors, with names from the Yasaro language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A chart of Zireen colors, with names from the Yasaro language</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Yasaro Colors</title>
    <id>1250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4604</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-27T01:00:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zireen-colors.png]]

[[Zireen]] and Sangari have an additional dimension of color compared to humans. While human colors can be more or less represented by combinations of red, green, and blue light (with the exception of some highly saturated colors), Zireen/Sangari color vision has four primary colors. In the Zireen language [[Yasaro]], the names of the primary colors are ''rúsu'', ''kàju'', ''vári'', and ''núri''. Because these are pure spectral colors, we can associate them with human color names: yellow, turquoise, indigo, and ultraviolet.

But that is just the start of the complexity. The equivalent of hue in the Zireen/Sangari color system can be represented on the surface of a sphere, with the pure spectral hues on a line winding around the sphere like the seam of a baseball. The primary hues can be placed at non-adjacent corners on an inscribed cube. Intermediate spectral hues can be placed on lines drawn on the surface of the sphere from one primary corner to another: ''nhèňu'' (green) between ''rúsu'' and ''kàju'', ''kìva'' (blue) between ''kàju'' and ''vári'', ''lèvi'' (violet) between ''vári'' and ''núri'', and finally ''sų̀pi'' (no human equivalent) to close the circle from ''núri'' back to ''rúsu''. The remaining corners of the cube can be filled with complementary colors: ''ję́thi'' (the complement of ultraviolet) is a color which appears white to humans, ''číla'' and ''tą́vi'' are combinations of ulraviolet with green and blue, and ''pàmę'' (the complement of turquoise) is another unique Zireen color with no human equivalent. The two remaining faces may be considered as the north and south poles of the sphere; they are unique Zireen colors with no single dominant wavelength. On this diagram, the top color is ''hìŋi'', a combination of yellow and indigo, and the one at the bottom is ''mį̀ru'', a combination of turquoise and ultraviolet.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang</title>
    <id>1251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31722</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-25T16:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Imbecilica</username>
        <id>1215</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Conlang is the abbreviation of 'constructed language', a language completely made up by people.  That's what this Wiki is all about.

{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pro-Drop</title>
    <id>1252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-13T01:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A language feature: content words that can be inferred from context may be dropped from clauses.  This mainly applies to pronouns, which need
not be used is pro-drop languages.

Natlang examples are Chinese, Japanese, Korean, but the phenomenon is quite common, so there are many other examples.

A conlang example is [[Tyl Sjok]], but again, there are many others.

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tyl Sjok</title>
    <id>1253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tyl Sjok is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* isolating
* SVO
* active system ([[Fluid-S]])
* no phonemic lip movement (no labial consonants, no rounded vowels)
* all particles are optional
* [[Pro-Drop|pro-drop]]
* usually highly ambiguous

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s2 Tyl Sjok Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Panslavien</title>
    <id>1254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29140</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Govor panslavien — eto noven proekt de vseslavien iskustven govor, koï davaä da govoriä mej qelovekovi de razen slavien nacievi.

*[http://poliglos.info/lingva/pnsl.php Sa&amp;iuml;t panslavien]
*[http://poliglos.info/_langid.php?id=pnsl Russian-Panslavic dictionary]
*[http://inter.poliglos.info/result.php?from=eng&amp;into=pnsl&amp;meta=rus&amp;ifc=eng&amp;in=21958&amp;out=179 English-Panslavic dictionary]

[[Category:Slavic conlangs]]
[[Category:Panslavien|*]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Panslavien</title>
    <id>1255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:14:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Slavic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Teamouse</title>
    <id>1256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22324</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-10T17:12:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Oq7R0n|Oq7R0n]] ([[User_talk:Oq7R0n|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Teamouse|Teamouse]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nice work with the Yasaro page!  Just a technical tip: phonology tables look a lot better if you add a quite large amount of cellpadding:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

See [[Baazraamani#Vowels]] and the code to that section! BPJ 12:35, 27 Jul 2005 (PDT)

Thanks for the tip! I've only just started learning how to use this thing, so feel free to make any comments about formatting and such.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Slevan</title>
    <id>1257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46837</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T13:35:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Language|
| english = [[Slevan]]
| native = {{SLVL}}
| country = Slevania
| nativecountry = Slvanja
| universe = [[Ill Bethisad]]
| speakers = 6 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Romance
| subbranch = North-Eastern Romance
| word-order = SVO
| morphological-type = inflecting
| morphosyntactic-alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = [[User:Melroch|BP Jonsson]]
| date = 2003
| background-color = white
| heading-background = lightgreen
| width = 33%
}}

= {{SLVL}} -- the Slevan language =

{| cellpadding=6 style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc3&quot; 
! « Popol szne ljazva jé popol szne kór »
|}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''{{SLVL}}''' {{IPA|[ˈsl̩vaɲɛts]}}, or in English ''Slevan'' {{IPA|[ˈslɛvən]}}, is spoken primarily in the republic of Slevania {{IPA|[slɪˈveɪniə]}} ('''Slvanja''' {{IPA|[ˈsl̩vaɲa]}}), but also by sizeable populations in the neighboring countries Hungary, the Republic of the Two Crowns and the Bohemian Kingdom, and by a few thousand persons in Austria. Together with Wenedyk, one of the official languages of the Republic of the Two Crowns, and Slezan it forms the north-eastern branch of the Romance languages, also known as the Slavo-Romance languages.


*[[History of Slevan]]

*[[Slevan historical phonology|Historical phonology]] (Grand Master Plan) -- '''under construction!'''

*[[Slevan spelling and pronunciation|Spelling and pronunciation]]

*[[Slevan grammar outline|Grammar outline]]

*[[Mracian orthography of Slevan|The Mrácian orthography]]

*[[Slevan dialects|Dialects]]

*[[Slevan texts|Texts]]

BPJ 13:02, 27 Jul 2005 (PDT)

[[Category:Slevan]]
[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs by Melroch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zireen music</title>
    <id>1258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4612</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-29T04:04:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==

The fundamental building blocks of Zireen music, as with all kinds of music, are pitch, rhythm, and timbre. For purposes of illustration, the elements of Zireen music will be described with anglicized versions of words from the [[Yasaro]] language. Other Zireen languages tend to have similar concepts, although the words used to describe them are different.

== Pitch and intervals ==

The basis for all intervals in Zireen music is the '''tilar''' (Yasaro: ''tílar''), which is a '''tempered octave'''. All other intervals are constructed by subdividing the tilar into smaller parts (such as fifths, fourths, and thirds), according to a rough approximation of the harmonic series, or by stacking two or more of these basic intervals. &quot;Superparticular&quot; intervals (pitch ratios of the form n+1/n) are considered the most basic of the Zireen musical intervals. Note that although these intervals are expressed as pitch ratios, actual Zireen music almost invariably alters these ratios to produce a slight beating effect. This beating ranges from subtle to extreme, but it is almost always present, even in the octaves.

=== The basic musical intervals ===

The first division of the tilar produces a pair of intervals called '''napi''' (Yasaro: ''nhàpī''), which correspond to the perfect fifth (3/2) and perfect fourth (4/3). The smaller of a pair of intervals is called a '''muri''', or &quot;shadow&quot;, of the larger interval (Yasaro: ''mùri''). The major napi is divided into two '''pindu''' (''pį́tu''), which are the equivalent of the major and minor third, and the shadow napi is divided into two '''laira''' (''lâira''), which are 7-limit intervals: a &quot;subminor third&quot; (7/6) and a &quot;supermajor second&quot; (8/7). Further subdivisions are defined as follows:
* '''tondu''' (whole tones): 9/8 (''tą̀tu''), 10/9 (''tą̀tu mùri'').
* '''yombi''' (neutral seconds): 11/10 (''ją́pi''), 12/11 (''ją́pi mùri'').
* '''chulu''' (13-limit small steps): 13/12 (''čùlu''), 14/13 (''čùlu mùri'').
* '''kima''' (semitones): 15/14 (''kíma''), 16/15 (''kíma mùri'').

=== Tuning systems (''nai'') ===

The notation and tuning of Zireen music, especially instrumental music, is based on the tradition of music for the '''vila''' (Yasaro: ''vǐla''), a kind of reed organ with an array of round buttons as a keyboard (similar to the arrangement of a button accordion). A particular arrangement of buttons is called a '''nai''' (Yasaro: ''nâi''), and there are many different kinds of nai in Zireen music. As an illustration, nai seret (''nâi sèret'') is an arrangement of buttons associated with what we call '''meantone temperament''', which is a historical tuning based on tempering out the small interval called a '''syntonic comma''' (which has a ratio of 81/80). In Zireen music, nai seret includes intervals down to the size of a shadow laira (supermajor second), which makes it a 7-limit temperament. In addition to 81/80, nai seret also tempers out 126/125 (or equivalently, 225/224). This tempering out of small intervals allows a limited set of buttons to represent a much larger set of theoretical intervals that differ from each other by only small amounts. The slight beating introduced by this detuning is generally considered as a desirable effect, but Zireen cultures vary as to how much beating is desirable. Here is a list of some of the more common nais, with a description of which small intervals are tempered out.

* ''nâi hanákī'' (&quot;bug&quot;): 27/25
* ''nâi jùluŋ'' (&quot;father&quot;): 16/15
* ''nâi kénet'' (&quot;mavila&quot;): 135/128
* ''nâi lę̀pa'' (&quot;lemba&quot;): 50/49, 525/512
* ''nâi mahǎli'' (&quot;superpelog&quot;): 49/48, 135/128
* ''nâi pilîna'' (&quot;blacksmith&quot;): 28/27, 49/48
* ''nâi sèret'' (&quot;meantone&quot;): 81/80, 126/125
* ''nâi sį̀kā'' (&quot;keemun&quot;): 49/48, 225/224

=== Scales (''yemet'') ===

While a nai can theoretically include an unlimited number of pitches by extending the array of buttons in the vertical direction, actual music uses only a limited subset of these pitches, in arrangements called '''yemet''' (Yasaro: ''jémet''). Yemets are categorized by the number of different steps of one size or another within the range of a tilar (tempered octave), as well as the variations in the scale pattern as a melody develops. For instance, a particular yemet might have one form when ascending, and a different one when descending, or a different pattern in each octave. A yemet typically has only two different sizes of steps, which are combined in specific numbers to reach an octave, like the diatonic scale of 5 whole steps and 2 half steps in Western music. '''Yemet kerasi''', for instance (Yasaro: ''jémet kerâsi'') is the Zireen equivalent of the pentatonic scale, with 2 large steps and 3 small steps per octave (abbreviated &quot;2+3&quot;); this yemet is typically associated with the button arrangement '''nai seret''' (meantone). '''Yemet veriko''', on the other hand (''jémet vèriką''), is a bizarre scale associated with nai yulung, which has 3 large steps and 2 small steps (3+2).

== External links ==
[http://www.io.com/~hmiller/music/zireen-music.html The music of the Zireen]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Slevan</title>
    <id>1260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Slevan]] is a Slavo-Romance language of [[Ill Bethisad]], created by [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]].

[[Category:Slavic conlangs]] [[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kobold</title>
    <id>1261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8190</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:37:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlangs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">http://koboxora.free.fr/index.htm

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azirian numbers</title>
    <id>1262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-20T22:15:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>comparison of Zireen languages added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is an overview of number systems in various Azirian languages.

== Jarda ==

In Jarda, numbers can be represented in any base which is convenient, up to base 12.

* 1: ju {{IPA|[ju]}}
* 2: řal {{IPA|[ɻal]}}
* 3: đağ {{IPA|[ɟaɣ]}}
* 4: kun {{IPA|[kun]}}
* 5: raz {{IPA|[raz]}}
* 6: kóv {{IPA|[kov]}}
* 7: noś {{IPA|[nɔɕ]}}
* 8: řóm {{IPA|[ɻom]}}
* 9: kóř {{IPA|[koɻ]}}
* 10: jum {{IPA|[jum]}}
* 11: vaź {{IPA|[vaʑ]}}
* 12: źév {{IPA|[ʑev]}}

== Jirra ==

The Jirra language is related to Lindiga. Compare these numbers with the corresponding Lindiga words:

* 1: swai {{IPA|[sʷai]}}
* 2: koči {{IPA|[kotʃi]}}
* 3: miči {{IPA|[mitʃi]}}
* 4: sirwi {{IPA|[siɾʷi]}}
* 5: ngwëswi {{IPA|[ŋwəzʷi]}}
* 6: issi {{IPA|[issʲi]}}
* 7: xasci {{IPA|[xasci]}}
* 8: kwasi {{IPA|[kʷazʲi]}}
* 9: ütti {{IPA|[ʉttʲi]}}
* 10: cië {{IPA|[ciə]}}

== Lindiga ==

* 1: rsai {{IPA|[ʂɛi]}}
* 2: koti {{IPA|[kɔʧi]}}
* 3: miti {{IPA|[miʧi]}}
* 4: siři {{IPA|[ʃiɽi]}}
* 5: ngüorsi {{IPA|[ŋuəʐi]}}
* 6: issi {{IPA|[iʃʃi]}}
* 7: chaski {{IPA|[xaski]}}
* 8: pasi {{IPA|[paʒi]}}
* 9: ykki {{IPA|[ykki]}}
* 10: kie {{IPA|[kiə]}}

Lindiga is also the source for basic numbers in the Minza language: šei, koči, miči, širi, ňuoži, iši, xaski, paži, yki, kie.

== Siralla ==

Siralla numbers use base 8:

* 1: ik {{IPA|[ik]}}
* 2: nar {{IPA|[nar]}}
* 3: gar {{IPA|[ɡar]}}
* 4: zek {{IPA|[zɛk]}}
* 5: chek {{IPA|[tʃɛk]}}
* 6: rev {{IPA|[rɛv]}}
* 7: yel {{IPA|[jɛl]}}
* 8: kemel {{IPA|[kɛmɛl]}}

Numbers after 8 add the suffix -mel: ikmel &quot;nine&quot;, narmel &quot;ten&quot;, etc.

== Tirelat ==

Tirelat uses base 12.

* 1: lii {{IPA|[liː]}}
* 2: dłaa {{IPA|[dɮaː]}}
* 3: kim {{IPA|[kim]}}
* 4: reega {{IPA|[reːɡa]}}
* 5: vakki {{IPA|[vakki]}}
* 6: zem {{IPA|[zɛm]}}
* 7: telił {{IPA|[tɛliɬ]}}
* 8: syt {{IPA|[sɨt]}}
* 9: lañu {{IPA|[laŋu]}}
* 10: nidi {{IPA|[nidi]}}
* 11: foža {{IPA|[fɔʒa]}}
* 12: kaž {{IPA|[kaʒ]}}

== Virelli ==

Virelli, as is typical of Zireen languages, uses base 8.

* 1: hú {{IPA|[hú]}}
* 2: zá {{IPA|[zá]}}
* 3: néri {{IPA|[néʐì]}}
* 4: ņa’i {{IPA|[ɲàʔì]}}
* 5: séða {{IPA|[séðà]}}
* 6: háka {{IPA|[hákà]}}
* 7: gira {{IPA|[ɣìʐà]}}
* 8: hļú {{IPA|[ɬʲú]}}

== Vizaki == 

Another Zireen language which uses base 8.

* 1: a {{IPA|[a]}}
* 2: ti {{IPA|[ti]}}
* 3: fhei {{IPA|[hei]}}
* 4: nyy {{IPA|[nɨː]}}
* 5: šia {{IPA|[ʃia]}}
* 6: t'aša {{IPA|[tʼaʃa]}}
* 7: yša {{IPA|[ɨʃa]}}
* 8: zei {{IPA|[zei]}}

== Zariva ==

The [[Zariva]] number system uses a combination of base 5 and base 7.

The numbers 1-7 are:

* 1: ai {{IPA|[ai]}}
* 2: ilai {{IPA|[ilai]}} (&quot;twice one&quot;)
* 3: ith {{IPA|[iθ]}}
* 4: sai {{IPA|[sai]}}
* 5: min {{IPA|[min]}}
* 6: minda {{IPA|[minda]}} (&quot;one more than 5&quot;)
* 7: thú {{IPA|[θuː]}}

Certain multiples of 5 and 7 have specific names:

* 10: hi {{IPA|[hi]}}
* 15: mist {{IPA|[mist]}}
* 25: ming {{IPA|[miŋ]}}
* 125: léshek {{IPA|[leːʃɛk]}}
* 15,625 (125&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;): agálik {{IPA|[aɡaːlik]}}
* 1,953,125 (125&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;): nuruthkest {{IPA|[nuruθkɛst]}}

* 49: thúsi {{IPA|[θuːsi]}}

The numbers from 1 to 125 use various combinations of 5 and 7 with the
following affixes: an- (one less), adan- (two less), -ra (one more) -rad
(two more), il- (twice), ith (3) and sai (4).

* 8: thúra {{IPA|[θuːra]}} (7+1)
* 9: anghi {{IPA|[aŋhi]}} (10-1)
* 10: hi {{IPA|[hi]}}
* 11: hina {{IPA|[hina]}} (10+1)
* 12: hinad {{IPA|[hinad]}} (10+2)
* 13: adammist {{IPA|[adammist]}} (15-2)
* 14: ilthu {{IPA|[ilθu]}} (2*7)
* 15: mist {{IPA|[mist]}}
* 16: mistra {{IPA|[mistra]}} (15+1)
* 17: mistrad {{IPA|[mistrad]}} (15+2)
* 18: mistith {{IPA|[mistiθ]}} (15+3)
* 19: mistsai {{IPA|[mistsai]}} (15+4)
* 20: mistmin {{IPA|[mistmin]}} (15+5)
* 21: ithú {{IPA|[iθuː]}} (3*7)
* 22: ithúra {{IPA|[iθuːra]}} (3*7+1)
* 23: adamming {{IPA|[adammiŋ]}} (25-2)
* 24: amming {{IPA|[ammiŋ]}} (25-1)
* 25: ming {{IPA|[miŋ]}}
* 26: mingna {{IPA|[miŋna]}} (25+1)
* 27: mingnad {{IPA|[miŋnad]}} (25+2)
* 28: saithú {{IPA|[saiθuː]}} (4*7)
* 29: saithúra {{IPA|[saiθuːra]}} (4*7+1)
* 30: ilmist {{IPA|[ilmist]}} (2*15)
* 31: ilmistra {{IPA|[ilmistra]}} (2*15+1)
* 32: mingthú {{IPA|[miŋθuː]}} (25+7)
* 33: mingthúra {{IPA|[miŋθuːra]}} (25+7+1)
* 34: amminthú {{IPA|[amminθuː]}} (5*7-1)
* 35: minthú {{IPA|[minθuː]}} (5*7)
* 36: minthúra {{IPA|[minθuːra]}} (5*7+1)
* 37: minthúrad {{IPA|[minθuːrad]}} (5*7+2)
* 38: mingadammist {{IPA|[miŋadammist]}} (25+15-2)
* 39: mingilthú {{IPA|[miŋilθuː]}} (25+2*7)
* 40: mingmist {{IPA|[miŋmist]}} (25+15)
* 41: mingmistra {{IPA|[miŋmistra]}} (25+15+1)
* 42: mindathú {{IPA|[mindaθuː]}} (6*7)
* 43: mindathúra {{IPA|[mindaθuːra]}} (6*7+1)
* 44: anithmist {{IPA|[aniθmist]}} (3*15-1)
* 45: ithmist {{IPA|[iθmist]}} (3*15)
* 46: ithmistra {{IPA|[iθmistra]}} (3*15+1)
* 47: adanthúsi {{IPA|[adanθuːsi]}} (7*7-2)
* 48: anthúsi {{IPA|[anθuːsi]}} (7*7-1)
* 49: thúsi {{IPA|[θuːsi]}} (7*7)

After 49, multiples of 7 are less frequently used, and it starts to look
more like a base-5 system.

== Zharranh ==

Zharranh uses a base 8 system. Numbers 1-8:

* 1: žar {{IPA|[ʒar]}}
* 2: k{{IPA|ɭ}}iĵu {{IPA|[kɭiʝu]}}
* 3: tiva {{IPA|[tiva]}}
* 4: ziđa {{IPA|[zid̪a]}}
* 5: ni{{IPA|ʈ}}a {{IPA|[niʈa]}}
* 6: disa {{IPA|[disa]}}
* 7: krina {{IPA|[krina]}}
* 8: mimi {{IPA|[mimi]}}

Numbers 9-15 are formed by adding the prefix mi- to numbers 1-8 (e.g. nine is &quot;mižar&quot; and 10 is &quot;{{IPA|mikɭiĵu}}&quot;).

== Zireen languages ==

Zireen languages commonly use base eight. Numbers above eight are represented by various means: prefixes (such as Zharranh &quot;mi-&quot;), suffixes (such as Yasaro &quot;-na&quot;), or just saying &quot;eight one&quot;, &quot;eight two&quot;, and so on as separate words. Here is a comparison of basic numbers in some of the Zireen languages:
 
{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
! 
| Virelli
| Vizaki
| Zharranh
| Jaradh
| Yasaro
| Simik
|-
! one
| hú
| a
| žar
| jar
| àu
| vá:
|-
! two
| zá
| ti
| k{{IPA|ɭ}}iĵu
| griizhiu
| nhúlu
| zain
|-
! three
| néri
| fhei
| tiva
| t'iiwa
| làku
| yaika
|-
! four
| ņa'i
| nyy
| ziđa
| ziitha
| čę́pi
| xu:
|-
! five
| séða
| šia
| ni{{IPA|ʈ}}a
| diidra
| tìa
| íx
|-
! six
| háka
| t'aša
| disa
| tuisa
| są̀rę
| tazâ
|-
! seven
| gira
| yša
| krina
| griida
| vǔki
| zizâ
|-
! eight
| hļú
| zei
| mimi
| miimui
| nùa
| câi
|-
! nine
| hļú hú
| azei
| mižar
| muijar
| aúna
| vá:câi
|-
! ten
| hļú zá
| tizei
| mik{{IPA|ɭ}}iĵu
| muigriizhiu
| nhúna
| zaincâi
|}

[[Category:Azir]]
[[Category:Lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zariva</title>
    <id>1263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4617</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T00:21:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Zariva is a [[Nithra]] language spoken on the planet Thersenia.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nithra</title>
    <id>1264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T13:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category azir, races</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nithra are small furry people distantly related to the [[Zireen]] and [[Sangari]]; they inhabit the planet Thersenia, and their closest relatives are the [[Hralta]]. Nithra are adapted to living in cold climates, and have thicker fur than their relatives. The average height of a Nithra is 90 cm.

== Nithra languages ==
* [[Zariva]]
* [[Siralla]]

[[Category:Azir]]
[[Category:Races]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azir</title>
    <id>1265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33045</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-17T06:29:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Azir is a collection of separate worlds connected by Impossible Gates (portals which open at regular or unpredictable intervals, and stay open for relatively brief periods of time). 

== Worlds of Azir ==
* [[Striezarait]] (Mizar)
* [[Rishai]]
* [[Thersenia]]
* [[Kallarilan]]

== People of Azir ==
* Mizarians (humanoid rodents)
** [[Zaik]]
* Furry people
** [[Zireen]]
** [[Sangari]]
** [[Kireethin]]
** [[Nithra]]
** [[Hralta]]
** [[Zoray]]
** [[Binda]]
* Nikta and relatives
** [[Nikta]]
** [[Neyasai]]
* &quot;Elves&quot; (pointy eared humanoids)
** [[Yitha]]
** [[Nelya]]
** [[Kaltani]]
** [[Miri]]
** [[Lialia]]

Also see the [[Azirian Culture]] quick-guide and [[Azirian Phylogeny]].

[[Category:Azir]]
[[Category:Planets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kireethin</title>
    <id>1266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:19:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Azir]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Kireethin languages ==
[[Zharranh]]

[[Category:Azir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zaik</title>
    <id>1267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4621</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T00:56:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Zaik are human-sized bipedal rodents who live on a planet near the star Mizar.

== Zaik languages ==
* [[Chispa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sangari</title>
    <id>1268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4622</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T00:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Sangari are furry people closely related to the [[Zireen]], but taller (average height 140 cm).

== Sangari languages ==
[[Tirelat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nelya</title>
    <id>1269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T13:46:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category azir, races</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nelya are human-like &quot;elves&quot;, slightly shorter than humans (average height 150 cm), who live on the planet [[Kallarilan]]. Nelya are known for their greater than usual interest in and skill with magic.

== Nelya languages ==

* [[Rynnan]]
* [[Cythin]]
* [[Alzećan]]

[[Category:Azir]]
[[Category:Races]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Yitha</title>
    <id>1270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5383</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T01:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Yitha are the most human-like of the &quot;elves&quot; of [[Azir]]. Except for their pointy ears and somewhat larger eyes, they look very much like humans, and are around the same size.

== Yitha languages ==
* [[Jirra]]
* [[Lindiga]]
* [[Kazvarad]]
* [[Olaetian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Virelli</title>
    <id>1271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4177</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-08T04:45:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Virelli is a language spoken by [[Zireen]].

== Pronunciation ==

=== Consonants ===
{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| 
| labial
| dental
| alveolar
| retroflex
| palatal
| velar
| glottal
|-
| stops
| 
| th
| t
| 
| ķ
| k
| ’
|-
| nasals
| m
| 
| n
| 
| ņ
| 
| 
|-
| fricatives
| v
| d
| s z
| hr r
| hj j
| g
| h
|-
| lat. fric.
| 
| 
| hl l
| 
| hļ ļ
| 
| 
|}

=== Vowels ===

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| 
| front
| central
| back
|-
| high
| i
| 
| u
|-
| mid
| e
| o
| 
|-
| low
| 
| a
|
|}

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

Nouns have three cases: Absolutive, Ergative, and Dative. Nouns ending in a vowel add the case ending in a relatively straightforward manner (although the ending varies according to the gender of the noun).

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|
| &quot;person&quot;
| &quot;fire&quot;
| &quot;sea&quot;
| &quot;Rishai&quot;
| &quot;air&quot;
|-
| Gender:
| I
| II
| III
| IV
| V
|-
| stem
| írrá-
| ’ahrí-
| zúlí-
| uļí-
| thú’a-
|-
| absolutive
| írrát
| ’ahrít
| zúlíl
| uļí
| thú’a
|-
| ergative
| írrájuk
| ’ahríjuk
| zúlísík
| uļísík
| thú’alik
|-
| dative
| írránu
| ’ahríņu
| zúlímu
| uļíņí
| thú’ají
|}

Nouns with consonant-ending stems alter the stems or the endings in various ways according to phonological rules. Examples:

* ''kaļút-'' &quot;ice&quot; (gender I) + ergative ''-juk'' &gt; ''kaļúķuk''
* ''kaļút-'' &quot;ice&quot; (gender I) + dative ''-nu'' &gt; ''kaļúntu''
* ''karas-'' &quot;stream&quot; (gender III) + absolutive ''-l'' &gt; ''karahl''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Channel Island Siouxan</title>
    <id>1272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-31T15:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuroda</username>
        <id>171</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added more categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This not-yet-properly-named member of the [[League of Lost Languages]] is today spoken by a small number of people in the United Kingdom, for now in the Channel Islands but perhaps on the coast of the British mainland or on the Isles of Scilly. They are descended from a group of Native Americans from what is today North Carolina who emigrated wholesale across the Atlantic c. 1680-1700, followed by a second infusion approx. 1712-1713 under pressure from the Tuscaroras. 

Their language, possibly identical to the Carolina Siouxan language known to us as Woccon, is still spoken  today, though it shows massive lexical replacement and syntactic interference from English. Nevertheless it is the best-preserved and only viable member of this branch of the Siouxan family, and is thus of great interest to comparative linguists as well as to anthropologists.

There are currently about a hundred native speakers; it is traditionally written, in limited circumstances (parish records, hymnals, diaries, collections of folktales, and genealogical materials) in a vernacular English-based orthography.

'''Example sentence:'''
''Tey whiyaupany leenky whawausitty whashley eickelauspawda yeckeny iwisoo iseedy.'
&quot;It seems that this young beaver here was chewing up my big pine trees with his yellow teeth.&quot;

[[Category:LLL]][[Category:A posteriori conlangs]][[Category:Amerindian conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kilda Kelen</title>
    <id>1273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46382</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T21:52:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Ethnographic Background Information */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellowgreen&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Kilda Kelen'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Kamchatka Peninsula, Northeast Siberia
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||Possibly the [[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||At least 50,000.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||''disputed''&lt;br&gt;
Altaic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Tungusic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;North Tungusic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Kïlda'''&lt;br&gt;
''or''&lt;br&gt;
Altaic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Mongolic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kitan&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Kïlda'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order: 
|| SOV&lt;br&gt;AdjN&lt;br&gt;GenN&lt;br&gt;RelHead
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type: 
|| Agglutinative
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment: 
|| Accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellowgreen&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||Kuroda ||1996-
|}

The language of the '''Kïldamnï''' (gentile noun; individually, '''Kïldaï''') is likely a member of the League of Lost Languages that is spoken today on the [[Wikipedia:Kamchatka_Peninsula|Kamchatka Peninsula]] in northeastern Siberia. Foreign scholars universally consider '''Kïlda''' to be an [[Wikipedia:Altaic_languages|Altaic language]] -- the family consisting of the [[Wikipedia:Turkic_languages|Turkic]], [[Wikipedia:Mongolic_languages|Mongolian]], and [[Wikipedia:Tungusic_languages|Tungusic]] language groups, and according to some, [[Wikipedia:Korean_language|Korean]] or [[Wikipedia:Japanese_language|Japanese]]. However, contemporary native Kïldamnï scholarship rejects the &quot;Altaic Hypothesis&quot; and considers these three (or five) groups to be related only through prolonged contact and mixing. In any event, it would be safe to say that the Kïlda language is closely related to both Tungusic and Mongolic languages, whether by descent or affiliation. Today, arguments on the genetic roots of Kïlda fall into one of two camps: Tungusic with heavy adstratum influence from Para-Mongolic or Pre-Classical Mongolian, vs. Para-Mongolic with heavy substratum influence and later borrowing from North Tungusic languages, specifically [[Wikipedia:Evenki_language|Evenki (or &quot;Tungus&quot;)]] and [[Wikipedia:Even_language|Even (or &quot;Lamut&quot;)]]. The position that Kïlda is a separate branch of Altaic was popular earlier in the 20th century but is now held only by a small, crackpot fringe.

==Phonology==
Kïlda has a regular system of so-called front/back vowel harmony, in which lexical stems determine the vowel quality of their affixes. &quot;Front&quot; vowels are /'''ə i u o'''/ (in standard Latin orthography {'''e i ü ö'''}) while &quot;back&quot; vowels are /'''a ɪ ʊ ɔ'''/ (Latin orthography: {'''a ï u o'''}). The latter series is described, by different researchers, as &quot;tense&quot;, &quot;pharyngialized&quot;, or &quot;retracted tongue root (RTR, -ATR)&quot;. There is also limited &quot;rounding harmony&quot; where the vowels /'''a ə'''/ appear as /'''ɔ o'''/ (respectively) in suffixes when attached to stems containing only /'''ɔ o'''/. Vowel length is additionally distinguished (though not in many orthographies), which also affects vowel quality (e.g., /ə əː/ = [ə ɛ], /ʊ ʊː/ = [ʊ ɯ]) and stress allocation. Two additional phonemes are recognized by the Kïldamnï as diphthongs, in Latin orthography {'''ei''', '''ê'''} (/'''eʲ''', '''ɛj'''/) and {'''ai'''} (/'''aj''', '''æʲ'''/).

Consonantal phonology is fairly unexceptional. The two series of obstruents are distinguished primarily by voicing: /'''b d ʤ g'''/ {'''b d j g'''} are voiced, while /'''p t ʧ k'''/ {'''p t c k'''} are voiceless and strongly aspirated in most positions. While /'''k'''/ has velar and uvular allophones, conditioned by front vs. back vowel harmony (respectively), these are not phonemic and are ignored in native orthographies (though not in most foreign transcriptions). /'''p'''/ is ['''ɸ'''] (orthographically {'''f'''}) before back vowels (and in some cases /'''ɪ'''/), though this is irregular due to many loanwords and ideophones - so some analyses present /'''ɸ'''/ as a separate phoneme.

Like most genetically and areally related languages, there is a phonemic palatal nasal /'''ɲ'''/ {'''ñ'''} or {'''ni-'''}. Unlike other Tungusic languages and neighbors (but like Manchu and Mongolic and Turkic languages), the velar nasal /'''ŋ'''/ {'''ng'''} cannot occur before a vowel. The hissing sibilant /'''s'''/ {'''s'''} is always pronounced &quot;palatalized&quot; (actually, retracted and grooved) before high front vowels (/'''i'''/ and /'''ı'''/) and thus merges with /'''ʃ'''/ {'''sh'''} or {'''š'''}. The phoneme /'''r'''/ {'''r'''} does not occur word-initially in native words or in loanwords from before the mid-19th century: /'''ɔrɔm'''/ &quot;rum&quot; (1820s) but /'''rɔkınrɔl'''/ &quot;rock and roll&quot; (1970s). Foreign descriptions cast /'''l'''/ {'''l'''} as a lateral fricative, voiceless in most but not all positions (['''ɬ'''] and ['''ɮ''']), but native accounts persist in calling it a lateral approximant. Likewise, according to Kilda sources /'''w'''/ {'''w''', '''v'''} is not a labiovelar, but a bilabial approximant or fricative (realized as ['''β̞''', '''β''']), while many foreign scholars describe it as a velar approximant pronounced with lip compression, ['''ɰ''']. The phoneme given here as /'''h'''/ has allophones ranging from voiceless velar and uvular fricatives ['''x, χ'''] to voiceless pharyngeal or epiglottal fricatives ['''ħ, ʜ'''] (identification is disputed) to voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives ['''h, ɦ'''] - depending on vowel harmony, syllable position, and dialect or idolect. 

Syllable structure is generally simple and of (C)V(C) form, and the language permits no internal clusters of more than two consonant phonemes. Word-initial or word-final consonant clusters are very rare even in loanwords. (E.g., /'''smiki'''/ &quot;wandering tattler (a bird)&quot;, /'''tɔsk'''/ &quot;riverbed sand&quot;.) By default, primary stress falls on the first syllable, but is attracted to syllables with long vowels.

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Dental-Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || ||{{IPA|tʃ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || {{IPA|l}} || {{IPA|r}} || || || {{IPA|j}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| +FRONT ||colspan=2| -FRONT
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;|  || +ATR || -ATR || +ATR || -ATR
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| +HIGH || {{IPA|ɪ}}  || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{IPA|u}} 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| -HIGH || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|ɔ}} || {{IPA|o}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt; 

==Morphology and Syntax==
Grammatically, Kïlda is highly agglutinative and almost exclusively suffixing. It has basic SOV word order, accusative syntax, and a wealth of non-finite verb forms, many tense and aspect distinctions, and a fairly elaborate system of local cases. In all these respects it is a quite typical North Tungusic language. Though it has a slightly reduced and simplified inflectional morphology compared to its closest relatives, most morphological and syntactic constructions can be directly matched to corresponding forms in Even and/or Evenki.

Inflectional morphology for verbal elements recognizes categories of finiteness, mood or modality, aspect, tense, evidentiality, person and number (of subject only), and switch-reference (in non-finite verbs only). There is a rich variety of verbal nouns (or &quot;participles&quot;) which can serve as finite and non-finite verbs, attributive modifiers, and nominals. In addition there are a number of important periphrastic constructions to express certain TAM combinations (e.g., contact causation, pluperfect and future perfect) and in polite and honorific language.

Finite endings can loosely be defined as those verbal inflections which occur only in the heads of verb phrases serving predicative roles in the sentence, and which do not permit subordination to another verb phrase. However, not all such VP heads take finite endings; participial and converbal forms can and often do occur in that role. In fact, in Kilda finite verbs proper are largely limited to imperatives and a number of modal-epistemic forms. The finite endings are followed by pronominal suffixes (except as noted below).

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: left; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #efefef;&quot;| '''Finite Verb Endings'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| '''Name''' ||colspan=2| '''Suffix''' ||colspan=2|  ||colspan=2| 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near Future || '''-jai-''' || Near or immediate future tense
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Inferential Future || '''-mna-''' || More distant future tense, with less certainty about the action or state actually happening; also used to state probabilities or likelihoods in general or abstract times, or in customary behavior
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Subjunctive || '''-mca-''' || Consequence of counterfactual conditionals
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near Probabilative || '''-na-''' || Possible event or action at a time close to the present
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Distant Probabilative || '''-rka-''' || As above, but for events or actions in the more remote past
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mirative || '''-jug-''' || Actions or states which turn out to be the case, counter to expectation or in a narrative twist; usually with a pluperfect tense-aspect meaning.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Admonitive || '''-jik''' || Warning or reminding about the verbal action: &quot;look out for..., be sure to..., beware of...&quot;. Only with second person reference.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Imperative || '''-kar''' (sg.), '''-karsu''' (pl.), '''-hun''' (polite) || Orders and commands to direct addressees.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Prescriptive || '''-tugin''' (sg.), '''-tuktin''' (pl.) || Instructions and remote commands to non-present third persons; in some cases, to direct addressees but concerning actions to take in the future or in a distant location.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Voluntative || '''-su''' (sg.), '''-ya''' (pl. incl.), '''-gat''' (pl. excl.) || Instructions, exhortations, and expressions of volition about the speaker or the speaker's group.
|}
&lt;/div&gt; 


Nonfinite verb forms function as attributes, subordinated predicates, and finite or independent predicates. Nonfinite verbs never take modal markers, and rarely occur with certain categories of voice. They fall into three general categories: participles, or verbal nouns; inflecting converbs; and non-inflecting converbs. 

As attributives, participles always agree in number with the head of their NP, but not in person or case. As predicates, they require the periphrastic verb '''bi-''' (&quot;be&quot;), except third person nonfuture participial predicates.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: left; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #efefef;&quot;| '''Participles (Verbal Nouns/Nominalized Verbs)'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| '''Name''' ||colspan=2| '''Suffix''' ||colspan=2|  ||colspan=2| 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nonfuture || '''-ra-, -da-, -sa-, -na-''' (pred.), '''-ri-, -ri-, -si-, -di-''' (attrib./dependent) || Complicated range of meanings and functions; very widely used -- possibly the most frequent verb form in the language. Can refer to the recent past (of single perfective events or actions), simultaneity or present tense (of prolonged actions), imperfective past (of a small number of activity verbs); regardless, if it refers to any situation in the past, it must be one that was directly observed or experienced by the speaker. It thus has an evidential force as well. It also functions as the coreferential equivalent of the Purposive converb '''-da-''' (see below), and is sometimes referred to as &quot;the infinitive form&quot;. (It is also the traditional citation form of verbs in Kilda dictionaries.) The forms with the low front vowels occur when used in predicative roles; those with high front vowels when the participle serves as a modifier or nominal. Verb stems fall into four classes, distinguished by the form of their nonfuture participle; they are not phonologically or semantically predictable. The '''-ra-/-ri-''' form is by far the most common.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Perfect || '''-ca-, -ka-''' || Describes events of longer duration or further in the past than the Nonfuture participle; also those events or states which the speaker did not directly witness or experience -- i.e., with inferential or quotative evidential force. Despite the name &quot;perfect&quot;, it does not always imply completed action. The alternation of '''-ca-''' and '''-ka-''' is again lexically determined; the former is more frequent.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Hypothetical || '''-jiŋga-''' || Possible or future indefinite events; to the degree it implies uncertainty, it conveys categorical probability or likelihood and not the speaker's subjective opinion.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Past Iterative || '''-jaŋki-''' || Actions that occurred many times in the past or states that frequently or on many occasions were true. (But not habitual or natural conditions.)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Contact Posterior || '''-ltak-''' || Events that are just about to happen, on the cusp of transpiring. Rather rare, but does occur in both predicative and attributive roles.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Optative || '''-(ŋ)gati-''' || Describes circumstances which the speaker would like to happen or would consider favorably. Usually only as a predicate.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Necessitative || '''-nna-''' || Actions or events that are necessary or required from an impersonal or universal perspective, or that are logically necessary.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Debitive || '''-mcin-''' || Like the Necessitative, but those situations that are personally or subjectively obligatory
|}
&lt;/div&gt; 


Converbs have only a predicative function; they never serve in attributive or substantive roles. As the heads of VPs, they are limited to non-finite clauses. They come in two varieties: inflecting (switch-reference, SR) and non-inflecting (coreferential, CR). The former are used where the subject of the converb is different from the subject of the main VP; the latter, where the subject is the same in both the subordinate and main VPs.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: left; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #efefef;&quot;| '''Converbs'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| '''Name''' ||colspan=2| '''Suffix''' ||colspan=2|  ||colspan=2| 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Conditional || '''-mi''' (CR), '''-raki-, -daki-, -saki-, -naki-''' (SR) || Covers both temporal and causal conditions: &quot;if she Xes, (then she Ys)&quot; and &quot;when she Xes, (then she Ys)&quot;. 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Imperfective || '''-mnak''' (CR), '''-ŋsi-''' (SR) || Past events that were simultaneous with the action or state described by the main verb. &quot;While she was Xing (she was Ying).&quot;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Perfective || '''-psa''' (CR), '''-cala-''' (SR) || Events or states that were completed or achieved before the main verb. 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Terminative-Resultative || '''-(ŋ)kan''' (CR only) || Actions or states up until which the main verb continues, or at the point of which the main verb begins. 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Negated || '''-r''' (CR only) || Serves as the periphrastic complement of the auxiliary negative verb.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Purposive || '''-ri, -ri, -si, -di''' (CR), '''-da-''' (SR) || The reason, goal, or purported outcome of the main verb.
|}
&lt;/div&gt; 


Inflectional morphology for nominals is less complicated, but includes categories of number (singular vs. plural, with a fair number of suppletive forms to indicate plurality; also collectives and an obsolete/nonproductive dual form), possessor, inalienable possession, and case (around ten in number, depending on whether one categorizes certain local case forms as proper cases or as clitics). 
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: left; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #efefef;&quot;| '''Noun Case System'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| '''Name''' ||colspan=2| '''Suffix''' ||colspan=2|  ||colspan=2| 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nominative || '''-0''' || Subject; nonreferential/indefinite objects; citation form
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Accusative || '''-wa''' || Specific direct object; distances of travel; durations of time; reference of communication
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Designative || '''-ga''' +[personal possessive suffix] || Direct object with beneficiary function assigned to possessor; can function as subject with some intransitive verbs with benefactive function; designation of direct object in double-accusative verb phrases
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Instrumental || '''-ji'''/'''-ic''' || Tool or means of action, function of use, mode of transport, material or source of creation, source of emotional reaction. ('''-ji''' with stems ending in vowels or nasal consonants; '''-ic''' with stems ending in non-nasal consonants)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Sociative || '''-g(a)li''' || Along with, together with, in the company of, bringing along (usu. with non-animate nouns)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Comitative || '''-nan''' / '''-ñun''' || Together with, along with (usu. with animate nouns)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Ablative || '''-dok''' || Motion from source; time after which; general source; object of comparison; source of taking; (raw) material of creation or making; location of action of certain verbs; partitives of numbers
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Allative/Directional || '''-t(a)ki''' || Motion to point/location at which action is completed, but does not begin; motion in direction of which but not up to; in many possession constructions; object of some verbs; addressee of communication; dative of giving; object of active perception verbs; source of emotional reactions when not controlled or intentional
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Essive/Dative || '''-du''' || Location at rest; location of action/event/topic with animate subjects; end point of motion with emphasis on final position (rather than motion); causee of some derived causatives/adversatives; dative of purpose or benefactive; ending usually applied to spatial postpositions; time of completed/general/discrete action; subject and object complements
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Prolative || '''-li''' || Motion through, within, or across; route of process or event; punctual future times, time past or through which event will occur; prices or values of exchange; reference of communication verbs
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Illative || '''-la''' || Motion to point with emphasis on course of motion; location within which action takes place (atelic verbs only); time up to which; used to create possession predicates
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Terminative || '''-gla''' || Motion past or along edge of feature; benefactive of destination or work; time up to which; substitution (&quot;in place of...&quot;, &quot;instead of...&quot;)
|}
&lt;/div&gt; 

There is a large residual class of word forms including &quot;adverbs&quot; and/or &quot;adverbials&quot;, &quot;clitics&quot;, &quot;conjunctions&quot;, &quot;particles&quot;, etc. - and about as many different schemes of classification as there are scholars of the language. 

==Lexicon==
See [[Neo-Khitanese_Lexicon]]

==Genetic Affiliations and History==
Despite its morphosyntactic affinity with the North Tungusic languages, the Tungusic lexicon of Kïlda shows signs of being more archaic than either Evenki or Even. Most noticeable is its preservation of initial '''*p-''' as '''p-''' or '''f-''', which has gone &gt; '''h-''' &gt; '''0-''' in the other North Tungusic languages. E.g., PTg '''*pesin''' &quot;handle&quot; &gt; Evenki, Even, Negidal, Oroch '''hesin''', Udihe '''hehi''' vs. Ulcha, Orok, Nanai '''pesi(n)''', Manchu '''fesin''', but Kilda '''pesi(n)'''; or before back vowels, PTg '''*po:si-''' &quot;glowing ember&quot; &gt; Evenki '''ho:sin''', Negidal '''xosinca''' &quot;hot coal&quot; vs. Ulcha and Orok '''posi''', Nanai '''posi(n)''' &quot;spark, burning coal&quot;, Manchu '''foson''' &quot;sunlight, sun ray, glow of fire&quot;, but Kilda '''fo:sïn''' &quot;ember, glowing coal&quot;. Likewise, PTg '''*ü''' in the first syllable of a word typically becomes '''i''' in North Tungusic but '''u''' in South Tungusic and also in Kïlda: PTg '''*tügde''' &quot;rain&quot; &gt; Evenki/Negidal/Oroch/Udighe '''tigde''', Solon '''tiki-''' &quot;to rain&quot;, Even '''tīd''' vs. Ulcha/Nanai/Kilda '''tugde''', Orok '''tugde/tugje''', Manchu '''tuhe-''' id.  Moreover, Kilda has many lexemes that are found only in the southern Tungusic languages and absent entirely from the northern ones.

These two factors give Kilda the superficial appearance of being more closely related to South (or &quot;Amuric&quot;) Tungusic languages than the North Tungusic languages. All Tungusic etymologies of Kilda lexemes are, moreover, complicated by a sizable number of relatively loanwords from Even and Evenki into Kilda, in some cases supplanting an earlier or inherited lexeme. 

Additionally, there is a large quantity of what are either inherited Para-Mongolic terms or early borrowings from Preclassical or Middle Mongolian, depending on individual scholars' interpretations. These, combined with quantities of &quot;high culture&quot; vocabulary items borrowed from Old Turkic, are nowadays generally accepted as evidence in support of the traditional Kïldamnï belief that they are descendants of the [[Wikipedia:Khitan|Khitans]] who ruled northern China, Manchuria, and parts of modern Mongolia under the [[Wikipedia:Liao_Dynasty|Liao dynasty]] (907-1125 CE). While of restricted use, there even exists a sizable body of [[Indo-Iranian_Loans_in_Kilda|Indian and Iranian loanwords]].

The Kïlda language has furthermore absorbed very large numbers of lexical items from languages indigenous to Kamchatka (Kurile [[Wikipedia:Ainu_Language|Ainu]], Southern and Eastern &quot;dialects&quot; of [[Wikipedia:Itelmen_language|Itelmen]]) and from languages neighboring Kamchatka: the [[Wikipedia:Koryak_language|Koryak]] and [[Wikipedia:Alutor_language|Alutor]] languages, and later from [[Wikipedia:Aleut_language|Aleut]] and even Pacific Yupik -- confusingly now called [[Wikipedia:Alutiiq|Alutiiq]]. (Kïlda thus has been influenced by &quot;Alutor&quot;, &quot;Aleut&quot;, and &quot;Alutiiq&quot;, actually three different languages belonging to three different language families or branches thereof.) There are also a smaller number of foreign loans from the early modern period (primarily Portuguese, French, English, Japanese, and Russian, but also Chinese and [[Wikipedia:Chinook_Jargon|Chinook Jargon]]).  Perhaps as much as 1/4 or even 1/3 of the total lexicon is of non-Altaic or non-Tungusic origin. In the 19th and 20th century, it proved much more conservative towards foreign influence than in the past, and has (relatively) few &quot;global&quot; or &quot;international&quot; items of vocabulary taken from English or Russian.

==Writing Systems==
The Kïldamnï in Kamchatka used forms of the [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khitan.htm Khitan logosyllabic writing system] until the early 1800s, when Latin orthographies were adopted. The original Khitan &quot;Large Script&quot; and &quot;Small Script&quot; writing systems of the Liao dynasty seem to have died out by approximately 1300 and are documented in Kamchatka only by a few short and poorly-preserved inscriptions in stone. They did, however, give rise to a third related script first attested around the same time; this writing system consisted of 1200-1600 graphemes and during its period of use (c. 1325-1825) became gradually more and more regularized and rationalized. 

Since the 1820s the official and generally used orthrography for Kïlda has been one of several Latinate systems (also successively modified and modernized over the decades). The language has also been written in the Russian Cyrillic alphabet (primarily by Orthodox missionaries, priests, and converts beginning in the early 1700s), Japanese katakana (during 1941-1945), and to a very limited extent in a &quot;runic&quot; syllabary devised at the turn of the twentieth century that was inspired by the recently-discovered [[Wikipedia:Orkhon_script|Old Turkic &quot;runic&quot; script]] from the Orkhon and Yenesei valleys in Central Asia.

==Ethnographic Background Information==
[[Kildamni Ethnographic Questionnaire]]


[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Altaic conlangs]]
[[Category:Kilda Kelen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Simik</title>
    <id>1275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4627</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-10T03:02:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Simîk is one of many languages spoken by the [[Zireen]] of the planet Rishai.

== Phonology ==

=== Consonants ===

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| 
| labial
| alveolar
| retroflex
| alv-palat.
| palatal
| velar
|-
| stops
|
| t
|
|
|
| k
|-
| nasals
| m
| n
|
|
|
|
|-
| fricatives
| v
| s z
| š r
| ś ź
| c j
| 
|-
| lat. appr.
|
| l
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Vowels ===

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| 
| front
| central
| back
|-
| high
| i
| 
| u
|-
| mid
| e
| 
| 
|-
| low
| 
| a
|
|}

=== Tones ===

Simîk has four tones:

* high rising: á é í ú
* high falling: â ê î û
* low rising: ǎ ě ǐ ǔ
* low falling: à è ì ù

For convenience, the low rising tone is written without a tone mark. Each of these tones may also occur on long vowels (or diphthongs), so it is often said that Simîk has eight tones.

There should be 16 possible combinations of tones in two-syllable Simik words. However, most of these combinations only appear in compounds and foreign words. If you account for vowel length separately, only four or five of the possible tone patterns are common in native Simik roots, and many of the exceptions are emphatic forms that are derived from shorter roots. Historically, Simik developed from a language with pitch accent. The five tone patterns are especially apparent in words with short vowels:

* pattern 1 (HF-LR): jûma &quot;dream&quot;, mâjar &quot;to carry&quot;, nârik &quot;right-hand&quot;
* pattern 2 (HR-LR): nécla &quot;[[Yitha]]&quot;, tílma &quot;logic&quot;, źálin &quot;to assemble&quot;, źérit &quot;bird&quot;
* pattern 3 (LR-HF): imâk &quot;metal&quot;, mekî &quot;puzzle&quot;, tazâ &quot;six&quot;, valâr &quot;finger&quot;
* pattern 4 (LR-HR): izá &quot;cat&quot;, jaśí &quot;imbalance&quot;, saré &quot;right, proper&quot;
* pattern 5 (LR-LF): jerìn &quot;left-hand&quot;, njeźà &quot;lubricant&quot;, rizù &quot;to thank&quot;

In the ancient language, at most one syllable of a word received a stress, which could be rising or falling. The fifth pattern is accounted for by words without inherent stress. The various tone patterns of modern Simîk arise from different combinations of pitch accent, vowel length, and other factors.

{| border=1 cellpadding=5
| ancient:
| jùma
| néškla
| imàk
| iðá
| ježin
|-
| modern:
| jûma
| nécla
| imâk
| izá
| jerìn
|}

== Morphology ==

=== Verbs ===

There are three conjugation patterns for verbs. 

* 1st conjugation (intransitive verbs)
{|
| ''taacèi''
| I sleep
|-
| ''nîicèi''
| you sleep
|-
| ''nâacèi''
| we; you and I sleep
|-
| ''secèi''
| he/she/it/they sleep(s)
|-
| ''kúucèi''
| we; he/she/it/they and I sleep
|}

* 2nd conjugation (transitive verbs)
{|
| ''kítai''
| I like myself
|-
| ''sîitai''
| I like you
|-
| ''setai''
| I like him/her/it/them
|-
| ''síitai''
| you like me
|-
| ''kíitai''
| you like yourself
|-
| ''séetai''
| you like him/her/it/them
|-
| ''leetái''
| he/she/it/they like(s) me
|-
| ''iitái''
| he/she/it/they like(s) you
|-
| ''àtai''
| he/she/it/they like(s) him/her/it/them
|-
| ''kàtai''
| he/she/it/they like(s) himself/herself/itself/themselves
|}

* 3rd conjugation (reciprocal verbs)
{|
| ''núilic''
| you and I kiss
|-
| ''śilic''
| he/she/it and I kiss
|-
| ''zilic''
| you and he/she/it kiss
|-
| ''valic''
| they kiss
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fukhian</title>
    <id>1276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:31:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Fukhian is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* agglutinating
* VSO (but also free)
* nominative case system
* case system inspired mostly by Finnish
* chaotic ad-hoc phonotactics (I did not know better)
* nouns and verbs are indistinguishable, but adjectives are a lexical class on their own

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s1 Fukhian Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Qþyn/gài</title>
    <id>1277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:31:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Qþyn|gài is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* agglutinating/polysynthetic
* VOS
* active system ([[Fluid-S]])
* some dialects have no phonemic lip movement (no labial consonants, no rounded vowels)
* only one open lexical class (nouns, verbs, adjectives are all the same)
* most 'normal' categories' affixes are optional
* evidence/mood and valence affixes are mandatory
* [[Pro-Drop|pro-drop]]
* no ad-hoc compounding, only well-defined derivation
* very long words
* clicks and tones

  Kxàustùnǂgístiuqþakxáuqlái syqlùstỳxáuqþúihhítlùxkiu.

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s7/ Qþyn|gài Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Da Mätz se Basa</title>
    <id>1278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32191</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-03T06:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Da Mätz se Basa is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* isolating
* V2 word order (like many Germanic langs)
* a posteriori language: a Modern [[High German]] creole
* designed to sound funny to German (and [[Dutch]]) ears

  Dom heis de Kota „Babel“, ombat de Hir do da du 
  Wirl se Basa hat kofün ja, un ombat de Hir fon 
  do di Mätz irde du Meil hat foteil ja.

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s9/ Da Mätz se Basa se Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]

[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tesäfköm</title>
    <id>1279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:27:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tesäfköm is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* isolating? agglutinating? polysynthetic?  It's a bit hard to say since most of the words are conjoined due to clitic phenomena and there is not too much morphology apart from derivation, which in turn is very productive.
* nouns and verbs
* verbs always have exactly one argument (and not more!)
* OV
* heavy use of serial verb constructions (SVC)
* complex vowel harmonies
* complex sandhi
* vowel-consonant assimilation
* [[Pro-Drop|pro-drop]]

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s11/ Tesäfköm Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Meghean</title>
    <id>1280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8962</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-12T05:18:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ a priori conlangs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A language of [[Elves]] constructed by Andreas Johansson.

[http://andjo.free.fr/conlang/meghean.html An Introduction to Meghean]

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:201.255.90.99</title>
    <id>1290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4635</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-12T02:13:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi!  Welcome to FrathWiki.  Do consider [[Special:Userlogin|logging in]] so we can recognize you.  Also, please take care to give your pages titles that will not conflict with other use; instead of [[Accusative]], something like, [[Dwendi accusative]] (if it really merits a full page to itself).  I am merging these new pages you have added with [[Dwendi grammar]]. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 18:57, 11 Aug 2005 (PDT)

:(Tu IP dice que tu eres in in Argentina... si no eres anglohablante puedes escribir tus paginas en español o en cualquier idioma que te gusta.) —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 19:13, 11 Aug 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Bluetable</title>
    <id>1292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:50:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">style=&quot;{{{1}}}&quot; class=&quot;bluetable&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Zhen Lin/Monobook.css</title>
    <id>1296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4640</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-16T06:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>User:Zhen Lin/Monobook.css moved to User:Zhen Lin/monobook.css</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[User:Zhen Lin/monobook.css]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical phonology of Slevan</title>
    <id>1298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46876</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:18:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}
== [[Wikipedia:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]] sound changes ==

{{big|Latin to Vulgar Latin (Pre-Romance) ? -150 C.E.}}

{{GMPtable|Latin}}
|-
|m||word-finally||disappears||{{small|CAELUM}} &gt; *kaelu &gt; czál
|-
|{{IPA|y̆, ȳ}} || everywhere || ĭ, ī || {{small|CYGNU}} &gt; *kignu &gt; czenj
|-
|rowspan=2|ae|| word-finally|| {{IPA|ǣ}} || {{small|ROSAE}} &gt; *{{IPA|rosǣ}} &gt; roze
|-
|elsewhere || ĕ {{IPA|[ɛ]}} || {{small|CAELU}} &gt; *kelu &gt; czál
|-
|oe|| || ē || {{small|FOEDU}} &gt; *fēdu &gt; véd
|-
|au|| || ō || {{small|CAUSA}} &gt; *kōsa &gt; kuza
|-
|eu|| || jū ||
|-
|ui|| || ū ||
|-
|ĭ,ĕ || before another vowel || j || {{small|SPATIU}} &gt; *spatju &gt; spóc&lt;br&gt; {{small|LĪNEA}} &gt; līnja &gt; linja
|-
| ŭ || before another vowel || w || {{small|VIDUA}} &gt; *vidwa &gt; vedva
|-
| h || disappears || || {{small|HODIĒ}} &gt; odjē &gt; voj&lt;br&gt; {{small|COLAPHU}} &gt; *kolapu &gt; klóp&lt;br&gt; {{small|CATHEDRA}} &gt; *katedra &gt; kotjedra &lt;br&gt; {{small|MĀCHINA}} &gt; *mākina &gt; máczna
|-
| ns || || s || {{small|ĪNSULA}} &gt; *īsula &gt; ízla
|-
| nct, mpt || nt || || {{small|SANCTU}} &gt; *sàntu-ju &gt; sútý&lt;br&gt;
{{small|PRŌMPTUM}} &gt; *prōntu &gt; prútý
|-
|nj, cn, gn, mnj || || ň {{IPA|[ɲ]}} || {{small|LĪNEA}} &gt; *līňa &gt; linja&lt;br&gt; {{small|CYGNU}} &gt; *kiňu &gt; czenj &lt;br&gt; {{small|SOMNIU}} &gt; *soňu &gt; sonj
|-
| mn || || nn || {{small|DAMNU}} &gt; *dannu &gt; dón
|-
| mĭn || between vowels || mn || {{small|DOMINU}} &gt; *domnu &gt; dún
|-
| lj || || ľ {{IPA|[ʎ]}} || {{small|FĪLĬU}} &gt; *fīľu &gt; vílj
|-
| per- || word initially || par- || {{small|PERAMBULĀRE}} &gt; *parambulāre &gt; porúblár &lt;br&gt; {{small|PERDERE}} &gt; *pàrdere &gt; pradír &lt;br&gt; {{small|PERSŌNA}} &gt; *parsōna &gt; prasuna
|-
| b || between vowels || v {{IPA|[β]}} || {{small|LĂBŌRĀRE}} &gt; *lavōrare &gt; lóvrár
|-
| s || between vowels || z || {{small|ĪNSULA}} &gt; *īzula &gt; ízla &lt;br&gt; {{small|CAUSA}} &gt; *kōza &gt; kuza
|-
| sp, st, sc [sk] || word initial ||ĭsp, ĭst, ĭsk || {{small|SPŌNSA}} &gt; *ispōza &gt; spuza &lt;br&gt; {{small|STUDIU}} &gt; *istudju &gt; stuj &lt;br&gt; {{small|SCHOLA}} &gt; *iskola &gt; skola
|}

* It is possible that the Greek '''y''' sound was adopted as '''i''' by Vulgar Latin from the beginning.

* Note that '''h''' was lost ''everywhere'', also in the Greek aspirates '''ph, th, ch'''.  It is especially noteworthy that '''ph''' became '''p''', not '''f''' in the kind of Vulgar Latin that led to Slevan.

== Northeast Romance sound changes ==

{{big|Vulgar Latin to Early Northeast Romance 150 - 600 C.E.}}

{{GMPtable|V.L.}}
|-
|rowspan=2| ă, ā || open stressed, or unstressed final, syllable || a || {{small|MĀRE}} &gt; *mare &gt; már&lt;br&gt;{{small|RŌMA}} &gt; *rōma &gt; Ruma
|-
| closed stressed, or an unstressed, syllable || o {{IPA|[ɔ]}} || {{small|CAPRA}} &gt; *kopra &gt; kopra&lt;br&gt;{{small|PĀGĀNU}} &gt; *poganŭ &gt; pohán&lt;br&gt;{{small|ĂRĀNEA}} &gt; *oraňa &gt; oranja
|-
|rowspan=2| ē, ĭ || stressed syllable || e || {{small|TĒLA}} &gt; *tela &gt; tela&lt;br&gt;{{small|SĬTE}} &gt; *setĭ &gt; sétj
|-
| unstressed non-final syllable || ĭ {{IPA|[ɪ]}}|| 
|-
| ē || unstressed final syllable || i || {{small|CANĒS}} &gt; *kanis &gt; kani&lt;br&gt;{{small|TACĒS}} &gt; *takis &gt; taczi
|-
|rowspan=3| ĕ || stressed open syllable || jě {{IPA|[jæ]}} || {{small|CAELŬ}} &gt; *kjělŭ &gt; czál
|-
| stressed closed syllable || ě {{IPA|[æ]}} || {{small|TĔRRA}} &gt; *těrra &gt; tjera
|-
| unstressed syllable || ĭ  || {{small|RĔGĔRĔ}} &gt; *rjěgěrĭ &gt; rezsár&lt;br&gt;{{small|ĂPĔRĪRĔ}} &gt; *opěrjirĭ &gt; opjerír
|-
| {{IPA|ǣ}} || unstressed final syllable || e || {{small|ROSAE}} &gt; *rŭoze &gt; roze
|-
|rowspan=2| ī || stressed open syllable || ji || {{small|SĪGNŬ}} &gt; *sjiňŭ &gt; színj
|-
| elsewhere || i || {{small|CĪVĪLĔ}} &gt; *kivjilĭ-jŭ &gt; czivílí
|-
|rowspan=2| ō,ŭ || stressed syllable || ō {{IPA|[o]}} || {{small|DŌNŬ}} &gt; *dōnŭ &gt; dún&lt;br&gt; {{small|PŬTĔŬ}} &gt; *pōtjŭ &gt; púc&lt;br&gt; {{small|ŬTĔRŬ}} &gt; *ōtĭrŭ &gt; utjer
|-
| unstressed non-final syllable || ŭ || {{small|SŌLĔMNĔ}} &gt; *sŭlěnnĭ-jŭ &gt; sléní&lt;br&gt; {{small|ĔPĪSTŬLA}} &gt; *ěpistŭla &gt; pístla
|-
|rowspan=3| ŏ || stressed open syllable || ŭo || {{small|BŎNŬ}} &gt; *bŭonŭ-jŭ &gt; bóný
|-
| stressed closed syllable || o || {{small|NŎCTĔ}} &gt; *noktĭ &gt; nóc
|-
| unstressed syllable || ŭ || {{small|MŎNASTĒRĬŬ}} &gt; *mŭnasterjŭ &gt; mnostér
|-
| f || || v || {{small|FĪLĬŬ}} &gt; *viľŭ &gt; vílj&lt;br&gt; {{small|ŎFFĬCĬŬ}} &gt; *ovvekjŭ &gt; ovécz
|-
| k || before ĭ, i, ě ||rowspan=2| č || {{small|CĔNTŬ}} &gt; *čěntŭ &gt; czút&lt;br&gt; {{small|DŬCĔ}} &gt; *dōčĭ &gt; dúcz
|-
| kj || || {{small|ŎFFĬCĬŬ}} &gt; *ovvečŭ &gt; ovécz
|-
| g || before ĭ, i, ě  at the beginning of a word or after a gonsonant || ž || {{small|GĔNTĔ}} &gt; *žěntĭ &gt; zsútj
|-
| g || between a vowel and ĭ, i ||rowspan=2| j || {{small|RĔGĬT}} &gt; *rějĭt &gt; reje&lt;br&gt; {{small|MĂGĬS}} &gt; *majĭs &gt; maj&lt;br&gt; {{small|LĒGE}} &gt; *lejĭ &gt; lej
|-
| gj, dj || between vowels || {{small|ĔXĂGĬŬM}} &gt; *ěχajŭ &gt; jachaj&lt;br&gt; {{small|MĔDĬŬ}} &gt; *mjějŭ &gt; mljaj
|-
| x || before ĭ, i, ě ||rowspan=2| š ||
|-
| xj || || {{small|NŎXĬŬ}} &gt; *nŭošŭ &gt; nósz
|-
| sk, kk || before ĭ, i, ě ||rowspan=2| šč || {{small|PĬSCĔ}} &gt; *peščĭ &gt; pészt&lt;br&gt; {{small|ŎCCĪDĔRĔ}} &gt; *oščiděrĭ &gt; osztidír
|-
| skj, kkj || || {{small|ASCĬŎLA}} &gt; *oščŭla &gt; ósztla&lt;br&gt; {{small|BRĀCCHĬŬ}} &gt; *broščŭ &gt; brószt
|}
[[Category:Slevan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kythish</title>
    <id>1299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42425</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-30T19:48:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is currently undergoing a major revision.'''

==Introduction==
'''Kythish''', also known as Hacean (more properly a dialect of Kythish), is a Germanic language spoken in the cantons of the [[Kythe]]. Its closest relative is [[Partish]], situated to the north of the Kythish-speaking area, which it exists in a dialect continuum with. Other relatives on the world of [[Oktosïï]] include [[Nordaþ language|Nordaþ]], a more distant [[Germanic]] language which has influenced Kythish to a degree.

Kythish does not have a national or otherwise unifying standard&amp;mdash;indeed, the Kythe itself is not a unified entity despite its relative linguistic uniformity&amp;mdash;but is heavily fragmented among competing regional standards and traditions, both in speech and writing. This article focuses on three of the most important of these (discussed below), although attention is given to other forms where appropriate and examples are sometimes taken from them. The lack of a coherent national standard for Kythish necessitates that any account of the Kythish language either specify the dialect material is taken from or analyse more than one dialect; otherwise, one is in danger of giving a skewed presentation of the language as whole. This, which is intended as an overview of the language as whole, as mentioned, concentrates on three different standards. These dialects do not represent the extremes of the language, nor are they necessarily representative of any major dialectal groupings; rather, they have been chosen due to a perceived importance, either historical or modern, within the Kythe and influence on the language. They are: Metropolitan and Broads Hacean (hereafter MBH or Hacean), which is a traditionally important standard, dominant in this form throughout much of the northeast centring on the large and influential city of Hacei (seat of the supranational Kythish Federal Parliament), but its norms have been influential throughout the Kythish linguistic area; the Thwalish Eastern Standard (TES or Thwalish), which is an old standard originating in the academic institutions of the city of Thwale that was for a long time the most prestigious written dialect in the region, since superseded by MBH; and University Tansuan, more properly the JEC Tansu Standard (JTS or Tansuan), where JEC Tansu stands for ''Jóŋŋ-Eiźhóc-Ceinræí Tánsú'', the name of the university that codified the standard, which has been gaining influence in academic circles for quite a while and has recently received a boost due to its adoption by the Tansu government and that city's speedily growing economy. Tansuan is the form used for glosses, translations and as a baseline for comparison with other lects, except where noted.

==Phonology &amp; Orthography==
These are considered together here as a simultaneous understanding of both is important for the understanding of further Kythish material.

Kythish dialects are typified by high vocalic complexity, with long &amp; short and tense &amp; lax distinctions, and a wide range of diphthongs. This is less true in the north and northwest, close to Nordath- and Säämi-speaking areas, where many phonemic distinctions have been levelled and greater vowel harmony between roots and affixes has developed than in their more southerly counterparts. Vowels will be covered first, followed by a discussion of the consonantal inventories of the various dialects.

===Vowels===
====Tansuan====
{| cellpadding=2 align=left
|+ Short vowels
! !! front !! near-front !! central !! near-back !! back	
|-
! close
| || || || ||
|-
! near-close
| || ɪ·ʏ || || ·ʊ ||
|-
! close-mid 
| || || || ||
|-
! mid 
| || || ə· || ||
|-
! open-mid 
| ɛ·œ || || || || ʌ·ɔ
|-
! near-open
| æ· || || || ||
|-
! open 
| || || || ||
|}
{| cellpadding=2 align=right
|+ Long vowels
! !! front !! near-front !! central !! near-back !! back	
|-
! close
| iː·yː || || || || ·uː
|-
! near-close
| || ɪː·ʏː || || ·ʊː ||
|-
! close-mid 
| eː·øː || || || || ·oː
|-
! mid 
| || || əː· || ||
|-
! open-mid 
| ɛː·œː || || || || ·ɔː
|-
! near-open
| æː· || || || ɐ̠ː· ||
|-
! open 
| aː· || || || || ɑː·
|}

[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]
[[Category:Kythish]]
[[Category:Oktosïï]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kythish phonemes</title>
    <id>1300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:43:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Kythish]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Vowels===
Kythish has 7 'short' vowels (a, e, i, o, u, w, and y) and 7 roughly equivalent 'long' vowels (á, é, í, ó, ú, ẃ, and ý). The terminology is based on the fact that long vowels, when stressed, have a longer duration than their short equivalents.

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; border: none;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Vowel
! IPA Equivalent
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Notes
|-
| a
| [æ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Heightened to [ɛ] in a diverse number of dialects.
|-
| á
| [a]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [aː] when stressed.
|-
| e
| [ɛ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| é
| [e]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [eː] when stressed.
|-
| i
| [ɪ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| í
| [i]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [iː] when stressed.
|-
| o
| [ɔ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Relaxed to [ɞ] in eastern dialects.
|-
| ó
| [o]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Relaxed to [ɵ] in the east; [oː] ([ɵː]) when stressed.
|-
| u
| ''see notes''
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Ranges from back open-mid ([ʌ]) in the north and west through back near-open, near-back near-open in the south and centre to central near-open ([ɐ]) in the east. Most lexicographers give it as [ʌ], as this is the pronunciation most often heard in and around hácei.
|-
| ú
| [ɑ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [ɑː] when stressed.
|-
| w
| [ʊ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ẃ
| [u]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Relaxed to /ʉ/ in the east, or retained as /y/ or /ʏ/ in many rural areas; /uː/ (/ʉː/, /yː/, /ʏː/) when stressed.
|-
| y
| [ə]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | In some dialects, [ɘ] when stressed.
|-
| ý
| [ɜ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [ɜː] when stressed.
|}

In addition, the dialectal vowels ø and ǿ are pronounced thus:

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; border: none;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Vowel
! IPA Equivalent
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Notes
|-
| ø
| [œ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ǿ
| [ø]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [øː] when stressed.
|}

===Consonants===
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; border: none;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Consonant
! IPA Equivalent
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Notes
|-
| b
| [b]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [p] initially and medially for many speakers.
|-
| bh
| [β]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Considered allophonic with v.
|-
| c
| [kʰ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Finally and in clusters, [k].
|-
| ch
| [x]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ć
| [x]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| d
| [d]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [t] initially and medially for many speakers.
|-
| dh
| [ð] ''or'' [z]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Depends on whether d is realised as dental or alveolar (usually the former).
|-
| ð
| [ð]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| f
| [f]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| g
| [g]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [k] initially and medially for many speakers.
|-
| gh
| [ɣ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ǵ
| [ɣ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| h
| [h]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| hƿ
| [hʍ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [ʍ] in a diverse number of dialects.
|-
| j
| [j]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| l
| [l]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ĺ
| [ɬ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| m
| [m]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| n
| [n]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ŋ
| [ŋ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| p
| [pʰ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Finally and in clusters, [p].
|-
| ph
| [ɸ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Considered allophonic with f.
|-
| r
| ''see notes''
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Adjacent to a fricatives, [ɹ], otherwise, [r], and shortened to [ɾ] in quick speech. (Gutturalised as [xɹ] or [χɹ] in southern and some metropolitan dialects).
|-
| ŕ
| [ʀ̥]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| s
| [s]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ś
| [ʃ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| t
| [tʰ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Finally and in clusters, [t].
|-
| th
| [θ] or [s]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Depends on whether t is realised as dental or alveolar (usually the former).
|-
| þ
| [θ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| v
| [v]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ƿ
| [w]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Adjacent to voiceless consonants, [ʍ].
|-
| z
| [z]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ź
| [ʒ]
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

In addition, the dialectal consonants ç and ḉ, and digraph çh, are pronounced thus:

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; border: none;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Consonant
! IPA Equivalent
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Notes
|-
| ç
| [cʰ]
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Finally and in clusters, [c].
|-
| çh
| [ç]
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ḉ
| [ç]
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

[[Kythish|Return to Kythish]].

[[Category:Kythish]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kythish lexicon</title>
    <id>1301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:43:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Kythish]], [[Category:General Lexica]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[Kythish]] words.

Entries are ordered thus: '''spelling''' /pronunciation/ ''part of speech'' definition &amp;mdash; notes &amp; etymology. Where irregular forms are listed, only the relevant inflections are given. Pronunciations are broadly transcribed, with canonical, phonemic values.

''n.'' = noun; ''v.'' = verb; ''a.'' = adjective or adverb; ''p.'' = pronoun (personal, interrogative or demonstrative); ''c.'' = conjunction; ''f.'' = affix; ''i.'' = interjection; ''pp.'' = preposition

''dial.'' = dialectal; ''colloq.'' = colloquial; ''irreg.'' = irregular; ''obs.'' = obsolete

==a==
*'''a'''- /æ/ ''f.'' Affix form of ''aa'', below. — Mostly used to form adjectives from verbs. Usually unstressed.
*'''aa''' /æː/ ''pp.'' At. — Old English ''æt''.
*'''aaś''' /æːʃ/ ''n.'' The letter a. — Old English ''æsc'', ash (see ''aś''). Long vowel is common to all letter names.
*'''abawƿ''' /ˈæbæʊw/ ''n.'' Apple. — Either Old English ''æppel'' or Welsh ''afal''. Influence of both is likely.
*-'''an''' /æn/ ''f.'' Marks the infinitive of verbs. — Irregular derivation of Old English -''an''.
*'''aŋywƿ''' /ˈæŋəʊw/ ''n.'' Angel; saintly person. — Old English ''ængel'', variant of ''engel'', angel.
*'''asće''' /ˈæsxə/ ''n.'' Ash (dust formed from burning). — Old English ''æsce'', ashes.
*'''asom''' /æˈsɔm/ ''a.'' Fitting. — Affixation of ''a''- to ''soman'', q.v.
*'''aś'''¹ /æʃ/ ''n.'' Ash tree; pole or polearm. — Old English ''æsc'', ash.
*'''aś'''² /æʃ/ ''p.'' ''dial.'' I. — Metropolitan variant of ''eś'', q.v.
*'''aþẃrs''' /æˈθuːrs/ ''a.'' Thirsty. — Affixation of ''a''- to ''þẃrsan'', q.v.
*'''awgoŋ''' /ˈæʊɡɔŋ/ ''n.'' Exit, out-door. — Old English ''útgang'', exit.
*'''aẃ''' /æuː/ ''n.'' ''slang'' Outdoors, countryside. — Middle Hacean ''auu'', from Old English ''út'', out. See ''ẃ''.

==á==
*'''áneí''' /ˈaːnɛi/ ''a.'' Any. — Old English ''ǽnig'', ''ǽneg'', any.

==b==
*'''baiwƿ''' /bæɪʊw/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Bug, creepy-crawly. — Old English ''bétel'', beetle; see ''béle''.
*'''beyśe''' /ˈbɛəʃə/ ''n.'' Female animal; pejoratively, woman. — Old English ''bicce'', bitch.
*'''béjan''' /ˈbeːjæn/ ''v.'' To bite; to cut off a small piece. — Old English ''bítan''. Base form is '''bé'''.
*'''béje''' /ˈbeːjə/ ''n.'' Bite, chunk. — From the verb.
*'''béjyne''' /ˈbeːjənə/ ''n.'' Bite (act of biting).
*'''béle''' /ˈbeːlə/ ''n.'' Beetle. — Old English ''bítela''.
*'''bjowm''' /bjɔʊm/ ''n.'' Tree. — Old English ''beám''.
*'''bown''' /bɔʊn/ ''n.'' Bone (as an object). — Old English ''bán''.
*'''bownas''' /ˈbɔʊnæs/ ''n.'' Bone (as a material). — Merely a compound of ''bown'' and -''nas''.
*'''bózym''' /ˈboːzəm/ ''n.'' Chest, bosom; torso. — Old English ''bósm''.
*'''bwŕ''' /bʊʀ/ ''n.'' Fort, castle, palace, large building. — Old English ''burh'', fort.
*'''bẃ''' /buː/ ''n.'' Settlement; farm dwellings. — Old English and Old Norse ''by''.
*'''bẃrgan''' /ˈbuːrɡæn/ ''v.'' To entomb. — Back-formation from ''bẃrǵaws'', q.v.
*'''bẃrǵaws''' /ˈbuːrɣæʊs/ ''n.'' Tomb, mausoleum. — Variant of ''bẃrǵywƿs'', on the notion that it stood for *''bẃrg''-''haws'', see ''bẃrgan'' and ''haws''.
*'''bẃrǵywƿs''' /ˈbuːrɣəʊws/ ''n.'' Tomb. — Old English ''byrgels'', tomb. See also ''bẃrǵaws''.
*'''bẃreíjan''' /buˈrɛijæn/ ''v.'' To bury (an object, not a person). — Old English ''byrigan''.
*'''byconan''' /bəˈkɔnæn/ ''v.'' To enable, make able. — Causative form of ''conan'', q.v.
*'''bycwynan''' /bəˈkʊənæn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' To teach. — Affixation of ''by''-, a causative, to ''cwynan'', q.v. Normal verb of teaching is ''ceinan''.
*'''bycwynár''' /bəˈkʊənar/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Teacher.
*'''bymoŋan''' /bəˈmɔŋæn/ ''v.'' To mix (together). — Causative form of ''moŋan'', q.v.
*'''byryjan''' /bəˈrəjæn/ ''v.'' To pledge, promise. — Middle Hacean ''bureian'' (''burejan''), from Old English ''borgian''.
*'''bysćúźan''' /bəˈsxɑːʒæn/ ''v.'' To ruffle (hair). — Affixation of ''by''- to ''sćúźe'', q.v.
*'''bysturc''' /bəˈstʌrk/ ''i.'' ''slang'' Woot! Yes! etc., indicates victory or successful completion of a task. — From the verb, on the notion that one has been 'placed higher' by succeeding.
*'''bysturcan''' /bəˈstʌrkæn/ ''v.'' To raise up, place higher. — Formed from ''by''- and ''sturc'', q.v.
*'''bywć''' /bəʊx/ ''n.'' Cow. — Welsh ''buwch'', cow.
*'''býr''' /bɜːr/ ''n.'' Beer. — Old English ''beor''.
*'''býrǵan''' /ˈbɜːrɣæn/ ''v.'' To protect, hide away; to keep. — Old English ''beorgan'', to protect.
*'''býrǵáiþ''' /ˈbɜːrɣaɪθ/ ''n.'' Protection.
*'''býrǵe''' /ˈbɜːrɣə/ ''n.'' Stash, caché; hideaway. — From the verb.
*'''býŕ''' /bɜːʀ/ ''n.'' Mound, pile; stash. — Old English ''beorh'', mound or hill. Second sense is due to influence of ''býrǵe'', q.v.

==c==
*'''caes''' /kæɛs/ ''n.'' Hate, hatred. — Welsh ''cas''.
*'''caesan''' /ˈkæɛsæn/ ''v.'' To hate. — Formed from ''caes''.
*'''caese''' /ˈkæɛsə/ ''n.'' Hatred. — From the verb.
*'''caesfowƿ''' /ˈkæɛsfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Hateful; evil.
*'''cawðan''' /ˈkæʊðæn/ ''v.'' To be famous. — Either Old English ''cúð'', known, or Kythish ''cwynan'', q.v. Not found in Middle Hacean.
*'''cawðáiþ''' /ˈkæʊðaɪθ/ ''n.'' Fame.
*'''cawðár''' /ˈkæʊðar/ ''n.'' Celebrity.
*'''cawðswm''' /ˈkæʊðzʊm/ ''a.'' Famous.
*'''ceinan''' /ˈkɛɪnæn/ ''v.'' To teach. — Old English ''cennan'', to cause to know.
*'''ceináiþ''' /ˈkɛɪnaɪθ/ ''n.'' Education.
*'''ceinár''' /ˈkɛɪnar/ ''n.'' Teacher.
*'''ceine''' /ˈkɛɪnə/ ''n.'' Lesson. — From the verb.
*'''ceinhaws''' /ˈkɛɪnhæʊs/ ''n.'' School. — Literally &quot;lesson-building&quot;, compound of ''ceine'' and ''haws'', q.v.
*'''ceinlýs''' /ˈkɛɪnlɜs/ ''a.'' Uneducated. — Literally &quot;lessonless&quot;, from ''ceine'' and the suffix -''lýs''.
*'''ceinon''' /ˈkɛɪnɔn/ ''n.'' Student.
*'''cíþrár''' /ˈkiːθrar/ ''n.'' Close or intimate friend. — Possibly connected to ''cwiþár'' via an unattested form *''cwiþyrár''.
*'''cíþrárnas''' /kiθˈraːrnæs/ ''n.'' Friendship group. — Affixation of -''nas'' to ''cíþrár'', q.v.
*'''cíþráráiþ''' /kiθˈraːraɪθ/ ''n.'' Close friendship.
*'''conan''' /ˈkɔnæn/ ''v.'' To be able. — Old English ''can''.
*'''confowƿ''' /ˈkɔnfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Full of ability; well-suited to a particular task.
*'''conlýs''' /ˈkɔnlɜs/ ''a.'' Without ability; weak; stupid.
*'''conlýsáiþ''' /kɔnˈlɜːsaɪθ/ ''n.'' ''pejor.'' Weakness. — From the adjective, and influenced by ''conlýsár''.
*'''conlýsár''' /kɔnˈlɜːsar/ ''n.'' ''pejor.'' Weakling. — From the adjective.
*'''conswm''' /ˈkɔnsʊm/ ''a.'' Able.
*'''coo''' /kɔː/ ''n.'' Cat. — Old English ''cat''.
*'''coostopan''' /ˌkɔːˈstɔpæn/ ''v.'' To tip-toe, to creep. — Literally &quot;cat-step&quot;; compound of ''coo'', cat, and ''stopan'', to walk, q.v.
*'''coostopár''' /ˌkɔːˈstɔpar/ ''n.'' One who creeps, or a creeper (plant).
*'''coostopyrár''' /ˌkɔːˈstɔpərar/ ''n.'' A spy or cat-burgler. — Frequentative of ''coostopár''.
*'''cowƿ''' /kɔʊw/ ''n.'' Basket; sack. — Old English ''caul'', basket, from Latin ''cavellum''.
*'''cuwn''' /kʌʊn/ ''a.'' Chewed, mangled. — Old English ''coƿen'', past participle of ''ceóƿan'', see ''śjóƿan''.
*'''cwiðan''' /ˈkʊɪðæn/ ''v.'' To reveal. — Old English ''cýðan'', to make known.
*'''cwiðyne''' /ˈkʊɪðənə/ ''n.'' Revealing, unveiling. — From the continuative of ''cwiðan''.
*'''cwiþár''' /ˈkʊɪθar/ ''n.'' Fellow countryman. — Derived from ''cwiþe''.
*'''cwiþe''' /ˈkʊɪθə/ ''n.'' One's homeland; the Kythe. — Old English ''cýððe'', native land, kindred.
*'''cwnan''' /ˈkʊnæn/ ''n.'' To test; to inquire. — Old English ''cunnian'', to seek to know, to test.
*'''cwnár''' /ˈkʊnar/ ''n.'' Tester.
*'''cwne''' /ˈkʊnə/ ''n.'' Test. — From the verb.
*'''cwnyrár''' /ˈkʊnərar/ ''n.'' Scientist. — Frequentative of ''cwnár''.
*'''cwnyráráiþ''' /kʊnəˈraːraɪθ/ ''n.'' Science.
*'''cwynan''' /ˈkʊənæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To know. — Old English ''cunnan''. 
*::1st person imperfect past: '''cawð''' /kæʊð/
*::2nd person imperfect past: '''cawþs''' /kæʊθs/
*::3rd person imperfect past: '''cawþ''' /kæʊθ/
*::Perfective past: '''cawðaf''' /ˈkæʊðæf/
*'''cwynáiþ''' /ˈkʊənaɪθ/ ''n.'' Knowledge. — From the verb.
*'''cwyne''' /ˈkʊənə/ ''n.'' Something known; a piece of information. — From the verb.
*'''cwynyran''' /ˈkʊənəræn/ ''v.'' To be knowledgeable. — Frequentative of ''cwynan''.
*'''cwynyrár''' /ˈkʊənərar/ ''n.'' A sage.
*'''cyn'''- /kən/ ''f.'' Can, able to (indicates ability to do something). — From ''conan'', q.v. Usually unstressed.
*'''cynƿóć''' /ˈkənwox/ ''a.'' Bendy, bendable, malleable. — Literally 'can-bend', see ''cyn''- and ''ƿóćan''. Note unusual stress.

==ć==
*'''ćjaap''' /xjæːp/ ''n.'' A lean or worthless sheep, specifically one from a highland area; humorously, a goat. — Originally a dialectal variation of ''sćjowp'', sheep, presumably from around the banoǵacei region.

==d==
*'''daí''' /dæi/ ''n.'' Day. — Old English ''dæg''.
*'''daw''' /dæʊ/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Two. — Welsh ''dau''.
*'''drwǵðe''' /ˈdrʊɣðə/ ''n.'' Drought. — Old English ''drugaðe''. Related to ''drwíjan'' and ''drẃǵ'', q.v.
*'''drwíjan''' /ˈdrʊijæn/ ''v.'' To (make) dry. — Old English ''drugian'', to dry. Related to ''drẃǵ'' and ''drwǵðe'', q.v.
*'''drẃǵ''' /druːɣ/ ''a.'' Dehydrated, dried. — Old English ''dryge'', dry. Compare with ''zjowr''. Related to ''drwíjan'' and ''drwǵðe'', q.v.
*'''duźe''' /ˈdʌʒə/ ''n.'' Pet dog, or broadly, any pet. — Old English ''docga'', dog.
*'''duźwc''' /ˈdʌʒʊk/ ''n.'' Small or juvenile pet. — Diminutive of ''duźe''.
*'''dwnrainyn''' /dʊnˈræɪnən/ ''i.'' ''colloq.'' It's raining (down). — From ''dwn''-, down, and ''rainyn'', continuative of ''rainan'', q.v.
*'''dwyn''' /dʊən/ ''a.'' Dark, murky. — Old English ''dunn''.
*'''dẃdan''' /ˈduːdæn/ ''v.'' To delay, to deceive. — Probably Old English ''dydrian'', to lead hither and thither.
*'''dẃdáiþ''' /ˈduːdaɪθ/ ''n.'' Deception. 
*'''dẃdár''' /ˈduːdar/ ''n.'' Delayer, deceiver; one who obstructs.
*'''dẃdáran''' /duˈda:ræn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' ''pejor.'' To be employed by the government. — From ''dẃdár'', on the notion that to work for the government is to be a delayer, deceiver or both.
*'''dẃdáráiþ''' /duˈda:raɪθ/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' ''pejor.'' Government employment.
*'''dẃdáre''' /duˈda:rə/ ''n.'' Filibuster (in politics). — From ''dẃdár'', as it is 'something that delays'.
*'''dẃde''' /ˈduːdə/ ''n.'' Delay. — From the verb.
*'''dẃdre''' /ˈduːdrə/ ''n.'' Winding path, trail. — Formerly dialectal. Likely from Old English ''dydrian'', and thus related to ''dẃdan'', q.v.
*'''dẃdyran''' /ˈduːdəræn/ ''v.'' To con. — Frequentative of ''dẃdan'', q.v.
*'''dẃdyrár''' /ˈduːdərar/ ''n.'' Con artist.
*'''dẃdyre''' /ˈduːdərə/ ''n.'' Con. — From the verb.
*'''dẃiráin''' /duɪˈraɪn/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' A downpour. — Nordaþ ''dyrain'', itself a borrowing of Kythish ''dwnrainyn'', q.v. Nordaþ territory is significantly wetter than much of the Kythe, so their rain is a Kythishman's torrent.
*'''dẃiráinan''' /duɪˈraɪnæn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' To pour with rain. — From the noun.
*'''dẃn''' /duːn/ ''a.'' Dusky, dark (of a colour). — Welsh ''dwn''.
*'''dẃnrywd''' /ˈduːnrəʊd/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Dark red. — Compound of ''dẃn'' and ''rywd'', q.v.
*'''dẃran''' /ˈduːræn/ ''v.'' To ramble, to hike. — Probably derived from either ''dẃdre'' or its Old English etymon, ''dydrian''.
*'''dẃrár''' /ˈduːrar/ ''n.'' Rambler, hiker.
*'''dẃre''' /ˈduːrə/ ''n.'' Ramble, hike. — From the verb.

==ð==
*'''ða''' /ðæ/ ''p.'' Thou. — Old English ''ðú''. A better form is ''ðaw'', q.v.
*'''ðaa''' /ðæː/ ''c.'' That. — Old English ''ðæt'', neuter singular of ''ðe'' or ''se'', the. 
*'''ðaðar''' /ˈðæðær/ ''p.'' That (inanimate object or concept). — Middle Hacean ''ðaa ðar'', that there; see ''ðaa'' and ''ðar''. The animate equivalent is ''sei''.
*'''ðahair''' /ˈðæhæɪr/ ''p.'' This (inanimate object or concept). — Middle Hacean ''ðaa heer'', that here; see ''ðaa'' and ''hair''. The animate equivalent is ''ðeis''.
*'''ðajun''' /ˈðæjʌn/ ''p.'' Yon (inanimate object or concept). — Middle Hacean ''ðaa giun'', that yonder; see ''ðaa'' and ''jun''. The animate equivalent is ''seijun''.
*'''ðar''' /ðær/ ''a.'' There. — Old English ''ðær''.
*'''ðaw''' /ðæʊ/ ''p.'' dial. Thou. — A large number of rural dialects retain this instead of the standard ''ða'', where the final -w was lost for unknown reasons.
*'''ðeis''' /ðɛɪs/ ''p.'' This (animate object). — Old English ''ðes'', this. The inanimate equivalent is ''ðahair''.

==e==
*'''en''' /ɛn/ ''a.'' In. — Old English ''in''.
*'''enýrþan''' /ɛnˈɜːrθæn/ ''v.'' To plant. — Compound of ''en'' and ''ýrþ'', q.v.
*'''eŋoŋ''' /ˈɛŋɔŋ/ ''n.'' Entrance, in-door. — Old English ''ingang'', entrance.
*'''eś''' /ɛʃ/ ''p.'' I. — Old English ''ic''. In metropolitan hácei and þýcod, ''aś''² is also commonly used.

==é==


==f==
*'''faa''' /fæː/ ''n.'' Fat. — Old English ''fæt''.
*'''faafowƿ''' /ˈfæːfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Fat, obese. — Literally &quot;full of fat&quot;.
*'''feś''' /fɛʃ/ ''n.'' Fish. — Old English ''fisc''.
*'''féylan''' /ˈfeəlæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To fell, cause to fall. — Old English ''fellan''.
*::1st person imperfect present: '''féwƿ''' /feʊw/
*::2nd person imperfect present: '''féwƿs''' /feʊws/
*::3rd person imperfect present: '''féwƿþ''' /feʊwθ/
*'''fjówr''' /fjoʊr/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' ''dial.''/''colloq.'' Four. — Old English ''feówer''. Though nonstandard, this word is common enough to merit inclusion. The standard word is ''pydwyr'', q.v.
*'''fjúþ''' /fjɑːθ/ ''n.'' Hate. — Nordaþ ''fjaþ'', hate. Largely replaced native ''caes'', q.v.
*'''fjúþan''' /ˈfjɑːθæn/ ''v.'' To hate. — As above. Largely replaced native ''caesan'', ''hooƿan'', q.v.
*'''fjúþár''' /ˈfjɑːθar/ ''n.'' Hater.
*'''fjúþon''' /ˈfjɑːθɔn/ ''n.'' Subject of hate.
*'''fjúþyrár''' /ˈfjɑːθərar/ ''n.'' Enemy, esp. political. — Political rhetoric, literally &quot;habitual hater&quot;. See also ''fjýþyrar''.
*'''fjúþyron''' /ˈfjɑːθərɔn/ ''n.'' Victim, as of hate crimes. — Political rhetoric.
*'''fjúþyronan''' /fjɑˈθərɔnæn/ ''v.'' To victimise. — Not commonly used outside of political correctness camps, where it originates.
*'''fjýþyrar''' /ˈfjɜːθərar/ ''n.'' Humorously, any leftist. — Representation of the pronunciation of ''fjúþyrár'' by teofan schjómocar (who spoke with a caźowm accent, a southern dialect), a right-wing politician famed for accusing anyone he disliked of being an 'enemy of the Kythe'.
*'''fúlan''' /ˈfɑːlæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To fall. — Old English ''feallan''.
*::1st person imperfect present: '''fúwƿ''' /fɑʊw/
*::2nd person imperfect present: '''fúwƿs''' /fɑʊws/
*::3rd person imperfect present: '''fúwƿþ''' /fɑʊwθ/
*'''fwǵ''' /fʊɣ/ ''n.'' Bird. — Old English ''fugol''. The original -ywƿ ending was confused with the diminutive in -wƿ and lost.
*'''fwǵwƿ''' /ˈfʊɣʊw/ ''n.'' Small or domesticated bird; occasionally, wing. — Diminutive of ''fwǵ'', q.v.
*'''fwir''' /fʊɪr/ ''n.'' Fire. — Old English ''fýr''.
*'''fwiran''' /ˈfʊɪræn/ ''v.'' To set on fire; to start a fire. — From the noun.
*'''fwirár''' /ˈfʊɪrar/ ''n.'' Firestarter, arsonist.
*'''fwidyrár''' /ˈfʊɪdərar/ ''n.'' Pyromaniac. — Formed by dissimilation from *''fwiryrár'' (not attested), frequentative of ''fwirár''.
*'''fwŕ''' /fʊʀ/ ''n.'' Fir, any conifer. — Old English ''furh''.

==g==
*'''geiŋe''' /ˈɡɛɪŋə/ ''n.'' Traveller; regular (as of a bar). — Old English ''genga'', goer.
*'''goŋ''' /ɡɔŋ/ ''n.'' Journey, adventure. — Old English ''gang'', journey.
*'''goŋan''' /ˈɡɔŋæn/ ''v.'' To go; to move. — Old English ''gangan'', to go. Doublet of ''gown'', q.v.
*'''goŋáiþ''' /ˈɡɔŋaɪθ/ ''n.'' Movement. — From '''goŋan'''.
*'''goŋár'''¹ /ˈɡɔŋar/ ''n.'' One who goes; go-getter. — From ''goŋan''.
*'''goŋár'''² /ˈɡɔŋar/ ''n.'' Adventurer. — From ''goŋ''.
*'''goŋswm''' /ˈɡɔŋsʊm/ ''a.'' Adventurous. — From ''goŋ''.
*'''goŋyran''' /ˈɡɔŋəræn/ ''v.'' To travel (continuously). — Frequentative of ''goŋan'', q.v.
*'''goŋyrár''' /ˈɡɔŋərar/ ''n.'' Nomad.
*'''gown''' /ɡɔʊn/ ''p.'' Indicates future tense of verb it appears before. — Old English ''gán'', to go. Doublet of ''goŋan'', q.v.
*'''gowr''' /ɡɔʊr/ ''n.'' Barb, sharp point. — Old English ''gár'', spear.
*'''gowrstaf''' /ˈɡɔʊrstæf/ ''n.'' Spear, pike. — Compound of ''gowr'' and ''staf'', q.v.
*'''gud''' /ɡʌd/ ''n.'' God. — Old English ''god''.
*'''gudazolyr''' /ˌɡʌdæˈzɔlər/ ''n.'' Place of death; old battlefield. — Literally &quot;god's altar&quot;, compound of ''gudas'', genitive of ''gud'', and ''olyr'', an archaic form of ''owƿr'', q.v. The exact connection between the literal meaning and the modern sense is obscure.

==ǵ==
*'''ǵrám''' /ɣraːm/ ''a.'' Hostile, actively dangerous. — Related to ''ǵrem'' and ''ǵrom'', but origin uncertain; possibly from the same root as ''ǵrom'' via dialectal usage.
*'''ǵrem''' /ɣrɛm/ ''a.'' Fierce, aggressive. — Old English ''grim''. Related to ''ǵrom'' and ''ǵrám'', q.v.
*'''ǵrom''' /ɣrɔm/ ''a.'' Furious. — Old English ''gram'', angry. Related to ''ǵrem'' and ''ǵrom'', q.v.
*'''ǵromáiþ''' /ˈɣrɔmaɪθ/ ''n.'' Fury. — From the adjective.

==h==
*'''haa''' /hæː/ ''n.'' Top, pinnacle. — Old English ''hæt'', hat.
*'''hai''' /hæɪ/ ''p.'' He; she. — Old English ''hé'', he. Kythish has lost the distinction between masculine and feminine that English has, and gained a much more pronounced distinction between animate and inanimate, see ''hee''. Though largely obsolete, one may also find ''hjó'' in highly 'backward' dialects.
*'''hair''' /hæɪr/ ''a.'' Here. — Old English ''hér''.
*'''haws''' /hæʊs/ ''n.'' Small building, shed; (in compounds) any building. — Old English ''hús'', house.
*'''hee''' /hɛː/ ''p.'' It. — Old English ''hit'', neuter of ''hé'', see ''hai''.
*'''hjó''' /hjoː/ ''p.'' ''obs.''/''dial.'' She. — Old English ''heó'', feminine of ''hé'', see ''hai''.
*'''howm''' /hɔʊm/ ''n.'' House, abode. — Old English ''hám''.
*'''hód''' /hoːd/ ''n.'' Hood, hat. — Old English ''hód'', hood.
*'''hwnd''' /hʊnd/ ''n.'' Hound, dog. — Old English ''hund'', hound.
*'''hwndan''' /ˈhʊndæn/ ''v.'' To track or chase. — From ''hwnd'', above.
*'''hwndár''' /ˈhʊndar/ ''n.'' Tracker.
*'''hẃd''' /huːd/ ''n.'' Guard dog. — Middle Hacean ''huud'', dialectal form of ''huund'', ''hund'' (= ''hwnd'', q.v.).
*'''hẃdan''' /ˈhuːdæn/ ''v.'' To guard (as a dog). — From ''hẃd'', above.
*'''hẃdár''' /ˈhuːdar/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Bouncer (of a night club). — On the notion that they guard like dogs.
*'''hẃĺ''' /huːɬ/ ''a.'' Ugly, disfigured. — Welsh ''hyll'', ugly.
*'''hẃĺan''' /ˈhuːɬæn/ ''v.'' To disfigure. — From the adjective, but confer with Welsh ''hyllu'', to mar, disfigure.

==i==
*'''irce''' /ˈɪrkə/ ''n.'' Space between spread legs. — Middle Hacean ''irca'', further etymology unknown.

==í==


==j==
*'''jiþućt''' /jɪˈθʌxt/ ''n.'' Thought, idea. — Old English ''geþoht''. Related to ''þeiŋcan'', q.v.
*'''jiþućtáiþ''' /jɪˈθʌxtaɪθ/ ''n.'' Thought (uncountable).
*'''jowpan''' /ˈjɔʊpæn/ ''v.'' To gape, yawn. — Old English ''geápan'', to gape.
*'''jowpynmawþ''' /ˈjɔʊpənˌmæʊθ/ ''n.'' Simpleton, idiot. — Literally &quot;gaping-mouth&quot;, from ''mawþ'' and the continuative of ''jowpan'', q.v.
*'''jun''' /jʌn/ ''a.'' Yonder. — Old English ''geon'', yon.
*'''júrd''' /jɑːrd/ ''n.'' Garden. — Old English ''geard''.
*'''júre''' /ˈjɑːrə/ ''a.'' Prompt, ready. — Old English ''gearu'', ''gearo'', quick, ready.
*'''jẃrd''' /juːrd/ ''n.'' Pole, post. — Old English ''gyrd'', rod.

==l==
*'''ládan''' /laːd/ ''v.'' To lead, conduct. — Old English ''lǽdan''.
*'''ládár''' /ˈlaːdar/ ''n.'' Leader, conductor.
*'''ládáre''' /laˈdaːrə/ ''n.'' Lead, leash.
*'''léðan''' /ˈleːðæn/ ''v.'' To travel, move from one place to another. — Old English ''líðan''.
*'''léðyran''' /ˈleːðəræn/ ''v.'' To go abroad, on holiday. — Frequentative of ''léðan'', q.v.
*'''léðyrdaínas''' /ˌleðərˈdæinæs/ ''n.'' Vacation. — Literally abroad-days, from ''léðyran'', ''daí'' and -''nas''.
*'''ljowd''' /ljɔʊd/ ''n.'' Lead (the metal). — Old English ''leád''.
*'''loc''' /lɔk/ ''n.'' Mountain lake, tarn. — Old English ''lac'', from Latin ''lacus''.
*'''loǵe''' /ˈlɔɣə/ ''n.'' Lake. — Old English ''lagu'', lake.
*'''lond''' /lɔnd/ ''n.'' Land, ground. — Old English ''land''.
*'''lups''' /lʌps/ ''n.'' Lobster. — Contraction of Old English ''lopust'', corruption of Latin ''locust''.
*'''lwst''' /lʊst/ ''n.'' Pleasure; joy. — Old English ''lust''.
*'''lwstan''' /ˈlʊstæn/ ''v.'' To enjoy. — From the noun. Doublet of ''lẃstan''.
*'''lẃ''' /luː/ ''a.'' Few, not many; little, small. — Old English ''lyt'', few, little. Second sense is from confusion with ''lẃƿ'', q.v.
*'''lẃst''' /luːst/ ''n.'' Desire. — Formed on analogy with ''lwst'', q.v.
*'''lẃstan''' /ˈluːstæn/ ''v.'' To desire, want. — Old English ''lystan''. Doublet of ''lwstan''.
*'''lẃƿ''' /luːw/ ''a.'' Little, small. — Old English ''lytel'', little. Closely related to ''lẃ'' and ''lẃƿe'', q.v.
*'''lẃƿe''' /ˈluːwə/ ''n.'' Trivial thing; in the plural, small fry. — Almost certainly directly from ''lẃƿ''.

==ĺ==
*'''ĺáiþ''' /ɬaɪθ/ ''n.'' Milk. — Welsh ''llaeth'', milk.
*'''ĺowf''' /ɬɔʊf/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Loaf. — Old English ''hláf''.
*::Dual: '''ĺowvaz''' /ˈɬɔʊvæz/
*::Plural: '''ĺowvaen''' /ˈɬɔʊvæɛn/

==m==
*'''mawþ''' /mæʊθ/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Mouth. — Old English ''múð''.
*::Dual: '''mawðaz''' /ˈmæʊðæz/
*::Plural: '''mawðaen''' /ˈmæʊðæɛn/
*'''maś''' /mæʃ/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Mixed mass; mashed vegetables; animal feed. — Origin obscure, but related to ''meśan''.
*'''maysan''' /ˈmæəsæn/ ''v.'' To worship. — From the noun.
*'''mayse''' /ˈmæəsə/ ''n.'' Religious devotion; worship. — Old English ''mæsse'', from Latin ''missa'', mass.
*'''maysyre''' /ˈmæəsərə/ ''n.'' Religious fervour, fanaticism. — Frequentative of ''mayse'', q.v.
*'''meiŋan''' /ˈmɛɪŋæn/ ''v.'' To mess up; to vandalise. — Old English ''mengan'', to mix.
*'''meśan''' /ˈmɛʃæn/ ''v.'' To mash, to paste, to pulp. — Old English ''miscan'', to mix.
*'''mueć''' /mʌɛx/ ''n.'' Pig. — Welsh ''moch'', pigs (the singular being ''mochyn'').
*'''moǵan''' /ˈmɔɣæn/ ''v.'' To digest. — From the noun.
*'''moǵe''' /ˈmɔɣə/ ''n.'' Stomach, belly. — Old English ''maga''.
*'''mon''' /mɔn/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Man. — Old English ''man''. Common in compounds, but less used than ''ƿeir'' when referring to a male adult. 
*::Dual: '''meinaz''' /ˈmɛɪnæz/ or '''monaz''' /ˈmɔnæz/
*::Plural: '''mein''' /mɛɪn/
*'''moŋ''' /mɔŋ/ ''n.'' Mixture; crowd. — Old English ''mang''.
*'''moŋan''' /ˈmɔŋæn/ ''v.'' To mix with, mingle. — From the noun.
*'''moŋáiþ''' /ˈmɔŋaɪθ/ ''n.'' Chaos. — From ''moŋ'', q.v.
*'''mó''' /moː/ ''n.'' Meeting; council. — Old English ''mót'', meeting. Related to ''ƿiinjó'', q.v.
*'''mór''' /moːr/ ''n.'' Peat, mud. — Old English ''mór'', moor.
*'''mórlond''' /ˈmoːrlɔnd/ ''n.'' Moor, bog, moorland. — Compound of ''mór'' and ''lond'', q.v.
*'''mwmbýŕ''' /ˈmʊmbɜʀ/ ''n.'' Boundary wall, dyke; rampart. — Middle Hacean ''mwndbeurr'', ''mwmbeurgh'', from Old English ''mund-beorg'', protective mound.
*'''mwnd''' /mʊnd/ ''n.'' Protection, defence. — Chiefly legal usage. Old English ''mund'', protection. Related to ''mwmbýŕ'', q.v.
*'''mwndan''' /ˈmʊndæn/ ''v.'' To defend. — From the noun.
*'''mwwn''' /mʊːn/ ''n.'' Steep hill. — Old English ''munt'', from Latin ''mont''-, stem of ''mons'', hill.
*'''mýwƿc''' /mɜʊwk/ ''n.'' The milky substance found in the stems of some plants; also, coconut milk. — Old English ''meolc'', milk.

==n==
*'''nú''' /nɑː/ ''n.'' Livestock animal. — Old English ''neata'', cattle.
*'''núnas''' /ˈnɑːnæs/ ''n.'' Livestock.

==ŋ==
*'''ŋećt''' /ŋɛxt/ ''n.'' Servant, assistant. — Old English ''cniht'', servant, youth.
*'''ŋjoẃƿan''' /ˈŋjɔuwæn/ ''v.'' To argue, to contend. — Old English ''cneátian'', to argue. Base form is '''ŋjoẃ'''.
*'''ŋowƿan''' /ˈŋɔʊwæn/ ''v.'' ''slang'' To have a gut feeling for, to strongly feel. — Old English ''cnáwan'', to know.
*'''ŋúr''' /ŋɑːr/ ''n.'' Small ship (e.g. a yacht). — Old English ''cnear'', ''cnearr'', from a Norse source, akin to Icelandic ''knörr''.
*'''ŋúran''' /ˈŋɑːræn/ ''v.'' To pilot a small ship; to sail leisurely. — From the noun.
*'''ŋúrmon''' /ˈŋɑːrmɔn/ ''n.'' A yachter. — Literally &quot;yacht-man&quot;; compound of ''ŋúr'' and ''mon'', q.v.
*'''ŋwcan''' /ˈŋʊkæn/ ''v.'' To knock something (over), make a noise by knocking. — Old English ''cnucian''.
*'''ŋwcymvwǵ''' /ˈŋʊkəmvʊɣ/ ''n.'' ''dial.'' Woodpecker. — Middle Hacean ''gnuucenfugh''. Literally &quot;knocking-bird&quot;; compound of ''ŋwcyn'', continuative of ''ŋwcan'', and ''fwǵ'', q.v.

==o==
*'''ocan''' /ˈɔkæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To ache. — Old English ''acan''.
*::Imperfect past: '''óc''' /oːk/
*::Perfect: '''ac''' /æk/
*::Perfect past: '''aćt''' /æxt/
*'''oce''' /ˈɔkə/ ''n.'' Ache. — From the verb.
*'''on'''- /ɔn/ ''f.'' Indicates reversal of the action denoted by a verb beginning with a consonant. — Old English ''and''-. Before a vowel, ''ond''- is used.
*'''onbyconan''' /ɔnˈbəkɔnæn/ ''v.'' To disable. — Affixation of ''on''- to ''byconan'', q.v.
*'''ond'''- /ɔnd/ ''f.'' Indicates reversal of the action denoted by a verb beginning with a vowel. — Old English ''and''-. Before a consonant, ''on''- is used.
*'''ondocan''' /ɔndˈɔkæn/ ''v.'' To ease pain. — Affixation of ''ond''- to ''ocan'', q.v.
*'''oor''' /ɔːr/ ''n.'' Otter. — Old English ''otor'', otter.
*'''owc''' /ɔʊk/ ''n.'' Oak. — Old English ''ác''.
*'''owƿr''' /ɔʊwr/ ''n.'' Altar; occasional table. — Old English ''alter'', from Latin ''altar''.

==ó==


==p==
*'''peiź''' /pɛɪʒ/ ''n.'' Piglet; small, fat child. — Old English ''pecg'', pig.
*'''ploon''' /plɔːn/ ''n.'' Plant. — Old English ''plant'', from Latin ''planta''.
*'''ploonas''' /ˈplɔːnæs/ ''n.'' Vegetation. — Merely ''ploon'' + -''nas''.
*'''pẃmf''' /puːmf/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Five. — Welsh ''pump'', probably with influence of Old English ''fíf''.
*'''pẃ''' /puː/ ''n.'' Hole, shaft. — Old English ''pyt'', from Latin ''puteus''.
*'''pydwyr''' /ˈpədʊər/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Four. — Welsh ''pedwar''. See also ''fjówr''.
*'''pysc''' /pəsk/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Seasnake. — Welsh ''pysg'', fish.
*::Dual: '''pyzǵaz''' /ˈpəzɣæz/
*::Plural: '''pyzǵaen''' /ˈpəzɣæɛn/

==r==
*'''raa''' /ræː/ ''n.'' Rat, rodent; petty thief. — Old Engish ''ræt''.
*'''raajan''' /ˈræːjæn/ ''v.'' To take away something another needs. — From the noun, ''raa''.
*'''rain''' /ræɪn/ ''n.'' Rain. — Old English ''rén'', rain.
*'''rainan''' /ˈræɪnæn/ ''v.'' To rain. — From the noun.
*'''ród''' /roːd/ ''n.'' Pole, girder. — Old English ''ród''.
*'''rywd''' /rəʊd/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Red. — Middle Hacean ''riood'', from Old English ''reád''.
*'''rywdẃn''' /ˈrəʊdun/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Innards, internal body matter. — Literally, &quot;dark red&quot; or &quot;red dark&quot;. Compound of ''rywd'' and ''dẃn'', q.v.

==ŕ==
*'''ŕaybe''' /ˈʀæəbə/ ''n.'' Crab, crayfish.
*'''ŕowƿan''' /ˈʀɔʊwæn/ ''v.'' To crow; to croak. — Old English ''cráƿan'', to crow. Base form is '''ŕowƿ'''.
*'''ŕowƿár''' /ˈʀɔʊwar/ ''n.'' Crow. — Formed from the verb, but less common than ''ŕowƿe'', below.
*'''ŕowƿe''' /ˈʀɔʊwə/ ''n.'' Crow. — Old English ''cráƿe'', a crow (literally 'crower').
*'''ŕueg''' /ˈʀʌɛɡ/ ''n.'' Intersection, cross; gibbet. — Welsh ''crog'', cross.
*'''ŕwc''' /ʀʊk/ ''n.'' Cross. — Old English ''cruc'', from Latin ''crucem''.

==s==
*'''saiman''' /ˈsæɪmæn/ ''v.'' To satisfy; to honour; to compromise (only when subject is plural). — Old English ''sémen''. Related to ''some'', q.v.
*'''saimáiþ''' /ˈsæɪmaɪθ/ ''n.'' Satisfaction.
*'''sá''' /saː/ ''n.'' Sea. — Old English ''sǽ''.
*'''ságeiŋe''' /saˈɡɛɪŋə/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Passenger. — Old English ''sǽgenga'', seagoer. Originally applied only to passengers on ships, but now more generally.
*'''sámon''' /ˈsaːmɔn/ ''n.'' Sailor, seaman. — Compound of ''sá'' and ''mon'', q.v.
*'''sćaí''' /sxæi/ ''n.'' Sheet. — Old English ''scéte''.
*'''sćembown''' /ˈsxɛmbɔʊn/ ''n.'' Shinbone. — Old English ''scinbán'', with assimilation of the n to an m. See ''sćene'' and ''bown''.
*'''sćene''' /ˈsxɛnə/ ''n.'' Shin; splint. — Old English ''scina''.
*'''sćjowp''' /sxjɔʊp/ ''n.'' Sheep. — Old English ''sceáp'', sheep. See also ''ćjaap''.
*'''sćjoẃ''' /sxjɔu/ ''n.'' Fold; tuft of wool. — Old English ''sceát'', corner of a sail, fold of a garment. Second sense is influenced by popular etymology connecting it to ''sćjowp'', q.v.
*'''sćjóƿan''' /ˈsxjoːwæn/ ''v.'' To shoot. — Old English ''sceótan''. Base form is '''sćjó'''.
*'''sćóijan''' /ˈsxoɪjæn/ ''v.'' To dart, to sprint. — Old English ''scótian'', secondary verb formed from ''sceótan'', see ''sćjóƿan''.
*'''sćóifowƿ''' /ˈsxoɪfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Very swift. — From ''sćóijan''.
*'''sćúźe''' /ˈsxɑːʒə/ ''n.'' Messy hair. — Old English ''sceacga'', rough hair.
*'''sćúźeg''' /ˈsxɑːʒɛg/ ''a.'' Unkempt. — From ''sćúźe''.
*'''sćúźwƿ''' /ˈsxɑːʒʊw/ ''n.'' Stubble. — Diminutive of ''sćúźe''.
*'''sćẃƿ''' /sxuːw/ ''n.'' Dish, plate. — Old English ''scutel'', from Latin ''scutella'', small tray.
*'''sei''' /sɛɪ/ ''p.'' That (animate object). — Old English ''se'', the. The inanimate equivalent is ''ðaðar''.
*'''seijun''' /ˈsɛɪjʌn/ ''p.'' Yon (animate object). — Appears to be an artificial compound of ''sei'' and ''jun'', on analogy to the inanimate equivalent, ''ðajun'', q.v.
*'''seiźan''' /ˈsɛɪʒæn/ ''v.'' To say, to utter. — Old English ''secgan'', to say. Not the basic verb of speech, which is ''sfreican'', q.v.
*'''sfreican''' /ˈsfrɛɪcæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To speak, to say. — Old English ''sprecan'', to speak. 
*::Imperfect past: '''sfrac'' /sfræk/
*'''sja''' /sjæ/ ''n.'' Romantic love. — Middle Hacean ''sia'', further etymology unknown.
*'''sjowp''' /sjɔʊp/ ''a.'' Steep. — Middle Hacean ''stioap'', from Old English ''steáp''. See also ''śóp''.
*'''sjoran''' /ˈsjɔræn/ ''v.'' To become dry, dry up, dry out. — Old English ''seáran''. Related to ''zjowr'', q.v.
*'''sjór''' /sjoːr/ ''n.'' Bull, male bovine. — Old English ''steór'', steer, bull.
*'''soman''' /ˈsɔmæn/ ''v.'' To suit, befit. — Presumably from the noun.
*'''some''' /ˈsɔmə/ ''a.'' Same; same as, just like. — Old English ''sama''. Related to ''saiman'', q.v.
*'''sonþe''' /ˈsɔnθə/ ''n.'' One's superior; as a form of address, sir or madam. — Origin unknown.
*'''spur''' /spʌr/ ''n.'' Track, footpath. — Old English ''spor'', a foot-track. Related to ''spwre'' and ''spẃran'', q.v.
*'''spurn''' /spʌrn/ ''a.'' Disliked, outcast. — Middle Hacean ''spurnn'', from Old English ''spornen'', past participle of ''speornan'', see ''spýrnan''.
*'''spurnan''' /ˈspʌrnæn/ ''v.'' To cast out; to reject. — From the adjective.
*'''spwran''' /ˈspʊræn/ ''v.'' To spur on, goad. — From the noun.
*'''spwre''' /ˈspʊrə/ ''n.'' Spur, goad. — Old English ''spura'', ''spora'', related to Old English ''spor'' and ''speornan''; see ''spur'' and ''spýrnan''.
*'''spẃdyran''' /ˈspuːdəræn/ ''v.'' To investigate. — Middle Hacean ''spuyreran'', ''spuureran'', frequentative of ''spuuran'', see ''spẃran''. Doublet of ''spẃyran'', q.v.
*'''spẃdyráiþ''' /ˈspuːdəraɪθ/ ''n.'' (Process of) Investigation.
*'''spẃdyryne''' /spuˈdərənə/ ''n.'' Investigation, case. — Formed from the continuative of ''spẃdyran''.
*'''spẃran''' /ˈspuːræn/ ''v.'' To ask, interrogate. — Old English ''spyrian'', to ask, track down, related to Old English ''spor'', see ''spur''. See also ''spẃdyran'' and ''spẃyr''.
*'''spẃyr''' /spuər/ ''n.'' Quibble, query. — Originally dialectal. Middle Hacean ''spuyryr'', from ''spuyreran'', see ''spẃdyran''.
*'''spẃyran''' /ˈspuəræn/ ''v.'' To quibble, disagree, raise a point. — From the noun. Doublet of ''spẃdyran'', q.v.
*'''spẃyrnan''' /ˈspuərnæn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' To bitch, whine. — Jocular formation, based on slurred, young metropolitan pronunciation of ''spẃyryryne'', alluding to the opinion that all teenage discussions are merely bitching sessions.
*'''spẃyryran''' /ˈspuərəræn/ ''v.'' To discuss (a point). — Modern derivative of ''spẃyran'', and thus a double frequentative (or rather, modernly, a double augmentative.)
*'''spẃyryryne''' /spuəˈrərənə/ ''n.'' Discussion, argument.
*'''spýrnan''' /ˈspɜːrnæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To kick away, push with the foot. — Old English ''speornan'', to kick against, related to Old English ''spura'', ''spora'', see ''spwre''.
*::Imperfect past: '''spúrn''' /spɑːrn/
*'''srac''' /sræk/ ''a.'' Violent. — Old English ''stræc'', variant of ''stearc'', strong.
*'''srá''' /sraː/ ''n.'' Street, road. — Old English ''strǽt''.
*'''srond''' /srɔnd/ ''n.'' Edge, margin; poetically, shoreline. — Old English ''strand'', shore.
*'''sroŋ''' /srɔŋ/ ''a.'' Strict, stern. — Old English ''strang'', strong.
*'''srywm''' /srəʊm/ ''n.'' Stream; trail (as left by a snail, for example). — Old English ''streám''.
*'''srywman''' /ˈsrəʊmæn/ ''v.'' To trickle. — From the noun.
*'''srup''' /srʌp/ ''n.'' Strap, bracelet, strip of fabric. — Old English ''stropp'', from Latin ''struppus'', strap.
*'''staf''' /stæf/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Staff, stick; polearm. — Old English ''stæf''.
*::Dual: '''stavaz''' /ˈstævæz/
*::Plural: '''stavaen''' /ˈstævæɛn/
*'''staþ''' /stæθ/ ''n.'' Bank (of a river). — Old English ''stæð'', bank, shore.
*'''stape''' /ˈstæpə/ ''n.'' A footstep, a pace. — Old English ''stæpe'', a step. Doublet of ''stope''.
*'''stavne''' /ˈstævnə/ ''n.'' Trunk of a tree, stem of a plant. — Old English ''stæfna'', ''stæfn''. Related to ''staf'' and ''steim'', q.v.
*'''steim''' /stɛɪm/ ''n.'' Prow of a vessel. — Old English ''stemn'', stem or prow of a vessel, related to Old English ''stæfn'', ''stæfna''; see ''stavne''.
*'''stopan''' /ˈstɔpæn/ ''v.'' To walk. — Old English ''stapan'', to go or advance.
*'''stope''' /ˈstɔpə/ ''n.'' A style of walk. — From the verb. Doublet of ''stape''.
*'''stopyne''' /ˈstɔpənə/ ''n.'' A walk, a trek. — Formed from the continuative of the verb.
*'''stól''' /stoːl/ ''n.'' Seat, chair. — Old English ''stól''.
*'''sturc''' /stʌrk/ ''n.'' Stork. — Old English ''storc''.
*'''stúrc''' /stɑːrk/ ''a.'' Strong. — Old English ''stearc''.
*'''stwipe''' /ˈstʊɪpə/ ''n.'' Tower, turret. — Probably simplified form of a derivative of Old English ''stýpel'', steeple, but none are found in Middle Hacean.
*'''stwydan''' /ˈstʊədæn/ ''v.'' To look after, to provide for. — Old English ''studdian'', to take care of, from Latin ''studere''.
*'''stwydynhaws''' /ˈstʊədənˌhæʊs/ ''n.'' Hostel. — Literally 'providing-house', see ''stwydan'' and ''haws''.
*'''stýre''' /ˈstɜːrə/ ''n.'' Star. — Old English ''steorra''.
*'''sƿeivnan''' /ˈswɛɪvnæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To dream. — From ''sƿeivyn'', q.v.
*::1st person imperfect present: '''sƿeivyn''' /ˈswɛɪvən/
*::2nd person imperfect present: '''sƿeivyns''' /ˈswɛɪvəns/
*::3rd person imperfect present: '''sƿeivynþ''' /ˈswɛɪvənθ/
*'''sƿeivyn''' /ˈswɛɪvən/ ''n.'' Dream. — Old English ''swefn''.

==ś==
*'''śaize''' /ˈʃæɪzə/ ''n.'' Cheese. — Old English ''cése''.
*'''śen''' /ʃɛn/ ''n.'' Chin. — Old English ''cin''.
*'''śjóƿan''' /ˈʃjoːwæn/ ''v.'' To chew, ruminate. — Old English ''ceóƿan''. Base form is '''śjóƿ'''.
*'''śóp''' /ʃoːp/ ''a.'' ''dial.'' High; upright. — Middle Hacean ''tsioop'', metathesis of ''stioap'', see ''sjowp''.
*'''śẃste''' /ˈʃuːstə/ ''n.'' Box, (treasure) chest; chest cavity. — Old English ''cyste''.

==t==
*'''traf''' /træf/ ''irreg.'' ''n.'' Village, hamlet. — Welsh ''tref'', hamlet.
*::Dual: '''travaz''' /ˈtrævæz/
*::Plural: '''travaen''' /ˈtrævæɛn/
*'''treí''' /trɛi/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' Three. — Welsh ''tri''.
*'''tryw''' /trəʊ/ ''n.'' Timber, dead wood. — Old English ''treó'', timber.

==þ==
*'''þeiŋcan''' /ˈθɛɪŋkæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To think. — Old English ''þencan''. Related to ''þeiśan'', ''þẃŋcan'', ''þoŋc'', ''þuŋc'' and ''jiþućt'', q.v.
*::Imperfect past: '''þućty''' /ˈθʌxtə/
*'''þeiśan''' /ˈθɛɪʃæn/ ''v.'' To feel (an emotion). — Old English ''þencean'', variant of ''þencan''; see ''þeiŋcan''.
*'''þeiśáiþ''' /ˈθɛɪʃaɪθ/ ''n.'' Emotion (uncountable).
*'''þeiśe''' /ˈθɛɪʃə/ ''n.'' Feeling, emotion (countable). — From the verb.
*'''þeiśfowƿ''' /ˈθɛɪʃfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Emotional.
*'''þneic''' /θnɛɪk/ ''n.'' Neck. — Old English ''hnecca''.
*'''þnẃ''' /θnuː/ ''n.'' Nut. — Old English ''hnutu''.
*'''þoŋc''' /θɔŋk/ ''n.'' Goodwill, thanks. — Old English ''þanc''. Related to ''þuŋc'', q.v.
*'''þoŋcan''' /ˈθɔŋkæn/ ''v.'' To thank. — From the noun.
*'''þuŋc''' /θʌŋk/ ''n.'' Favour. — Old English ''þonc'', variant of ''þanc''; see ''þoŋc''.
*'''þuŋcan''' /ˈθʌŋkæn/ ''v.'' To favour, treat well. — From the noun.
*'''þurp''' /θʌrp/ ''n.'' Village, small town. — Old English ''þorp''.
*'''þwŕ''' /θʊʀ/ ''a.'' Through. — Old English ''þurh''.
*'''þẃŋcan''' /ˈθuːŋkæn/ ''v.'' To seem. — Old English ''þyncan''. Related to ''þeiŋcan'', q.v.
*'''þẃrs''' /θuːrs/ ''n.'' Thirst. — Old English ''þyrst''.
*'''þẃrsan''' /ˈθuːrsæn/ ''v.'' To thirst, be thirsty. — Old English ''þyrstan''.

==u==
*'''un''' /ʌn/ ''p.'' On. — Old English ''on''.
*'''unfúlan''' /ʌnˈfɑːlæn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To attack. — Literally 'to fall on', compound of ''un'' and ''fúlan'', q.v.
*::1st person imperfect present: '''unfúwƿ''' /ʌnˈfɑʊw/
*::2nd person imperfect present: '''unfúwƿs''' /ʌnˈfɑʊws/
*::3rd person imperfect present: '''unfúwƿþ''' /ʌnˈfɑʊwθ/
*'''uŋoŋan''' /ʌˈŋɔŋæn/ ''v.'' To approach. — Middle Hacean ''ungongan'', modelled on Old English ''ongán'', to approach.
*'''urǵywƿ''' /ˈʌrɣəʊw/ ''n.'' Organ (musical instrument). — Old English ''orgel'', from Latin ''organum''. See also ''yrǵone''.

==ú==


==v==


==w==
*'''wn'''- /ʊn/ ''f.'' Indicates negativity. — Old English ''un''-. See also ''on''-/''ond''-.
*'''wnconan''' /ʊnˈkɔnæn/ ''v.'' To be unable. — Affixation of ''wn''- to ''conan'', q.v.
*'''wnconswm''' /ʊnˈkɔnsʊm/ ''a.'' Not able; disabled (of a creature born so). — Affixation of ''wn''- to ''conswm'', q.v. See also ''onbyconswm''.
*'''wncwiþár''' /ʊnˈkʊɪθar/ ''n.'' Foreigner. — Affixation of ''wn''- to ''cwiþár'', q.v.
*'''wnsƿeivyn''' /ʊnˈswɛɪvən/ ''n.'' Nightmare. — Affixation of ''wn''- and ''sƿeivyn'', q.v.

==ẃ==
*'''ẃ''' /uː/ ''a.'' Out. — Monophthongisation of Middle Hacean ''auu'', from Old English ''út''. Related to ''aẃ''.
*'''ẃm''' /uːm/ ''a.'' Around. — Old English ''ymb''.
*'''ẃn''' /uːn/ ''a.'' &amp; ''n.'' One. — Welsh ''un''.

==ƿ==
*'''ƿaar''' /wæːr/ ''n.'' Water. — Old English ''ƿæter'', water.
*'''ƿaaran''' /ˈwæːræn/ ''v.'' To water. — From the noun.
*'''ƿaarcowƿ''' /ˈwæːrkɔʊw/ ''n.'' Canvas bottle for carrying water. — Literally water-bag, see ''ƿaar'' and ''cowƿ''.
*'''ƿá''' /waː/ ''a.'' Wet. — Old English ''ƿǽt'', wet.
*'''ƿájan''' /ˈwaːjæn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' To wet. — Formed from the noun in lieu of ''ƿán'', q.v.
*'''ƿán''' /waːn/ ''irreg.'' ''v.'' To wet. — Old English ''ƿǽtan'', to wet. Only the infinitive is irregular, all other forms inflect from a root of '''ƿá'''. See also ''ƿájan''.
*'''ƿeir''' /wɛɪr/ ''n.'' Man, male. — Old English ''ƿer''.
*'''ƿiinjó''' /ˈwɪːnjo/ ''n.'' Government; parliament. — Contraction of Middle English ''ƿiin iemo'', ''ƿiiniemo'' (also ''ƿeen iemo'', a more regular derivation), from Old English ''witena gemót'', meeting of wise men, parliament; see ''mó''.
*'''ƿóć''' /woːx/ ''a.'' Bent. — Old English ''ƿóh''.
*'''ƿóćan''' /ˈwoːxæn/ ''v.'' To bend. — From ''ƿóć''.
*'''ƿóće''' /ˈwoːxə/ ''n.'' Bend, curve. — From the verb.
*'''ƿóí''' /woi/ ''a.'' Favourably inclined. — Middle Hacean ''ƿooi'', related to ''ƿooian'', see ''ƿóíjan''.
*'''ƿóíd''' /woid/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' One's lover or significant other. — Probably from the past tense of ''ƿóíjan'', (i.e. 'one's wooed') more specifically Middle Hacean ''ƿooian'', but not attested.
*'''ƿóíjan''' /ˈwoijæn/ ''v.'' To woo; to persuade. — Old English ''ƿógian'', to woo, bend towards oneself.
*'''ƿẃn''' /wuːn/ ''n.'' The letter ƿ, wynn. — Old English ''wynn'', see ''ƿẃyn''.
*'''ƿẃyn''' /wuən/ ''n.'' Joy, happiness. — Old English ''wynn''. See also ''ƿẃn''.
*'''ƿẃynfowƿ''' /ˈwuənfɔʊw/ ''a.'' Joyful, happy.
*'''ƿẃynlýs''' /ˈwuənlɜs/ ''a.'' Joyless, listless; boring.
*'''ƿywf''' /wəʊf/ ''n.'' Wolf. — Weakening of Middle Hacean ''ƿuƿf'', ''ƿuuƿf'', from Old English ''ƿulf''. Related to ''ƿywƿan'', q.v.
*'''ƿywƿan''' /ˈwəʊwæn/ ''v.'' To gnaw; to nibble at the edge of something. — Middle Hacean ''ƿuƿfan'', to rend or maim, from ''ƿuƿf''; see ''ƿywf''. Base form is '''ƿywƿ'''.

==y==
*'''ypestywƿ''' /əˈpɛstəʊw/ ''n.'' Letter (of correspondance). — Old English ''epistol'', from Latin ''epistula''.
*'''ypestywƿan''' /əpɛsˈtəʊwæn/ ''v.'' To correspond; to send a letter. — From the noun.
*'''ypestywƿáiþ''' /əpɛsˈtəʊwaɪθ/ ''n.'' Correspondance.
*'''yrǵonan''' /ərˈɣɔnæn/ ''v.'' ''colloq.'' To play a musical instrument. — From ''yrǵone''.
*'''yrǵonár''' /ərˈɣɔnar/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Musician.
*'''yrǵone''' /ərˈɣɔnə/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Musical instrument. — Weakening of Middle Hacean ''aurgone'', from Old English ''organe'', organ, applied vaguely to musical instruments. See also ''urǵywƿ''.
*'''yrǵonyne''' /ərˈɣɔnənə/ ''n.'' ''colloq.'' Music. — Formed from the continuative of the verb.

==ý==
*'''ýrþ''' /ɜːrθ/ ''n.'' Earth, ground. — Old English ''eorþ''.

==z==
*'''zjowr''' /zjɔʊr/ ''a.'' Dry. — Old English ''seár'', dry. Compare with ''drẃǵ''. Related to ''sjoran'', q.v.

==ź==

[[Category:Kythish]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kythish verbal paradigm</title>
    <id>1302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:44:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Kythish]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! -seiź-
! -cein-
! -sei-
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! Infinitive
| seiźan
| ceinan
| seijan
|-
! Present
! Indicative Imperfect
! 1st
| seiź
| cein
| sei
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźes
| ceins
| seis
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźeþ
| ceinþ
| seiþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Continuative Imperfect (-n)
! 1st
| seiźyn
| ceinyn
| sein
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźyns
| ceinyns
| seins
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźynþ
| ceinynþ
| seinþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Frequentative Imperfect (-yr)
! 1st
| seiźyr
| ceinyr
| seijyr
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźyrs
| ceinyrs
| seijyrs
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźyrþ
| ceinyrþ
| seijyrþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Indicative Perfect (-a(f))
! 1st
| seiźaf
| ceinaf
| seijaf
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźas
| ceinas
| seijas
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźaþ
| ceinaþ
| seijaþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Continuative Perfect (-na(f))
! 1st
| seiźynaf
| ceinynaf
| seinaf
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźynas
| ceinynas
| seinas
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźynaþ
| ceinynaþ
| seinaþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Frequentative Perfect (-yra(f))
! 1st
| seiźyraf
| ceinyraf
| seijyraf
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźyras
| ceinyras
| seijyras
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźyraþ
| ceinyraþ
| seijyraþ
|-
! Past
! Indicative Imperfect (-ot)
! 1st
| seiźot
| ceinot
| seijot
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźots
| ceinots
| seijots
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźotþ
| ceinotþ
| seijotþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Continuative Imperfect (-not)
! 1st
| seiźynot
| ceinynot
| seinot
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźynots
| ceinynots
| seinots
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźynotþ
| ceinynotþ
| seinotþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Frequentative Imperfect (-yrot)
! 1st
| seiźyrot
| ceinyrot
| seijyrot
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźyrots
| ceinyrots
| seijyrots
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźyrotþ
| ceinyrotþ
| seijyrotþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Indicative Perfect (-at)
! 1st
| seiźat
| ceinat
| seijat
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźats
| ceinats
| seijats
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźatþ
| ceinatþ
| seijatþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Continuative Perfect (-nat)
! 1st
| seiźynat
| ceinynat
| seinat
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźynats
| ceinynats
| seinats
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźynatþ
| ceinynatþ
| seinatþ
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
! Frequentative Perfect (-yrat)
! 1st
| seiźyrat
| ceinyrat
| seijyrat
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 2nd
| seiźyrats
| ceinyrats
| seijyrats
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
! 3rd
| seiźyratþ
| ceinyratþ
| seijyratþ
|}

[[Category:Kythish]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:WeepingElf</title>
    <id>1303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41112</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-20T20:46:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Jörg Rhiemeier'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:trench1.jpg]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| December 5, 1969; Lemgo, Germany
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| free-lance artist
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| German, English and a bit of Latin, French, Spanish and Japanese
|-
|valign=top|'''My conlangs:'''
|| [[Albic]], [[Germanech]], [[Coric]], various [[Jörg's funlangs|funlangs]] and [[X-languages|experimental languages]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Favourite other conlangs:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:Quenya|Quenya]], [[Wikipedia:Sindarin|Sindarin]], [[Tokana]], [[Silindion]], [[Wikipedia:Brithenig|Brithenig]], [[Verdurian]] and other well-designed [[naturalistic artlang]]s
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:Progressive_rock|progressive rock]] music, science fiction, writing, future studies, linguistics, history and many others 
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| [http://www.joerg-rhiemeier.de/ Jörg Rhiemeier's home page]
|}

Hi, I am Jörg Rhiemeier, the Weeping Elf, founder of the
[[League of Lost Languages]] and creator of the (abandoned) [[UKW World]].  I have been into worldbuilding
since I was about ten; at the same age, I contracted the 'language
bug' from my elder brother's Latin school grammar; and when I was
about 16 years old, I started my first real conlang which, however,
never got far.  In the following years, I didn't conlang much,
until I started what was later to become [[Albic]] in the spring
(northern hemisphere) of the year 2000.

My interest in conlangs is actually pretty much an outcrop
of my interest in worldbuilding.  I have been inventing worlds
since the tender age of ten, often together with a cousin of mine;
it is only natural, then, that I enjoy reading fantasy and science
fiction, and play role-playing games.

At this time, I have two main worldbuilding projects underway.  One is a near-future world influenced by cyberpunk SF but lighter in tone (which, however, doesn't involve any conlangs, only a handful of neologisms), the other is the [[legendarium]] associated with the [[British Elves]] (in which conlangs, chiefly of the [[Albic]] family, feature prominently).

What makes a good conlang?  It depends on what it is made for.
The kind of languages I am most interested in are fictional human
languages, and a good fictional human language ought to resemble
a natlang.  This is also my personal taste: to me, [[naturalistic artlang]]s are beautiful, the more naturalistic, the better.
Most non-naturalistic conlangs are rather ugly to my taste,
though there are a few I find beautiful for some other reason.
(I haven't seen a natlang yet that struck me as ugly.  Not even
languages with lots of uvulars, ejectives and wicked consonant
clusters such as [[Wikipedia:Georgian language|Georgian]]
- which has its own harsh beauty.)
To me, among the greatest conlangs ever created are
[[Wikipedia:Quenya|Quenya]] and [[Wikipedia:Sindarin|Sindarin]],
while I find [[Wikipedia:Klingon language|Klingon]] rather unappealing.
I especially like it when an author invents an entire ''family'' of related languages, with sound changes and all that.  This is also what I am trying to do with [[Albic]].

I have also made the experience that in conlanging, the amateurs
often outshine the professionals.  Most conlangs made for movies,
TV series, games etc. are little more than relexes of English,
and the scripts encountered in such media often merely assign
alternative glyphs to the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet
(and the inscriptions seen are often just plain English).
Most of the conlangs and conscripts from the CONLANG community
are much better than that, even those designed by people who are
not professional linguists.

I have made a similar observation regarding auxlangers vs.
artlangers.  Many [[auxlang]] proposals I have seen are linguistically
naïve, and the intellectual and linguistic brilliance I have
found in many of the artlangs done by CONLANG list members is
barely even approached.  (Of course, auxlang proposals are usually addressed at non-linguists, and many of the 'interesting'
linguistic features found in some artlangs would conflict with the
auxlang ideal of easy use and learning.  On the other hand, there ''are'' auxlangs that are linguistically brilliant.)  And then, of course, auxlangers are way too serious about their proposals.

It also seems to me that the 'auxlang race' has already been run - and English is the winner.  English is part of the educational canon in most Western and many non-Western countries; it is the language of most of the Internet, and the language most people today take recourse to whenever they assume that the person they are talking to is not of the same native language, etc. p. p.  I frankly don't see how any artificial IAL will be able to challenge this position in the forseeable future - not even Esperanto.

Another language-related interest of mine is ''historical linguistics'', especially proposals of long-range relationships such as [[Nostratic]] (see [[Jörg's ideas about Nostratic]]), and the exploration of the lost world of [[Old European languages]].

What else is important in my life is ''music''.  I especially like progressive rock, and would like very much to sing in a progressive rock band.

You may ask, why 'Weeping Elf'?  Well, I have a somewhat [[Elves|Elvish]]
mindset, and the madness of this world quite often makes me weep.
That's why.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Trench1.jpg</title>
    <id>1304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4025</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T19:14:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Ndvanderhoofven</title>
    <id>1305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4647</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-26T18:16:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ndvanderhoofven</username>
        <id>44</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Nobalingos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nobalingos</title>
    <id>1306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:09:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Nobalingos ==

Nobalingos is my conlang.  It is based mostly on Esperanto, with some words from Greek and Russian.  The adjectival form is Nobalinga; thus, the Nobalinga language. Nobalingos comes from two words: '''noba''', meaning new, and '''lingos''', meaning language or toungue.&lt;br&gt;

1.0 Alphabet&lt;br&gt;
1.1 Vowels:&lt;br&gt;
'''a''' = short a, as in ''bat''&lt;br&gt;
'''au''' = either short o, as in ''bought'', or ow, as in ''bout''&lt;br&gt;
'''ay''' = long a, as in ''bait''&lt;br&gt;
'''e''' = either short e, as in ''bet'', short i, as in ''bit'', or, at the end of a word, long a, as in ''bait''&lt;br&gt;
'''eu''' = you, as in ''butte''&lt;br&gt;
'''ey''' = long a. This is an alternate form of '''ay'''.&lt;br&gt;
'''i''' = long e, as in ''beet''&lt;br&gt;
'''iy''' = long i, as in ''bite''&lt;br&gt;
'''o''' = long o, as in ''boat''&lt;br&gt;
'''oy''' = oy, as in ''boy''&lt;br&gt;
'''u''' = long u, as in ''boot''&lt;br&gt;

1.2 Consonants:&lt;br&gt;
'''b''' = b,v&lt;br&gt;
'''d''' = d,t&lt;br&gt;
'''g''' = g,j and sometimes q,h&lt;br&gt;
'''l''' = l&lt;br&gt;
'''m''' = m&lt;br&gt;
'''n''' = n&lt;br&gt;
'''p''' = p,f&lt;br&gt;
'''r''' = r&lt;br&gt;
'''s''' = s,z&lt;br&gt;
'''x''' = ch,k,kh(as in ''bach''), and sometimes h&lt;br&gt;
'''y''' = y&lt;br&gt;
'''z''' = sh,zh, and sometimes j&lt;br&gt;

Not used (except in foreign words):
c,f,h,j,k,q,t,w,v

1.3 Capitalization&lt;br&gt;
All words use the lower case, except for foreign words, newly created words, and some proper names.

2.0 Nouns&lt;br&gt;
Nobalinga nouns have an ending which show the case.&lt;br&gt;
2.1  Nominative case&lt;br&gt;
Nouns in the nominative case end in -s (usually -os, but other endings are also possible, such as -as).  In Esperanto, nouns end in -o, so just add an 's' and make other changes as needed for the spelling.  For example: ''hundo'' (dog) becomes '''xundos'''.&lt;br&gt;

2.1.1 Plural nominative. To make a noun plural, replace the s with a y.  For example:  dogs = '''xundoy'''.  The ending -aros can also be used to indicate a collection of items.  For example: tree = '''arbos'''; trees = '''arboy'''; forest = '''arbaros'''; forests = '''arbaroy'''.&lt;br&gt;

2.2 Accusative case&lt;br&gt;
Nouns in the accusative case end in -n (usually -on). This is the same as Esperanto.&lt;br&gt;

2.3 Genitive case&lt;br&gt;
Nouns in the genitive case end in -a.  For example: house of God = '''domos dia'''.  The English words 'of' and 'from' are translated with this case.&lt;br&gt;

2.4 Prepositional case&lt;br&gt;
Nouns in the prepositional case end in -e.  If the preposition is omitted, the preposition at is implied.  For example: at home = '''dome'''&lt;br&gt;

2.5 Dative case&lt;br&gt;
Nouns in the dative case end in -u.  Here is an example that shows both the genitive case and the dative case: from the earth to the moon = '''dera lunu'''.&lt;br&gt;

3.0 Pronouns&lt;br&gt;
The pronoun system has not been finalized, and is subject to change.&lt;br&gt;
'''mis''' = I&lt;br&gt;
'''dis''' or '''dus''' = you&lt;br&gt;
'''onis''' = he,she,it&lt;br&gt;
'''zis''' = she&lt;br&gt;
'''miy''' = we&lt;br&gt;
'''oniy''' = they&lt;br&gt;
Pronouns are declined the same way as nouns.  For example: my = '''ma'''; me = '''min'''; to me = '''mu'''.&lt;br&gt;

4.0 [[NobalingaVerbs]]

5.0 Adjectives.&lt;br&gt;
Adjectives end in -a, the same as in Esperanto. Since this is the same ending as the genitive case, it is ambiguous as to whether a word is an adjective or a noun in the genitive case.  For example: '''domos dia''' = either &quot;house of God&quot; or &quot;Godly house&quot;.&lt;br&gt;

6.0 Adverbs.&lt;br&gt;
Adverbs end in -e, the same as in Esperanto.  Since this is the same ending as the prepositional case, it is ambiguous as to which type of word it is, but usually this is not a problem.  For example:&lt;br&gt;
'''dre''' = very&lt;br&gt;
'''gene''' = in the beginning&lt;br&gt;

7.0 Conjunctions and Prepositions&lt;br&gt;
These are the same as in Esperanto, except where noted.&lt;br&gt;

8.0 [[Nobalingos-English]] Dictionary

9.0 Texts

[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Nobalingos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nobalingos-English</title>
    <id>1307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35213</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-09T13:44:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Nobalingos-English Dictionary ==
See the overview of [[Nobalingos]].&lt;br&gt;
(Abbreviations: en: [[Modern English]]; eo: Esperanto; gr: Greek; ru: Russian.)&lt;br&gt;

aguos: water. (eo: akvo)&lt;br&gt;
debe: must,should,ought&lt;br&gt;
debos: debt,obligation,duty&lt;br&gt;
demos: people. (gr: demos; eo: popolo,gento)&lt;br&gt;
dre: very (eo: tre)&lt;br&gt;
domos: house,home&lt;br&gt;
deros: earth,ground. (eo: tero)&lt;br&gt;
dios: God. (eo: Dio)&lt;br&gt;
dopos: place. (gr: topos; eo: loko)&lt;br&gt;
fazos: face. (eo: vizagho)&lt;br&gt;
gene: in the beginning (eo: en la komenco)&lt;br&gt;
genos: the start, the beginning. (eo: komenco)&lt;br&gt;
glupa: stupid (ru: glupyj; eo: stulta)&lt;br&gt;
gonis: knowledge (eo: kono, scio)&lt;br&gt;
lingos: language, toungue (eo: lingvo)&lt;br&gt;
lubos: love (eo: amo; ru:lyubov)&lt;br&gt;
lunos: moon&lt;br&gt;
mamos: chest,breast (eo: mamo,brusto)&lt;br&gt;
noba: new. (eo: nova)&lt;br&gt; 
onis: a person,it,he (eo: oni)&lt;br&gt;
padros: father (eo: patro)&lt;br&gt;
penumos: spirit,wind (gr: pneumos; eo: spirito, vento)&lt;br&gt;
pordos: door, port (eo: pordo)&lt;br&gt;
sdara: old. (ru: staryj)&lt;br&gt;
una: first&lt;br&gt;
unos: one person or thing. (eo: unu).&lt;br&gt;
uranos: sky,heaven (gr: ouranos; eo: chielo)&lt;br&gt;
xaos: chaos&lt;br&gt;
xronos: time (eo: tempo)&lt;br&gt;
xundos: dog (eo: hundo)&lt;br&gt;
zerxos: church (eo: eklezio, ru: tserkov)&lt;br&gt;

[[Category:Nobalingos]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lara</title>
    <id>1308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46386</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T22:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Babel Text (Genesis 11:1-9) */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lara''' is an [[Wikipedia:Artistic language|artistic]] [[Wikipedia:fictional language|fictional language]] began in 1991 by Alex-Lexa. Initially it was created for amusement, but at present it has a vocabulary of more than 7000 words and a complete grammar.

== '''Grammar''' ==
The salient characteristic of the grammar is extreme simplicity, with the aim of making the language easy to learn.

Most of the words consist of only 2 syllables.  The alphabet consists of 27 letters. Pronunciation is as in [[Wikipedia:Latin language|Latin]] except for ''&amp;#269;'' (or ''ch''= '''''ch'''''inese), ''k'' (= '''''k'''''iss), ''j'' (= french ''g''), ''h'' (always to be aspirate), ''q'' (= '''''qu'''''ality), ''&amp;#353;'' (or ''sh''= '''''sh'''''ow), ''y'' (short ''i''= pla'''''i'''''n) and ''w'' (short ''u''= '''''w'''''onder).

The [[Wikipedia:accent|accent]] is always on the penultimate syllable.

[[Wikipedia:noun|Nouns]] always end with ''-a'', [[adjectives]] and [[adverbs]] always with ''-i''. It needs only to add ''-s'' to the word in order to obtain the [[plural]].

The [[article]] doesn’t exist.

Also the [[Wikipedia:verb|verb]] &quot;''to be''&quot; is almost always omitted.

== Cultural aspects ==
At present a Lara Language [[Cultural Association]] exists, open to everyone. By the active collaboration and creativity of its members, it sets the goal to create a new fantasy world, with its own fantasy culture and fantasy people. [[Image:SimboloLara.jpg|200px|right]]

A Lara [[philosophy]] is already widely developed. It has a peculiar [[symbol]] (see figure at side) and is based on the comparison between the grammatical, phonetic and syntactical simplicity of the language, that leads to serenity (=''moba'') of thinking and of its expression, and nature simplicity that leads to serenity of the spirit. On the base of this concept, brief tales were produced (the ''Syubas''), real allegories the aim of which is to determine a condition of mind serenity through the lecture of an essential narration, characteristic of the [[allegory]], in a so called natural language. You find an example of ''Syuba'' in the following section.

== '''Examples''' ==
=== '''&quot;Zizi grumi&quot;'''-''Syuba'' === 
[[Image:VecchioRiccoLara.jpg|320px|right]]

''Zizi grumi sen pyuka bolyun u wafa i gomen oye gume kora. Mati meden tawta i katen pu gruvi byeli fita kin gungi stifas pamel grâ. Sa glaen ye huma in e tiel: “Ai o lwi luki kapir goi grâ i lâ ku pyuka i kinkir dri fidas tu stifas sin mizi fita”. Ni glâ somen su tien imi ga. Esi planyen su gi tias i hota tuen ye hogas su hali fiva nu bora i vyuvas. Ami luhaken ga e luk’i dri. Su mami naka hunen ga i zari fiba yuen u šofi tlas. Huen fita i pelen ku pyuka. U tai maen gume balali pra. Upi gruvi fita, hunel ga droi i gili toga. Sa blaka zizin grumi. Trifa melen ni fiba lonen pu fita yu ti pa.''

=== ''Translation:'' &quot;The old rich man&quot; (''Syuba'') ===
An old rich man saw a hill sorrounded by a wood and liked to climb it to watch at the panorama. Soon he felt exhaustion and sat down under an old bent tree the skeletal branches of which touched the ground. This saddened his heart and he thought: &quot;If I was still young I would bring good earth and water up the hill and tie up the branches of this poor tree with strong poles&quot;. But his sadness increased since he thought over himself. So he fell asleep with this thoughts and his breath filled with the fresh smell of the sky and the flowers. When he woke up again he was young and strong. Being wondering he stood up and a diamond ring slipped off his restless fingers. He said goodbye to the tree and ran up the hill. He could watch at the wonderful nature from above. A mighty green oak rised at the place of the tree. This is the story of the old rich man. The magpie passed by but the ring remained under the tree since then.


=== Babel Text (''Genesis 11:1-9'') ===


&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;1 Dai rava den pli pi tega in imi blas.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;2 Peas su felle yu faga hegen tavya du kura nu Senayros i tai staken.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;3 Ken pitì: &quot;Ales, pes sdugas i hures su râ&quot;. Sdug'aden ens gu tekla i gagya gu rora.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;4 Yai ey ken: &quot;Ales, talles mara i vuna kin yuva pames bora i pes ons aka vu mi ga vuhe lu dai grâ&quot;.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;5 Ni Pia uyen se mara i vuna peas men talle.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;6 Pia ken: &quot;Sai, ey pli pi fora i de pli pi tega; s'anda yanka nyen i yoi ta ey dike pe mi ens mimasi.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;7 Igi oy uyes i beges tega yen gai pi nwi netes mitin tega&quot;.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;8 Pia vuhen nes u tai lu dai grâ in ey nwi tallen mara.

&lt;font face=&quot;Book Antiqua&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=3&gt;9 Sovi aon Babelus, Pia su begen tai tega nu dai rava in u tai vuhen nes lu dai grâ.
&lt;/font face&gt;&lt;/font size&gt;


The complete grammar is available in the [http://it.geocities.com/alexped/indexengl.html official web-site of the Lara language]

Other examples of Lara language texts are available in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Lara Wikisource]

The [http://lara-language.wikispaces.com/ Lara Cultural Project] on Wikispace


[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:SimboloLara.jpg</title>
    <id>1309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4652</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexped</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Taken from personal web-page: http://it.geocities.com/alexped/</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Taken from personal web-page: http://it.geocities.com/alexped/</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:VecchioRiccoLara.jpg</title>
    <id>1310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4653</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T19:00:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexped</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Taken from personal web-page: http://it.geocities.com/alexped/</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Taken from personal web-page: http://it.geocities.com/alexped/</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:TOCleft</title>
    <id>1312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4589</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-19T04:16:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style=&quot;margin-bottom: 0.5em; float: left; margin-right: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0;&quot;
|
__TOC__
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Language</title>
    <id>1314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41443</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-01T21:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width={{{width|50%}}} class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: {{{background-color|{{{background|#f9f9f9}}}}}}; font-size: 95%; float: right;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;{{{heading-background|{{{headingbg|#CCCCCC}}}}}}&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |{{#if: {{{dialect english|}}} | '''{{{dialect english|}}}''' | {{#if: {{{dialect English|}}} | '''{{{dialect English|}}}''' }} }} {{#if: {{{dialect native|}}} | {{#if: {{{dialect english|}}} | &lt;br&gt; | {{#if: {{{dialect English|}}} | &lt;br&gt; }} }} '''''{{{dialect native|}}}'''''  }} {{#if: {{{dialect native|}}} || {{#if: {{{dialect english|}}} || {{#if: {{{dialect English|}}} || {{ #if: {{{English|}}} | '''{{{English|}}}''' | {{ #if: {{{english|}}} | '''{{{english|}}}''' | {{ #if: {{{native|}}} | | '''English name''' }} }} }} {{ #if: {{{native|}}} | {{ #if: {{{English|}}} | &lt;br&gt;'''''{{{native|}}}''''' | {{ #if: {{{english|}}} | &lt;br&gt; '''''{{{native|}}}'''''| '''''{{{native|}}}''''' |}} }} |{{ #if: {{{English|}}} | | {{ #if: {{{english|}}} | | &lt;br&gt;'''''Native name'''''}} }} }} }} }} }}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||{{{country|(country)}}} {{ #if: {{{native-country|}}} | ({{{native-country|}}}) | {{ #if: {{{nativecountry|}}} | ({{{nativecountry|}}}) }} }}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||{{{universe|(universe)}}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||{{{speakers|(number of speakers)}}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||{{{family|(Family)}}}
:{{{branch|(Branch)}}}
::{{{subbranch|(Subbranch)}}}
:::{{#if: {{{dialect native|}}} ||{{#if: dialect english ||{{#if: dialect English ||'''}}}} }}{{{english|{{{English|{{{native|(Language)}}}}}}}}}{{#if: {{{dialect native|}}} ||{{#if: dialect english ||{{#if: dialect English ||'''}}}} }}
{{#if: {{{dialect native|}}} |::::''' {{{dialect english|{{{dialect English|}}}}}} (''{{{dialect native|}}}'')''' | {{#if: {{{dialect english|}}} | '''{{{dialect english|}}}''' | {{#if: {{{dialect English|}}} | '''{{{dialect English|}}}''' | }} }} }}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Basic word order]]:
||{{{word-order|{{{wordorder|}}}}}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Morphological type]]:
||{{{morphological-type|{{{type|}}} }}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Morphosyntactic alignment]]:
||{{{morphosyntactic-alignment|{{{alignment|}}} }}}
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;{{{heading-background|{{{headingbg|#CCCCCC}}}}}}&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||{{{author|author}}} ||{{{date|date}}}
|}&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Named parameters for this template ==

This template recognises the following named parameters:

&lt;div style=&quot;width: 250px; border: 1px solid; padding: 6px; float: none;&quot;&gt;
'''''Legend:'''''
;parameter name
:;[alternate parameter name] :explanation
&lt;/div&gt;

Parameter names are lowercase by default, although '''English''' may be Uppercase

;english
:;English :The English name of the language, e.g. ''Swedish''.
;native :The native name of the language, e.g. ''Svenska''.
;country :The name of the country where the language is spoken, e.g. ''Sweden''.
;native-country
:;nativecountry : The native name of the country (if different from '''country'''), e.g. ''Sverige''.
;universe : The name of the universe or timeline where the language is spoken, e.g. ''Real world''.
;speakers :The number of speakers of the language, e.g. ''9 million''.
;family :The name of the language family the language belongs to, e.g. ''Indo-European''.
;branch :The name of the branch within its language family the language belongs to, e.g. ''Germanic''.
;subbranch :The name of the subbranch within its language family the language belongs to, e.g. ''North Germanic''.
;word-order
:;wordorder :The basic word order type of the language, e.g. ''SVO'' (although Swedish is rather ''V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''! {{-)}})
;morphological-type
:;type :The basic morphological type of the language, e.g. ''inflecting''.
;morphosyntactic-alignment
:;alignment :The basic morphosyntactic alignment of the language, e.g. ''Nominative-Accusative''.
;author :The name of the author of the language (probably your name).
;date :The date when the language was created (begun or completed), usually abbreviated to the year.

=== Optional data parameters ===
;dialect native : the native name of the dialect, if the article is about a dialect rather than about a language.
;dialect english
:;dialect English : the English name of the dialect if the article is about a dialect rather than about a language.

=== Optional formatting parameters ===
;background-color
:;background :The background color of the table (default value: #f9f9f9).
;heading-background
:;headingbg :The background color of the heading cells (default value: #CCCCCC).
;width :The width of the table; defaults to 50% of window width, but can be defined in pixels (e.g. ''300'') or a percentage of the window width (e.g. ''33%'')

== Example ==

(I choose a real-world example so that everyone will recognise everything!)

Use &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[:Template:Language-new]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;!

{{Language|
| English = Swedish
| native = Svenska
| country = Sweden
| nativecountry = Sverige
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 9 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Germanic
| subbranch = North Germanic
| wordorder = SVO/V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1000 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 50%
}}

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Language|
| English = Swedish
| native = Svenska
| country = Sweden
| nativecountry = Sverige
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 9 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Germanic
| subbranch = North Germanic
| wordorder = SVO/V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1000 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

=== Example of a dialect ===

{{Language|
| English = Swedish
| native = Svenska
| dialect native = Göteborgska
| dialect english = Gothenburgish
| country = Sweden
| nativecountry = Sverige
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 9 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Germanic
| subbranch = North Germanic
| wordorder = SVO/V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1650 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 50%
}}

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Language|
| English = Swedish
| native = Svenska
| dialect native = Göteborgska
| dialect english = Gothenburgish
| country = Sweden
| nativecountry = Sverige
| universe = Real world
| speakers = 9 million
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Germanic
| subbranch = North Germanic
| wordorder = SVO/V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| type = inflecting
| alignment = nominative-accusative
| author = unknown
| date = 1650 C.E.
| background = white
| headingbg = coral
| width = 33%
}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kaltani</title>
    <id>1315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:03:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Azir]] (?), [[Category:Races]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kaltani are medium-sized &quot;elves&quot; (pointy-eared humanoids) distantly related to the [[Nelya]]. Their languages are typically written in a script known as [[Serivelna]].

[[Category:Races]]
[[Category:Azir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Serivelna.jpg</title>
    <id>1316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4657</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T02:18:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Consonants of the Serivelna writing system</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Consonants of the Serivelna writing system</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Serivelna</title>
    <id>1317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4658</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T02:19:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Serivelna is a script used to write languages spoken by the [[Kaltani]] &quot;elves&quot;.

[[Image:Serivelna.jpg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Serivelna</title>
    <id>1318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4659</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-23T17:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>kh and vowels?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Where is the letter for '''kh'''?
Also are vowels unwritten or will there be vowel signs too? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:12, 23 Sep 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Conlanger</title>
    <id>1319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>4660</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T20:02:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Conlanger</username>
        <id>46</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See [http://conlang.wikicities.com/wiki/User:Conlanger My user page] in Conlang Wikicities</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mracian orthography of Slevan</title>
    <id>1320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46877</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:19:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== The Mrácian orthography for Slvanjec ==
__TOC__
=== From Mrácian to modern orthography ===

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Mrácian&lt;/big&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|&lt;big&gt;Modern&lt;/big&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Description&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''â, ê, î, ô, oû, û'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''á, é, í, ó, ú, ý'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Long vowels are marked with acute accent in the modern orthography but with circumflex in the Mrácian orthography.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''c'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''cz/k'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''C c''' was pronounced as {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before the letters '''e, ê, i, î''' and when it followed '''i, î''' before a consonant or at the end of a word.  Before other vowels or consonants it denoted the sound {{IPA|/k/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ç'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''c'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''Ç ç''' was pronounced as {{IPA|/ts/}} in all positions.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''k'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Ch ch''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/k/}} when preceding or following any of the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', e.g. '''çêch''' (modern '''cék''') 'blind'.  It was also used for the sound {{IPA|/x/}} before a consonant at the beginning of a word, e.g. in '''Chrextân''' (modern '''Chrsztán''').
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''d'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''d/dj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''D d''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/d/}}, except before or after the vowels '''i''' and '''î''' where it denoted the palatal {{IPA|/ɟ/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''g'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''g/zs'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''G g''' was pronounced as {{IPA|/ʒ/}} before the letters '''e, ê, i, î''' and when it followed '''i, î''' before a consonant or at the end of a word.  Before other vowels or consonants it denoted the sound {{IPA|/g/}}, e.g. '''gât''' (modern '''gát''') 'cat'.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''gh'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''g'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Gh gh''' was used for the infrequent sound {{IPA|/g/}} when preceding or following any of the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', e.g. '''ghesel''' (modern '''gezel''') 'yourneyman'.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''i'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''i'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''I i''' not only denoted the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}; when preceding or following another vowel it indicated the palatal value of a preceding or following consonant '''c''' {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, '''d''' {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, '''g''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, '''l''' {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, '''n''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}} or '''t''' {{IPA|/c/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''iu, îu'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''i'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Iu iu''' denoted the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}; when preceding one of the consonants '''c, d, g, l, n''' or '''t''' with its unpalatalized value ({{IPA|/k, d, g, l, n, t/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''j'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''J j''' was pronounced as {{IPA|/x/}} in all positions.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''l'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''l/lj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''L l''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/ɫ/}}, except before or after the vowels '''i''' and '''î''' where it denoted the palatal {{IPA|/ʎ/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''n'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''n/nj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''N n''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/n/}}, except before or after the vowels '''i''' and '''î''' where it denoted the palatal {{IPA|/ɲ/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ou, oû'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''u, ú'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Ou, ou''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/u/}}, and '''Oû oû''' for the corresponding long vowel {{IPA|/u:/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''qu'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''kv'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Qu qu''' was used for the sound sequence {{IPA|/kv/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''sc'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''sz/sk'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Sc sc''' was pronounced as {{IPA|/ʃ/}} before the letters '''e, ê, i, î'''.  Before other vowels or consonants it denoted the sequence {{IPA|/sk/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''sch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''sk'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Sch sch''' was used for the sequence {{IPA|/sk/}} when preceding or following any of the vowels '''e, ê, i, î'''. Cf. '''ch''' and '''x'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''t'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''t/tj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''T t''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/t/}}, except before or after the vowels '''i''' and '''î''' where it denoted the palatal {{IPA|/c/ or /tʲ/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''u, û'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''y, ý'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter'''U, u''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/ɨ/}}, and '''Û û''' for the corresponding long vowel {{IPA|/ɨː/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ui, uî'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''y, ý'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The digraph '''Ui, ui''' was used for the sound {{IPA|/ɨ/}}, and '''Û û''' for the corresponding long vowel {{IPA|/ɨː/}} when followed by one of the palatalized consonants '''c''' {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, '''d''' {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, '''g''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, '''l''' {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, '''n''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}} or '''t''' {{IPA|/c/}}.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''x'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''sz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''X x''' was used to denote the sound {{IPA|/ʃ/}} before a consonant or at the end of a word.  The rare sequence {{IPA|/ks/}} was written '''cs'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''y'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''j'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''Y y''' denoted the consonant {{IPA|/j/}} in all positions.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''z'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''z'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The letter '''Z z''' denoted the sound {{IPA|/z/}} at the beginning of a word or where it was etymologicallly derived from a word spelled with '''z''' -- or rather usually Greek words spelled with '''ζ'''.
|}

=== From modern to Mrácian orthography ===
{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Modern&lt;/big&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|&lt;big&gt;Mrácian&lt;/big&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Description&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''á, é, í, ó, ú, ý'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''â, ê, î, ô, oû, û'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Long vowels are marked with acute accent in the modern orthography but with circumflex in the Mrácian orthography.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''c'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''ç'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ts/}} was consistently denoted by '''Ç ç''', e.g. '''çêch''', modern '''cék'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''j/ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/x/}} was consistently denoted by '''J j''', except before another consonant at the beginning of a word, where it was denoted by '''Ch ch''' e.g. '''Chrextân''', modern '''Chrsztán'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''cz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''c/ci/ic'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/tʃ/}} was consistently denoted by '''C c''' before the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', and by '''Ci ci''' before other vowels.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it was denoted by '''ic'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''dj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''d/di/id'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ɟ/}} was consistently denoted by '''D d''' before the vowels '''i''' and '''î''', and by '''Di di''' before other vowels, including '''e''' and '''ê'''.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it is denoted by '''id'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''g'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''g/gh'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/g/}} was denoted by '''Gh gh''' before the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', and by '''G g''' before other vowels and consonants.  Where it occurred word-finally and preceded by one of the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''' it was written '''gh''' for extra clarity.  The graphy '''gh''' was in practice very rare, since the sound /g/ is rare in Slvanjec.  One of the few words where it occurred was '''ghesel''' (modern '''gezel''') 'yourneyman'.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''i''' and '''í'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''i/iu''' and '''î/îu'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/i/}} was denoted by '''I i''', and its long counterpart {{IPA|/i:/}} by '''Î î''', except when followed by an unpalatalized '''c''' {{IPA|/k/}}, '''d''' {{IPA|/d/}}, '''g''' {{IPA|/g/}}, '''l''' {{IPA|/ɫ/}}, '''n''' {{IPA|/n/}} or '''t''' {{IPA|/t/}}, where they are spelled '''iu''' and '''îu''' respectively.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''j'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''y/i/ï'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/j/}} was denoted by '''Y y''', except between a consonant and a vowel, where it was written '''i''', and  when it occurred before a palatalized '''c''' {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, '''d''' {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, '''g''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}},  '''l''' {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, '''n''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}} or '''t''' {{IPA|/c/}} where it was written '''ï'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''k'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''c/ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/k/}} was denoted by '''Ch ch''' before the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', and by '''C c''' before other vowels and consonants.  Where it occurred word-finally and preceded by one of the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''' it was written '''ch''' for extra clarity. 
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''kv'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''qu'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The combination {{IPA|/kv/}} was written '''Qu qu'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''l'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''le'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The syllabic {{IPA|/l̩/}} was written '''Le le''' in accordance with a minority pronunciation, e.g. '''dleic''' (modern '''dlcz''') 'sweet'.  This was one of the points where Mrác consciously diverged from a phonemic orthography for reasons of his aesthetic predilections.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''lj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''l/li/il'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ʎ/}} was consistently denoted by '''L l''' before the vowels '''i''' and '''î''', and by '''Li li''' before other vowels, including '''e''' and '''ê'''.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it is denoted by '''il'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''nj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''n/ni/in'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ɲ/}} was consistently denoted by '''N n''' before the vowels '''i''' and '''î''', and by '''Ni ni''' before other vowels, including '''e''' and '''ê'''.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it is denoted by '''in'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''r'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''re'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The syllabic {{IPA|/r̩/}} was written '''Re re''' in accordance with a minority pronunciation, e.g. '''creic''' (modern '''krcz''') 'cross'.  This was one of the points where Mrác consciously diverged from a phonemic orthography for reasons of his aesthetic predilections.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''s'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''s/ss'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/s/}} was usually denoted by '''S s''', but was written '''ss''' between vowels and finally after a vowel.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''sz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''sc/sci/x'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ʃ/}} was consistently denoted by  '''Sc sc''' before the vowels '''e, ê, i, î''', and by '''Sci sci''' before other vowels.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it was denoted by '''x'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''tj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''n/ni/in'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/c/}} was consistently denoted by '''T t''' before the vowels '''i''' and '''î''', and by '''Ti ti''' before other vowels, including '''e''' and '''ê'''.  Before other consonants and at the end of words it is denoted by '''it'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''u''' and '''ú'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''ou''' and '''oû'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/u/}} was consistently denoted by '''Ou ou''' and its long counterpart {{IPA|/u:/}} by '''Oû oû'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''y''' and '''ý'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''u/ui''' and '''û/ûi'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/ɨ/}} was consistently denoted by '''U u''' and its long counterpart /ɨ:/ by '''Û û''', except when it occurred before a pre-consonantal or word-final palatalized '''c''' {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, '''d''' {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, '''g''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}},  '''l''' {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, '''n''' {{IPA|/ɲ/}} or '''t''' {{IPA|/c/}} where they were written '''ui''' and '''ûi'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''z'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|'''z/s'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|The sound {{IPA|/z/}} at the beginning of a word was denoted by '''Z z''', but between vowels and after a vowel at the end of a word it was written '''s''', except where it was etymologicallly derived from a word spelled with '''z''' -- or rather usually Greek words spelled with '''ζ'''.
|}

[[Category:Slevan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azirian Culture</title>
    <id>1321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T00:12:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. azir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Work in progress!

This quick guide to [[Azir|Azirian]] cultures was originally inspired by Jefferson Wilson's [http://www.meanspc.com/~jeff_wilson63/rpg/align12.html Cultural Attitudes] page.

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!
! +2
! +1
! 0
! -1
! -2
|-
! Authority
| Obey authority without question.
| Have faith in authority; follow where you are led.
| Respect the wisdom and experience of authority, but make your own decisions.
| When in doubt, trust authority, but feel free to ignore nonsense.
| Never trust authority. Make your own rules.
|-
! Generosity
| Share everything that you have.
| Help out those in need.
| Share with your family and friends.
| Give only as required.
| Take all that you can and keep it for yourself.
|-
! Novelty
| ''Radical:''&lt;br/&gt;Try something new at every opportunity. Be bold.
| ''Innovative:''&lt;br/&gt;Always look for ways to improve things, but keep a sound foundation.
| ''Progressive:''&lt;br/&gt;Be cautious about change, but fix things that can be improved.
| ''Conservative:''&lt;br/&gt;Keep things the way they are. Distrust novelty.
| ''Reactionary:''&lt;br/&gt;The old ways are best. Go back to the way things used to be.
|-
! Pleasure
| ''Hedonistic:''&lt;br/&gt;Pleasure is the most important thing in life. Seek it at all cost.
| Pleasure in moderation is a good thing. Work to achieve it.
| Enjoy life when you can; avoid needless suffering.
| It can be virtuous to endure suffering, but pleasure is not a bad thing.
| ''Ascetic:''&lt;br/&gt;Pleasure is a dangerous addiction. Keep it to a minimum.
|-
! Ritual
| ''Obsessive:''&lt;br/&gt;Life revolves around rituals. Nothing is more important.
| ''Ritualistic:''&lt;br/&gt;Rituals are important, but should not rule your life.
| ''Habitual:''&lt;br/&gt;It can be useful to follow a routine.
| ''Creative:''&lt;br/&gt;Do your own thing. Improvise.
| Don't bother with rituals. They're a waste of time.
|-
! Sociability
| ''Gregarious:''&lt;br/&gt;The more the merrier. Party on!
| ''Sociable:''&lt;br/&gt;It's best to be with others. It's no fun to be alone.
| ''Friendly:''&lt;br/&gt;Having a small group of close friends is best.
| ''Polite:''&lt;br/&gt;Be social when you must, but prefer to be alone.
| ''Reclusive:''&lt;br/&gt;Solitude is the best. Peace and quiet!
|}

[[Category:Azir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Mediawarning</title>
    <id>1645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T20:14:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>less acid wording of warning (maybe could still be better?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Warning''': The system does not test files for malicious code. Be aware that by executing strange files your system may be compromised.  
&lt;hr&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:ABC</title>
    <id>1752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5218</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-09T20:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;center&gt;
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D|D]] - [[#E|E]] - [[#F|F]] - [[#G|G]] - [[#H|H]] - [[#I|I]] - [[#J|J]] - [[#K|K]] - [[#L|L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#O|O]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#Q|Q]] - [[#R|R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T|T]] - [[#U|U]] - [[#V|V]] - [[#W|W]] - [[#X|X]] - [[#Y|Y]] - [[#Z|Z]]
&lt;/center&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:ABC</title>
    <id>1753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5223</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T02:04:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There's also [[Template:widetoc]] which does similar.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 19:04, 9 October 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki talk:Monobook.css</title>
    <id>1754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5230</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T23:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The &lt;code&gt;font: inherit&lt;/code&gt; makes the font size here much too large for me. Could I request to have it changed to &lt;code&gt;font-family: inherit&lt;/code&gt;, if that was what was intended? - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]][[User talk:Zhen Lin|&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;]] 01:59, 10 October 2005 (PDT)

:Done!  Thanks for the suggestion and sorry for any inconvenience.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 16:05, 10 October 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Tt</title>
    <id>1755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5232</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T08:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;explain&quot; title=&quot;{{{2}}}&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:C</title>
    <id>1756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5237</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T08:47:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant: small-caps&quot; title=&quot;{{{2}}}&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:C</title>
    <id>1757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5238</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T08:47:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Usage=
* '''With a tooltip''': &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{c|gen|genitive}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; {{c|gen|genitive}}
* '''Without''': &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{c|gen|}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; {{c|gen|}} ''note the bar after the abbreviation''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Tt</title>
    <id>1758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5293</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-15T08:51:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">How do you use this? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:50, 13 October 2005 (PDT)

&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{tt|Text|Tooltip}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; &amp;rarr; {{tt|Text|Tooltip}} - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]][[User talk:Zhen Lin|&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;]] 01:51, 15 October 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English-Maerik vocabulary</title>
    <id>1759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46858</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Maerik/vocabulary/English-Maerik]] moved to [[English-Maerik vocabulary]] over redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Maerik]]

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]]
|}
__NOTOC__

[[Maerik-English vocabulary|Mærik-English vocabulary]]

[[Maerik|Mærik page]]
==A==
: a hole in the wall: ''' tha ''' ''  ''
: accuse: ''' werita ''' '' v. '' 
: across, through: ''' fyrgh ''' '' adv. '' 
: add: ''' styghdia ''' '' v. '' 
: afraid: ''' vin ''' '' adj. '' 
: after: ''' witt ''' ''  '' 
: afternoon: ''' frodh ''' ''  '' 
: all: ''' slat ''' '' pron. '' 
: all gone: ''' gan ''' '' adj. '' 
: allow: ''' saka ''' '' v. '' 
: almost, nearly: ''' jngum ''' '' adv. '' 
: already: ''' mandrom ''' '' adv. '' 
: also, too: ''' bætum ''' '' adv. '' 
: although: ''' brøø ''' ''  '' 
: always: ''' slatrand ''' '' adv. '' 
: amputate: ''' tassa ''' '' v. '' 
: and: ''' bæt ''' '' conj. '' 
: anger: ''' køøw ''' '' n. '' 
: angry: ''' køø ''' '' adj. '' 
: animal: ''' fia ''' ''  '' 
: another, other: ''' tiæll ''' '' pron. '' 
: answer: ''' tænlita ''' '' v. '' 
: ant: ''' prukul ''' ''  '' 
: any: ''' siæn ''' ''  '' 
: appear: ''' faghna ''' '' v. '' 
: approach: ''' skirkta ''' '' v. '' 
: archer's bow: ''' thia ''' ''  '' 
: arm: ''' lagn ''' ''  '' 
: army, host: ''' sagh ''' '' n. '' 
: arrange: ''' jono ''' '' v. '' 
: arrive: ''' wørføghe ''' '' v. '' 
: arrow: ''' biw ''' ''  '' 
: ashamed: ''' toff ''' '' adj. '' 
: ashes: ''' jamn ''' ''  '' 
: ask: ''' adhzo ''' '' v. '' 
: askew: ''' yffl ''' '' adj. '' 
: assemble: ''' koro ''' '' v. '' 
: associate: ''' lægh ''' ''  '' 
: at: ''' wæm ''' '' prep. '' 
: athwart: ''' siætr ''' '' adj. '' 
: aunt: ''' nos ''' ''  '' 
: avoid: ''' hingia ''' '' v. '' 
: axe: ''' ott ''' ''  '' 
==B==
: back: ''' klædh ''' ''  '' 
: bad: ''' saargh ''' '' adj. '' 
: bad tasting: ''' gonat ''' '' adj. '' 
: bake: ''' eera ''' '' v. '' 
: bald: ''' thor ''' '' adj. '' 
: banana: ''' nort ''' ''  '' 
: bandage: ''' øssiæle ''' '' v. '' 
: banyan tree: ''' ræmpt ''' ''  '' 
: bare: ''' alzsk ''' '' adj. '' 
: bargain: ''' grata ''' '' v. '' 
: bark (dog): ''' thelbra ''' '' v. '' 
: bark cloth: ''' berl ''' ''  '' 
: barley: ''' sæl ''' ''  '' 
: barren: ''' dych ''' '' adj. '' 
: basket: ''' trow ''' ''  '' 
: bat: ''' hæl ''' ''  '' 
: bathe: ''' skonkto ''' '' v. '' 
: bay: ''' send ''' ''  '' 
: be: ''' fere ''' '' v. '' 
: be ...ing: ''' stædhle ''' '' v. '' 
: be born: ''' malda ''' '' v. '' 
: be familiar, be accustomed: ''' lospro ''' '' v. '' 
: beach: ''' lukt ''' ''  '' 
: bear: ''' qwisydh ''' '' n. '' 
: beard: ''' fyllew ''' ''  '' 
: beautiful: ''' rii ''' '' adj. '' 
: because: ''' farkt ''' ''  '' 
: become: ''' boko ''' '' v. '' 
: bed: ''' fienn ''' ''  '' 
: bee: ''' wæn ''' ''  '' 
: beer: ''' oll ''' '' n. '' 
: before: ''' bodhom ''' '' adv. '' 
: believe: ''' para ''' '' v. '' 
: bet: ''' dalla ''' '' v. '' 
: big: ''' vergh ''' '' adj. '' 
: bile: ''' vn ''' ''  '' 
: bird: ''' rymben ''' ''  '' 
: bite (into something): ''' odho ''' '' v. '' 
: bite (of animals): ''' kogho ''' '' v. '' 
: bitter: ''' an ''' '' adj. '' 
: black: ''' plagh ''' '' adj. '' 
: blanket: ''' vilsom ''' ''  '' 
: blind: ''' søtil ''' '' adj. '' 
: blink: ''' farma ''' '' v. '' 
: blizzard: ''' hul ''' ''  '' 
: blood: ''' tedd ''' ''  '' 
: bloom: ''' tomo ''' '' v. '' 
: blue: ''' wæghn ''' '' adj. '' 
: board: ''' rut ''' ''  '' 
: boat: ''' lest ''' ''  '' 
: body: ''' kos ''' ''  '' 
: body-hair: ''' ler ''' ''  '' 
: boil: ''' sielghd ''' ''  '' 
: bone: ''' mwrgh ''' ''  '' 
: borrow: ''' tytzne ''' '' v. '' 
: bowl: ''' smældr ''' ''  '' 
: bracelet: ''' rypt ''' ''  '' 
: brain: ''' høwin ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: branch: ''' offtot ''' ''  '' 
: brave: ''' ør ''' '' adj. '' 
: break: ''' gridhia ''' '' v. '' 
: break off: ''' siipna ''' '' v. '' 
: break open: ''' tina ''' '' v. '' 
: breast: ''' ron ''' ''  '' 
: breath: ''' blidh ''' ''  '' 
: breathe: ''' hyngsia ''' '' v. '' 
: bridge: ''' sudhzsl ''' ''  '' 
: bright: ''' sæ ''' '' adj. '' 
: bring: ''' schee ''' '' v. '' 
: broken: ''' vndan ''' '' adj. '' 
: brother: ''' qwidd ''' ''  '' 
: brother-in-law: ''' blodd ''' ''  '' 
: bruise: ''' waromp ''' ''  '' 
: brush: ''' prugh ''' ''  '' 
: bucket: ''' thna ''' ''  '' 
: build: ''' myre ''' '' v. '' 
: bull: ''' øbill ''' ''  '' 
: bunch (of fruits): ''' criis ''' ''  '' 
: burn: ''' seta ''' '' v. '' 
: burnt smell: ''' norn ''' '' adj. '' 
: burst: ''' lerdha ''' '' v. '' 
: but: ''' trøørr ''' ''  '' 
: butterfly: ''' akopp ''' ''  '' 
: buttocks: ''' vplænd ''' ''  '' 
: buy: ''' tana ''' '' v. '' 
: by means of: ''' march ''' ''  '' 
==C==
: cabbage: ''' blægh ''' ''  '' 
: calf: ''' gio ''' ''  '' 
: call: ''' mistia ''' '' v. '' 
: calm (water): ''' myyn ''' '' adj. '' 
: can (capable of): ''' offua ''' '' v. '' 
: canoe: ''' nom ''' ''  '' 
: capable: ''' skyrl ''' '' adj. '' 
: cape: ''' grest ''' ''  '' 
: carpenter's plane: ''' nyttl ''' ''  '' 
: carry: ''' marna ''' '' v. '' 
: carry - hand: ''' jæwelia ''' '' v. '' 
: carry - head: ''' gøthne ''' '' v. '' 
: carry - hip: ''' hymme ''' '' v. '' 
: carry on the shoulder: ''' noko ''' '' v. '' 
: carve, (write): ''' ringwa ''' '' v. '' 
: cat: ''' drøø ''' ''  '' 
: cause: ''' sønc ''' '' v. '' 
: cave: ''' dwardh ''' ''  '' 
: ceiling: ''' gild ''' ''  '' 
: certain: ''' kaan ''' '' adj. '' 
: chain: ''' budhr ''' ''  '' 
: chair: ''' warsn ''' ''  '' 
: chalk: ''' vnge ''' ''  '' 
: change: ''' jæmykte ''' '' v. '' 
: channel: ''' skadh ''' ''  '' 
: chant: ''' mæreeta ''' '' v. '' 
: charcoal: ''' swesn ''' ''  '' 
: chase: ''' klidha ''' '' v. '' 
: cheap: ''' lik ''' '' adj. '' 
: cheek: ''' ban ''' '' n. '' 
: chest: ''' gadh ''' ''  '' 
: chew: ''' strooko ''' '' v. '' 
: chicken: ''' bloff ''' ''  '' 
: child: ''' luk ''' ''  '' 
: chin: ''' gømp ''' ''  '' 
: chisel: ''' een ''' ''  '' 
: choke (on food): ''' faaka ''' '' v. '' 
: choose: ''' osso ''' '' v. '' 
: chop: ''' sedda ''' '' v. '' 
: chop fine: ''' thoo ''' '' v. '' 
: circumcized: ''' hæmhæm ''' ''  '' 
: clean: ''' swyl ''' '' adj. '' 
: clear: ''' siel ''' '' adj. '' 
: clear (water): ''' gree ''' '' adj. '' 
: clear land: ''' ffuea ''' '' v. '' 
: clearing in the forest: ''' ræmpn ''' ''  '' 
: clever: ''' løs ''' '' adj. '' 
: climb: ''' helnga ''' '' v. '' 
: climb a mountain: ''' yynde ''' '' v. '' 
: close: ''' siersta ''' '' v. '' 
: close the eyes: ''' sææradha ''' '' v. '' 
: clothes, garment: ''' swadh ''' '' n. '' 
: cloud: ''' hæwey ''' ''  '' 
: coarse: ''' sonagh ''' '' adj. '' 
: cock's spur: ''' sigh ''' ''  '' 
: cockfight: ''' kææten ''' ''  '' 
: cold: ''' frigg ''' '' adj. '' 
: collapse: ''' salska ''' '' v. '' 
: color: ''' skatt ''' ''  '' 
: comb: ''' fæng ''' ''  '' 
: come: ''' høkte ''' '' v. '' 
: command: ''' liketa ''' '' v. '' 
: common: ''' stunn ''' '' adj. '' 
: common people: ''' skirk ''' ''  '' 
: communicate: ''' mondo ''' '' v. '' 
: compose: ''' fina ''' '' v. '' 
: confused: ''' mil ''' '' adj. '' 
: console: ''' priffua ''' '' v. '' 
: cook: ''' byrlika ''' '' v. '' 
: cooking vessel: ''' marst ''' ''  '' 
: (cooking)pot: ''' kænt ''' ''  '' 
: copper: ''' længeb ''' ''  '' 
: coral: ''' bonn ''' ''  '' 
: corn: ''' blen ''' ''  '' 
: corpse: ''' hordh ''' ''  '' 
: cotton: ''' stadh ''' ''  '' 
: cough: ''' fænødhe ''' '' v. '' 
: count: ''' keetha ''' '' v. '' 
: cousin: ''' jæt ''' ''  '' 
: cover: ''' swnto ''' '' v. '' 
: cow: ''' lædhl ''' ''  '' 
: crab: ''' her ''' ''  '' 
: crazy: ''' skar ''' '' adj. '' 
: crippled: ''' gisgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: cross: ''' heta ''' '' v. '' 
: crossroads: ''' bre ''' ''  '' 
: cry: ''' næte ''' '' v. '' 
: cry out: ''' jonko ''' '' v. '' 
: cry over: ''' trøte ''' '' v. '' 
: cucumber: ''' gulw ''' ''  '' 
: cup: ''' vnk ''' ''  '' 
: curly (hair): ''' landn ''' '' adj. '' 
: current: ''' gamnn ''' ''  '' 
: curtain: ''' gin ''' ''  '' 
: curving: ''' æng ''' '' adj. '' 
: cut: ''' børe ''' '' v. '' 
: cut into: ''' fyre ''' '' v. '' 
: cut off: ''' mata ''' '' v. '' 
: cut open: ''' renasta ''' '' v. '' 
: cut unevenly: ''' scrika ''' '' v. '' 
: cut up: ''' lædhe ''' '' v. '' 
==D==
: dagger: ''' haff ''' ''  '' 
: damaged: ''' røø ''' '' adj. '' 
: dance: ''' kraa ''' '' v. '' 
: dark: ''' tiæls ''' '' adj. '' 
: daughter: ''' læn ''' ''  '' 
: day: ''' trænn ''' ''  '' 
: daydream: ''' alffta ''' '' v. '' 
: deaf: ''' mwr ''' '' adj. '' 
: death: ''' sijt ''' '' n. '' 
: decorate: ''' brwnto ''' '' v. '' 
: deep: ''' smee ''' '' adj. '' 
: deer: ''' thoffu ''' ''  '' 
: defeat: ''' tiusama ''' '' v. '' 
: defeated: ''' likema ''' '' v. '' 
: deliver: ''' rædhe ''' '' v. '' 
: deny: ''' fæghle ''' '' v. '' 
: depart: ''' kræfte ''' '' v. '' 
: descend: ''' fama ''' '' v. '' 
: desert, abandon, forsake: ''' widhne ''' '' v. '' 
: deviate: ''' sigha ''' '' v. '' 
: dew: ''' wiist ''' ''  '' 
: die: ''' sita ''' '' v. '' 
: difficult: ''' sæghr ''' '' adj. '' 
: dig: ''' jæle ''' '' v. '' 
: dipper: ''' vng ''' ''  '' 
: direct: ''' skers ''' '' adj. '' 
: dirt on the skin: ''' wardh ''' ''  '' 
: dirty: ''' øspis ''' '' adj. '' 
: disappear: ''' jdhe ''' '' v. '' 
: disappointed: ''' din ''' '' adj. '' 
: ditch: ''' hoo ''' ''  '' 
: dive: ''' frika ''' '' v. '' 
: divide: ''' hiomo ''' '' v. '' 
: divide into portions: ''' bruo ''' '' v. '' 
: dizzy: ''' thij ''' '' adj. '' 
: do not...: ''' gwaara ''' '' v. '' 
: dog: ''' hugg ''' ''  '' 
: door: ''' fordh ''' ''  '' 
: dove: ''' foo ''' ''  '' 
: down: ''' ho ''' '' prep. '' 
: downstream: ''' homwm ''' '' adj. '' 
: dragon: ''' førdh ''' ''  '' 
: draw a sword: ''' køthe ''' '' v. '' 
: dream: ''' kloogho ''' '' v. '' 
: dregs: ''' rom ''' ''  '' 
: drift: ''' førghita ''' '' v. '' 
: drill: ''' guto ''' '' v. '' 
: drink: ''' rena ''' '' v. '' 
: drip: ''' riikta ''' '' v. '' 
: drizzle: ''' swit ''' ''  '' 
: dropsy: ''' badh ''' ''  '' 
: drown: ''' mena ''' '' v. '' 
: dry: ''' gømul ''' '' adj. '' 
: duck: ''' bren ''' ''  '' 
: dull: ''' kæmp ''' '' adj. '' 
: during: ''' dand ''' ''  '' 
: dusk: ''' slaghd ''' ''  '' 
: dust: ''' weloff ''' ''  '' 
: dwell, live: ''' trække ''' ''  '' 
: dysentery: ''' kap ''' ''  '' 
==E==
: each: ''' kynt ''' '' pron. '' 
: each other: ''' hyy ''' ''  '' 
: ear: ''' wlund ''' '' n. '' 
: ear (of grain): ''' bloon ''' ''  '' 
: earring: ''' wisa ''' ''  '' 
: earth: '''  hawadh ''' ''  '' 
: earthquake: ''' mardh ''' ''  '' 
: east: ''' føghn ''' ''  '' 
: easy: ''' fyyr ''' '' adj. '' 
: eat: ''' hydhe ''' '' v. '' 
: edge: ''' stom ''' ''  '' 
: egg: ''' amm ''' ''  '' 
: eight: ''' førn ''' '' num. '' 
: eighteen: ''' forman ''' '' num. '' 
: eighty: ''' førnias ''' '' num. '' 
: elbow: ''' vændb ''' ''  '' 
: eleven: ''' sark ''' '' num. '' 
: Elf: ''' alff ''' '' n. '' 
: embrace: ''' sjdhia ''' '' v. '' 
: embroider: ''' thøffue ''' '' v. '' 
: (emphatic): ''' jæ ''' '' particle '' 
: empty: ''' brenn ''' '' adj. '' 
: empty: ''' brenne ''' '' v. '' 
: endure: ''' ærte ''' '' v. '' 
: enemy: ''' ster ''' ''  '' 
: enough: ''' warm ''' '' adv. '' 
: enter: ''' æria ''' '' v. '' 
: even: ''' then ''' '' adj. '' 
: event, occasion: ''' røøw ''' '' n. '' 
: ever: ''' stanskom ''' '' adv. '' 
: every: ''' drøment ''' '' pron. '' 
: everyday: ''' tænkn ''' '' adj. '' 
: excessive: ''' aldan ''' '' adj. '' 
: exchange: ''' mina ''' '' v. '' 
: excrement: ''' skin ''' ''  '' 
: expensive: ''' færliw ''' '' adj. '' 
: extend: ''' dradha ''' '' v. '' 
: extra work: ''' bargh ''' ''  '' 
: eye: ''' redhn ''' '' n. '' 
: eyebrow: ''' wenn ''' '' n. '' 
==F==
: fade: ''' føre ''' '' v. '' 
: fall: ''' tena ''' '' v. '' 
: fall down: ''' saadhra ''' '' v. '' 
: false: ''' sa ''' '' adj. '' 
: family: ''' bortru ''' ''  '' 
: far: ''' sør ''' '' adj. '' 
: farmer: ''' døll ''' '' n. '' 
: fast: ''' attll ''' '' adj. '' 
: fat: ''' sæmpn ''' '' adj. '' 
: father: ''' les ''' ''  '' 
: fathom: ''' non ''' ''  '' 
: fear: ''' vin ''' '' n. '' 
: fear: ''' vina ''' '' v. '' 
: feather: ''' onadh ''' ''  '' 
: feed: ''' fwrto ''' '' v. '' 
: feel: ''' wilpa ''' '' v. '' 
: fence: ''' fiidh ''' ''  '' 
: fester: ''' nin ''' ''  '' 
: few: ''' stu ''' '' pron. '' 
: ficus: ''' fan ''' ''  '' 
: field: ''' lwdh ''' ''  '' 
: fifteen: ''' tramman ''' '' num. '' 
: fifty: ''' trænias ''' '' num. '' 
: fight: ''' hymne ''' '' v. '' 
: file: ''' vræntfe ''' '' v. '' 
: filter: ''' mara ''' '' v. '' 
: finch: ''' lodd ''' ''  '' 
: fine, excellent, superior: ''' liwn ''' '' adj. '' 
: finger: ''' dott ''' ''  '' 
: fingernail: ''' kempn ''' ''  '' 
: fire: ''' apn ''' ''  '' 
: fire water (distilled alcoholoic beverage): ''' apnhus ''' '' n. '' 
: firefly: ''' knw ''' ''  '' 
: first: ''' særøs ''' '' adj. '' 
: fish: ''' matund ''' ''  '' 
: fish poison: ''' skyr ''' ''  '' 
: fish-hook: ''' gømeet ''' ''  '' 
: fish-trap: ''' bardh ''' ''  '' 
: fishing net: ''' norm ''' ''  '' 
: fist: ''' føll ''' ''  '' 
: five: ''' træn ''' '' num. '' 
: flame: ''' godhat ''' ''  '' 
: flat: ''' æll ''' ''  '' 
: flatulence: ''' mælffdh ''' ''  '' 
: flay: ''' foldata ''' '' v. '' 
: float: ''' skulo ''' '' v. '' 
: flood: ''' kardhn ''' ''  '' 
: floor: ''' skyt ''' ''  '' 
: flow: ''' kylde ''' '' v. '' 
: flower: ''' len ''' ''  '' 
: fluid: ''' sudh ''' ''  '' 
: fly: ''' browom ''' ''  '' 
: foam: ''' hws ''' ''  '' 
: fog: ''' bisnl ''' ''  '' 
: foot: ''' gæw ''' ''  '' 
: forbid: ''' bortuuo ''' '' v. '' 
: forbidden: ''' bortwat ''' '' v. '' 
: forehead: ''' dwar ''' '' n. '' 
: forget: ''' fræpe ''' '' v. '' 
: formerly: ''' hæm ''' '' adv. '' 
: forty: ''' flusas ''' '' num. '' 
: four: ''' flus ''' '' num. '' 
: fourteen: ''' flusman ''' '' num. '' 
: fox: ''' erc ''' ''  '' 
: fragrant: ''' siæll ''' '' adj. '' 
: free: ''' ælsk ''' '' adj. '' 
: fresh: ''' trw ''' '' adj. '' 
: friend: ''' tor ''' ''  '' 
: fringe: ''' gren ''' ''  '' 
: from: ''' fot ''' ''  '' 
: fruit: ''' begh ''' ''  '' 
: fry: ''' tadhasta ''' '' v. '' 
: full: ''' het ''' '' adj. '' 
: full moon, month: ''' lædh ''' ''  '' 
: funnel: ''' skorn ''' ''  '' 
==G==
: gall: ''' wis ''' ''  '' 
: garbage heap: ''' torst ''' ''  '' 
: garden: ''' wæntiin ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: garlic: ''' lia ''' ''  '' 
: gasp: ''' skiisa ''' '' v. '' 
: gather (things) together: ''' gudha ''' '' v. '' 
: general, military leader: ''' sachtws ''' '' n. '' 
: get: ''' hwnno ''' '' v. '' 
: get up (from bed): ''' criina ''' '' v. '' 
: get up (from sitting): ''' bena ''' '' v. '' 
: ghost: ''' band ''' ''  '' 
: gift: ''' pæmp ''' '' n. '' 
: ginger: ''' væll ''' ''  '' 
: give: ''' pæmpe ''' '' v. '' 
: glass: ''' bwtar ''' ''  '' 
: glittering: ''' tri ''' '' adj. '' 
: glowing coals: ''' strø ''' ''  '' 
: go: ''' tyre ''' '' v. '' 
: go around: ''' mykke ''' '' v. '' 
: go out: ''' scriffua ''' '' v. '' 
: go to the side: ''' sallo ''' '' v. '' 
: go up: ''' sargha ''' '' v. '' 
: goat: ''' qwik ''' ''  '' 
: god: ''' all ''' ''  '' 
: gold: ''' stræn ''' ''  '' 
: good: ''' wærgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: good tasting: ''' tyrgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: goods: ''' jom ''' ''  '' 
: gouge: ''' budhzno ''' '' v. '' 
: grain: ''' sudd ''' ''  '' 
: grainfield: ''' øbrøgh ''' ''  '' 
: grandchild: ''' tielif ''' ''  '' 
: grandfather: ''' daboh ''' ''  '' 
: grandmother: ''' kilik ''' ''  '' 
: grass: ''' tolffm ''' ''  '' 
: gravel: ''' dyst ''' ''  '' 
: gravy: ''' vtit ''' ''  '' 
: great: ''' wæn ''' '' adj. '' 
: greedy: ''' abogh ''' '' adj. '' 
: green: ''' but ''' '' adj. '' 
: grey: ''' fæl ''' '' adj. '' 
: grey-haired: ''' twn ''' '' adj. '' 
: grow: ''' weetla ''' '' v. '' 
: guts: ''' haghd ''' ''  '' 
==H==
: hack: ''' torto ''' '' v. '' 
: hair: ''' hollun ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: half: ''' hyr ''' '' adj. '' 
: hammer: ''' vat ''' ''  '' 
: hand: ''' wall ''' ''  '' 
: handle: ''' rænnge ''' '' v. '' 
: hang: ''' swegna ''' '' v. '' 
: happen, occur, pass: ''' røwe ''' '' v. '' 
: happiness: ''' øywer ''' '' n. '' 
: happy: ''' øywer ''' '' adj. '' 
: hard: ''' op ''' '' adj. '' 
: hard (blow): ''' vw ''' '' adj. '' 
: hard (especially of wood): ''' enn ''' '' adj. '' 
: harrow: ''' ærighto ''' '' v. '' 
: hatchet: ''' warn ''' ''  '' 
: hate: ''' alagha ''' '' v. '' 
: have: ''' førsse ''' '' v. '' 
: have sexual intercourse: ''' ryghne ''' '' v. '' 
: have to, need: ''' tinga ''' '' v. '' 
: haze: ''' haffn ''' ''  '' 
: hazel: ''' hallok ''' ''  '' 
: hazelnut: ''' vels ''' ''  '' 
: he: ''' ro ''' '' pron. '' 
: head: ''' klædd ''' '' n. '' 
: heal: ''' vrto ''' '' v. '' 
: healer, doctor: ''' vrtull ''' '' n. '' 
: hear: ''' lita ''' '' v. '' 
: heart: ''' dra ''' ''  '' 
: heart-of-palm: ''' kuld ''' ''  '' 
: heat: ''' moolmo ''' '' v. '' 
: heavy: ''' hwar ''' '' adj. '' 
: help: ''' sølle ''' '' v. '' 
: her: ''' nist ''' ''  '' 
: here: ''' thils ''' ''  '' 
: hers: ''' niik ''' '' pron. '' 
: hey: ''' ay ''' '' int. '' 
: hiccough: ''' høxte ''' '' v. '' 
: hide: ''' lik ''' ''  '' 
: high: ''' gij ''' '' adj. '' 
: hill: ''' skio ''' ''  '' 
: hinge: ''' malln ''' ''  '' 
: his: ''' rook ''' '' pron. '' 
: hit: ''' hoso ''' '' v. '' 
: hoarse: ''' væp ''' '' adj. '' 
: hoe: ''' gørtn ''' ''  '' 
: hold the breath: ''' sæte ''' '' v. '' 
: hold, keep, persist: ''' helika ''' '' v. '' 
: holy: ''' al ''' '' adj. '' 
: honey: ''' qwis ''' ''  '' 
: hook: ''' sta ''' ''  '' 
: hope: ''' fundo ''' '' v. '' 
: hope: ''' fund ''' '' n. '' 
: horn: ''' mand ''' ''  '' 
: horse: ''' hathf ''' ''  '' 
: hot: ''' vill ''' '' adj. '' 
: house: ''' trækk ''' ''  '' 
: house-poles: ''' stit ''' ''  '' 
: how: ''' stlen ''' ''  '' 
: how much/many?: ''' fwnn ''' ''  '' 
: hulled corn: ''' wærn ''' ''  '' 
: hungry: ''' ach ''' '' adj. '' 
: hunt: ''' likska ''' '' v. '' 
: hunting net: ''' rin ''' ''  '' 
: husband: ''' braffw ''' ''  '' 
==I==
: I. NUMBERS: '''  ''' ''  '' 
: if: ''' mærgh ''' ''  '' 
: II. BODY PARTS: '''  ''' ''  '' 
: III. KINSHIP TERMS, ETC.: '''  ''' ''  '' 
: in: ''' swe ''' ''  '' 
: in a row/line: ''' taff ''' '' adv. '' 
: in back: ''' kel ''' ''  '' 
: in front: ''' nan ''' ''  '' 
: in vain: ''' walw ''' ''  '' 
: increase: ''' herlna ''' '' v. '' 
: indefinite: ''' gøm ''' ''  '' 
: inform: ''' driilda ''' '' v. '' 
: inherit: ''' brwto ''' '' v. '' 
: inland: ''' hælb ''' ''  '' 
: inlay: ''' sumo ''' '' v. '' 
: insect: ''' hedh ''' ''  '' 
: inside: ''' mik ''' ''  '' 
: interior: ''' hingn ''' ''  '' 
: interval: ''' nytzm ''' ''  '' 
: invulnerable: ''' elidhiw ''' '' adj. '' 
: iron: ''' last ''' ''  '' 
: irrigation canal: ''' add ''' ''  '' 
: island: ''' lan ''' ''  '' 
: itch: ''' sloo ''' '' v. '' 
: IV. ANIMALS, PLANTS: ''' thin ''' ''  '' 
: IX. PRONOUNS ETC.: '''  ''' ''  '' 
==J==
: jagged: ''' therb ''' '' adj. '' 
: jar (water): ''' øsægh ''' ''  '' 
: jerk: ''' onsklo ''' '' v. '' 
: job: ''' vmgang ''' ''  '' 
: jump: ''' syyse ''' '' v. '' 
: just in case: ''' swenn ''' ''  '' 
==K==
: kick: ''' ridhza ''' '' v. '' 
: kill: ''' wetta ''' '' v. '' 
: kill by squashing: ''' hunno ''' '' v. '' 
: king: ''' twssill ''' ''  '' 
: kinship: ''' øwæmn ''' '' n. '' 
: kiss: ''' vrea ''' '' v. '' 
: kitchen: ''' tapadh ''' ''  '' 
: knead: ''' banzska ''' '' v. '' 
: knee: ''' henzsk ''' ''  '' 
: kneel: ''' hundo ''' '' v. '' 
: knife: ''' bald ''' ''  '' 
: knock: ''' børtre ''' '' v. '' 
: know (a person): ''' rampta ''' '' v. '' 
: know (facts): ''' barwa ''' '' v. '' 
==L==
: ladder (in general): ''' hærr ''' ''  '' 
: ladder (to the house): ''' frædh ''' ''  '' 
: ladle: ''' skogh ''' ''  '' 
: lake: ''' mæssn ''' ''  '' 
: lament: ''' arrapa ''' '' v. '' 
: lamp: ''' bidhukk ''' ''  '' 
: land-turtle: ''' vænt ''' ''  '' 
: land,country: ''' fesn ''' ''  '' 
: lap: ''' thedd ''' ''  '' 
: last: ''' boz ''' '' adj. '' 
: late night: ''' wom ''' ''  '' 
: lathe: ''' mil ''' ''  '' 
: laugh: ''' løøthe ''' '' v. '' 
: leaf: ''' sonsk ''' ''  '' 
: leak: ''' køn ''' ''  '' 
: lean on: ''' sælikta ''' '' v. '' 
: lean something against: ''' maxta ''' '' v. '' 
: learn: ''' graghla ''' '' v. '' 
: leer: ''' akormo ''' '' v. '' 
: left (hand): ''' widh ''' ''  '' 
: leg: ''' haw ''' ''  '' 
: lend: ''' tolffuo ''' '' v. '' 
: less: ''' bungs ''' '' adv. '' 
: let down (rope): ''' tyghe ''' '' v. '' 
: lick: ''' tyzsle ''' '' v. '' 
: life: ''' mynd ''' ''  '' 
: light: ''' tøøn ''' ''  '' 
: lightning: ''' ær ''' ''  '' 
: like: ''' ræffte ''' '' v. '' 
: like, as: ''' høghliom ''' '' adv. '' 
: line: ''' skarfr ''' ''  '' 
: lips: ''' sæliwn ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: liquid: ''' hus ''' ''  '' 
: listen: ''' lijtio ''' '' v. '' 
: little: ''' amnot ''' '' adj. '' 
: live: ''' lima ''' '' v. '' 
: liver: ''' sadd ''' ''  '' 
: loincloth: ''' rynn ''' ''  '' 
: lonely: ''' yyndek ''' '' adj. '' 
: long: ''' bret ''' '' adj. '' 
: look at, watch: ''' cridha ''' '' v. '' 
: look for: ''' øwia ''' '' v. '' 
: look up: ''' stridhsa ''' '' v. '' 
: loom: ''' vælsk ''' ''  '' 
: loom part: ''' øpett ''' ''  '' 
: loose: ''' gøø ''' '' adj. '' 
: lord, lady, mr., mrs., miss: ''' tws ''' '' n. '' 
: loss: ''' lynd ''' ''  '' 
: loud: ''' kon ''' '' adj. '' 
: louse: ''' stuu ''' ''  '' 
: love: ''' wina ''' '' v. '' 
: low: ''' hir ''' '' adj. '' 
: lower: ''' liffua ''' '' v. '' 
==M==
: make happy, bless: ''' øywe ''' '' v. '' 
: make nets: ''' drønisa ''' '' v. '' 
: make smaller: ''' klæghia ''' '' v. '' 
: make, do: ''' tera ''' '' v. '' 
: man: ''' sko ''' ''  '' 
: manner: ''' høghl ''' '' n. '' 
: many: ''' haan ''' '' pron. '' 
: massage: ''' swono ''' '' v. '' 
: mast: ''' bøn ''' ''  '' 
: mate: ''' tækipta ''' '' v. '' 
: may: ''' mangna ''' '' v. '' 
: me - I: ''' wæll ''' '' pron. '' 
: mead: ''' qwisn ''' ''  '' 
: measure: ''' renna ''' '' v. '' 
: meat: ''' regh ''' ''  '' 
: meet: ''' kalda ''' '' v. '' 
: midday: ''' friff ''' ''  '' 
: middle: ''' lø ''' '' adj. '' 
: milk: ''' dron ''' '' n. '' 
: millipede: ''' sween ''' ''  '' 
: mine, my: ''' wællk ''' ''  '' 
: mist: ''' ion ''' ''  '' 
: mix: ''' kroo ''' '' v. '' 
: monster: ''' vintull ''' '' n. '' 
: moon, month: ''' ent ''' ''  '' 
: moose, elk: ''' bolszull ''' '' n. '' 
: more: ''' fiel ''' '' adv. '' 
: morning: ''' hwmagn ''' ''  '' 
: mortar: ''' brøl ''' ''  '' 
: morter: ''' lykkn ''' ''  '' 
: mosquito: ''' logh ''' ''  '' 
: mosquito net: ''' ilp ''' ''  '' 
: moss: ''' øørdh ''' ''  '' 
: mother: ''' rik ''' ''  '' 
: mouldy: ''' amptogh ''' '' adj. '' 
: mountain: ''' wergh ''' ''  '' 
: mouse: ''' wntun ''' ''  '' 
: mouth: ''' winn ''' ''  '' 
: move: ''' sætne ''' '' v. '' 
: move something: ''' riffwo ''' '' v. '' 
: move something away: ''' plænde ''' '' v. '' 
: move something closer: ''' bitta ''' '' v. '' 
: much: ''' haa ''' '' pron. '' 
: mud: ''' forgh ''' ''  '' 
: muddy: ''' warot ''' '' adj. '' 
: mush: ''' foop ''' ''  '' 
: mussel: ''' døthn ''' ''  '' 
: must: ''' sakla ''' '' v. '' 
: my: ''' wællk ''' ''  '' 
==N==
: nail: ''' fyerm ''' ''  '' 
: naked: ''' døm ''' ''  '' 
: name: ''' sær ''' '' n. '' 
: namely: ''' særum ''' '' conj. '' 
: narrate: ''' swia ''' '' v. '' 
: narrow: ''' kerl ''' '' adj. '' 
: navel: ''' ald ''' ''  '' 
: near: ''' jng ''' '' adj. '' 
: neck: ''' fodh ''' ''  '' 
: needle: ''' lææst ''' ''  '' 
: nephew: ''' raskn ''' ''  '' 
: nervous: ''' galdot ''' '' adj. '' 
: nettle: ''' lat ''' ''  '' 
: never: ''' gøntem ''' '' adv. '' 
: new: ''' gamm ''' '' adj. '' 
: next to: ''' wissna ''' '' v. '' 
: next, following: ''' jngs ''' '' adj. '' 
: niece: ''' glædd ''' ''  '' 
: night: ''' tak ''' ''  '' 
: nine: ''' flew ''' '' num. '' 
: nineteen: ''' flewman ''' '' num. '' 
: ninety: ''' flewas ''' '' num. '' 
: no: ''' gan ''' '' v. '' 
: nobility: ''' vin ''' ''  '' 
: noise: ''' monadh ''' ''  '' 
: noisy: ''' ow ''' '' adj. '' 
: north: ''' taargh ''' ''  '' 
: nose: ''' hær ''' '' n. '' 
: not yet: ''' gwarum ''' '' v. '' 
: now: ''' vro ''' ''  '' 
: nut: ''' fre ''' ''  '' 
==O==
: oar: ''' twnor ''' ''  '' 
: obtain: ''' vpstogho ''' '' v. '' 
: octopus: ''' førip ''' ''  '' 
: odd: ''' fas ''' '' adj. '' 
: often: ''' reu ''' ''  '' 
: ogle: ''' næmpne ''' '' v. '' 
: oil: ''' sæmkæt ''' ''  '' 
: old: ''' liws ''' '' adj. '' 
: older brother: ''' yffdh ''' ''  '' 
: on top: ''' sen ''' ''  '' 
: once: ''' sarwal ''' '' adv. '' 
: one: ''' sar ''' '' num. '' 
: one hundred: ''' dør ''' '' num. '' 
: one thousand: ''' kiom ''' '' num. '' 
: onion: ''' tap ''' ''  '' 
: open: ''' swenda ''' '' v. '' 
: or: ''' hardh ''' ''  '' 
: order: ''' waghta ''' '' v. '' 
: ornament: ''' ett ''' ''  '' 
: otherwise, on the other hand: ''' tiællum ''' '' adv. '' 
: our excl.: ''' mærik ''' ''  '' 
: our incl.: ''' foottuk ''' ''  '' 
: ours excl.: ''' mærik ''' ''  '' 
: ours incl.: ''' foottuk ''' ''  '' 
: out: ''' tugh ''' ''  '' 
: outrigger: ''' bædherdh ''' ''  '' 
: outside: ''' tughom ''' ''  '' 
: owe: ''' onno ''' '' v. '' 
==P==
: paddle: ''' fogh ''' ''  '' 
: pain (head or body): ''' ladh ''' ''  '' 
: painful: ''' lukkl ''' '' adj. '' 
: paint: ''' ført ''' ''  '' 
: palm of hand: ''' søk ''' ''  '' 
: palm-wine: ''' koo ''' ''  '' 
: pan: ''' hyltek ''' ''  '' 
: pandanus: ''' tre ''' ''  '' 
: pant: ''' fææe ''' '' v. '' 
: parents-in-law: ''' nomun ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: partner: ''' øøll ''' ''  '' 
: past (time): ''' bodh ''' '' n. '' 
: past, previous: ''' bot ''' '' adj. '' 
: pay: ''' gørdhe ''' '' v. '' 
: pay out rope: ''' gono ''' '' v. '' 
: peaceful: ''' væk ''' '' adj. '' 
: peel: ''' hertla ''' '' v. '' 
: peg: ''' jer ''' ''  '' 
: penis: ''' wer ''' ''  '' 
: pepper: ''' peppar ''' ''  '' 
: perfect, complete: ''' opa ''' '' v. '' 
: perhaps: ''' sørdh ''' ''  '' 
: permit: ''' brewyne ''' '' v. '' 
: person: ''' kensk ''' ''  '' 
: Peter: ''' Petær ''' '' p.n. '' 
: pick up: ''' swnga ''' '' v. '' 
: pig: ''' thøk ''' ''  '' 
: pigeon: ''' tadhall ''' ''  '' 
: pile up: ''' prea ''' '' v. '' 
: pillow: ''' gull ''' ''  '' 
: pineapple: ''' raxadh ''' ''  '' 
: pity: ''' misa ''' '' v. '' 
: place, locate: ''' wiis ''' '' n. '' 
: place, location: ''' wiisgha ''' '' v. '' 
: plain, ordinary: ''' døt ''' '' adj. '' 
: plank: ''' bor ''' ''  '' 
: plant: ''' kia ''' ''  '' 
: plant fiber: ''' meld ''' ''  '' 
: plate: ''' hold ''' ''  '' 
: play: ''' fadha ''' '' v. '' 
: play (games): ''' nwwtlo ''' '' v. '' 
: plow: ''' døe ''' '' v. '' 
: point: ''' plærkia ''' '' v. '' 
: poison: ''' sir ''' ''  '' 
: poke: ''' daghnda ''' '' v. '' 
: polish: ''' vilsa ''' '' v. '' 
: poor: ''' hugh ''' '' adj. '' 
: popular: ''' kij ''' '' adj. '' 
: porrige: ''' trøyel ''' ''  '' 
: pot: ''' qwidh ''' ''  '' 
: pounder: ''' gom ''' ''  '' 
: pour: ''' tøte ''' '' v. '' 
: praise: ''' wffwo ''' '' v. '' 
: pregnant: ''' klæn ''' '' adj. '' 
: press: ''' ocho ''' '' v. '' 
: press out: ''' prydhia ''' '' v. '' 
: pretending: ''' krom ''' ''  '' 
: profit: ''' winnadh ''' ''  '' 
: promise: ''' wlffrwo ''' '' v. '' 
: prune: ''' kæme ''' '' v. '' 
: pull: ''' synnge ''' '' v. '' 
: pull out: ''' pørdhisa ''' '' v. '' 
: pus: ''' kælskin ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: push: ''' øøte ''' '' v. '' 
==Q==
: quantity: ''' haar ''' '' n. '' 
: quiet: ''' lyck ''' '' adj. '' 
==R==
: rafters: ''' klann ''' ''  '' 
: rain: ''' fas ''' ''  '' 
: rain shelter: ''' øffn ''' ''  '' 
: raise: ''' glatta ''' '' v. '' 
: rancid smell: ''' idherr ''' '' adj. '' 
: rare: ''' rygh ''' '' adj. '' 
: rasp: ''' erdhra ''' '' v. '' 
: rat: ''' stardh ''' ''  '' 
: ray: ''' skern ''' ''  '' 
: read: ''' vpstena ''' '' v. '' 
: recede: ''' swdho ''' '' v. '' 
: receive: ''' hoffuo ''' '' v. '' 
: recite: ''' bængia ''' '' v. '' 
: red: ''' borm ''' '' adj. '' 
: reduce: ''' mædherdha ''' '' v. '' 
: regret: ''' swilka ''' '' v. '' 
: remain: ''' vple ''' '' v. '' 
: remember: ''' gøre ''' '' v. '' 
: remove pot from the fire: ''' bezska ''' '' v. '' 
: rent: ''' kara ''' '' v. '' 
: repair: ''' gawana ''' '' v. '' 
: repay: ''' hwaa ''' '' v. '' 
: requite: ''' hænte ''' '' v. '' 
: respectively: ''' dødhzsk ''' ''  '' 
: restore: ''' giølghia ''' '' v. '' 
: return: ''' mwnaa ''' '' v. '' 
: return home: ''' lanna ''' '' v. '' 
: return something: ''' owta ''' '' v. '' 
: revolve: ''' malwomo ''' '' v. '' 
: ribs: ''' hor ''' ''  '' 
: rich: ''' reiy ''' '' adj. '' 
: right (hand): ''' lwkogh ''' '' adj. '' 
: ring: ''' nækiwt ''' ''  '' 
: rinse: ''' fallna ''' '' v. '' 
: rip: ''' birghna ''' '' v. '' 
: ripe: ''' twal ''' '' adj. '' 
: rise (sun): ''' ræghia ''' '' v. '' 
: rise up: ''' tæwitha ''' '' v. '' 
: river: ''' gikedhr ''' ''  '' 
: river mouth: ''' sidh ''' ''  '' 
: road: ''' wit ''' ''  '' 
: roast: ''' vpaa ''' '' v. '' 
: roof: ''' sydherl ''' ''  '' 
: roof-peak: ''' mistr ''' ''  '' 
: room: ''' eliorgh ''' ''  '' 
: root: ''' tæll ''' ''  '' 
: rope: ''' bamn ''' ''  '' 
: rotate: ''' gridhna ''' '' v. '' 
: rotten: ''' fyrk ''' '' adj. '' 
: round: ''' swøl ''' '' adj. '' 
: royal: ''' dodhukt ''' ''  '' 
: rub: ''' arsta ''' '' v. '' 
: rudder: ''' hin ''' ''  '' 
: run: ''' vilpna ''' '' v. '' 
==S==
: sad: ''' dæyir ''' '' adj. '' 
: sago: ''' sto ''' ''  '' 
: sago palm: ''' sadhow ''' ''  '' 
: sail: ''' rok ''' '' n. '' 
: sail: ''' roko ''' '' v. '' 
: sail into the wind: ''' swndo ''' '' v. '' 
: sailor: ''' mælrok ''' '' n. '' 
: salt: ''' swæn ''' '' n. '' 
: salty: ''' swæn ''' '' adj. '' 
: same: ''' hwalt ''' '' pron. '' 
: sand: ''' børliu ''' ''  '' 
: sap: ''' moot ''' ''  '' 
: sated: ''' sæntf ''' '' adj. '' 
: sauce: ''' krodhom ''' ''  '' 
: saw: ''' far ''' ''  '' 
: sax-sword: ''' brøtt ''' ''  '' 
: say: ''' bræmte ''' '' v. '' 
: scales: ''' hangun ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: scarf: ''' nyll ''' ''  '' 
: scatter: ''' seedda ''' '' v. '' 
: scissors: ''' nywen ''' '' n.pl. '' 
: scoop: ''' liwll ''' ''  '' 
: scrape: ''' nagha ''' '' v. '' 
: scratch: ''' riwa ''' '' v. '' 
: scrotum: ''' nøneem ''' ''  '' 
: sea: ''' mæll ''' ''  '' 
: sea-turtle: ''' redd ''' ''  '' 
: second: ''' tørdhøs ''' '' adj. '' 
: second job: ''' troot ''' ''  '' 
: see: ''' tadha ''' '' v. '' 
: seed: ''' forld ''' ''  '' 
: -self (intensifier): ''' siætr ''' '' adj. '' 
: self (reflexive): ''' vex ''' '' pron. '' 
: sell: ''' friffwo ''' '' v. '' 
: send: ''' alnka ''' '' v. '' 
: separate: ''' rwghasa ''' '' v. '' 
: sesame: ''' aff ''' ''  '' 
: settle: ''' hughno ''' '' v. '' 
: seven: ''' synn ''' '' num. '' 
: seventeen: ''' swmman ''' '' num. '' 
: seventy: ''' syynnias ''' '' num. '' 
: several: ''' wærin ''' '' pron. '' 
: sew: ''' treta ''' '' v. '' 
: shade: ''' lin ''' ''  '' 
: shadow: ''' løøt ''' ''  '' 
: shake: ''' kændria ''' '' v. '' 
: shallow: ''' snøø ''' '' adj. '' 
: shark: ''' van ''' ''  '' 
: sharp: ''' gæln ''' '' adj. '' 
: sharp stakes: ''' herkin ''' ''  '' 
: sharpen: ''' gælna ''' '' v. '' 
: shave: ''' dara ''' '' v. '' 
: she: ''' ni ''' '' pron. '' 
: sheath: ''' hym ''' ''  '' 
: shell: ''' rit ''' ''  '' 
: shelter: ''' wplagha ''' '' v. '' 
: shine: ''' selnet ''' '' adj. '' 
: ship: ''' kioll ''' '' n. '' 
: shirt: ''' blin ''' ''  '' 
: shoes: ''' jwa ''' ''  '' 
: shoot a bow: ''' dømde ''' '' v. '' 
: shore: ''' skit ''' ''  '' 
: short: ''' goom ''' '' adj. '' 
: shoulder: ''' gladd ''' ''  '' 
: shout: ''' togho ''' '' v. '' 
: shrimp: ''' ænderr ''' ''  '' 
: sick: ''' ræghn ''' '' adj. '' 
: side: ''' tann ''' ''  '' 
: side by side: ''' førghe ''' '' v. '' 
: side-dishes: ''' margh ''' ''  '' 
: silver: ''' wærr ''' ''  '' 
: since: ''' teriis ''' ''  '' 
: sing: ''' vpstaa ''' '' v. '' 
: single: ''' sær ''' '' adj. '' 
: sink: ''' øønnde ''' '' v. '' 
: sink in the mud: ''' hælse ''' '' v. '' 
: sip: ''' bukklo ''' '' v. '' 
: sister: ''' laadh ''' ''  '' 
: sit: ''' samnga ''' '' v. '' 
: sit next to: ''' bara ''' '' v. '' 
: sit side by side: ''' vtheena ''' '' v. '' 
: sit with legs crossed: ''' joaa ''' '' v. '' 
: sit with legs stretched out: ''' daffua ''' '' v. '' 
: six: ''' bragh ''' '' num. '' 
: sixteen: ''' braghman ''' '' num. '' 
: sixty: ''' braghas ''' '' num. '' 
: skewer: ''' hall ''' ''  '' 
: skin: ''' bidh ''' ''  '' 
: skull: ''' ør ''' '' n. '' 
: sky: ''' lwcop ''' ''  '' 
: slash: ''' førlika ''' '' v. '' 
: slaughter: ''' kære ''' '' v. '' 
: sleep: ''' bodhno ''' '' v. '' 
: sleepy: ''' bødhet ''' '' adj. '' 
: slice: ''' gullaka ''' '' v. '' 
: slide: ''' vanmna ''' '' v. '' 
: slip: ''' bezsna ''' '' v. '' 
: slippery: ''' husfl ''' '' adj. '' 
: sloping: ''' ørgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: slow: ''' fras ''' '' adj. '' 
: small: ''' grøt ''' '' adj. '' 
: small lizzard: ''' bet ''' ''  '' 
: smarting: ''' sior ''' '' adj. '' 
: smell: ''' føllet ''' ''  '' 
: smell something: ''' swodho ''' '' v. '' 
: smoke: ''' daw ''' ''  '' 
: smooth: ''' plægh ''' '' adj. '' 
: snail: ''' badd ''' ''  '' 
: snake: ''' offsom ''' ''  '' 
: sneeze: ''' budhzo ''' '' v. '' 
: snout: ''' spor ''' ''  '' 
: soft: ''' gior ''' '' adj. '' 
: solder: ''' hisk ''' ''  '' 
: some: ''' fryyt ''' '' pron. '' 
: someone: ''' fryy ''' '' pron. '' 
: something: ''' fryydh ''' '' pron. '' 
: son: ''' sydh ''' ''  '' 
: son-in-law: ''' syn ''' ''  '' 
: sore: ''' nykk ''' ''  '' 
: soul: ''' olm ''' ''  '' 
: sound: ''' førliw ''' ''  '' 
: sour: ''' fliis ''' '' adj. '' 
: south: ''' boonck ''' ''  '' 
: sow: ''' brøwegha ''' '' v. '' 
: space between: ''' swæpt ''' ''  '' 
: spark: ''' twe ''' ''  '' 
: sparrow: ''' nægh ''' ''  '' 
: spatter: ''' gylffte ''' '' v. '' 
: speak: ''' leka ''' '' v. '' 
: spear: ''' thiel ''' ''  '' 
: spices: ''' faa ''' ''  '' 
: spicy hot: ''' bidhen ''' '' adj. '' 
: spider: ''' hedd ''' ''  '' 
: spill: ''' lostogho ''' '' v. '' 
: spit: ''' wæærwo ''' '' v. '' 
: splice: ''' gema ''' '' v. '' 
: split: ''' hørske ''' '' v. '' 
: spoon: ''' fis ''' ''  '' 
: spotted: ''' innorgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: sprain: ''' boa ''' ''  '' 
: spray: ''' kioo ''' '' v. '' 
: spread out: ''' lætte ''' '' v. '' 
: squat: ''' wala ''' '' v. '' 
: squeeze: ''' smøthe ''' '' v. '' 
: squid: ''' swænd ''' ''  '' 
: squirm, wriggle: ''' vikio ''' '' v. '' 
: stab: ''' parna ''' '' v. '' 
: stable: ''' slankt ''' ''  '' 
: stand: ''' landba ''' '' v. '' 
: star: ''' werb ''' ''  '' 
: stare: ''' wængne ''' '' v. '' 
: stay: ''' mendra ''' '' v. '' 
: steal: ''' føreta ''' '' v. '' 
: steam: ''' daarkta ''' '' v. '' 
: step in a hole: ''' jordho ''' '' v. '' 
: stick: ''' sudharf ''' ''  '' 
: sticky: ''' døw ''' '' adj. '' 
: stingy: ''' fesnc ''' '' adj. '' 
: stir: ''' swina ''' '' v. '' 
: stomach: ''' legg ''' ''  '' 
: stone: ''' ris ''' ''  '' 
: stop by: ''' ræne ''' '' v. '' 
: stop, finish, cease: ''' gærio ''' '' v. '' 
: storm: ''' drisfr ''' ''  '' 
: stove: ''' gleng ''' ''  '' 
: straight: ''' æffræk ''' '' adj. '' 
: straits: ''' brut ''' ''  '' 
: straw: ''' fordhru ''' ''  '' 
: stream: ''' mwm ''' '' n. '' 
: stretch: ''' hoghlo ''' '' v. '' 
: stretch out: ''' faghda ''' '' v. '' 
: string: ''' fæærn ''' ''  '' 
: strip (leaves): ''' bolzso ''' '' v. '' 
: strong: ''' vers ''' '' adj. '' 
: study: ''' sarska ''' '' v. '' 
: stupid: ''' horat ''' '' adj. '' 
: substitute: ''' forghno ''' '' v. '' 
: suck: ''' troo ''' '' v. '' 
: suckle: ''' haffra ''' '' v. '' 
: suckling, baby: ''' haffrull ''' '' v. '' 
: suffer: ''' thoslo ''' '' v. '' 
: sugar: ''' sukkær ''' ''  '' 
: sun: ''' swægh ''' ''  '' 
: surface: ''' var ''' ''  '' 
: swallow: ''' miølle ''' '' v. '' 
: sway: ''' fyera ''' '' v. '' 
: sweep: ''' rægne ''' '' v. '' 
: sweet: ''' gudh ''' '' adj. '' 
: swim: ''' dana ''' '' v. '' 
: swollen: ''' spadh ''' ''  '' 
: sword: ''' brand ''' ''  '' 
==T==
: table: ''' slærn ''' ''  '' 
: &quot;tack&quot;: ''' hestr ''' ''  '' 
: tail: ''' sædh ''' ''  '' 
: take: ''' nywe ''' '' v. '' 
: tale: ''' oop ''' '' n. '' 
: tall: ''' swan ''' '' adj. '' 
: tame: ''' blij ''' '' adj. '' 
: taste: ''' adh ''' '' v. '' 
: tasteless: ''' fuat ''' '' adj. '' 
: teach: ''' grea ''' '' v. '' 
: teacher: ''' grell ''' '' n. '' 
: tear: ''' gudho ''' '' v. '' 
: tell: ''' oopno ''' '' v. '' 
: tell a lie: ''' biænge ''' '' v. '' 
: tempest: ''' løgh ''' ''  '' 
: ten: ''' sman ''' '' num. '' 
: termite: ''' sæænd ''' ''  '' 
: that (far), it: ''' edd ''' ''  '' 
: that (nearby): ''' ann ''' ''  '' 
: that, which: ''' øll ''' ''  '' 
: thatch: ''' yfft ''' ''  '' 
: the warp: ''' gaffu ''' ''  '' 
: the woof: ''' loffw ''' ''  '' 
: their: ''' seek ''' ''  '' 
: theirs: ''' seek ''' ''  '' 
: there (far): ''' eddem ''' ''  '' 
: there (near): ''' annom ''' ''  '' 
: there is: ''' olto ''' '' v. '' 
: there is not: ''' ganta ''' '' v. '' 
: they: ''' se ''' ''  '' 
: thich: ''' lægh ''' '' adj. '' 
: thick: ''' skip ''' '' adj. '' 
: thigh: ''' odd ''' ''  '' 
: thin: ''' flyket ''' '' adj. '' 
: thing: ''' sakt ''' ''  '' 
: think: ''' wargha ''' '' v. '' 
: third: ''' hænøs ''' '' adj. '' 
: thirst: ''' pusf ''' '' n. '' 
: thirst: ''' pusfo ''' '' v. '' 
: thirsty: ''' pusfær ''' '' adj. '' 
: thirteen: ''' hamman ''' '' num. '' 
: thirty: ''' thanas ''' '' num. '' 
: this: ''' ordh ''' ''  '' 
: thorn: ''' wildr ''' ''  '' 
: thread: ''' bes ''' ''  '' 
: three: ''' than ''' '' num. '' 
: throw: ''' rænde ''' '' v. '' 
: thunder: ''' tæktek ''' ''  '' 
: thus: ''' wdh ''' ''  '' 
: tie: ''' læke ''' '' v. '' 
: tight: ''' nøms ''' '' adj. '' 
: tighten: ''' æwistra ''' '' v. '' 
: time: ''' trand ''' ''  '' 
: tip: ''' fynn ''' ''  '' 
: tired: ''' thee ''' '' adj. '' 
: to: ''' jwn ''' ''  '' 
: to blow: ''' fua ''' '' v. '' 
: to face: ''' tytzeta ''' '' v. '' 
: to pry: ''' skella ''' '' v. '' 
: today: ''' blenk ''' ''  '' 
: toilet: ''' hond ''' ''  '' 
: tomorrow: ''' wodh ''' ''  '' 
: tomorrow +1: ''' ænd ''' ''  '' 
: tongue, language: ''' skaw ''' '' n. '' 
: tooth: ''' skudd ''' ''  '' 
: torch: ''' dodh ''' ''  '' 
: torn: ''' yfftn ''' '' adj. '' 
: touch: ''' skylffue ''' '' v. '' 
: transverse: ''' søl ''' '' adj. '' 
: tree: ''' stan ''' ''  '' 
: tree-trunk: ''' val ''' ''  '' 
: trim: ''' siældia ''' '' v. '' 
: trip: ''' salla ''' '' v. '' 
: true: ''' woorgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: trust: ''' saghafa ''' '' v. '' 
: try, attempt: ''' stapa ''' '' v. '' 
: tuber: ''' modh ''' ''  '' 
: tunic: ''' ridh ''' ''  '' 
: turmeric: ''' mang ''' ''  '' 
: turn: ''' tykne ''' '' v. '' 
: turn around: ''' traa ''' '' v. '' 
: twelve: ''' tork ''' '' num. '' 
: twenty: ''' tordhas, has ''' '' num. '' 
: twice: ''' tordhwal ''' '' adv. '' 
: twins: ''' tradd ''' ''  '' 
: twist: ''' torgho ''' '' v. '' 
: two: ''' tordh ''' '' num. '' 
: two hundred: ''' tørdør ''' '' num. '' 
==U==
: ugly: ''' skø ''' '' adj. '' 
: uncircumcized: ''' æt ''' '' adj. '' 
: uncle: ''' owadh ''' ''  '' 
: under: ''' hwl ''' ''  '' 
: unripe: ''' futwal ''' '' adj. '' 
: unsteady: ''' skoncho ''' '' v. '' 
: up: ''' gra ''' '' prep. '' 
: uproot: ''' sina ''' '' v. '' 
: upstream: ''' gramwm ''' '' adj. '' 
: urine: ''' swald ''' ''  '' 
: urine smell: ''' vil ''' '' adj. '' 
: use: ''' gika ''' '' v. '' 
: usual: ''' sighess ''' '' adj. '' 
==V==
: V. NATURE: ''' marw ''' ''  '' 
: vague: ''' idhaw ''' '' adj. '' 
: vein: ''' sedh ''' ''  '' 
: very: ''' lundn ''' '' adj. '' 
: VI. EVERYDAY LIFE: '''  ''' ''  '' 
: VII. VERBS: '''  ''' ''  '' 
: VIII. ADJECTIVES: ''' slas ''' ''  '' 
: village: ''' vand ''' ''  '' 
: vinegar: ''' tar ''' ''  '' 
: virgin: ''' giw ''' ''  '' 
: viscous: ''' færn ''' '' adj. '' 
: visit: ''' blingia ''' '' v. '' 
: vocative particle: ''' hey ''' '' particle '' 
: voice: ''' har ''' ''  '' 
: vomit: ''' sidhla ''' '' v. '' 
: vulva: ''' likn ''' ''  '' 
==W==
: waist: ''' vnd ''' ''  '' 
: wait: ''' bordha ''' '' v. '' 
: wake up: ''' granda ''' '' v. '' 
: walk: ''' ørre ''' '' v. '' 
: wall: ''' jwll ''' ''  '' 
: want, lack: ''' sidha ''' '' v. '' 
: wash: ''' mwngno ''' '' v. '' 
: wash clothes: ''' ffuaa ''' '' v. '' 
: wash dishes: ''' vatha ''' '' v. '' 
: wasp: ''' reemn ''' ''  '' 
: watchful, attentive, observant: ''' cridhet ''' '' adj. '' 
: water: ''' æmpn ''' ''  '' 
: wave: ''' dygh ''' ''  '' 
: we excl.: ''' mær ''' ''  '' 
: we incl.: ''' foott ''' ''  '' 
: weak: ''' frikas ''' '' adj. '' 
: weapon: ''' hørdh ''' '' n. '' 
: wear: ''' foro ''' '' v. '' 
: wear, wearing: ''' for ''' '' n. '' 
: weave: ''' førnde ''' '' v. '' 
: wedge: ''' hergh ''' ''  '' 
: weigh: ''' køpmesa ''' '' v. '' 
: well: ''' vr ''' '' adj. '' 
: well, anyway, now then...: ''' trioo ''' '' int. '' 
: west: ''' sand ''' ''  '' 
: wet: ''' ton ''' '' adj. '' 
: what the...: ''' fann berdhær ''' '' idiom '' 
: what?: ''' fann ''' ''  '' 
: wheeze: ''' sidhagha ''' '' v. '' 
: when: ''' aat ''' ''  '' 
: when: ''' ap ''' ''  '' 
: when?: ''' faat ''' ''  '' 
: where?: ''' fedd ''' ''  '' 
: which?: ''' følk ''' ''  '' 
: whirlwind: ''' hymnn ''' ''  '' 
: white: ''' høgh ''' '' adj. '' 
: whitewash: ''' vinn ''' ''  '' 
: who: ''' iørn ''' ''  '' 
: who?: ''' fiørn ''' ''  '' 
: why?: ''' fwdh ''' ''  '' 
: wick: ''' valln ''' ''  '' 
: wide: ''' fæ ''' '' adj. '' 
: widow: ''' fagh ''' ''  '' 
: wife: ''' wld ''' ''  '' 
: wild: ''' rastap ''' '' adj. '' 
: will,want: ''' giaa ''' '' v. '' 
: willing: ''' blytn ''' '' adj. '' 
: win: ''' lega ''' '' v. '' 
: wind: ''' løtert ''' ''  '' 
: wind up: ''' bryngia ''' '' v. '' 
: wind/roll up: ''' henlita ''' '' v. '' 
: window: ''' swen ''' ''  '' 
: wine: ''' wijn ''' ''  '' 
: wing: ''' fang ''' ''  '' 
: wink: ''' dagha ''' '' v. '' 
: winnow: ''' tornko ''' '' v. '' 
: winter: ''' frygg ''' ''  '' 
: wipe: ''' glabadha ''' '' v. '' 
: wire: ''' køgh ''' ''  '' 
: wish: ''' follagha ''' '' v. '' 
: with: ''' fing ''' ''  '' 
: woman: ''' wan ''' ''  '' 
: womb: ''' son ''' ''  '' 
: wood: ''' glagh ''' ''  '' 
: woods, forest: ''' berdh ''' ''  '' 
: work: ''' hoffw ''' ''  '' 
: worm: ''' tytzsk ''' ''  '' 
: wound: ''' ste ''' ''  '' 
: wrap: ''' nadha ''' '' v. '' 
: wrap (a corpse): ''' amagha ''' '' v. '' 
: write: ''' bidhla ''' '' v. '' 
: writer, scribe: ''' bidhlull ''' '' v. '' 
==Y==
: year: ''' siæl ''' ''  '' 
: yellow: ''' berk ''' '' adj. '' 
: yes: ''' ol ''' '' excl. '' 
: yesterday: ''' hædhem ''' ''  '' 
: yesterday -1: ''' bodhnædh ''' ''  '' 
: you pl. : ''' han ''' '' pron. '' 
: you sg. (thou): ''' ton ''' ''  '' 
: young: ''' hæn ''' '' adj. '' 
: young girl: ''' menn ''' ''  '' 
: younger brother: ''' hend ''' ''  '' 
: your (thy): ''' tonk ''' ''  '' 
: your pl. : ''' hank ''' ''  '' 
: yours (thine): ''' tonk ''' ''  '' 
: yours pl.: ''' hank ''' ''  ''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maerik-English vocabulary</title>
    <id>1760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46860</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:10:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Maerik/vocabulary/Maerik-English]] moved to [[Maerik-English vocabulary]] over redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Maerik]]

''N.B.''  Mærik is sorted according to Scandinavian conventions with '''Æ''' and '''Ø''' at the end of the alphabet!

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
| [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]] [[#Æ|Æ]] [[#Ø|Ø]]
|}
__NOTOC__

[[English-Maerik vocabulary|English-Mærik vocabulary]]

[[Maerik|Mærik page]]

==A==
: ''' aat ''' ''  '' :when
: ''' abogh ''' '' adj. '' :greedy
: ''' ach ''' '' adj. '' :hungry
: ''' add ''' ''  '' :irrigation canal
: ''' adh ''' '' v. '' :taste
: ''' adhzo ''' '' v. '' :ask
: ''' aff ''' ''  '' :sesame
: ''' akopp ''' ''  '' :butterfly
: ''' akormo ''' '' v. '' :leer
: ''' al ''' '' adj. '' :holy
: ''' alagha ''' '' v. '' :hate
: ''' ald ''' ''  '' :navel
: ''' aldan ''' '' adj. '' :excessive
: ''' alff ''' '' n. '' :Elf
: ''' alffta ''' '' v. '' :daydream
: ''' all ''' ''  '' :god
: ''' alnka ''' '' v. '' :send
: ''' alzsk ''' '' adj. '' :bare
: ''' amagha ''' '' v. '' :wrap (a corpse)
: ''' amm ''' ''  '' :egg
: ''' amnot ''' '' adj. '' :little
: ''' amptogh ''' '' adj. '' :mouldy
: ''' an ''' '' adj. '' :bitter
: ''' ann ''' ''  '' :that (nearby)
: ''' annom ''' ''  '' :there (near)
: ''' ap ''' ''  '' :when
: ''' apn ''' ''  '' :fire
: ''' apnhus ''' '' n. '' :fire water (distilled alcoholoic beverage)
: ''' arrapa ''' '' v. '' :lament
: ''' arsta ''' '' v. '' :rub
: ''' attll ''' '' adj. '' :fast
: ''' ay ''' '' int. '' :hey
==B==
: ''' badd ''' ''  '' :snail
: ''' badh ''' ''  '' :dropsy
: ''' bald ''' ''  '' :knife
: ''' bamn ''' ''  '' :rope
: ''' ban ''' '' n. '' :cheek
: ''' band ''' ''  '' :ghost
: ''' banzska ''' '' v. '' :knead
: ''' bara ''' '' v. '' :sit next to
: ''' bardh ''' ''  '' :fish-trap
: ''' bargh ''' ''  '' :extra work
: ''' barwa ''' '' v. '' :know (facts)
: ''' begh ''' ''  '' :fruit
: ''' belagh ''' ''  '' :
: ''' bena ''' '' v. '' :get up (from sitting)
: ''' berdh ''' ''  '' :woods, forest
: ''' berk ''' '' adj. '' :yellow
: ''' berl ''' ''  '' :bark cloth
: ''' bes ''' ''  '' :thread
: ''' bet ''' ''  '' :small lizzard
: ''' bezska ''' '' v. '' :remove pot from the fire
: ''' bezsna ''' '' v. '' :slip
: ''' bidh ''' ''  '' :skin
: ''' bidhen ''' '' adj. '' :spicy hot
: ''' bidhla ''' '' v. '' :write
: ''' bidhlull ''' '' v. '' :writer, scribe
: ''' bidhukk ''' ''  '' :lamp
: ''' birghna ''' '' v. '' :rip
: ''' bisnl ''' ''  '' :fog
: ''' bitta ''' '' v. '' :move something closer
: ''' biw ''' ''  '' :arrow
: ''' biænge ''' '' v. '' :tell a lie
: ''' blen ''' ''  '' :corn
: ''' blenk ''' ''  '' :today
: ''' blidh ''' ''  '' :breath
: ''' blij ''' '' adj. '' :tame
: ''' blin ''' ''  '' :shirt
: ''' blingia ''' '' v. '' :visit
: ''' blodd ''' ''  '' :brother-in-law
: ''' bloff ''' ''  '' :chicken
: ''' bloon ''' ''  '' :ear (of grain)
: ''' blytn ''' '' adj. '' :willing
: ''' blægh ''' ''  '' :cabbage
: ''' boa ''' ''  '' :sprain
: ''' bodh ''' '' n. '' :past (time)
: ''' bodhno ''' '' v. '' :sleep
: ''' bodhnædh ''' ''  '' :yesterday -1
: ''' bodhom ''' '' adv. '' :before
: ''' boko ''' '' v. '' :become
: ''' bolszull ''' '' n. '' :moose, elk
: ''' bolzso ''' '' v. '' :strip (leaves)
: ''' bonn ''' ''  '' :coral
: ''' boonck ''' ''  '' :south
: ''' bor ''' ''  '' :plank
: ''' bordha ''' '' v. '' :wait
: ''' borm ''' '' adj. '' :red
: ''' bortru ''' ''  '' :family
: ''' bortuuo ''' '' v. '' :forbid
: ''' bortwat ''' '' v. '' :forbidden
: ''' bot ''' '' adj. '' :past, previous
: ''' boz ''' '' adj. '' :last
: ''' braffw ''' ''  '' :husband
: ''' bragh ''' '' num. '' :six
: ''' braghas ''' '' num. '' :sixty
: ''' braghman ''' '' num. '' :sixteen
: ''' brand ''' ''  '' :sword
: ''' bre ''' ''  '' :crossroads
: ''' bren ''' ''  '' :duck
: ''' brenn ''' '' adj. '' :empty
: ''' brenne ''' '' v. '' :empty
: ''' bret ''' '' adj. '' :long
: ''' brewyne ''' '' v. '' :permit
: ''' browom ''' ''  '' :fly
: ''' bruo ''' '' v. '' :divide into portions
: ''' brut ''' ''  '' :straits
: ''' brwnto ''' '' v. '' :decorate
: ''' brwto ''' '' v. '' :inherit
: ''' bryngia ''' '' v. '' :wind up
: ''' bræmte ''' '' v. '' :say
: ''' brøl ''' ''  '' :mortar
: ''' brøtt ''' ''  '' :sax-sword
: ''' brøwegha ''' '' v. '' :sow
: ''' brøø ''' ''  '' :although
: ''' budhr ''' ''  '' :chain
: ''' budhzno ''' '' v. '' :gouge
: ''' budhzo ''' '' v. '' :sneeze
: ''' bukklo ''' '' v. '' :sip
: ''' bungs ''' '' adv. '' :less
: ''' but ''' '' adj. '' :green
: ''' bwtar ''' ''  '' :glass
: ''' bygg ''' ''  '' :
: ''' byrlika ''' '' v. '' :cook
: ''' bædherdh ''' ''  '' :outrigger
: ''' bængia ''' '' v. '' :recite
: ''' bæt ''' '' conj. '' :and
: ''' bætum ''' '' adv. '' :also, too
: ''' bødhet ''' '' adj. '' :sleepy
: ''' bøn ''' ''  '' :mast
: ''' børe ''' '' v. '' :cut
: ''' børliu ''' ''  '' :sand
: ''' børtre ''' '' v. '' :knock
==C==
: ''' cridha ''' '' v. '' :look at, watch
: ''' cridhet ''' '' adj. '' :watchful, attentive, observant
: ''' criina ''' '' v. '' :get up (from bed)
: ''' criis ''' ''  '' :bunch (of fruits)
: ''' crik ''' ''  '' :
==D==
: ''' daboh ''' ''  '' :grandfather
: ''' daffua ''' '' v. '' :sit with legs stretched out
: ''' dagha ''' '' v. '' :wink
: ''' daghnda ''' '' v. '' :poke
: ''' dalla ''' '' v. '' :bet
: ''' dana ''' '' v. '' :swim
: ''' dand ''' ''  '' :during
: ''' dara ''' '' v. '' :shave
: ''' daw ''' ''  '' :smoke
: ''' din ''' '' adj. '' :disappointed
: ''' dodh ''' ''  '' :torch
: ''' dodhukt ''' ''  '' :royal
: ''' dott ''' ''  '' :finger
: ''' dra ''' ''  '' :heart
: ''' dradha ''' '' v. '' :extend
: ''' driilda ''' '' v. '' :inform
: ''' drisfr ''' ''  '' :storm
: ''' dron ''' '' n. '' :milk
: ''' drøment ''' '' pron. '' :every
: ''' drønisa ''' '' v. '' :make nets
: ''' drøø ''' ''  '' :cat
: ''' dwar ''' '' n. '' :forehead
: ''' dwardh ''' ''  '' :cave
: ''' dych ''' '' adj. '' :barren
: ''' dygh ''' ''  '' :wave
: ''' dyst ''' ''  '' :gravel
: ''' dæyir ''' '' adj. '' :sad
: ''' dødhzsk ''' ''  '' :respectively
: ''' døe ''' '' v. '' :plow
: ''' døll ''' '' n. '' :farmer
: ''' døm ''' ''  '' :naked
: ''' dømde ''' '' v. '' :shoot a bow
: ''' dør ''' '' num. '' :one hundred
: ''' døt ''' '' adj. '' :plain, ordinary
: ''' døthn ''' ''  '' :mussel
: ''' døw ''' '' adj. '' :sticky
: ''' daarkta ''' '' v. '' :steam
==E==
: ''' edd ''' ''  '' :that (far), it
: ''' eddem ''' ''  '' :there (far)
: ''' een ''' ''  '' :chisel
: ''' eera ''' '' v. '' :bake
: ''' elidhiw ''' '' adj. '' :invulnerable
: ''' eliorgh ''' ''  '' :room
: ''' enn ''' '' adj. '' :hard (especially of wood)
: ''' ent ''' ''  '' :moon, month
: ''' erc ''' ''  '' :fox
: ''' erdhra ''' '' v. '' :rasp
: ''' ett ''' ''  '' :ornament
==F==
: ''' fadha ''' '' v. '' :play
: ''' fagh ''' ''  '' :widow
: ''' faghda ''' '' v. '' :stretch out
: ''' faghna ''' '' v. '' :appear
: ''' fallna ''' '' v. '' :rinse
: ''' fama ''' '' v. '' :descend
: ''' fan ''' ''  '' :ficus
: ''' fang ''' ''  '' :wing
: ''' fann ''' ''  '' :what?
: ''' fann berdhær ''' '' idiom '' :what the...
: ''' far ''' ''  '' :saw
: ''' farkt ''' ''  '' :because
: ''' farma ''' '' v. '' :blink
: ''' fas ''' '' adj. '' :odd
: ''' fas ''' ''  '' :rain
: ''' fedd ''' ''  '' :where?
: ''' fere ''' '' v. '' :be
: ''' fesn ''' ''  '' :land,country
: ''' fesnc ''' '' adj. '' :stingy
: ''' ffuea ''' '' v. '' :clear land
: ''' ffuaa ''' '' v. '' :wash clothes
: ''' fia ''' ''  '' :animal
: ''' fiel ''' '' adv. '' :more
: ''' fienn ''' ''  '' :bed
: ''' fiidh ''' ''  '' :fence
: ''' fiisk ''' ''  '' :
: ''' fina ''' '' v. '' :compose
: ''' fing ''' ''  '' :with
: ''' fis ''' ''  '' :spoon
: ''' fiørn ''' ''  '' :who?
: ''' flew ''' '' num. '' :nine
: ''' flewas ''' '' num. '' :ninety
: ''' flewman ''' '' num. '' :nineteen
: ''' fliis ''' '' adj. '' :sour
: ''' flus ''' '' num. '' :four
: ''' flusas ''' '' num. '' :forty
: ''' flusman ''' '' num. '' :fourteen
: ''' flyket ''' '' adj. '' :thin
: ''' fodh ''' ''  '' :neck
: ''' fogh ''' ''  '' :paddle
: ''' foldata ''' '' v. '' :flay
: ''' follagha ''' '' v. '' :wish
: ''' foo ''' ''  '' :dove
: ''' foop ''' ''  '' :mush
: ''' foott ''' ''  '' :we incl.
: ''' foottuk ''' ''  '' :our incl.
: ''' foottuk ''' ''  '' :ours incl.
: ''' for ''' '' n. '' :wear, wearing
: ''' fordh ''' ''  '' :door
: ''' fordhru ''' ''  '' :straw
: ''' forgh ''' ''  '' :mud
: ''' forghno ''' '' v. '' :substitute
: ''' forld ''' ''  '' :seed
: ''' forman ''' '' num. '' :eighteen
: ''' foro ''' '' v. '' :wear
: ''' fot ''' ''  '' :from
: ''' fras ''' '' adj. '' :slow
: ''' fre ''' ''  '' :nut
: ''' friff ''' ''  '' :midday
: ''' friffwo ''' '' v. '' :sell
: ''' frigg ''' '' adj. '' :cold
: ''' frika ''' '' v. '' :dive
: ''' frikas ''' '' adj. '' :weak
: ''' frodh ''' ''  '' :afternoon
: ''' from ''' ''  '' :
: ''' frwdh ''' ''  '' :
: ''' frygg ''' ''  '' :winter
: ''' fryy ''' '' pron. '' :someone
: ''' fryydh ''' '' pron. '' :something
: ''' fryyt ''' '' pron. '' :some
: ''' frædh ''' ''  '' :ladder (to the house)
: ''' fræpe ''' '' v. '' :forget
: ''' fua ''' '' v. '' :to blow
: ''' fuat ''' '' adj. '' :tasteless
: ''' fund ''' '' n. '' :hope
: ''' fundo ''' '' v. '' :hope
: ''' futwal ''' '' adj. '' :unripe
: ''' fwdh ''' ''  '' :why?
: ''' fwnn ''' ''  '' :how much/many?
: ''' fwrto ''' '' v. '' :feed
: ''' fyera ''' '' v. '' :sway
: ''' fyerm ''' ''  '' :nail
: ''' fyllew ''' ''  '' :beard
: ''' fynn ''' ''  '' :tip
: ''' fyre ''' '' v. '' :cut into
: ''' fyrgh ''' '' adv. '' :across, through
: ''' fyrk ''' '' adj. '' :rotten
: ''' fyyr ''' '' adj. '' :easy
: ''' fæ ''' '' adj. '' :wide
: ''' fæghle ''' '' v. '' :deny
: ''' fæl ''' '' adj. '' :grey
: ''' fæng ''' ''  '' :comb
: ''' fænødhe ''' '' v. '' :cough
: ''' færliw ''' '' adj. '' :expensive
: ''' færn ''' '' adj. '' :viscous
: ''' fææe ''' '' v. '' :pant
: ''' fæærn ''' ''  '' :string
: ''' føghn ''' ''  '' :east
: ''' følk ''' ''  '' :which?
: ''' føll ''' ''  '' :fist
: ''' føllet ''' ''  '' :smell
: ''' førdh ''' ''  '' :dragon
: ''' føre ''' '' v. '' :fade
: ''' føreta ''' '' v. '' :steal
: ''' førghe ''' '' v. '' :side by side
: ''' førghita ''' '' v. '' :drift
: ''' førip ''' ''  '' :octopus
: ''' førlika ''' '' v. '' :slash
: ''' førliw ''' ''  '' :sound
: ''' førn ''' '' num. '' :eight
: ''' førnde ''' '' v. '' :weave
: ''' førnias ''' '' num. '' :eighty
: ''' førsse ''' '' v. '' :have
: ''' ført ''' ''  '' :paint
: ''' føødd ''' ''  '' :
: ''' faa ''' ''  '' :spices
: ''' faaka ''' '' v. '' :choke (on food)
: ''' faat ''' ''  '' :when?
==G==
: ''' gadh ''' ''  '' :chest
: ''' gaffu ''' ''  '' :the warp
: ''' galdot ''' '' adj. '' :nervous
: ''' gamm ''' '' adj. '' :new
: ''' gamnn ''' ''  '' :current
: ''' gan ''' '' adj. '' :all gone
: ''' gan ''' '' v. '' :no
: ''' ganta ''' '' v. '' :there is not
: ''' garaw ''' ''  '' :
: ''' gawana ''' '' v. '' :repair
: ''' gema ''' '' v. '' :splice
: ''' gij ''' '' adj. '' :high
: ''' gika ''' '' v. '' :use
: ''' gikedhr ''' ''  '' :river
: ''' gild ''' ''  '' :ceiling
: ''' gin ''' ''  '' :curtain
: ''' gio ''' ''  '' :calf
: ''' gior ''' '' adj. '' :soft
: ''' gisgh ''' '' adj. '' :crippled
: ''' giw ''' ''  '' :virgin
: ''' giølghia ''' '' v. '' :restore
: ''' giaa ''' '' v. '' :will,want
: ''' glabadha ''' '' v. '' :wipe
: ''' gladd ''' ''  '' :shoulder
: ''' glagh ''' ''  '' :wood
: ''' glatta ''' '' v. '' :raise
: ''' gleng ''' ''  '' :stove
: ''' glædd ''' ''  '' :niece
: ''' godhat ''' ''  '' :flame
: ''' gom ''' ''  '' :pounder
: ''' gonat ''' '' adj. '' :bad tasting
: ''' gono ''' '' v. '' :pay out rope
: ''' goom ''' '' adj. '' :short
: ''' gra ''' '' prep. '' :up
: ''' graghla ''' '' v. '' :learn
: ''' gramwm ''' '' adj. '' :upstream
: ''' granda ''' '' v. '' :wake up
: ''' grata ''' '' v. '' :bargain
: ''' grea ''' '' v. '' :teach
: ''' gree ''' '' adj. '' :clear (water)
: ''' grell ''' '' n. '' :teacher
: ''' gren ''' ''  '' :fringe
: ''' grest ''' ''  '' :cape
: ''' gridhia ''' '' v. '' :break
: ''' gridhna ''' '' v. '' :rotate
: ''' grøt ''' '' adj. '' :small
: ''' gudh ''' '' adj. '' :sweet
: ''' gudha ''' '' v. '' :gather (things) together
: ''' gudho ''' '' v. '' :tear
: ''' gull ''' ''  '' :pillow
: ''' gullaka ''' '' v. '' :slice
: ''' gulln ''' ''  '' :
: ''' gulw ''' ''  '' :cucumber
: ''' guto ''' '' v. '' :drill
: ''' gwarum ''' '' v. '' :not yet
: ''' gwaara ''' '' v. '' :do not...
: ''' gylffte ''' '' v. '' :spatter
: ''' gæln ''' '' adj. '' :sharp
: ''' gælna ''' '' v. '' :sharpen
: ''' gærio ''' '' v. '' :stop, finish, cease
: ''' gæw ''' ''  '' :foot
: ''' gøm ''' ''  '' :indefinite
: ''' gømeet ''' ''  '' :fish-hook
: ''' gømp ''' ''  '' :chin
: ''' gømul ''' '' adj. '' :dry
: ''' gøntem ''' '' adv. '' :never
: ''' gørdhe ''' '' v. '' :pay
: ''' gøre ''' '' v. '' :remember
: ''' gørtn ''' ''  '' :hoe
: ''' gøthne ''' '' v. '' :carry - head
: ''' gøø ''' '' adj. '' :loose
==H==
: ''' haff ''' ''  '' :dagger
: ''' haffn ''' ''  '' :haze
: ''' haffra ''' '' v. '' :suckle
: ''' haffrull ''' '' v. '' :suckling, baby
: ''' haghd ''' ''  '' :guts
: ''' hall ''' ''  '' :skewer
: ''' hallok ''' ''  '' :hazel
: ''' hamman ''' '' num. '' :thirteen
: ''' han ''' '' pron. '' :you pl. 
: ''' hangun ''' '' n.pl. '' :scales
: ''' hank ''' ''  '' :your pl. 
: ''' hank ''' ''  '' :yours pl.
: ''' har ''' ''  '' :voice
: ''' hardh ''' ''  '' :or
: ''' hathf ''' ''  '' :horse
: ''' haw ''' ''  '' :leg
: '''  hawadh ''' ''  '' :earth
: ''' hedd ''' ''  '' :spider
: ''' hedh ''' ''  '' :insect
: ''' helika ''' '' v. '' :hold, keep, persist
: ''' helnga ''' '' v. '' :climb
: ''' hend ''' ''  '' :younger brother
: ''' henlita ''' '' v. '' :wind/roll up
: ''' henzsk ''' ''  '' :knee
: ''' her ''' ''  '' :crab
: ''' hergh ''' ''  '' :wedge
: ''' herkin ''' ''  '' :sharp stakes
: ''' herlna ''' '' v. '' :increase
: ''' hertla ''' '' v. '' :peel
: ''' hestr ''' ''  '' :&quot;tack&quot;
: ''' het ''' '' adj. '' :full
: ''' heta ''' '' v. '' :cross
: ''' hey ''' '' particle '' :vocative particle
: ''' hin ''' ''  '' :rudder
: ''' hingia ''' '' v. '' :avoid
: ''' hingn ''' ''  '' :interior
: ''' hiom ''' ''  '' :
: ''' hiomo ''' '' v. '' :divide
: ''' hir ''' '' adj. '' :low
: ''' hisk ''' ''  '' :solder
: ''' ho ''' '' prep. '' :down
: ''' hoffuo ''' '' v. '' :receive
: ''' hoffw ''' ''  '' :work
: ''' hoghlo ''' '' v. '' :stretch
: ''' hold ''' ''  '' :plate
: ''' hollun ''' '' n.pl. '' :hair
: ''' homwm ''' '' adj. '' :downstream
: ''' hond ''' ''  '' :toilet
: ''' hoo ''' ''  '' :ditch
: ''' hor ''' ''  '' :ribs
: ''' horat ''' '' adj. '' :stupid
: ''' hordh ''' ''  '' :corpse
: ''' hoso ''' '' v. '' :hit
: ''' hugg ''' ''  '' :dog
: ''' hugh ''' '' adj. '' :poor
: ''' hughno ''' '' v. '' :settle
: ''' hul ''' ''  '' :blizzard
: ''' hundo ''' '' v. '' :kneel
: ''' hunno ''' '' v. '' :kill by squashing
: ''' hus ''' ''  '' :liquid
: ''' husfl ''' '' adj. '' :slippery
: ''' hwalt ''' '' pron. '' :same
: ''' hwar ''' '' adj. '' :heavy
: ''' hwl ''' ''  '' :under
: ''' hwmagn ''' ''  '' :morning
: ''' hwnno ''' '' v. '' :get
: ''' hws ''' ''  '' :foam
: ''' hwaa ''' '' v. '' :repay
: ''' hydhe ''' '' v. '' :eat
: ''' hyltek ''' ''  '' :pan
: ''' hym ''' ''  '' :sheath
: ''' hymme ''' '' v. '' :carry - hip
: ''' hymne ''' '' v. '' :fight
: ''' hymnn ''' ''  '' :whirlwind
: ''' hyngsia ''' '' v. '' :breathe
: ''' hyr ''' '' adj. '' :half
: ''' hyy ''' ''  '' :each other
: ''' hædhem ''' ''  '' :yesterday
: ''' hæl ''' ''  '' :bat
: ''' hælb ''' ''  '' :inland
: ''' hælse ''' '' v. '' :sink in the mud
: ''' hæm ''' '' adv. '' :formerly
: ''' hæmhæm ''' ''  '' :circumcized
: ''' hæn ''' '' adj. '' :young
: ''' hænte ''' '' v. '' :requite
: ''' hænøs ''' '' adj. '' :third
: ''' hær ''' '' n. '' :nose
: ''' hærr ''' ''  '' :ladder (in general)
: ''' hæwey ''' ''  '' :cloud
: ''' høgh ''' '' adj. '' :white
: ''' høghl ''' '' n. '' :manner
: ''' høghliom ''' '' adv. '' :like, as
: ''' høkte ''' '' v. '' :come
: ''' hørdh ''' '' n. '' :weapon
: ''' hørske ''' '' v. '' :split
: ''' høwin ''' '' n.pl. '' :brain
: ''' høxte ''' '' v. '' :hiccough
: ''' haa ''' '' pron. '' :much
: ''' haan ''' '' pron. '' :many
: ''' haar ''' '' n. '' :quantity
==I==
: ''' idhaw ''' '' adj. '' :vague
: ''' idherr ''' '' adj. '' :rancid smell
: ''' ilp ''' ''  '' :mosquito net
: ''' innorgh ''' '' adj. '' :spotted
: ''' ion ''' ''  '' :mist
: ''' iørn ''' ''  '' :who
==J==
: ''' jamn ''' ''  '' :ashes
: ''' jdhe ''' '' v. '' :disappear
: ''' jer ''' ''  '' :peg
: ''' jng ''' '' adj. '' :near
: ''' jngs ''' '' adj. '' :next, following
: ''' jngum ''' '' adv. '' :almost, nearly
: ''' jom ''' ''  '' :goods
: ''' jonko ''' '' v. '' :cry out
: ''' jono ''' '' v. '' :arrange
: ''' jordho ''' '' v. '' :step in a hole
: ''' joaa ''' '' v. '' :sit with legs crossed
: ''' jwa ''' ''  '' :shoes
: ''' jwll ''' ''  '' :wall
: ''' jwn ''' ''  '' :to
: ''' jæ ''' '' particle '' :(emphatic)
: ''' jæle ''' '' v. '' :dig
: ''' jæmykte ''' '' v. '' :change
: ''' jæt ''' ''  '' :cousin
: ''' jæwelia ''' '' v. '' :carry - hand
==K==
: ''' kalda ''' '' v. '' :meet
: ''' kann ''' ''  '' :
: ''' kap ''' ''  '' :dysentery
: ''' kara ''' '' v. '' :rent
: ''' kardhn ''' ''  '' :flood
: ''' keetha ''' '' v. '' :count
: ''' kel ''' ''  '' :in back
: ''' kelgh ''' ''  '' :
: ''' kempn ''' ''  '' :fingernail
: ''' kensk ''' ''  '' :person
: ''' kerl ''' '' adj. '' :narrow
: ''' kia ''' ''  '' :plant
: ''' kij ''' '' adj. '' :popular
: ''' kilik ''' ''  '' :grandmother
: ''' kioll ''' '' n. '' :ship
: ''' kiom ''' '' num. '' :one thousand
: ''' kioo ''' '' v. '' :spray
: ''' klann ''' ''  '' :rafters
: ''' klidha ''' '' v. '' :chase
: ''' kloogho ''' '' v. '' :dream
: ''' klædd ''' '' n. '' :head
: ''' klædh ''' ''  '' :back
: ''' klæghia ''' '' v. '' :make smaller
: ''' klæn ''' '' adj. '' :pregnant
: ''' knw ''' ''  '' :firefly
: ''' kogho ''' '' v. '' :bite (of animals)
: ''' kom ''' ''  '' :
: ''' kon ''' '' adj. '' :loud
: ''' konkt ''' ''  '' :
: ''' koo ''' ''  '' :palm-wine
: ''' koro ''' '' v. '' :assemble
: ''' kos ''' ''  '' :body
: ''' krodhom ''' ''  '' :sauce
: ''' krom ''' ''  '' :pretending
: ''' kroo ''' '' v. '' :mix
: ''' kræfte ''' '' v. '' :depart
: ''' kraa ''' '' v. '' :dance
: ''' kuld ''' ''  '' :heart-of-palm
: ''' kylde ''' '' v. '' :flow
: ''' kynt ''' '' pron. '' :each
: ''' kælskin ''' '' n.pl. '' :pus
: ''' kæme ''' '' v. '' :prune
: ''' kæmp ''' '' adj. '' :dull
: ''' kændria ''' '' v. '' :shake
: ''' kænt ''' ''  '' :(cooking)pot
: ''' kære ''' '' v. '' :slaughter
: ''' kææten ''' ''  '' :cockfight
: ''' køgh ''' ''  '' :wire
: ''' køn ''' ''  '' :leak
: ''' køpmesa ''' '' v. '' :weigh
: ''' køthe ''' '' v. '' :draw a sword
: ''' køø ''' '' adj. '' :angry
: ''' køøw ''' '' n. '' :anger
: ''' kaan ''' '' adj. '' :certain
==L==
: ''' ladh ''' ''  '' :pain (head or body)
: ''' lagn ''' ''  '' :arm
: ''' lan ''' ''  '' :island
: ''' landba ''' '' v. '' :stand
: ''' landn ''' '' adj. '' :curly (hair)
: ''' lanna ''' '' v. '' :return home
: ''' last ''' ''  '' :iron
: ''' lat ''' ''  '' :nettle
: ''' lega ''' '' v. '' :win
: ''' legg ''' ''  '' :stomach
: ''' leka ''' '' v. '' :speak
: ''' len ''' ''  '' :flower
: ''' ler ''' ''  '' :body-hair
: ''' lerdha ''' '' v. '' :burst
: ''' les ''' ''  '' :father
: ''' lest ''' ''  '' :boat
: ''' lia ''' ''  '' :garlic
: ''' liffua ''' '' v. '' :lower
: ''' lijtio ''' '' v. '' :listen
: ''' lik ''' ''  '' :hide
: ''' lik ''' '' adj. '' :cheap
: ''' likema ''' '' v. '' :defeated
: ''' liketa ''' '' v. '' :command
: ''' likn ''' ''  '' :vulva
: ''' likska ''' '' v. '' :hunt
: ''' lima ''' '' v. '' :live
: ''' lin ''' ''  '' :shade
: ''' lita ''' '' v. '' :hear
: ''' liwll ''' ''  '' :scoop
: ''' liwn ''' '' adj. '' :fine, excellent, superior
: ''' liws ''' '' adj. '' :old
: ''' lodd ''' ''  '' :finch
: ''' loffw ''' ''  '' :the woof
: ''' logh ''' ''  '' :mosquito
: ''' lospro ''' '' v. '' :be familiar, be accustomed
: ''' lostogho ''' '' v. '' :spill
: ''' luk ''' ''  '' :child
: ''' lukkl ''' '' adj. '' :painful
: ''' lukt ''' ''  '' :beach
: ''' lundn ''' '' adj. '' :very
: ''' lwcop ''' ''  '' :sky
: ''' lwdh ''' ''  '' :field
: ''' lwkogh ''' '' adj. '' :right (hand)
: ''' lyck ''' '' adj. '' :quiet
: ''' lydhn ''' ''  '' :
: ''' lykkn ''' ''  '' :morter
: ''' lynd ''' ''  '' :loss
: ''' lædh ''' ''  '' :full moon, month
: ''' lædhe ''' '' v. '' :cut up
: ''' lædhl ''' ''  '' :cow
: ''' lægh ''' ''  '' :associate
: ''' lægh ''' '' adj. '' :thich
: ''' læke ''' '' v. '' :tie
: ''' læn ''' ''  '' :daughter
: ''' længeb ''' ''  '' :copper
: ''' lætte ''' '' v. '' :spread out
: ''' lææst ''' ''  '' :needle
: ''' lø ''' '' adj. '' :middle
: ''' løgh ''' ''  '' :tempest
: ''' løs ''' '' adj. '' :clever
: ''' løtert ''' ''  '' :wind
: ''' løøt ''' ''  '' :shadow
: ''' løøthe ''' '' v. '' :laugh
: ''' laadh ''' ''  '' :sister
==M==
: ''' malda ''' '' v. '' :be born
: ''' malln ''' ''  '' :hinge
: ''' malwomo ''' '' v. '' :revolve
: ''' mand ''' ''  '' :horn
: ''' mandrom ''' '' adv. '' :already
: ''' mang ''' ''  '' :turmeric
: ''' mangna ''' '' v. '' :may
: ''' mara ''' '' v. '' :filter
: ''' march ''' ''  '' :by means of
: ''' mardh ''' ''  '' :earthquake
: ''' margh ''' ''  '' :side-dishes
: ''' marna ''' '' v. '' :carry
: ''' marst ''' ''  '' :cooking vessel
: ''' marw ''' ''  '' :V. NATURE
: ''' mata ''' '' v. '' :cut off
: ''' matund ''' ''  '' :fish
: ''' maxta ''' '' v. '' :lean something against
: ''' meld ''' ''  '' :plant fiber
: ''' mena ''' '' v. '' :drown
: ''' mendra ''' '' v. '' :stay
: ''' menn ''' ''  '' :young girl
: ''' mik ''' ''  '' :inside
: ''' mil ''' ''  '' :lathe
: ''' mil ''' '' adj. '' :confused
: ''' mina ''' '' v. '' :exchange
: ''' misa ''' '' v. '' :pity
: ''' mistia ''' '' v. '' :call
: ''' mistr ''' ''  '' :roof-peak
: ''' miølle ''' '' v. '' :swallow
: ''' modh ''' ''  '' :tuber
: ''' monadh ''' ''  '' :noise
: ''' mondo ''' '' v. '' :communicate
: ''' monnd ''' ''  '' :
: ''' moolmo ''' '' v. '' :heat
: ''' moot ''' ''  '' :sap
: ''' mwm ''' '' n. '' :stream
: ''' mwngno ''' '' v. '' :wash
: ''' mwnaa ''' '' v. '' :return
: ''' mwr ''' '' adj. '' :deaf
: ''' mwrgh ''' ''  '' :bone
: ''' mykke ''' '' v. '' :go around
: ''' mynd ''' ''  '' :life
: ''' myre ''' '' v. '' :build
: ''' myyn ''' '' adj. '' :calm (water)
: ''' mædherdha ''' '' v. '' :reduce
: ''' mælffdh ''' ''  '' :flatulence
: ''' mæll ''' ''  '' :sea
: ''' mælrok ''' '' n. '' :sailor
: ''' mær ''' ''  '' :we excl.
: ''' mæreeta ''' '' v. '' :chant
: ''' mærgh ''' ''  '' :if
: ''' mærik ''' ''  '' :our excl.
: ''' mærik ''' ''  '' :ours excl.
: ''' mæssn ''' ''  '' :lake
==N==
: ''' nadha ''' '' v. '' :wrap
: ''' nagha ''' '' v. '' :scrape
: ''' nan ''' ''  '' :in front
: ''' ni ''' '' pron. '' :she
: ''' niik ''' '' pron. '' :hers
: ''' nin ''' ''  '' :fester
: ''' nist ''' ''  '' :her
: ''' noko ''' '' v. '' :carry on the shoulder
: ''' nom ''' ''  '' :canoe
: ''' nomun ''' '' n.pl. '' :parents-in-law
: ''' non ''' ''  '' :fathom
: ''' norm ''' ''  '' :fishing net
: ''' norn ''' '' adj. '' :burnt smell
: ''' nort ''' ''  '' :banana
: ''' nos ''' ''  '' :aunt
: ''' nwwtlo ''' '' v. '' :play (games)
: ''' nykk ''' ''  '' :sore
: ''' nyll ''' ''  '' :scarf
: ''' nyttl ''' ''  '' :carpenter's plane
: ''' nytzm ''' ''  '' :interval
: ''' nywe ''' '' v. '' :take
: ''' nywen ''' '' n.pl. '' :scissors
: ''' nægh ''' ''  '' :sparrow
: ''' nækiwt ''' ''  '' :ring
: ''' næmpne ''' '' v. '' :ogle
: ''' næte ''' '' v. '' :cry
: ''' nøms ''' '' adj. '' :tight
: ''' nøneem ''' ''  '' :scrotum
==O==
: ''' ocho ''' '' v. '' :press
: ''' odd ''' ''  '' :thigh
: ''' odho ''' '' v. '' :bite (into something)
: ''' offsom ''' ''  '' :snake
: ''' offtot ''' ''  '' :branch
: ''' offua ''' '' v. '' :can (capable of)
: ''' ol ''' '' excl. '' :yes
: ''' oll ''' '' n. '' :beer
: ''' olm ''' ''  '' :soul
: ''' olto ''' '' v. '' :there is
: ''' onadh ''' ''  '' :feather
: ''' onno ''' '' v. '' :owe
: ''' onsklo ''' '' v. '' :jerk
: ''' oop ''' '' n. '' :tale
: ''' oopno ''' '' v. '' :tell
: ''' op ''' '' adj. '' :hard
: ''' opa ''' '' v. '' :perfect, complete
: ''' ordh ''' ''  '' :this
: ''' osso ''' '' v. '' :choose
: ''' ott ''' ''  '' :axe
: ''' ow ''' '' adj. '' :noisy
: ''' owadh ''' ''  '' :uncle
: ''' owta ''' '' v. '' :return something
==P==
: ''' para ''' '' v. '' :believe
: ''' parna ''' '' v. '' :stab
: ''' peppar ''' ''  '' :pepper
: ''' Petær ''' '' p.n. '' :Peter
: ''' plagh ''' '' adj. '' :black
: ''' plægh ''' '' adj. '' :smooth
: ''' plænde ''' '' v. '' :move something away
: ''' plærkia ''' '' v. '' :point
: ''' prea ''' '' v. '' :pile up
: ''' priffua ''' '' v. '' :console
: ''' prugh ''' ''  '' :brush
: ''' prukul ''' ''  '' :ant
: ''' prydhia ''' '' v. '' :press out
: ''' pusf ''' '' n. '' :thirst
: ''' pusfo ''' '' v. '' :thirst
: ''' pusfær ''' '' adj. '' :thirsty
: ''' pæmp ''' '' n. '' :gift
: ''' pæmpe ''' '' v. '' :give
: ''' pørdhisa ''' '' v. '' :pull out
==Q==
: ''' qwidd ''' ''  '' :brother
: ''' qwidh ''' ''  '' :pot
: ''' qwik ''' ''  '' :goat
: ''' qwis ''' ''  '' :honey
: ''' qwisn ''' ''  '' :mead
: ''' qwisydh ''' '' n. '' :bear
==R==
: ''' rampta ''' '' v. '' :know (a person)
: ''' raskn ''' ''  '' :nephew
: ''' rastap ''' '' adj. '' :wild
: ''' raxadh ''' ''  '' :pineapple
: ''' redd ''' ''  '' :sea-turtle
: ''' redhn ''' '' n. '' :eye
: ''' reemn ''' ''  '' :wasp
: ''' regh ''' ''  '' :meat
: ''' reiy ''' '' adj. '' :rich
: ''' rena ''' '' v. '' :drink
: ''' renasta ''' '' v. '' :cut open
: ''' renna ''' '' v. '' :measure
: ''' reu ''' ''  '' :often
: ''' ridh ''' ''  '' :tunic
: ''' ridhza ''' '' v. '' :kick
: ''' riffwo ''' '' v. '' :move something
: ''' rii ''' '' adj. '' :beautiful
: ''' riikta ''' '' v. '' :drip
: ''' rik ''' ''  '' :mother
: ''' rin ''' ''  '' :hunting net
: ''' ringwa ''' '' v. '' :carve, (write)
: ''' ris ''' ''  '' :stone
: ''' rit ''' ''  '' :shell
: ''' riwa ''' '' v. '' :scratch
: ''' ro ''' '' pron. '' :he
: ''' rok ''' '' n. '' :sail
: ''' roko ''' '' v. '' :sail
: ''' rom ''' ''  '' :dregs
: ''' ron ''' ''  '' :breast
: ''' rook ''' '' pron. '' :his
: ''' rut ''' ''  '' :board
: ''' rwghasa ''' '' v. '' :separate
: ''' rygh ''' '' adj. '' :rare
: ''' ryghne ''' '' v. '' :have sexual intercourse
: ''' rymben ''' ''  '' :bird
: ''' rynn ''' ''  '' :loincloth
: ''' rypt ''' ''  '' :bracelet
: ''' rædhe ''' '' v. '' :deliver
: ''' ræffte ''' '' v. '' :like
: ''' ræghia ''' '' v. '' :rise (sun)
: ''' ræghn ''' '' adj. '' :sick
: ''' rægne ''' '' v. '' :sweep
: ''' ræmpn ''' ''  '' :clearing in the forest
: ''' ræmpt ''' ''  '' :banyan tree
: ''' rænde ''' '' v. '' :throw
: ''' ræne ''' '' v. '' :stop by
: ''' rænnge ''' '' v. '' :handle
: ''' røwe ''' '' v. '' :happen, occur, pass
: ''' røø ''' '' adj. '' :damaged
: ''' røøw ''' '' n. '' :event, occasion
==S==
: ''' sa ''' '' adj. '' :false
: ''' sachtws ''' '' n. '' :general, military leader
: ''' sadd ''' ''  '' :liver
: ''' sadhow ''' ''  '' :sago palm
: ''' sagh ''' '' n. '' :army, host
: ''' saghafa ''' '' v. '' :trust
: ''' saka ''' '' v. '' :allow
: ''' sakla ''' '' v. '' :must
: ''' sakt ''' ''  '' :thing
: ''' salla ''' '' v. '' :trip
: ''' sallo ''' '' v. '' :go to the side
: ''' salska ''' '' v. '' :collapse
: ''' samnga ''' '' v. '' :sit
: ''' sand ''' ''  '' :west
: ''' sar ''' '' num. '' :one
: ''' sargha ''' '' v. '' :go up
: ''' sark ''' '' num. '' :eleven
: ''' sarska ''' '' v. '' :study
: ''' sarwal ''' '' adv. '' :once
: ''' schee ''' '' v. '' :bring
: ''' scriffua ''' '' v. '' :go out
: ''' scrika ''' '' v. '' :cut unevenly
: ''' se ''' ''  '' :they
: ''' sedda ''' '' v. '' :chop
: ''' sedh ''' ''  '' :vein
: ''' seedda ''' '' v. '' :scatter
: ''' seek ''' ''  '' :their
: ''' seek ''' ''  '' :theirs
: ''' selnet ''' '' adj. '' :shine
: ''' sen ''' ''  '' :on top
: ''' send ''' ''  '' :bay
: ''' seta ''' '' v. '' :burn
: ''' sidh ''' ''  '' :river mouth
: ''' sidha ''' '' v. '' :want, lack
: ''' sidhagha ''' '' v. '' :wheeze
: ''' sidhla ''' '' v. '' :vomit
: ''' siel ''' '' adj. '' :clear
: ''' sielghd ''' ''  '' :boil
: ''' siersta ''' '' v. '' :close
: ''' sigh ''' ''  '' :cock's spur
: ''' sigha ''' '' v. '' :deviate
: ''' sighess ''' '' adj. '' :usual
: ''' siipna ''' '' v. '' :break off
: ''' sijt ''' '' n. '' :death
: ''' sina ''' '' v. '' :uproot
: ''' sior ''' '' adj. '' :smarting
: ''' sir ''' ''  '' :poison
: ''' sita ''' '' v. '' :die
: ''' siæl ''' ''  '' :year
: ''' siældia ''' '' v. '' :trim
: ''' siæll ''' '' adj. '' :fragrant
: ''' siæn ''' ''  '' :any
: ''' siætr ''' '' adj. '' :athwart
: ''' siætr ''' '' adj. '' :-self (intensifier)
: ''' sjdhia ''' '' v. '' :embrace
: ''' skadh ''' ''  '' :channel
: ''' skar ''' '' adj. '' :crazy
: ''' skarfr ''' ''  '' :line
: ''' skatt ''' ''  '' :color
: ''' skaw ''' '' n. '' :tongue, language
: ''' ske ''' ''  '' :
: ''' skella ''' '' v. '' :to pry
: ''' skern ''' ''  '' :ray
: ''' skers ''' '' adj. '' :direct
: ''' skiisa ''' '' v. '' :gasp
: ''' skin ''' ''  '' :excrement
: ''' skio ''' ''  '' :hill
: ''' skip ''' '' adj. '' :thick
: ''' skirk ''' ''  '' :common people
: ''' skirkta ''' '' v. '' :approach
: ''' skit ''' ''  '' :shore
: ''' sko ''' ''  '' :man
: ''' skogh ''' ''  '' :ladle
: ''' skoncho ''' '' v. '' :unsteady
: ''' skonkto ''' '' v. '' :bathe
: ''' skorn ''' ''  '' :funnel
: ''' skudd ''' ''  '' :tooth
: ''' skulo ''' '' v. '' :float
: ''' skylffue ''' '' v. '' :touch
: ''' skyr ''' ''  '' :fish poison
: ''' skyrl ''' '' adj. '' :capable
: ''' skyt ''' ''  '' :floor
: ''' skø ''' '' adj. '' :ugly
: ''' slaghd ''' ''  '' :dusk
: ''' slankt ''' ''  '' :stable
: ''' slas ''' ''  '' :VIII. ADJECTIVES
: ''' slat ''' '' pron. '' :all
: ''' slatrand ''' '' adv. '' :always
: ''' sloo ''' '' v. '' :itch
: ''' slærn ''' ''  '' :table
: ''' sman ''' '' num. '' :ten
: ''' smee ''' '' adj. '' :deep
: ''' smældr ''' ''  '' :bowl
: ''' smøthe ''' '' v. '' :squeeze
: ''' snøø ''' '' adj. '' :shallow
: ''' son ''' ''  '' :womb
: ''' sonagh ''' '' adj. '' :coarse
: ''' sonsk ''' ''  '' :leaf
: ''' spadh ''' ''  '' :swollen
: ''' spor ''' ''  '' :snout
: ''' sta ''' ''  '' :hook
: ''' stadh ''' ''  '' :cotton
: ''' stan ''' ''  '' :tree
: ''' stanskom ''' '' adv. '' :ever
: ''' stapa ''' '' v. '' :try, attempt
: ''' stardh ''' ''  '' :rat
: ''' ste ''' ''  '' :wound
: ''' ster ''' ''  '' :enemy
: ''' stit ''' ''  '' :house-poles
: ''' stlen ''' ''  '' :how
: ''' sto ''' ''  '' :sago
: ''' stom ''' ''  '' :edge
: ''' stridhsa ''' '' v. '' :look up
: ''' strooko ''' '' v. '' :chew
: ''' stræn ''' ''  '' :gold
: ''' strø ''' ''  '' :glowing coals
: ''' stu ''' '' pron. '' :few
: ''' stunn ''' '' adj. '' :common
: ''' stuu ''' ''  '' :louse
: ''' styghdia ''' '' v. '' :add
: ''' stædhle ''' '' v. '' :be ...ing
: ''' sudd ''' ''  '' :grain
: ''' sudh ''' ''  '' :fluid
: ''' sudharf ''' ''  '' :stick
: ''' sudhzsl ''' ''  '' :bridge
: ''' sukkær ''' ''  '' :sugar
: ''' sumo ''' '' v. '' :inlay
: ''' swadh ''' '' n. '' :clothes, garment
: ''' swald ''' ''  '' :urine
: ''' swan ''' '' adj. '' :tall
: ''' swdho ''' '' v. '' :recede
: ''' swe ''' ''  '' :in
: ''' sween ''' ''  '' :millipede
: ''' swegna ''' '' v. '' :hang
: ''' swen ''' ''  '' :window
: ''' swenda ''' '' v. '' :open
: ''' swenn ''' ''  '' :just in case
: ''' swesn ''' ''  '' :charcoal
: ''' swia ''' '' v. '' :narrate
: ''' swilka ''' '' v. '' :regret
: ''' swina ''' '' v. '' :stir
: ''' swit ''' ''  '' :drizzle
: ''' swmman ''' '' num. '' :seventeen
: ''' swndo ''' '' v. '' :sail into the wind
: ''' swnga ''' '' v. '' :pick up
: ''' swnto ''' '' v. '' :cover
: ''' swodho ''' '' v. '' :smell something
: ''' swono ''' '' v. '' :massage
: ''' swyl ''' '' adj. '' :clean
: ''' swægh ''' ''  '' :sun
: ''' swæn ''' '' n. '' :salt
: ''' swæn ''' '' adj. '' :salty
: ''' swænd ''' ''  '' :squid
: ''' swæpt ''' ''  '' :space between
: ''' swøl ''' '' adj. '' :round
: ''' sydh ''' ''  '' :son
: ''' sydherl ''' ''  '' :roof
: ''' syn ''' ''  '' :son-in-law
: ''' synn ''' '' num. '' :seven
: ''' synnge ''' '' v. '' :pull
: ''' syynnias ''' '' num. '' :seventy
: ''' syyse ''' '' v. '' :jump
: ''' sæ ''' '' adj. '' :bright
: ''' sædh ''' ''  '' :tail
: ''' sæghr ''' '' adj. '' :difficult
: ''' sæl ''' ''  '' :barley
: ''' sælikta ''' '' v. '' :lean on
: ''' sæliwn ''' '' n.pl. '' :lips
: ''' sæmk ''' ''  '' :
: ''' sæmkæt ''' ''  '' :oil
: ''' sæmpn ''' '' adj. '' :fat
: ''' sæntf ''' '' adj. '' :sated
: ''' sær ''' '' adj. '' :single
: ''' sær ''' '' n. '' :name
: ''' særum ''' '' conj. '' :namely
: ''' særøs ''' '' adj. '' :first
: ''' sæte ''' '' v. '' :hold the breath
: ''' sætne ''' '' v. '' :move
: ''' sæænd ''' ''  '' :termite
: ''' sææradha ''' '' v. '' :close the eyes
: ''' søk ''' ''  '' :palm of hand
: ''' søl ''' '' adj. '' :transverse
: ''' sølle ''' '' v. '' :help
: ''' sønc ''' '' v. '' :cause
: ''' sør ''' '' adj. '' :far
: ''' sørdh ''' ''  '' :perhaps
: ''' søtil ''' '' adj. '' :blind
: ''' saadhra ''' '' v. '' :fall down
: ''' saargh ''' '' adj. '' :bad
==T==
: ''' tadha ''' '' v. '' :see
: ''' tadhall ''' ''  '' :pigeon
: ''' tadhasta ''' '' v. '' :fry
: ''' taff ''' '' adv. '' :in a row/line
: ''' tak ''' ''  '' :night
: ''' tana ''' '' v. '' :buy
: ''' tann ''' ''  '' :side
: ''' tap ''' ''  '' :onion
: ''' tapadh ''' ''  '' :kitchen
: ''' tar ''' ''  '' :vinegar
: ''' tassa ''' '' v. '' :amputate
: ''' tedd ''' ''  '' :blood
: ''' tena ''' '' v. '' :fall
: ''' tera ''' '' v. '' :make, do
: ''' teriis ''' ''  '' :since
: ''' tha ''' ''  '' :a hole in the wall
: ''' than ''' '' num. '' :three
: ''' thanas ''' '' num. '' :thirty
: ''' thedd ''' ''  '' :lap
: ''' thee ''' '' adj. '' :tired
: ''' thelbra ''' '' v. '' :bark (dog)
: ''' then ''' '' adj. '' :even
: ''' therb ''' '' adj. '' :jagged
: ''' therm ''' ''  '' :
: ''' thia ''' ''  '' :archer's bow
: ''' thiel ''' ''  '' :spear
: ''' thij ''' '' adj. '' :dizzy
: ''' thils ''' ''  '' :here
: ''' thin ''' ''  '' :IV. ANIMALS, PLANTS
: ''' thna ''' ''  '' :bucket
: ''' thoffu ''' ''  '' :deer
: ''' thoo ''' '' v. '' :chop fine
: ''' thor ''' '' adj. '' :bald
: ''' thoslo ''' '' v. '' :suffer
: ''' thøffue ''' '' v. '' :embroider
: ''' thøk ''' ''  '' :pig
: ''' tielif ''' ''  '' :grandchild
: ''' tina ''' '' v. '' :break open
: ''' tinga ''' '' v. '' :have to, need
: ''' tiusama ''' '' v. '' :defeat
: ''' tiæll ''' '' pron. '' :another, other
: ''' tiællum ''' '' adv. '' :otherwise, on the other hand
: ''' tiæls ''' '' adj. '' :dark
: ''' toff ''' '' adj. '' :ashamed
: ''' togho ''' '' v. '' :shout
: ''' tolffm ''' ''  '' :grass
: ''' tolffuo ''' '' v. '' :lend
: ''' tomo ''' '' v. '' :bloom
: ''' ton ''' '' adj. '' :wet
: ''' ton ''' ''  '' :you sg. (thou)
: ''' tonk ''' ''  '' :your (thy)
: ''' tonk ''' ''  '' :yours (thine)
: ''' tor ''' ''  '' :friend
: ''' tordh ''' '' num. '' :two
: ''' tordhas, has ''' '' num. '' :twenty
: ''' tordhwal ''' '' adv. '' :twice
: ''' torgho ''' '' v. '' :twist
: ''' tork ''' '' num. '' :twelve
: ''' tornko ''' '' v. '' :winnow
: ''' torst ''' ''  '' :garbage heap
: ''' torto ''' '' v. '' :hack
: ''' tradd ''' ''  '' :twins
: ''' tramman ''' '' num. '' :fifteen
: ''' trand ''' ''  '' :time
: ''' tre ''' ''  '' :pandanus
: ''' treta ''' '' v. '' :sew
: ''' tri ''' '' adj. '' :glittering
: ''' trioo ''' '' int. '' :well, anyway, now then...
: ''' troo ''' '' v. '' :suck
: ''' troot ''' ''  '' :second job
: ''' trow ''' ''  '' :basket
: ''' trw ''' '' adj. '' :fresh
: ''' trækk ''' ''  '' :house
: ''' trække ''' ''  '' :dwell, live
: ''' træn ''' '' num. '' :five
: ''' trænias ''' '' num. '' :fifty
: ''' trænn ''' ''  '' :day
: ''' trætit ''' ''  '' :
: ''' trøte ''' '' v. '' :cry over
: ''' trøyel ''' ''  '' :porrige
: ''' trøørr ''' ''  '' :but
: ''' traa ''' '' v. '' :turn around
: ''' tugh ''' ''  '' :out
: ''' tughom ''' ''  '' :outside
: ''' twal ''' '' adj. '' :ripe
: ''' twe ''' ''  '' :spark
: ''' twn ''' '' adj. '' :grey-haired
: ''' twnor ''' ''  '' :oar
: ''' tws ''' '' n. '' :lord, lady, mr., mrs., miss
: ''' twssill ''' ''  '' :king
: ''' tyghe ''' '' v. '' :let down (rope)
: ''' tykne ''' '' v. '' :turn
: ''' tyre ''' '' v. '' :go
: ''' tyrgh ''' '' adj. '' :good tasting
: ''' tytzeta ''' '' v. '' :to face
: ''' tytzne ''' '' v. '' :borrow
: ''' tytzsk ''' ''  '' :worm
: ''' tyzsle ''' '' v. '' :lick
: ''' tækipta ''' '' v. '' :mate
: ''' tæktek ''' ''  '' :thunder
: ''' tæll ''' ''  '' :root
: ''' tænkn ''' '' adj. '' :everyday
: ''' tænlita ''' '' v. '' :answer
: ''' tæwitha ''' '' v. '' :rise up
: ''' tørdhøs ''' '' adj. '' :second
: ''' tørdør ''' '' num. '' :two hundred
: ''' tøte ''' '' v. '' :pour
: ''' tøøn ''' ''  '' :light
: ''' taargh ''' ''  '' :north
==V==
: ''' val ''' ''  '' :tree-trunk
: ''' valln ''' ''  '' :wick
: ''' van ''' ''  '' :shark
: ''' vand ''' ''  '' :village
: ''' vanmna ''' '' v. '' :slide
: ''' var ''' ''  '' :surface
: ''' vat ''' ''  '' :hammer
: ''' vatha ''' '' v. '' :wash dishes
: ''' vels ''' ''  '' :hazelnut
: ''' ver ''' ''  '' :
: ''' vergh ''' '' adj. '' :big
: ''' vers ''' '' adj. '' :strong
: ''' vex ''' '' pron. '' :self (reflexive)
: ''' vikio ''' '' v. '' :squirm, wriggle
: ''' vil ''' '' adj. '' :urine smell
: ''' vill ''' '' adj. '' :hot
: ''' vilpna ''' '' v. '' :run
: ''' vilsa ''' '' v. '' :polish
: ''' vilsom ''' ''  '' :blanket
: ''' vin ''' ''  '' :nobility
: ''' vin ''' '' adj. '' :afraid
: ''' vin ''' '' n. '' :fear
: ''' vina ''' '' v. '' :fear
: ''' vinn ''' ''  '' :whitewash
: ''' vintull ''' '' n. '' :monster
: ''' vmgang ''' ''  '' :job
: ''' vn ''' ''  '' :bile
: ''' vnd ''' ''  '' :waist
: ''' vndan ''' '' adj. '' :broken
: ''' vng ''' ''  '' :dipper
: ''' vnge ''' ''  '' :chalk
: ''' vnk ''' ''  '' :cup
: ''' vple ''' '' v. '' :remain
: ''' vplænd ''' ''  '' :buttocks
: ''' vpstena ''' '' v. '' :read
: ''' vpstogho ''' '' v. '' :obtain
: ''' vpstaa ''' '' v. '' :sing
: ''' vpaa ''' '' v. '' :roast
: ''' vr ''' '' adj. '' :well
: ''' vrea ''' '' v. '' :kiss
: ''' vro ''' ''  '' :now
: ''' vrto ''' '' v. '' :heal
: ''' vrtull ''' '' n. '' :healer, doctor
: ''' vræntfe ''' '' v. '' :file
: ''' vtheena ''' '' v. '' :sit side by side
: ''' vtit ''' ''  '' :gravy
: ''' vw ''' '' adj. '' :hard (blow)
: ''' væk ''' '' adj. '' :peaceful
: ''' væll ''' ''  '' :ginger
: ''' vælsk ''' ''  '' :loom
: ''' vændb ''' ''  '' :elbow
: ''' vænt ''' ''  '' :land-turtle
: ''' væp ''' '' adj. '' :hoarse
==W==
: ''' waghta ''' '' v. '' :order
: ''' wala ''' '' v. '' :squat
: ''' wall ''' ''  '' :hand
: ''' walw ''' ''  '' :in vain
: ''' wan ''' ''  '' :woman
: ''' wardh ''' ''  '' :dirt on the skin
: ''' wargha ''' '' v. '' :think
: ''' warm ''' '' adv. '' :enough
: ''' warn ''' ''  '' :hatchet
: ''' waromp ''' ''  '' :bruise
: ''' warot ''' '' adj. '' :muddy
: ''' warsn ''' ''  '' :chair
: ''' wdh ''' ''  '' :thus
: ''' weetla ''' '' v. '' :grow
: ''' weloff ''' ''  '' :dust
: ''' wenn ''' '' n. '' :eyebrow
: ''' wer ''' ''  '' :penis
: ''' werb ''' ''  '' :star
: ''' wergh ''' ''  '' :mountain
: ''' werita ''' '' v. '' :accuse
: ''' wetta ''' '' v. '' :kill
: ''' wffwo ''' '' v. '' :praise
: ''' widh ''' ''  '' :left (hand)
: ''' widhne ''' '' v. '' :desert, abandon, forsake
: ''' wiis ''' '' n. '' :place, locate
: ''' wiisgha ''' '' v. '' :place, location
: ''' wiist ''' ''  '' :dew
: ''' wijn ''' ''  '' :wine
: ''' wildr ''' ''  '' :thorn
: ''' wilpa ''' '' v. '' :feel
: ''' wina ''' '' v. '' :love
: ''' winn ''' ''  '' :mouth
: ''' winnadh ''' ''  '' :profit
: ''' wis ''' ''  '' :gall
: ''' wisa ''' ''  '' :earring
: ''' wissna ''' '' v. '' :next to
: ''' wit ''' ''  '' :road
: ''' witt ''' ''  '' :after
: ''' wld ''' ''  '' :wife
: ''' wlffrwo ''' '' v. '' :promise
: ''' wlund ''' '' n. '' :ear
: ''' wntun ''' ''  '' :mouse
: ''' wodh ''' ''  '' :tomorrow
: ''' wom ''' ''  '' :late night
: ''' woorgh ''' '' adj. '' :true
: ''' wplagha ''' '' v. '' :shelter
: ''' wæghn ''' '' adj. '' :blue
: ''' wæll ''' '' pron. '' :me - I
: ''' wællk ''' ''  '' :my
: ''' wællk ''' ''  '' :mine, my
: ''' wælwel ''' ''  '' :
: ''' wæm ''' '' prep. '' :at
: ''' wæn ''' ''  '' :bee
: ''' wæn ''' '' adj. '' :great
: ''' wængne ''' '' v. '' :stare
: ''' wæntiin ''' '' n.pl. '' :garden
: ''' wærgh ''' '' adj. '' :good
: ''' wærin ''' '' pron. '' :several
: ''' wærn ''' ''  '' :hulled corn
: ''' wærr ''' ''  '' :silver
: ''' wæærwo ''' '' v. '' :spit
: ''' wørføghe ''' '' v. '' :arrive
==Y==
: ''' yffdh ''' ''  '' :older brother
: ''' yffl ''' '' adj. '' :askew
: ''' yfft ''' ''  '' :thatch
: ''' yfftn ''' '' adj. '' :torn
: ''' yynde ''' '' v. '' :climb a mountain
: ''' yyndek ''' '' adj. '' :lonely
==Æ==
: ''' æffræk ''' '' adj. '' :straight
: ''' æll ''' ''  '' :flat
: ''' ælsk ''' '' adj. '' :free
: ''' æmpn ''' ''  '' :water
: ''' ænd ''' ''  '' :tomorrow +1
: ''' ænderr ''' ''  '' :shrimp
: ''' æng ''' '' adj. '' :curving
: ''' ær ''' ''  '' :lightning
: ''' æria ''' '' v. '' :enter
: ''' ærighto ''' '' v. '' :harrow
: ''' ærte ''' '' v. '' :endure
: ''' æt ''' '' adj. '' :uncircumcized
: ''' æwistra ''' '' v. '' :tighten
==Ø==
: ''' øbill ''' ''  '' :bull
: ''' øbrøgh ''' ''  '' :grainfield
: ''' øffn ''' ''  '' :rain shelter
: ''' øll ''' ''  '' :that, which
: ''' øpett ''' ''  '' :loom part
: ''' ør ''' '' n. '' :skull
: ''' ør ''' '' adj. '' :brave
: ''' ørgh ''' '' adj. '' :sloping
: ''' ørre ''' '' v. '' :walk
: ''' øspis ''' '' adj. '' :dirty
: ''' øssiæle ''' '' v. '' :bandage
: ''' øsægh ''' ''  '' :jar (water)
: ''' øwia ''' '' v. '' :look for
: ''' øwæmn ''' '' n. '' :kinship
: ''' øywe ''' '' v. '' :make happy, bless
: ''' øywer ''' '' adj. '' :happy
: ''' øywer ''' '' n. '' :happiness
: ''' øøll ''' ''  '' :partner
: ''' øønnde ''' '' v. '' :sink
: ''' øørdh ''' ''  '' :moss
: ''' øøte ''' '' v. '' :push</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gid</title>
    <id>1761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category Redlands saga ... oho, a missing link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An ancient city that was once home to the [[Giddite]]s. The people were a [[Cimmerian]] peoples who built the city from scratch. The city of Gid was destroyed by Dios when the Giddites made him angry. The city was occupied by various like the Essenes, Gidenes, and Gadenes the dominant political group of Giddites in the [[Redlands]].


== See also ==
 
[[Conculture]]

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Redlands</title>
    <id>1762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-12T00:51:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categ redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A once glorious place now in ruins by a plague.


See [[Gid]]

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canta</title>
    <id>1763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T04:53:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A district of the [[Redlands]] to the West of the city of [[Gid]].

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ridder</title>
    <id>1764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-12T00:49:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categ. redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A member of the secret society of knights in [[Colonial America]] and the [[Dutch Knights Order]]. Their name came from ''ridder'' is a Dutch word for &quot;knight&quot;. Now part of the ''[[Redlands Saga]]''.

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Redlands Saga</title>
    <id>1765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T08:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A chain of stories written by a hidden writer in the 1600s, they tell of adventure, drama, and fantasy. 


== The Beginning ==
 
Once upon a city called [[Metro City]] that was settled in 1655 under the Dutch name ''Oud Kamperende Grond'' meaning &quot;Old Camping Ground&quot; the Dutch had to camp there as they were trying to maintain their territories. They say the Dutch were magical people who were part of a secret society called Bevrijd Denkers Vereniging meaning &quot;Free Thinkers Guild&quot; who practiced the arts of the Knights of the Old World also called Ridders van het Ouderwetse the name Ridder was a noun for a member of this group.


Once upon a colony in Delaware called [[New Netherlands]] a group of [[Dutch Knights]] called Ridders fought the Devil and his evil forces. Then one day a Ridder decided to fight Faust the Evil One who tampered with the forces of evil and his soul was damned to Hell. The Ridder who was named Jaan Van Ridderschap went to the Knickerbockers to get some weapons for the defense of the colony. Then Jaan went to New Amsterdam and purchased a bottle of holy water and a cross of Jesus.


The Knights were thought to be ancesters of the Giddite Order, and their code they written in was lost and then found. Some linked them to the German Knights who planned to fight the real witches of New England but were ousted by the English.


== The Rise of Hissler ==


[[Hissler]], the most evil person to ever live hunted the Ridders and their student. But the Ridders had a suprise party for him which they poisoned him with the most toxic tonic that was ever made. But [[Hissler]] was again sent out of Hell to finish the job but the [[Ridder]]s had God and Jesus on their side. Then Hissler saw that he was outnumbered but fought anyway with all the Darkest Power he had but was cast into his own prison as the Earth swallowed him whole.

[[Category:Redlands Saga|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch Knights</title>
    <id>1766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T06:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categ. redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An old knightly order of Dutch Knights who fought the most vile creatures of the New Colonies. They came from the Netherlands in 1605 and settled in the [[Metro City]] area in the 1630s. 

see [[Knights of the Old World]]

[[category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Knights of the Old World</title>
    <id>1767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:31:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[secret society]] of knights who escaped from [[Europe]] and came to America to start a new life. They how ever found a more dangerous like in [[America]] complete with dark forces that plagued the people of [[New England]] who burnt people alive thinking they were witches. [[The Ridder's Dynasty]] set some ground rules for then trials which included fair treatment for the accused people.

See [[Gid]]

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Ridder's Dynasty</title>
    <id>1768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5395</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-04T18:37:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wytukaze</username>
        <id>42</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I guess this was intended as a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ridder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch Knights Order</title>
    <id>1769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5394</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-04T18:37:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wytukaze</username>
        <id>42</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I guess this was intended as a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dutch Knights]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Trebor</title>
    <id>1770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5330</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-16T01:20:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.231.141.79</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I'm so great.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Sectori</title>
    <id>1771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47712</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-24T21:45:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Sectori'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Nascio:'''
|| Ottobre, 1991; Torino, Carune
|-
|valign=top|'''Funzio:'''
|| Primero Ministro de Carune
|-
|valign=top|'''Lingue Naturali:'''
|| Inglese, Spagnolo, Giaponese, Greco Antiquo, Gòtico, Francese
|-
|valign=top|'''Forgialingue:'''
|| [[Carune]], [['Ukana'akau]], Inote (rifatto), [[Elbic|Hèlvica]], e d'altri.
|-
|valign=top|'''Forgialingue Che Ama:'''
|| Vrialese (disparato), Arvorec, [[Ibran]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Interesse:'''
|| Forgialinguare, RPGi
|-
|valign=top|'''Più d'Informazione:'''
|| Amo molto le lingue chèltiche, e posson parlare un poco del gòtico conversazionalemente.
|}

I have been part of Ill Bethisad periodically, but I keep fading out and then I feel guilty about coming back. I'm prone to fits of activity and then prolonged disappearances.

Please keep in mind that Carune and Elbic have now been abandoned, although I may at some point return to Carune.

My computer died in March, meaning I lost the majority of my work on a revised Carune and a new and improved Old Elbic, as well as my Ibran-inspired Old Vedran, my Iberian Auvaese, and West Germanic Belmarnian. I'm currently working on recovering from that loss.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inote</title>
    <id>1772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-13T21:58:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Inote
|pronounce=/InOte/
|tu=????
|species=[[Inote (race)|Inote]]
|in=[[Nenekir]]
|no=8 million
|script=[[Inote Alphabetic Script]]
|tree=[[Keru-Inoten]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Inotic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''[[Inote]]'''
|morph=Agglutinating
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=SVO
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=September 2005}}
The Inote language is a simple agglutinating language. It was originally Sectori's n00blang, but underwent a major grammar revision in late April 2006.

==Phonology/Orthography==
Inote should be written with their own alphabet, untypeable. For convenience, this article will be transcribed in the Latin script.

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || || || || || {{IPA|s}} || || || || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɹ}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || ({{IPA|i}}) || || || || || || || || || ({{IPA|u}})
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || {{IPA|ɪ}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ʊ}} || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || ({{IPA|e}}) || || || || || || || ({{IPA|o}})
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || || ({{IPA|ə}})
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

The vowels enclosed in parentheses occur only word-finally. Inote is (C)V(C). However, as a rule, Inote does not allow two vowels or two consonants to come in contact in the same word. Orthographically, /{{IPA|ə}} {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|ɪ}} {{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|ʊ}}/ are represented as &lt; a e i o u &gt;, as are /a e i o u/ &lt; a e i o u &gt;.

==Nominal Morphology==
Nouns agglutinate to show their case: nominative, accusative, genitive, or dative. These cases show a noun's function in a sentence. The '''nominative''' case marks the ''subject'' of a sentence, the one who completes a verb action. The '''accusative''' case marks the ''direct object'' of a sentence, the one who is acted upon by the subject. The '''dative''' case marks the ''indirect object'' of a sentence, the one for whom a verb is done. The '''genitive''' case marks ''possession''. In addition to their normal functions, the accusative and dative cases function as the objects of certain prepositions. Which case a preposition causes will be indicated in the preposition's definition.

===Noun Declension===
All nouns decline the same way: by adding one of seven suffixes to their end to mark case. Those eight suffixes are as follows:

{| border=1
! Case || Singular || Plural
|-
| Nom  || -ø  || -(e)n
|-
| Acc  || -(n)a  || -(a)n
|-
| Dat  || -(n)i  || -(i)n
|-
| Gen  || -(n)o  || -(o)n
|}

The vowels and '''n'''s enclosed in parentheses are to make sure that a word does not place a vowel next to a vowel or a consonant next to a consonant. Here is the declension of a sample noun: '''iner''' (''hunt'', ''cf''&lt;'''ineru''', ''to hunt'')

{| border=1
! Case || Singular || Plural
|-
| Nom  || iner-ø  || iner-en
|-
| Acc  || iner-a  || iner-an
|-
| Dat  || iner-i  || iner-in
|-
| Gen  || iner-o  || iner-on
|}
Here is the declension of a sample noun that ends in a vowel: '''nina''' (''cloud'', ''cf''&lt;'''niner''', ''far'')
{| border=1
! Case || Singular || Plural
|-
| Nom  || nina-ø  || nina-n
|-
| Acc  || nina-na  || nina-n
|-
| Dat  || nina-ni  || nina-n
|-
| Gen  || nina-no  || nina-n
|}
This declension pattern is true of pronouns as well. Pronouns will be covered more later.

==Verbal Morphology==
Inote verbs, like nouns, agglutinate. As with many of Sectori's languages, Inote verbs show three moods: indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. Similar to, for example, [['Ukana'akau]], Inote also shows three tenses: past, present, and future. Finally, verbs show person, number, and time of day. Yes, you read that correctly. Time of day. Inote verbs reflect whether their actions occur between sunrise and sunset or between sunset and sunrise. Inote verb infinitives end in '''-ru'''. Here is a table of verb affixes, which replace the infinitive ending.

{| border=1
| || Ind. Pres. || Ind. Past || Ind. Fut. || Subj. Pres. || Subj. Past. || Subj. Fut. || Imp. Pres.
|-
| 1Ps Day  || -runa || -rana || -rona || -runat || -ranat || -ronat || -runak
|-
| 1Ps Night  || -rune || -rane || -rone || -runet || -ranet ||-ronet || -runet
|-
| 2Ps Day  || -ruta || -rata || -rota || -rutat || -ratat || -rotat || -rutak
|-
| 2Ps Night  || -rute || -rate || -rote || -rutet || -ratet || -rotet || -rutek
|-
| 3Pm Day  || -rura || -rara || -rora || -rurat || -rarat || -rorat || -rurak
|-
| 3Pm Night  || -rure || -rare || -rore || -ruret || -raret || -roret || -rurek
|-
| 3Pf Day  || -ruka || -raka ||-roka || -rukat || -rakat || -rokat || -rukak
|-
| 3Pf Night  || -ruke || -rake || -roke || -ruket || -raket || -roket || -rukek
|-
| 3Ps Day  || -rupa || -rapa || -ropa || -rupat || -rapat || -ropat || -rupak
|-
| 3Ps Night  || -rupe || -rape || -rope || -rupet || -rapet || -ropet || -rupek
|-
| 1Pp Day  || -runan || -ranan || -ronan || -runanet || -rananet || -ronanet || -runanik
|-
| 1Pp Night  || -runen || -ranen || -ronen || -runenet || -ranenet || -ronenet || -runenik
|-
| 2Pp Day  || -rutan || -ratan || -rotan || -rutanet || -ratanet || -rotanet || -rutanik
|-
| 2Pp Night  || -ruten || -raten || -roten || -rutenet || -ratenet || -rotenet || -rutenik
|-
| 3Pp Day  || -rupan || -rapan || -ropan || -rupanet || -rapanet || -ropanet || -rupanik
|-
| 3Pp Night  || -rupen || -rapen || -ropen || -rupenet || -rapenet || -ropenet || -rupenik
|}

The key to the abbreviations may be found [[Sectori's Abbreviation Key|here]].

===Uses of the Subjunctive===
Important to know, always. The subjunctive is used, as in most of Sectori's languages, in relative clauses, or following relative pronouns or conjunctions other than ''and'' and ''or''. It also is used in sentences expressing doubt, possibility, and insecurity. So, '''per inerutat''', ''but you might hunt'', but not '''an inerutat''', ''and you might hunt''.

===Compound Tenses===
There are a number of verb constructions that can be used to make so-called &quot;compound&quot; tenses: perfect, imperfect, progressive. To form the perfect tense, you need to know how to form the past participle (also the adjective form) of a verb. The past participle is made by replacing the final -u in the infinitive with -onu.

*'''iperu'''&gt;'''iperonu'''
*'''tireru'''&gt;'''tireronu'''

Then, form the perfect tense by placing the past participle after an appropriately conjugated form of '''inuru''' (a verb in and of itself, ''to live''). The perfect is equivalent to such constructions as English ''I have run'', ''I will have lived'', and the like.

*'''inurana iperonu''': I had lived
*'''inurutat tireronu''': you might have burned

To form the imperfect and progressive tenses, you must know how to form the present participle of a verb. The present participle is formed by replacing the final -u in the infinitive with -ot.

*'''iperu'''&gt;'''iperot'''
*'''tireru'''&gt;'''tirerot'''

Then, form the imperfect tense by placing the present participle of a verb after an appropriately conjugated form of '''iperu''' (''to be''). The imperfect is similar to such English constructions as ''I am running'', ''I will be living'', and the like. Form the progressive by placing the present participle of a verb after an appropriately conjugated form of '''tanoru''' (''to go''). The progressive is equivalent to English ''I am going to run'', ''I was going to live'', and the like.

*'''iperuna iperot''': I am being
*'''tanorana tirerot''': I was going to burn

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:No Anonymous Edits</title>
    <id>1773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5366</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-19T21:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Recently this Wiki's settings were changed so that users must be logged in to edit pages.  The reasons for this are twofold:

# As a small measure against spambots
# To help distinguish vandalism from honest edits

This latter may need some explanation:  Much of the contents of this wiki are not verifiable from sources outside of their creators' minds.  If a user anonymously edits a page—perhaps deleting a large amount of text, perhaps only making a small but substantive change to material—there is little hope of discerning whether this is a) vandalism by any random person, or b) an honest reflection of a change by the creator in the item being described.  In a wiki one should ideally [[Wikipedia:WP:FAITH|Assume Good Faith]], but this is harder to do in a project where, in general, not more than a few people at a time will really be knowledgeable on a subject.

(This does not mean that Real Names™ are necessary; this is merely a call for consistent identities.) 

Hopefully this will not be an inconvenience.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 14:20, 19 October 2005 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Non-admin Muke</title>
    <id>1774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5367</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-20T17:43:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Non-admin Muke</username>
        <id>49</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[User:Muke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Non-admin Muke</title>
    <id>1775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5380</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T21:49:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Non-admin Muke</username>
        <id>49</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>test</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">test</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jirra</title>
    <id>1777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T20:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Azir]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Jirra (or swi-Jirra) is a language spoken by a population of [[Yitha]] (the [[Azir|Azirian]] equivalent of humans) who call themselves the Hyitha Jirra. The word &quot;yitha&quot; and related words (such as Chispa &quot;yieta&quot;) are derived from the Jirra word &quot;hyitha&quot; [ˈçiθa], which is pronounced &quot;yitha&quot; [ˈʝiθa] in compounds.

[[Category:Azir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaaziketti: Lexicon</title>
    <id>1778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See also: 

[[Gaaziketti]]

[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]

This started out as a completely random sample from the lexicon. But I've started deliberately adding some of the more useful words to it and hope to add more over time. 

Almost all morphemes are disyllabic, with a long syllable followed by a short syllable, though some very common words are monosyllabic, or even consist of only one phoneme (e.g. '''l''' meaning 'the' (singular)).

You can form compound words by juxtaposition, head word last. E.g. a '''moogimotti''' is an ant-egg. '''Kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' - literally &quot;jewel-worker&quot;.

= Frequently used words =
=== Copula ===
*'''paa''' to be (Only used for linking two '''noun phrases''', both of which are put in the nominative. Do not use for adjectives.)

=== Demonstratives ===
*'''taa'''          that, those. N. B. you need to add a (case-inflected) article. As adjective, comes after noun, before article (rather than before the noun like most adjectives). As a pronoun, just add the article. E.g.: '''Kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nom.). '''Taa le''', ''that'' (as pronoun). '''Taa ke''', ''those'' (nom.). '''Kooba taa se''', ''one of those jackets'' (nom.). 
*'''	nii	   '''	this, these. You need to add an article: same rules as for '''taa''', ''that''.

=== Postpositions ===
All govern the genitive/accusative case

*'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.
*'''bii''' in
*'''coo''' for, for the benefit of, for the purpose of
*'''daaqi''' near, close to
*'''meepi''' like, similar to
*'''nuuta''' on
*'''zaa''' at

=== Articles ===
These are placed ''after'' their nouns, and declined for case ('''-e, -o, -ai''' for nominative, accusative/genitive, and dative, respectively.) 

*'''le, lo, lai''' the (singular)
*'''ke, ko, hai''' the (plural)
*'''se, so, sai''' (indefinite singular article)
*'''me, mo, mai''' (indefinite plural article)

= Less frequently used words =
*'''	beetu	   '''	garden
*'''	booru	   '''	to drown (intrans.)
*'''	cainu	   '''	mustard
*'''cecca''' soldier
*'''	ceeza	   '''	army
*'''cooqi''' to be silent
*'''	cuuku	   '''	wife
*'''	daubu	   '''	organ (of body)
*'''deela''' enemy
*'''	gooma	   '''	referee, umpire
*''' haiga''' movie
*'''	hauka	   '''	curtain
*'''kaidu''' worker
*'''	kauna	   '''	populace
*'''	kooba	   '''	jacket
*'''kossa''' jewel
*'''kuubu''' slave
*'''	luudi	   '''	goat
*'''	luuli	   '''	pan, frying pan
*'''mennu''' name (n.)
*'''	moogi	   '''	ant
*'''	motti	   '''	egg
*'''	naapa	   '''	cotton
*'''nauzu''' to be original
*''' paumu''' person
*'''	pauqa	   '''	sign (as in a streetsign or public notice)
*''' qassi''' to have
*'''	qeetu	   '''	mirror
*'''	qocci	   '''	beard
*'''	raalu	   '''	arrow
*'''raazu''' to criticise
*'''	raucu	   '''	wealthy, rich
*'''	riigu	   '''	scale (as in measuring device)
*'''	sombi	   '''	to run
*'''	tiicu	   '''	pig
*'''	tuuza	   '''	helmet

[[Category:Gaaziketti]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaaziketti</title>
    <id>1779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48434</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-15T13:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo5</username>
        <id>1324</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Some illustrative sentences */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Note: Gaaziketti will probably not continue to be developed. Its creator's energies are likely in future to be directed instead towards its offshoot, [[Taaluketti]], which he regards as having a more satisfying syntax than Gaaziketti. However the lexicon of Gaaziketti will very likely be inherited by [[Taaluketti]], as well as certain features such as &quot;parsing markers&quot;, and SOV structure.

See also: 

[[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]

[[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]]

[[Taaluketti]]

= Pronunciation and orthography =

The following Roman letters are used.

'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''

The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long. Double consonants are pronounced double. Like Finnish.

'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.

'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.

'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.

'''r''' is rolled

'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.

'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.

'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.

Other sounds are pretty much pronounced as one would expect. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.

In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.

= Sample lexicon =
I have arbitrarily picked the following words for the purposes of illustrating grammar.
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more words. 

'''kossakaidu'''         jeweller

'''nauzu'''              to be original

'''mennu'''              name

'''raazu'''              to criticise

'''cooqi'''              to be silent

'''haiga'''              movie

'''kuubu'''               slave

'''deelu'''               enemy

'''cecca'''               soldier

'''paa'''                 to be (only for linking noun phrases)

= Grammar =
== Basic syntax ==
In Gaaziketti, just about any kind of word can modify (qualify) just about any other kind of word. Verbs, nouns and adjectives fall into essentially a single part of speech.

For example, '''kossakaidu''' means 'jeweller' -- if thought of as a noun.

But consider this one-word sentence: '''Kossakaidu.''' 

Here '''kossakaidu''' acts as a verb, meaning: 'There is/are a jeweller/ some jewellers.'

'''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' means 'The jeweller criticises (something).'

But '''raazu''', thought of as a noun, means 'criticising' (n.) or 'criticism'.

Thus &quot; '''Kossakaidu le raazu.''' &quot; can be read as 'There is criticising by the jeweller.'

Adjectives are generally treated as verbs. E.g. '''cooqi''': to be silent. For such an &quot;adjective&quot; (which is really a verb), if you want to treat it as an attributive adjective, e.g. as in 'the silent movie', then you put it like this: 'the movie which is silent'. This isn't particularly unwieldy in Gaaziketti, because there is a concise relative pronoun ('''d'''). Thus '''cooqi de haiga le''' means 'the movie which is silent'/ 'the silent movie'.

The syntax tends to be agglutinative.

=== Parsing markers ===
These markers indicate exactly what qualifies what. One must compulsorily be tacked onto the end of any morpheme ending in a vowel (or diphthong) (noting that one of these parsing markers is a null).

Gather one element, modify next element			'''(nil)'''

Gather one element, do not modify next element	        '''-s'''

Gather two elements, modify next element		'''-n'''

Gather two elements, do not modify next element	        '''-k'''

These markers work in the following way. If you've got a noun phrase, say, and it's modifying the next phrase to appear in the sentence, and its the ''only'' phrase modifying that next phrase, then you don't need to tack on any parsing marker at all - its gets the '''(nil)''' marker. But say you want noun phrase X ''not'' to modify the very next phrase in the sentence. Then you generally would tack on '''-s'''. (Although is some situations, as will be described shortly, you would tack on -k.) Now, suppose the order of phrases is XYZ. Say you want X to modify Z ''and'' you want Y to modify Z. This occurs, for example, when Z is appearing as a verb, and X and Y are its subject and object respectively. Then X gets '''-s''' and Y gets '''-n'''. The '''-s''' stops X from modifying Y; and the '''-n''' gathers two elements, viz. X and Y, and indicates that each of these gathered elements modifies the next element, Z. Suppose you've got WXYZ. You want W, X and Y each to modify Z. Then W gets '''-s''', X gets '''-k''' (which serves to &quot;gather&quot; W and X into a unit containing two phrases, both of which will end up modifying the same unit, ''without'' modifying the very ''next'' unit), and Y gets '''-n'''. Note that Z gets no marker in any of these examples, because it appears at the end of a sentence. Since there is no &quot;next&quot; element that Z could modify, there is no need to append '''-s''' to Z (and indeed it would be incorrect to do so).

=== Word order ===
SOV (usual)

or

OSV

In general, a modifier precedes what it modifies.

== Noun phrases ==
=== Articles ===
These ''follow'' the noun and are, in general, ''compulsory'', for any phrase intended to function as a noun phrase. But pronouns, of course, do not need articles.

(Syntactically speaking, the noun is thought of as &quot;modifying&quot; its article, even though semantically speaking, it seems to be the other way round. This is why the article comes at the end of the noun phrase.) 

Articles receive compulsory ''case endings''. (See below.) Nouns aren't inflected at all as such: articles indicate number and case for noun phrases. 

Sing. def. '''l'''

Pl. def. '''k'''

Sing. indef. '''s'''

Pl. indef. '''m'''

=== Case endings ===
nominative '''-e'''

accusative/ genitive '''-o'''

dative '''-ai'''

Note that these are added to articles and pronouns, but not to nouns, and not to demonstratives.

== Verbal endings ==
Verbal endings indicate aspect, tense and mood. But there is no passive voice as such; and verbs are not altered for number or person.

=== Mood ===
These come last of all.

Indicative “there is”		'''(nil)'''

Imperative (informal)	        '''-p'''

Imperative (formal) (see below)	'''-vaa'''

Infinitive			'''-ce'''

''The imperative and infinitive constructions are currently under review. See [[Gaaziketti: Experimental page]].''

=== Tense ===
These come just before the mood marker.

Present (usually ommitted) '''-nee-'''

Past (sometimes ommitted if context allows) '''-co-'''

Future '''-tau-'''

=== Aspect ===
These come just before the tense marker.

simple '''(nil)''' 

habitual '''-baa-'''

continuous '''-nii-'''

perfect '''-haa-'''

future '''-tau-''' (same as tense)

=== Examples ===
'''raazuco''', ''criticised''

'''raazuhaaco''', ''had criticised''

'''raazutauce''', ''to be going to criticise (in the future)''

'''raazuvaa''', ''please criticise''

'''raazutauco''', ''was going to criticise''

'''raazubaaco''', ''used to criticise''

== Pronouns ==
For demonstratives, see the next section.

=== Personal pronouns ===
These are listed below in order of nom., acc., dat. forms. Possessive (genitive) forms, as attributive, precede the noun phrase, and the noun must still take the article, e.g.: '''qo haiga le''', ''my movie''; '''hos nauzun mennu ke''', ''their original names''.

1st person singular: '''qe, qo, qai'''; plural '''goqe, goqo, goqai'''.
 
2nd person singular: '''ve, vo, vai'''; plural: '''gove, govo, govai'''. 

3rd person animate singular: '''te, to, tai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.

3rd person inanim. singular: '''ze, zo, zai'''; plural: '''he, ho, hai'''.

=== Relative pronouns ===
These are quite frequently used. The relative clause precedes the modified noun. 

There are two relative pronouns. There is a concise one, which cannot handle more complicated types of construction; and there is a less concise one, which can handle complex constructions.


''The concise option'':		'''d-'''

Declined according to the modified noun's case with respect to the verb in the relative clause.

Placed directly ''after'' the relative clause's verb. The relative clause's verb is in the indicative.


''The flexible option'':		'''siim-'''

Declined according to case within relative clause.

Placed within the relative clause itself, i.e. somewhere ''before'' the relative clause's verb.

The relative clause's verb is in put into the infinitive.

== Demonstratives ==
These can serve as adjectives or as pronouns. As an (attributive) adjective, the order is: noun-demonstrative-article. The article is compulsory. As a pronoun, the construction is demonstrative-article. Again the article is compulsory.

'''taa'''          that, those 

'''	nii	   '''	this, these 

E.g.: '''kooba taa le''', ''that jacket'' (nominative); '''nii lo''', ''this'' (as pronoun, accusative); '''taa kai''', ''those'' (dative); '''Kooba nii se''', ''one of these jackets'' (nom.).

== Postpositions ==
These come after the article, which must be in the genitive/accusative case. See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]] for more postpositions.

'''baa''' with, using, via, by means of.

'''bii''' in

'''nuuta''' on

== Some illustrative sentences ==
'''Kuubu lo deelu les cecca sen paa.'''
The slave’s enemy is a soldier.

'''Kossakaidu les haiga lo mennu lon raazu.''' 
The jeweller criticises the movie’s name.

'''Kossakaidu les siimo mennu lon raazuce haiga le nauzu.'''
The movie whose name the jeweller criticised is original.

'''Haiga lo mennu lo raazu de kossakaidu le cooqi.'''
The jeweller who criticises the movie’s name is silent.

'''Cooqi de kossakaidu les haiga lon raazu.'''
The silent jeweller critises the movie.

'''Kossakaidu les haiga lok cooqi den raazu.'''
The jeweller criticises the movie silently.
(Can be read as: &quot;There is some criticising, which is (a) by the jeweller, (b) of the movie, and (c) silent.&quot;)

= Lexicon =
See [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]

= Background =
I invented Gaaziketti for the fun of it. I wanted it - among other things - to have a grammar which parses unambiguously, i.e. so that you always know what qualifies what in a sentence, and furthermore so that (even ignoring the written spaces between words) it is always possible to figure out where the boundaries between morphemes are (say if you are a computer). (Basically, '''i''', '''a''' and '''u''' occur as ''single'' vowels only in the second and subsequent syllables of a morpheme, and no other vowel can occur in such a syllable.) I also wanted the grammar to be flexible and uniform, i.e. to be very ''general'', with few or no exceptions and few &quot;sub-rules&quot;. Also it had to be reasonably concise, but while being fairly easily pronounceable, having few consonant clusters, few vowels and diphthongs, and few rare consonants. Also, I wanted to minimise the number of pairs of words in the lexicon that differed only ''slightly'', i.e. I built redundancy into it, as in real languages (although the way I built it in was somewhat artificial and &quot;automatic&quot;). Also I wanted to respect as far as possible the language &quot;universals&quot; that are true of most natural languages. And I wanted easily to be able to make new words by just conjoining two existing ones. On the other hand, I didn't care about resemblance between the Gaaziketti lexicon and that of natural languages.  

Trying to reconcile all these goals was something of a challenge, but I think I've got something I'm reasonably happy with.

There is a bit more to it than what is above, incl. a (lazily auto-generated) provisional vocab of 1600 words. But I've yet to finalise a lot of the &quot;small&quot; words like personal pronouns, postpositions, conjunctions, tense-markers and so forth.

I now regard [[Taaluketti]] as satisfying the above goals better than Gaaziketti did, mainly in virtue of [[Taaluketti]]'s seemingly more elegant and flexible syntactical structure. Having said this, [[Taaluketti]] is still in a pretty early stage of development.

[[Category:Gaaziketti]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gattikettu</title>
    <id>1780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:03:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>undoubling redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gaaziketti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaazikettu: Lexicon</title>
    <id>1781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5412</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T23:59:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Gaazikettu: Lexicon moved to Gaaziketti: Lexicon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gaaziketti: Lexicon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran sound changes</title>
    <id>1782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:43:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. ibran, categ. sound changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Sound changes from [[Latin]] to [[Ibran]]. 

== Common changes ==
(Changes to Ibran-flavored [[Vulgar Latin]].)

# Word-final /m/ &amp;rarr; ∅  
#: In some function words (e.g. ''meum,'' ''iam'') this /m/ |M| &amp;rarr; /n/ |N|
# /mn/ &amp;rarr; /nn/
# Final /t/ &amp;rarr; ∅
# /h/ &amp;rarr; ∅
# /e/ or /i/ in hiatus in unstressed penult &amp;rarr; /j/ |I| (transcribed as |''j''|)
# V in unstressed penult &amp;rarr; ∅
# /tk/ &amp;rarr; /tʃ/ |Z|
# Word-stress vowels:
#: /aː a/ &amp;rarr; /ɑ/ |A| 
#: /e aj/ &amp;rarr; /ɛ/ |E| (tr. |''ę''|)
#: /i eː oj/ &amp;rarr; /e/ |E| (tr. |''ẹ''|)
#: /iː/ &amp;rarr; /i/ |I|
#: /o/ &amp;rarr; /ɔ/ |O| (tr. |''ǫ''|)
#: /u oː aw/ &amp;rarr; /o/ |O| (tr. |''ọ''|)
#: /uː/ &amp;rarr; /u/ |V| (tr. |''u''|)
# Unstressed vowels:
#: /aː a/ &amp;rarr; /ɑ/ |A|
#: /i eː e oj aj/ &amp;rarr; /ɛ/ |E|
#: /iː/ &amp;rarr; /i/ |I|
#: /u oː o aw/ &amp;rarr; /ɔ/ |O|
#: /uː/ &amp;rarr; /u/ |V| (tr. |''u''|)

=== Verb endings ===
Latin verbs in -ere ''generally'' merge with those in -ēre.  The following are the ancestral forms of the Ibran verb endings.

'''Verbs in -āre (''-áre'')'''
* Present: ''-o, -as, -a, -ámos, -átes, -an.''
* Imperfect: ''-á, -ás, -á, -ámos, -átes, -án.''
* Preterite: ''-ái, -ásti, -áe, -ámos, -ástes, -áron.''
* Present subjunctive: ''-e, -es, -e, -ẹ́mos, -ẹ́tes, -en.''
* Imperfect subjunctive: ''-ásse, -ásses, -ásse, -assẹ́mos, -assẹ́tes, -ássen.''

'''Verbs in -ēre and -ĕre (''-ẹ́re'')'''
* Pres. ''-jo/-o, -es, -e, -ẹ́mos, -ẹ́tes, -en.''
* Impf. ''-ẹ́a, -ẹ́as, -ẹ́a, -eámos, -eátes, -ẹ́an.''
* Pret. ''-i, -ẹ́sti, -e, -ímos, -ístes, -ẹ́ron.''
* Pr.subj. ''-a, -as, -a, -ámos, -átes, -an.''
* Impf.subj. ''-ẹ́sse, -ẹ́sses, -ẹ́sse, -essẹ́mos, -essẹ́tes, --ẹ́ssen.''

'''Verbs in -īre (''-íre'')'''
* Pres. ''-jo, -is, -e, -ímos, -ítes, -jon.''
* Impf. ''-jẹ́a, -jẹ́as, -jẹ́a, -jeámos, -jeátes, -jẹ́an.''
* Pret. ''-í, -ísti, -íe, -ímos, -ístes, -iẹ́ron.''
* Pr.subj. ''-ja, -jas, -ja, -jámos, -játes, -jan.''
* Impf.subj. ''-ísse, -ísses, -ísse, -issẹ́mos, -issẹ́tes, -íssen.''

== Early changes ==
# /[voiced consonant]j/ &amp;rarr; /dʒ/ |I| (tr. |''j''|)
# /[unvoiced cons.]j/ &amp;rarr; /tʃ/ |Z|
# /j/ &amp;rarr; /dʒ/ (V)_V
#: Occasionally any of these /dʒ/ will reduce entirely to /j/ |Y| (by dialectal influence?)
# /nn nj/ &amp;rarr; /ɲ/ |NH|
# /ll lj/ &amp;rarr; /ʎ/ |LL|
# /d ɡ/ &amp;rarr; ∅  V_V
# /b/ &amp;rarr; /v/ |V| V_V
# /ɑi ɑɛ ɛɛ/ &amp;rarr; /ɛj/ |EI| (tr. |''ęj''|)
# /eɛ ei/ &amp;rarr; /ej/ |EI| (tr. |''ẹj''|)
# /ɔi oi/ &amp;rarr; /ɔj oj/ |OI| (tr. |''ǫj'' ''ọj''|)
#: These three rules do not take effect if the second vowel is stressed.
# /k ɡ kʷ/ &amp;rarr; /tʃ dʒ kʲ/ |C G QV| (|''qu''|) _[V+front]
# /k ɡ kʷ/ &amp;rarr; /kʲ ɡʲ k/ |C G QV| (|''qu''|) _[a]
# /k ɡ kʷ/ &amp;rarr; /k ɡ k̠/ |C G QV| (|''qu''|) _[V+back]
# /p f t s k kʲ k̠/ &amp;rarr; /b v l z ɡ ɡʲ ɡ̄/ |B V L S G G GV| (|''gu''|) V_V
#: An original /l ... t/ sequence dissimilates to /d ... l/ (''oblitare'' &amp;rarr; ''*obdilare'')
#: An original /t ... t/ sequence dissimilates to /l ... d/ (''veritatem'' &amp;rarr; ''*verilade'')
# /p t k/ &amp;rarr; /b d ɡ/ |B D G| V_[r,l]
# /f/ &amp;rarr; /v/ |V| _[r,l]
# /tt kk ss rr/ &amp;rarr; /t k s r/ |T C SS R|
# /ɑ[velar] e[velar] i[velar] o[velar] u[velar] &amp;rarr; /ɑɛ̯ ɛj ej ɔɛ̯ oj/ |AE EI EI OE OI/ (|''ae ęj ẹj oe ọj''|) [stressedV]_[dental,nasal]
# /ɑ[velar,dental] e[velar,dental] i[velar,dental] o[velar,dental] u[velar,dental] &amp;rarr; /ɑɛ̯ ɛj ej ɔɛ̯ oj/ |AE EI EI OE OI/ (|''ae ęj ẹj oe ọj''|) [stressedV]_[sibilant]
#: But /i[velar,dental][sibilant] u[velar,dental][sibilant]/ &amp;rarr; /i[sibilant+long] u[sibilant+long]/ 
#:(complicated... but basically:
#::aKT aKN aKS/aTS &amp;rarr; aeT aeN aeS
#::eKT eKN eKS/eTS &amp;rarr; eiT eiN eiS
#::iKT iKN iKS/iTS &amp;rarr; éiT éiN '''iSS'''
#::oKT oKN oKS/oTS &amp;rarr; oeT oeN oeS
#::uKT uKN uKS/uTS &amp;rarr; óiT óiN '''uSS''')
#:The eKT... ond oKT... rules go into effect whichever quality of E vowel is involved. In unstressed syllables—I won't bother writing the rule here—the element assimilates:
#::aKT aKN aKS/aTS &amp;rarr; aTT aNN aSS
#::eKT eKN eKS/eTS &amp;rarr; eTT eNN eSS
#::iKT iKN iKS/iTS &amp;rarr; iTT iNN iSS
#::oKT oKN oKS/oTS &amp;rarr; oTT oNN oSS
#::uKT uKN uKS/uTS &amp;rarr; uTT uNN uSS
# /o u/[-stress] &amp;rarr; /a &amp;oelig;/ |A EV| (|''à eu''|) _C[V+front]
# /ɑ e o/ &amp;rarr; /a i &amp;oelig;/ |A I EV| (|''à i eu''|) _/ɲ,ʎ/
# /ɑrj erj orj/ &amp;rarr; /aːr ɛːr œːr/ |AIR EIR EUR|
# /ɑ/ &amp;rarr; /a/ r_ (unless _r or _[velar])
# /ɛ e ɔ o/ &amp;rarr; /jɛ je ɔj/wɛ uː/o/ |IE IE OI/UE UO/O| when stressed.
#: ɔj/wɛ — wɛ in syllables closed by sonorants, ɔj elsewhere
#: uː/o — uː in open syllables, o in closed ones.  (The spelling |''uo''| comes from an intermediate /wo/ stage)
# /f/ &amp;rarr; /h/ |''h''| _[V+round]
# final V (including /a/ but not /ɑ/), and V before final /s/ &amp;larr; ∅ (unless restored by analogy)
# final /ɑ/ &amp;rarr; /ə/ |''e''|
# /ɑ/ before the stressed syllable reduces to /ə/ |''a''|
# other vowels before the stressed syllable drop if the syllable structure allows it, or reduce to /ə/ |''e''| if not
# plural /ɔs ɑs/ reduce to /əs/ |es|  (plural /ɛs/ just becomes /s/ by a previous rule)
# initial unstressed /ɛ/ or /i/ disappear.
# /m/ &amp;rarr; /w̃/ |''ũ''| _C
# [labial,lateral] &amp;rarr; /w/ |''u''| _C
# /aw ɑw əw ʌw/ &amp;rarr; /oː/
# /ɛw ew iw/ &amp;rarr; /œː øː yː/
# /ɔw ow uw/ &amp;rarr; /oː oː uː/

About this point (the beginning of the Old Ibran period) the orthography stabilizes, including the introduction of some accent marks to alleviate homography.

== Later changes ==

# Nasalized vowels denasalize
# /Vn/ &amp;rarr; /V~/ finally and before consonants
# Neutralization of voicing in fricatives (which assimilate in voicing to the following phoneme, or voiceless when final)
# /u/ &amp;rarr; /y/
# /ʎ/ &amp;rarr; /j/ (/iʎ/ &amp;rarr; /iː/ finally or before consonants)
# /ɡl/ &amp;rarr; /lː/
# /tʃ tʃː/ &amp;rarr; /ç tʃ/
# /i/ in hiatus &amp;rarr; /ji/


'''Roesan changes'''
# /õ ã/ &amp;rarr; /ũ ɐ̃/
# syllable-initial /j/ &amp;rarr; /ʝ/; /dj tj sj/ &amp;rarr; /ɟʝ cç ç/
# /s/ assimilates to following consonants 
# /je(ː) wo(ː) wø(ː)/ &amp;rarr; /ji(ː) u(ː) y(ː)/ in closed syllables 
# /w/ &amp;rarr; ∅ _[V+rounded]
# /kʲ/ &amp;rarr; /tʃ/
# /k/ &amp;rarr; /kʲ/
# /k̠/ &amp;rarr; /k/
# final stops devoice
# loss of schwa in final syllables
# loss of /h/
# /ɔɛ ɑɛ/ &amp;rarr; /ɔː aː/
# /ej ɛj/ &amp;rarr; /ɛj/
# /oj ɔj/ &amp;rarr; /œj/

'''Paysan changes'''
# /ĩ õ ỹ/ &amp;rarr; /ɛ̃ ɔ̃ œ̃/
# /a (ã)/ &amp;rarr; /æ (æ̃)/
# /s/ &amp;rarr; ∅ before following consonants (/esC osC/ &amp;rarr; /ɛC ɔC/)
# /je(ː) wo(ː) wø(ː)/ &amp;rarr; /ji(ː) u(ː) y(ː)/ in closed syllables 
# Unstressed short vowels &amp;rarr; /ə/  (even in diphthonɡs, thus /əj/)
# /kʲ/ &amp;rarr; /tʃ/
# /k̠/ &amp;rarr; /k/
# /ɔɛ̃ ɑɛ̃/ /ɔ̃ː æ̃ː/
# /ɔɛ oj ɑɛ/ &amp;rarr; /ɔj ɔj ɑj/
# /ɡ/ &amp;rarr; /x/

[[Category:Ibran]]
[[Category:Sound changes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaaziketti: Experimental page</title>
    <id>1783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21607</id>
      <timestamp>2007-05-03T10:06:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Infinitive and imperative constructions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page is for experimenting with changes to the grammar of [[Gaaziketti]].

===Infinitive and imperative constructions===
The role of the inf. and imp. moods is not clear, given that verbs are supposed to be essentially verbal nouns. Does '''raazup!''' mean ''criticise!'' or does it mean ''make there be some criticising (by someone, not nec. you)''. If it meant the second thing, one could say '''Ve raazup''' to mean ''criticise!'' 

Similar questions surround the infinitive. 

Probably a solution is to have a short inflexible form, &amp; a less compact, but more flexible alternative form (as with the relative pronoun).

===[[Taaluketti]]===
I am working on a new language, [[Taaluketti]], sharing many of the features of Gaaziketti (e.g. phonology, basic morphology, parsing markers, SOV word order) but with what I think is an improved syntax.

[[Category:Gaaziketti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Fofofo</title>
    <id>1784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48397</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-15T05:23:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo5</username>
        <id>1324</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Fofofo5 and Fofofo are one and the same person.
The username &quot;Fofofo&quot; is defunct as of 15 Aug. 2009, having been replaced by &quot;Fofofo5&quot;.

=== Common words (adapted from Swadesh list) ===

= (Work in progress) =

I/me/my/mine ''qe, -o, -ai'' you/your/yours ''ve, -o, -ai'' he/she/it-animate/him/her/his/hers/its-animate ''te, -o, -ai'' we/us/our/ours ''goqe, -o, -ai'' you/your/yours-singular '''ve, -o, -ai''' you/your/yours-plural '''gove, -o, -ai''' 
	 
	they, them, their, theirs, '''he, -o, -ai''' 
	 
	this, these, '''nii''' (takes inflected article)
	 
	that, those, '''taa''' (takes inflected article)
 
	here, '''liiga''' (takes inflected article) 
	 
	there, '''cooda''' (takes inflected article)
 	 
	who, .... 
	 
	what, ... 
	 
	where, ... 
	 
	when, ... 
	 
	how, ... 
	 
	not, '''qau''' (follows indicative verb)
 	 
	all, ... 
	 
	many, ... 	
 
	some, '''me, -o, -ai''' 
	 
	few, ...
 	 
	other, ...

zero, '''celli''' 
	 
	one, ... 	
 
	two, '''gaulu''' 	
 
	three, '''liiru''' 	
 
	four, '''qendu'''
 	 
	five, '''seppu'''

six, '''tuuma'''

seven, '''niimu'''

eight, '''kaupa'''

kaati, '''nine'''

heebu, '''ten''' 
	 
	big, ...  	 
	

long 	 
	wide 	 
	thick 	 
	heavy 	 
	small 	 
	short 	 
	narrow 	 
	thin 	 
	woman 	 
	man 	 
	person 	 
	child 	 
	wife 	 
	husband 	 
	mother 	 
	father 	 
	animal ''coocu'' 	 
	fish 	 
	bird 	 
	dog 	 
	louse 	 
	snake 	 
	worm 	 
	tree 	 
	forest 	 
	stick  	 
	fruit 	 
	seed 	 
	leaf 	 
	root 	 
	bark 	 
	flower 	 
	grass 	 
	rope 	 
	skin 	 
	meat 	 
	blood 	 
	bone 	 
	fat (n.) 	 
	egg ''motti''	 
	horn 	 
	tail 	 
	feather 	 
	hair 	 
	head 	 
	ear 	 
	eye ''mombi''	 
	nose 	 
	mouth 	 
	tooth 	 
	tongue
face '' 	 
	fingernail 	 
	foot 	 
	leg 	 
	knee 	''gooti'' 
	hand 	 
	wing 	 
	belly 	 
	guts 	 
	neck 	 
	back 	 
	breast 	 
	heart 	 
	liver ''neenu'' 	 
	drink 	 
	eat 	 
	bite 	 
	suck 	 
	spit 	 
	vomit 	 
	blow 	 
	breathe 	 
	laugh 	 
	see 	 
	hear 	 
	know 	 
	think 	 
	smell 	 
	fear 	 
	sleep 	 
	live 	 
	die 	 
	kill 	 
	fight 	 
	hunt 	 
	hit 	 
	cut 	 
	split 	 
	stab 	 
	scratch 	 
	dig 	 
	swim 	 
	fly (v.) 	 
	walk 	 
	come 	 
	lie 	 
	sit 	 
	stand 	 
	turn 	 
	fall 	 
	give 	 
	hold 	 
	squeeze 	 
	rub 	 
	wash 	 
	wipe 	 
	pull 	 
	push 	 
	throw 	 
	tie 	 
	sew 	 
	count 	 
	say 	 
	sing 	 
	play 	 
	float 	 
	flow 	 
	freeze 	 
	swell 	 
	sun 	''laada'' 
	moon 	 ''naaki''
	star 	 ''taazu''
	water 	 
	rain 	 ''siina''
	river 	 
	lake 	 ''kammu''
	sea 	 ''bellu''
	salt 	 
	stone 	 
	sand 	 
	dust 	 
	earth 	 ''mallu''
	cloud 	 
	fog 	 ''qaapi''
	sky 	 
	wind 	 
	snow 	 
	ice 	 
	smoke 	 
	fire 	 
	ashes 	 
	burn 	 
	road 	 
	mountain 	 ''rotta''
	red 	 
	green 	 
	yellow 	 
	white 	 
	black 	 
	night 	 
	day 	 
	year 	 
	warm 	 
	cold 	 
	full 	 
	new 	 
	old 	 
	good 	 
	bad 	 
	rotten 	 
	dirty 	 
	straight 	 
	round 	 
	sharp 	 
	dull 	 
	smooth 	 
	wet 	 
	dry 	 
	correct 	 
	near 	 
	far 	 
	right 	 
	left 	 
	at 	 
	in 	 
	with 	 
	and 	 
	if 	 
	because 	 
	name</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Swadesh list for Ibran</title>
    <id>1785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5555</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T22:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recovery of processes */ ill / ij ✔</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Recovery of processes ==
I found that I didn't have all my Ibran sound change rules annotated—just the old Ibran stage, after which everything is incomplete.  So I'm going to try and recover the rules &amp; fix any mistakes working from my old notes and this page, which was somewhat updated from them.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:28, 9 November 2005 (PST)

'''I''' (ego)
* Old Ibran: ''ye'' [ˈjɛ] ✔
* Roesan: ''ye'' [ˈʝɛ] ✔ (ё) 
* Paysan: ''ye'' [ˈjɛ] ✔

'''thou''' (tu)
* Old Ibran: ''tu'' [ˈtu] ✔
* Roesan: ''tu'' [ˈty] ✔ (тү) 
* Paysan: ''tu'' [ˈty] ✔

'''he''' (illum)
* Old Ibran: ''ill'' [ˈiʎ] ✔
* Roesan: ''ill'' [ˈiː] ✔ (ī)
* Paysan: ''ij'' [ˈiː] ✔

'''we''' (nosalteros)
* Old Ibran: ''nosautres'' [nɔˈzoːtrəs]
* Roesan: ''nosautrs'' [nɔˈzoːtrs] (нозѡ̄търс)
* Paysan: ''nosautrăs'' [nəˈzoːtrəs]

'''you''' (vosalteros)
* Old Ibran: ''vosautres'' [vɔˈzoːtrəs]
* Roesan: ''vosautrs'' [vɔˈzoːtrs] (возѡ̄търс)
* Ibran: ''vosautrăs'' [vəˈzoːtrəs]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Matsu</title>
    <id>1786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6060</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T22:10:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matsu</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;h1&gt;So. Hu em aí?&lt;/h1&gt;

Ðät íz é güd kwestšín. Aí em é studínt év sevèrèl lëŋgwídžíz (Lätín, Späníšh, Džèrmín), bét kèríntli em onli fluínt ín wén (Iŋglíš). Aí häv kriëtíd onli wén kanlëŋ bifor, &quot;Matsui&quot;. Kanlëŋz änd kankéltšèrz fäsínët mi äs é wë tu madèl sosaíjíti änd ðé wèrèld tu é mor plezent tun ðän wét ðé kèrínt wèrèld simz tu afèr.

&lt;h1&gt;So jor ë kanlëŋgír. Eniþiŋ els?&lt;/h1&gt;

Bét év kors. Aí lív ív Erízoné (Arisona ín Späníš) änd äm wén év ðé tap äkédemík pèrformèrz an maí kämpés. Haüevèr, wen ít kémz tu eniþiŋ ekstrékèríkjulèr - sétš äz wèrkiŋ an maí kanlëŋ, aí bikém ekstrimli lëzi wítš íz waí aí'd prifèr íf aí häd sevèrèl pipèl tu wèrk wíþh mi an divelépiŋ maí leksíkan. Ít'd bi íntèrestiŋ tu si wét éðèr ínfluensíz aí küd émäs ðät wë.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ language</title>
    <id>1787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42428</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-30T19:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cognates with English */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Nordaþ''' language (Nordaþ: ''Nordaþïskïï'') is a [[Germanic]] language spoken in [[Terra Matsu]], and parts of [[Kart-Hadašt]] and [[Mitsujiya]]. There are about 4 billion speakers, most of which live in Terra Matsu. Nordaþ is related to [[Kythish]], a language Germanic in origin. These languages borrow from each other sparsely.

Nordaþ is most noticeably influenced by [[Proto-Säämi]], a Finno-Ugric language and the predecessor of [[Säämi]], a language still spoken in Terra Matsu. From it Nordaþ has acquired [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel_harmony vowel harmony] and the trema, as well as the letters 'j' and 'y'.

== Geographic distribution ==
Nordaþ is spoken primarily in Terra Matsu, in half of Mitsujiya, and in a quarter of Kart-Hadašt. Nordaþ is also spoken on the extreme western edges of Kythe. [[Säämiki]] has its own set of Nordaþ dialects within its small territories. In the places that do speak Nordaþ there, most master the standard dialect.

== History ==
Nordaþ arrived with several stranded ships carrying Germanic-speaking peoples. No records exist of the language before it was in its current state at the time. However, Nordaþ soon developed many dialects as the populace began to grow and the people parted, often being separated by deep forests, rivers, and large mountains.

During the formation of the Matsui Empire, literature began to boom. As the Empire encountered the Säämi peoples to the north, the small empire assimilated their concept of vowel harmony. However, only the northern parts of the empire had began to assimilate it. This disunification increased the difficulty in authors' striving to write works that were comprehensible within the majority of the nation. Writers were the sole power in unifying the language as they worked to produce titles understandable in the widest area possible. Most writers of the time adopted vowel harmony, which eventually was fully integrated into every part of the growing land.

As the empire's influence grew, this gradual standardisation became quicker. Children began being educated in the standard dialect and not in their local dialect. Gradually, the dialects of major cities and many regions dissolved, and eventually, so too did the more rural and obscure dialects. As the language unified, the grammar solidified. Nordaþ shifted into a pro-drop language and became more inflectional. The production of the Nordaþ Dictionary marked the first official lingual resource for the language and marked the begining of modern Nordaþ. Before the empire dissolved, a spelling reform was instituted to correct the difference in the spelling system of Nordaþ, which then reflected Late Old Nordaþ, to properly reflect modern Nordaþ. This reform ushered in the completion of the maturity of Nordaþ.

== Writing system/Phonology ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|Nordaþ language
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

Nordaþ is written using a variant of the Latin alphabet, and has a phonemic orthography - pronunciation can be exactly determined from the written language. Nordaþ's alphabet omits a few letters from the Latin alphabet. Accented letters (''äëï'') are considered separate letters in Nordaþ. Nordaþ's alphabet includes the following:

&lt;code&gt;a ä b d ð e ë f g h i ï j k l m n o p r s š t þ u ü v w y z ž&lt;/code&gt;

An extra letter, 'ü', exists only in the diphthong 'aü'. It has the sound value of '{{IPA|ʊ}}'.

Additionally, the Nordaþ language can optionally be written in the Cyrillic alphabet to which there is a one-to-one correspondence. However, usage of the Cyrillic alphabet with the language isn't officially sanctioned.

&lt;code&gt;а ӑ б д џ е є ф г х и й ј к л м н о п р с ш т ц у ӳ в ү ў з ж&lt;/code&gt;

Doubled consonants do not exist. Doubled vowels do, however, and are pronounced for a slightly longer duration of time than the single vowel.

Stress falls on the penultima in Nordaþ, unless the final syllable or prepenultima has a double vowel. However, words with only one syllable have no stress.

''See [[Nordaþ phonology]] for a table including Nordaþ's alphabet and IPA equivalents''

== Grammar ==

:''See the main article [[Nordaþ grammar]]''
Nordaþ is a highly inflected language, with over a hundred verb forms and over thirty noun declensions.

Syntax is largely unbounded, although an idea to be stressed will often be put in the beginning of the sentence.

''See also [[Nordaþ lexicon]]''

=== Noun Inflection ===
Nordaþ nouns inflect into:
*One of three genders: neuter, feminine and masculine
*One of two numbers: singular, plural
*49 cases/postpositional attachments

Nordaþ is a highly inflectional language with 147 possibilities for a noun.

Nordaþ forms left-branching noun compounds, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second. Unlike English, which uses a space between the modifying noun and the second noun, Nordaþ merges the words. Vowel harmony is only recognised within the individual nouns and no changes must be made to the entire compound for harmony. Nordaþ allows for arbitrarily long compounds.

=== Verb inflection ===
All Nordaþ verbs are 'weak'. Thus, there are no irregular verbs within the language. Additionally, all verbs inflect:
* By nine pronouns
* Into five moods: Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive, Passive, and Imperative
* By three aspects: Perfect, imperfect, and progressive

== Cognates with [[English]] ==
{|
|-
! '''Nordaþ word'''
!  English cognate
|-
|ädeese || address
|-
|alas || all
|-
|baaþ || bath
|-
|blasos || blaze
|-
|kaltïs || cold
|-
|laiþra || ladder
|-
|lipäs || lip
|-
|netä || net
|-
|renes || rain
|-
|sunþa || south
|-
|watras || water
|-
|}

== Name order ==
Nordaþ uses uses the &quot;eastern&quot; name order, wherein the family name comes before the surname. Unlike many languages, these words are declined regularly - that is to say, the family name is given the appropriate noun suffix, and the surname is given the adjective suffix. Referring to someone by their given name is considered inappropriate unless the person speaking is both talking specifically to  the person they are referring to, and even then only if they are close friends (or in any relationship more intimate). In that case, the given name is declined as a noun instead of an adjective.

== Examples ==
* Nordaþan (person): ''Nordaþvamï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[noɹ.daθ.ˈva.mɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Nordaþ (language): ''Nordaþïskï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[noɹ.daθ.ˈɪs.kɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* hello: ''halojï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ha.ˈlo.jɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (used formally and casually)
* hey: ''haajï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈhaː.jɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (used intimately)
* goodbye: ''jamanjï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ja.ˈman.jɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (used formal/casual)
* bye: ''iräje'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[i.ˈɾæ.jɛ]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (used intimately)
* please: ''betlës'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈbɛt.les]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* I would like ___, please: ''Wyläe ___, betlës'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[wy.ˈlæ.ɛ ___, ˈbɛt.les]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* sorry: ''sene ynsyes'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈsɛ.nɛ yn.ˈsy.ɛs]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* thank you: ''dankjaï duïïtïï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[dank.ˈja.ɪ du.ˈɪː.tɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* that/this: ''þäsemi'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[θæ.ˈsɛ.mi]&lt;/nowiki&gt; ''þesämi'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ðɛ.ˈsæ.mi]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* how much?: ''kwelës maltasïs?'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈkwɛ.les mal.ˈta.sɪs]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* how much does it cost?: ''kwelës maltasïs djyriþeþ?'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈkwɛ.les mal.ˈta.sɪs djy.ˈriθ.ɛθ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* yes: ''jajï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈja.jɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* no: ''neje'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈnɛ.jɛ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* I don't understand: ''nanasmïganï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[na.nas.mɪ.ˈɡa.nɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* where's the bathroom?: ''banjodeïï senþ kwisi?'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ban.jo.dɛ.ˈɪː sɛnθ ˈkwi.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* juice: ''wosasï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[wo.ˈsa.sɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* water: ''watrasï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[wa.ˈtɾa.sɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* tea: ''tajaï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ta.ˈja.ɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* milk: ''mïlkasï'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[mɪl.ˈka.sɪ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Do you speak English?: ''þykjest Inglïndïskeiti?'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈθyk.jɛst in.ɡlɪnd.ˈɪskɛˈiti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* I love you: ''duïïtïï libie'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[du.ˈɪː.tɪː li.ˈbi.ɛ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* I love you (platonic or otherwise): ''duïïtïï liepie'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[du.ˈɪː.tɪː li.ɛ.ˈpi.ɛ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* help!: ''redekäsest!'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[rɛ.dɛ.ˈkæs.ɛst]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

=== Numbers ===
These numbers listed have been declined as nouns in the nominative case. A comma used here is to be considered a decimal point, and a period to be considered a hundreds divider.

* 0: niili &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈniː.li]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ,0001: milienþäi &lt;nowiki&gt;[mi.li.ɛn.ˈθæ.i]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ,001: däusenþäi &lt;nowiki&gt;[daʊ.sɛn.ˈθæ.i]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ,01: hynþäi &lt;nowiki&gt;[hyn.ˈθæ.i]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ,1: dekääsþäi &lt;nowiki&gt;[de.ˈkæːs.θæ.i]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 1: sëëmi &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈseː.mi]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 2: dosïï &lt;nowiki&gt;[do.ˈsɪː]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 3: trejesi &lt;nowiki&gt;[trɛ.ˈjɛ.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 4: keresi &lt;nowiki&gt;[kɛ.ˈrɛ.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 5: penkesi &lt;nowiki&gt;[pɛn.ˈkɛ.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 6: sekesi &lt;nowiki&gt;[sɛ.ˈkɛ.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 7: septesi &lt;nowiki&gt;[sɛp.ˈtɛ.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 8: oktosïï &lt;nowiki&gt;[ok.to.ˈsɪː]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 9: nääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈnæːsi]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 10: dekääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[dɛ.ˈkæː.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 11: sëëmiondekääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈseː.mi.on.dɛ.ˈkæː.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 12: dosïïondekääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[do.ˈsɪː.on.dɛ.ˈkæː.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 20: dosïsdekääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[ ˈdo.sɪs.dɛ.ˈkæː.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 21: sëëmiondosïsdekääsi &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈseː.mi.on.ˈdo.sɪs.dɛ.ˈkæː.si]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 100: hynti &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈhyn.ti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 101: sëëmiondhynti &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈseː.mi.ond.ˈhyn.ti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 110: dekääsiondhynti &lt;nowiki&gt;[dɛ.ˈkæː.si.ond.ˈhyn.ti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 111: sëëmiondekääsiondhynti &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈseː.mi.on.dɛ.ˈkæː.si.ond.ˈhyn.ti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 200: dosïshynti &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈdo.sɪs.ˈhyn.ti]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 1.000: däuseni &lt;nowiki&gt;[daʊ.ˈsɛ.ni]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 10.000: dekääsesdäuseni &lt;nowiki&gt;[dɛ.ˈkæː.sɛs.daʊ.ˈsɛ.ni]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 100.000: hyntesdäuseni &lt;nowiki&gt;[ˈhyn.tɛs.daʊ.ˈsɛ.ni ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 1.000.000: milieni &lt;nowiki&gt;[mi.li.ˈɛ.ni]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[Category:Nordaþ|*]]
[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ phonology</title>
    <id>1788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:05:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article deals with representing the graphemes and their phonetic values in the [[Nordaþ language]].

{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
'''Phonology'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

== Vowels ==
The following table represents Nordaþ vowels and diphthongs. It also reveals vowel placements (back/front/middle).

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Grapheme/Diphthong
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|IPA Value
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Middle-Vowel
|-
|a||&lt;nowiki&gt;a/ɑ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||+||-||-
|-
|aï||&lt;nowiki&gt;aɪ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||-||+
|-
|ä||æ||-||+||-
|-
|aü||&lt;nowiki&gt;aʊ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||-||+
|-
|e||&lt;nowiki&gt;ɛ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||+||-
|-
|ë||&lt;nowiki&gt;e/ɛɪ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||+||-
|-
|i||i||-||+||-
|-
|ï||&lt;nowiki&gt;ɪ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||-||+
|-
|o||&lt;nowiki&gt;o/ɔ/əʊ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||+||-||-
|-
|oï||&lt;nowiki&gt;ɔɪ&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||-||+
|-
|u||u||+||-||-
|-
|y||&lt;nowiki&gt;y&lt;/nowiki&gt;||-||+||-
|}

== Consonants ==
This table deals with the graphemes and IPA realisations of the graphemes. Unlike with vowels, there are no front, back, or middle consonants realised.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Grapheme
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|IPA Value
|-
|b||&lt;nowiki&gt;b/β&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|d||d
|-
|f||f
|-
|g||g
|-
|h||h
|-
|j||&lt;nowiki&gt;j&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|k||k
|-
|l||&lt;nowiki&gt;l/ɫ&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|m||&lt;nowiki&gt;m/ɱ&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|n||&lt;nowiki&gt;n&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|ng||&lt;nowiki&gt;ŋ&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|p||p
|-
|r||&lt;nowiki&gt;ɾ (ɹ&lt;/nowiki&gt; is used following short vowels and at the end of syllables which are not followed by a vowel&lt;br /&gt;
sound. If they are and the proceeding sound to the 'r' is a long/middle vowel, then ɾ is used instead)
|-
|s||s
|-
|š||&lt;nowiki&gt;ʃ&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|t||t
|-
|þ||&lt;nowiki&gt;θ/ð&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
|v||v
|-
|w||w
|-
|z||z
|-
|ž||&lt;nowiki&gt;ʒ&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|}

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Writing system of Nordaþ</title>
    <id>1789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5800</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T04:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matsu</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alphabet */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article deals with the alphabet, punctuation and orthographic rules of the [[Nordaþ language]]. For detailed information on the pronunciation not found here, see also [[Nordaþ phonology]].

== Alphabet ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
'''Writing system'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

=== Names of the Letters ===
{| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Modern letter names
|-
| style=&quot;width:1.5em;&quot; | A || style=&quot;width: 11em;&quot; | '''aï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈa.ɪ/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| style=&quot;width:1.5em;&quot; | Ï || style=&quot;width: 11em;&quot; | '''i bïdonmïdïï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/i bɪ.don.mɪ.ˈdɪː/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| style=&quot;width:1.5em;&quot; | Š || style=&quot;width: 11em;&quot; | '''šei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˌʃɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| Ä || '''aï bïdonmïdïï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈa.ɪ bɪ.don.mɪ.ˈdɪː/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| J || '''jei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈjɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| T || '''tei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈtɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| B || '''bei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈbe.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| K || '''kei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈkɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| Þ || '''þei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈθɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| D || '''dei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈdɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| L || '''lei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈlɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| U || '''uï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈu.ɪ/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| E || '''ei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| M || '''mei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈmɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| V || '''vei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈvɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| Ë || '''ei bïdonmïdïï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈˌɛ.i bɪ.don.mɪ.ˈdɪː/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| N || '''nei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈnɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| W || '''wei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈwɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| F || '''fei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈfɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| O || '''oï''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈo.ɪ/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| Y || '''yi''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈy.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| G || '''gei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈɡɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| P || '''pei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈpɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| Z || '''zei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈzɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| H || '''hei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈhɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| R || '''rei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈɾɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| Ž || '''žei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈʒɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
| I || '''ii''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/iː/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| S || '''sei''' &lt;nowiki&gt;/ˈsɛ.i/&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|}

== Punctuation ==
While Nordaþ uses standard sentence endings, Nordaþ uses quotation marks in a different manner than English. ''‚'' and ''‘'' are used to begin initial quotes. ''„'' and ''“'' are used for quotes within quotes.

== Stress ==
Nordaþ words are stressed in the penultima, typically. However, if the word ends in a doubled vowel, then the ultima receives the stress. Compounded words are stressed as if each word within were a separate word.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ noun cases</title>
    <id>1790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:05:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Up */ category nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Nordaþ language|Nordaþ]] uses 50 different noun inflections. There are 22 cases named in English - the rest are formed with affixed postpositions. As how in English prepositions can become adverbs, so too can affixed postpositions in Nordaþ. The singular neuter form is always taken and the suffix &quot;lïïs&quot; is attached to it. As an adverb, it stands alone.

{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br/&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br/&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br/&gt;
|}

== Named cases ==
There are 31 named cases in Nordaþ. This section describes them in detail as well as gives samples.

=== Abessive ===
The abessive case marks &quot;without&quot;. It is the opposite of the comitative/sociative case. It is applied as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''anmï''||''änme''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''anma''||''änma''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''anmïï''||''änmi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''anmïn''||''änmen
|}

=== Ablative ===
The ablative case marks &quot;from off of&quot;. It is applied as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''altï''||''älte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''alta''||''ältä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''altïï''||''älti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''altïn''||''älten''
|}

=== Accusative ===
The accusative case marks the direct object of a verb. If there is a preceeding ï in front of this suffix, it is eliminated (but only for the back-vowel form). It is applied as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïïtï''||''eite''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïïta''||''eitä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïïtïï''||''eiti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïïtïn''||''eiten''
|}

=== Addesive ===
The addessive case replaces the preposition &quot;on&quot;. It is applied as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''anï''||''äne''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ana''||''änä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''anïï''||''äni''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''anïn''||''änen''
|}

=== Allative ===
The allative case replaces in many languages what is the preposition for &quot;onto&quot;. It is attached to the noun as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''antï''||''änte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''anta''||''äntä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''antïï''||''änti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''antïn''||''änten''
|}

=== Causal ===
The causal case marks &quot;because of&quot;. If there is a preceeding 'f' in front of this suffix, that letter will be dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''frumï''||''fryme''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''fruma''||''frymä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''frumïï''||''frymi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''frumïn''||''frymen''
|}

=== Causal-Final ===
The causal-final case marks &quot;for&quot; or &quot;in order to have a&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ansï''||''änse''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ansa''||''änsä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ansïï''||''änsi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ansïn''||''änsen''
|}

=== Comitative/Sociative ===
The comitative/sociative case replaces &quot;with&quot;. It is the opposite of the abessive case. If there is an 'm' preceeding this suffix, it is dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''mïdï''||''mide''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''mïda''||''midä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''mïdïï''||''midi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''mïdïn''||''miden''
|}

=== Dative ===
This case replaces the &quot;to the&quot; (direction) prepositional phrase.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''atï''||''äte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ata''||''ätä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''atïï''||''äti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''atïn''||''äten''
|}

=== Distributive ===
The distributive case is the equivalent of English's &quot;per&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''pïrï''||''pere''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''pïra''||''perä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''pïrïï''||''peri''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''pïrïn''||''peren''
|}

=== Elative ===
Elative replaces the &quot;out of&quot; prepositional phrase in English. It is used as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''asafï''||''äsäfe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''asafa''||''äsäfä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''asafïï''||''äsäfi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''asafïn''||''äsäfen''
|}

=== Essive ===
The essive case marks &quot;as the&quot;, a temporary state of being.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïvï''||''ive''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïva''||''ivä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïvïï''||''ivi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïvïn''||''iven''
|}

=== Genitive ===
The genitive case marks possession. In English, it is usually &quot;'s&quot; or &quot;of the&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïsï''||''ise''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïsa''||''isä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïsïï''||''isi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïsïn''||''isen''
|}

=== Illative ===
The illative case replaces &quot;into&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''amï''||''äme''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ama''||''ämä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''amïï''||''ämi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''amïn''||''ämen''
|}

=== Inessive ===
The inessive case marks &quot;inside of&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïnanï''||''inäne''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïnana''||''inänä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïnanïï''||''inäni''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïnanïn''||''inänen''
|}

=== Instrumental ===
The instrumental case marks &quot;by means of&quot;. This is not to be confused with &quot;via&quot;, which means &quot;by way of&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''þairï''||''þaire''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''þaira''||''þairä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''þairïï''||''þairi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''þairïn''||''þairen''
|}

=== Lative ===
The lative case is used where English would use &quot;towards&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''andï''||''ände''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''anda''||''ändä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''andïï''||''ändi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''andïn''||''änden''
|}

=== Locative ===
The locative case is used where English would use &quot;at&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''aatï''||''ääte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''aata''||''äätä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''aatïï''||''ääti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''aatïn''||''ääten''
|}

=== Nominative ===
The nominative case marks the subject of a verb.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ï''||''e''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''a''||''ä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïï''||''i''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïn''||''en''
|}

=== Prolative ===
The prolative case is used for &quot;via&quot; - by way of.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''vïï''||''vie''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''vïa''||''viä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''vïï''||''vii''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''vïïn''||''vien''
|}

=== Prosecutive ===
The prosecutive case marks &quot;along&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''otï''||''yte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ota''||''ytä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''otïï''||''yti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''otïn''||''yten''
|}

=== Vocative ===
Vocative is used to address somebody without otherwise fitting their name into the sentence properly. It is perhaps best known in the Latin phrase, &quot;Et tu, Brute?&quot;, wherein Brute is the vocative form, but Brutus the standard nominative.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''oï''||''ye''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ota''||''yä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''oïï''||''yi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''oïn''||''yen''
|}

== Postpositions ==
The untitled inflections are self-explanatory. They replace postpositions.

=== About ===
About is not used for &quot;near&quot;, but as a descriptor.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''bï''||''be''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''bïa''||''biä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''bïï''||''bi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''bïn''||''ben''
|}

=== Above ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ubï''||''ybe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''uba''||''ybä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ubïï''||''ybi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ubïn''||''yben''
|}

=== Across ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''apï''||''äpe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''apa''||''äpä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''apïï''||''äpi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''apïn''||''äpen''
|}

=== After ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''avï''||''äve''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ava''||''ävä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''avïï''||''ävi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''avïn''||''även''
|}

=== Against ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''agï''||''äge''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''aga''||''ägä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''agïï''||''ägi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''agïn''||''ägen''
|}

=== Among ===
Preceeding m's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''mangï''||''mänge''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''manga''||''mängä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''mangïï''||''mängi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''mangïn''||''mängen''
|}

=== Around ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''unbï''||''ynbe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''unba''||''ynbä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''unbïï''||''ynbi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''unbïn''||''ynben''
|}

=== As ===
In the condition or role of. Preceeding g's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''gïkï''||''geke''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''gïka''||''gekä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''gïkïï''||''geki''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''gïkïn''||''geken''
|}

=== Before ===
Preceeding in time.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''airï''||''aire''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''aira''||''airä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''airïï''||''airi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''airïn''||''airen''
|}

=== Below ===
Preceeding d's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''dïþï''||''deþe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''dïþa''||''deþä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''dïþïï''||''deþi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''dïþïn''||''deþen''
|}

=== Beneath ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''afï''||''äfe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''afa''||''äfä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''afïï''||''äfi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''afïn''||''äfen''
|}

=== Beside ===
Preceeding n's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''nïkï''||''nike''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''nïka''||''nikä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''nïkïï''||''niki''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''nïkïn''||''niken''
|}

=== Between ===
Preceeding t's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''tïkï''||''tike''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''tïka''||''tikä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''tïkïï''||''tiki''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''tïkïn''||''tiken''
|}

=== Beyond ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïþï''||''iþe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïþa''||''iþä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïþïï''||''iþi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïþïn''||''iþen''
|}

=== Despite ===
Preceeding b's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''baidï''||''baide''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''baida''||''baidä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''baidïï''||''baidi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''baidïn''||''baiden''
|}

=== During ===
Preceeding m's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''mïþï''||''mïþe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''mïþa''||''mïþä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''mïþïï''||''mïþi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''mïþïn''||''mïþen''
|}

=== For ===
Intended for.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''aivï''||''aive''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''aiva''||''aivä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''aivïï''||''aivi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''aivïn''||''aiven''
|}

=== For ===
On behalf of, concerning, or representing.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''jïnï''||''jene''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''jïna''||''jenä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''jïnïï''||''jeni''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''jïnïn''||''jenen''
|}

=== For ===
In favour of.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''unï''||''yne''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''una''||''ynä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''unïï''||''yni''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''unïn''||''ynen''
|}

=== For ===
Because of.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''danï''||''däne''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''dana''||''dänä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''danïï''||''däni''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''danïn''||''dänen''
|}

=== For ===
In exchange for. Preceeding p's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''prï''||''pre''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''pra''||''prä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''prïï''||''pri''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''prïn''||''pren''
|}

=== For ===
Indicating distance.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïkï''||''ïke''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïka''||''ïkä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïkïï''||''ïki''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïkïn''||''ïken''
|}

=== From ===
Preceeding f's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''famï''||''fäme''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''fama''||''fämä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''famïï''||''fämi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''famïn''||''fämen''
|}

=== Outside ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''asï''||''äse''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''asa''||''äsä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''asïï''||''äsi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''asïn''||''äsen''
|}

=== Over ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''ïvï''||''ive''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''ïva''||''ivä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''ïvïï''||''ivi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''ïvïn''||''iven''
|}

=== Unlike ===
Preceeding v's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''vïrï''||''vere''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''vïra''||''virä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''vïrïï''||''viri''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''vïrïn''||''viren''
|}

=== Until ===
Preceeding v's are dropped.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''untï''||''ynte''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''unta''||''yntä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''untïï''||''ynti''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''untïn''||''ynten''
|}

=== Up ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Gender/Number
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Back-Vowel
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Front-Vowel
|-
|Singular Feminine||''abï''||''äbe''
|-
|Singular Masculine||''aba''||''äbä''
|-
|Singular Neuter||''abïï''||''äbi''
|-
|Plural (Neuter)||''abïn''||''äben''
|}

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ grammar</title>
    <id>1791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:02:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category Nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The order of words in a sentence are not determined by individual word functions but instead are largely free. However, if a word is to be stressed, it is put at the beginning of the sentence and stressed harder than normally.

Nordaþ is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language synthetic language], and is undefinable further as an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutinative_language agglutinative] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusional_language fusional] language as it exhibits signs of both. In language, agglutination is where there are several &quot;chunks&quot; - affixes which come together at the end of a word to give it meaning. Such languages include [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language Turkish], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahuatl_language Nahuatl] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language Japanese]. Fusional languages, however, only use one affix to give meanings. These affixes carry more than one meaning, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language Spanish] ''com'''í''''', wherein '''''í''''' carries the meanings of indicative mood, past tense, first person singular subject and perfect aspect.

''See also [[Nordaþ wordhoard]]''

== Vowel Harmony ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
'''Grammar'''&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

Nordaþ is unique from all other Germanic (and PIE) languages in the fact that it has vowel harmony. Vowel harmony was inherited from a neighbouring language when the language was young - Proto-Säämi. In Nordaþ, there are three types of vowels: Front (''ä, e, ë, i, y''), middle (''ï, ai, äu, oi''), and back (''a, o, u''). Front vowels cannot under any circumstance appear with a back vowel, though they can appear with each other and middle vowels (same for back vowels). Affixes to words in Nordaþ must also follow vowel harmony according to the word they are inflecting. Affixes will have either front/neutral forms, or neutral/back forms. It is improper for a front-vowel word to take a middle affix if it could take a front affix instead - the same is true of back-vowelled words. However, a word with all middle vowels will take a front-vowel affix.

== Nouns ==
Nouns are given their function by suffixes attached to the stem, of which 22 cases and 27 &quot;prepositional cases&quot; are used to give the stem its noun role. Other suffixes, however, attach to the stem before the main case suffixes - these are used to indicate such things as the one which does the act, the one which receives the act, etc. For example:

''dekäsdeeri'' (The helper) vs. ''dekäseneri'' (A helper), ''dekäsdenäi'' (The helped) vs. ''dekäsenäi'' (A helped), and ''dekäsdei'' (The help).

Prefixes are additionally added to convey extra meaning, such as &quot;self-&quot; or &quot;mis-&quot;. For example:

:''mïswaktjanï''
:mis observation-(nominative)
:misobservation

As another example:

:''ilkäelewäräneren''
:self password-(performer noun)-(nominative plural)
:self-passworders

Nordaþ nouns are used for the same purposes as English nouns, that is, they represent both concrete ideas and abstract ones. Like English, there are countable and uncountable nouns. Like English, Nordaþ pluralises nouns when necessary. Unlike English, however, Nordaþ has three noun genders: Masculine, feminine, and neuter. Most nouns take on the neuter ending. The only ones that don't are animate objects which actually take gender and inanimate objects strongly assosciated with something of a particular gender. However, such words are few as Nordaþ peoples don't tend to wear gender-specific clothing (if they're actually wearing clothing at all).


''See also [[Nordaþ noun cases]] and [[Nordaþ affixes]]''

== Verbs ==
Nordaþ verbs can take on a maximum of 180 conjugations. Verbs conjugate by pronoun and tense/aspect/mood. Subjects of verbs are always omitted as the verb inflection carries this information. Like nouns, verbs can take on prefix modifiers to indicate, for example, in what fashion actions are completed. For example:

:''mïsdeasmïganþ''
:mis understand-(indicative past)
:he misunderstood

''See also [[Nordaþ verbs]]''

== Adverbs ==
Adverbs follow the same pattern of word order that adjectives do. They follow the verb they modify unless the adverb is being stressed. Adverbs always carry their suffix, and are never declined any differently.

== Adjectives ==
:''Main article: [[Nordaþ adjectives]]''
Adjectives follow the noun they describe. Unlike in Latin, adjectives are not declined to match the noun, adjective, or adverb they describe. Instead, they are declined merely according to the comparitive/superlative/regular standard. However, adjectives don't always come after the noun they describe. This exception is permissable when the adjective is being stressed, such as &quot;a green lawn&quot; vs. &quot;a blue lawn&quot; or something of that sort. This reminds of the case with general word order in Nordaþ wherein the word being most stressed in the sentence will come first with appropriate emphasis on the spoken word.

Additionally, Nordaþ allows nouns acting as adjectives to be merged with the noun. They attach in front of the noun, unlike standard adjective behaviour. In English, these words are typically written in structures like this:

&lt;code&gt; the-paragraph-of-descriptions-about-equality &lt;/code&gt;

(This particular word, however, would be written something like &quot;the equality descriptions paragraph&quot; in Nordaþ. Not all clusters of words will drop their prepositions and conjunctions etc.)

They are also written as standard compound words in English, such as &quot;Freedom killer&quot;. Additionally, they are sometimes written as &quot;creator of love&quot;.

Unlike in Rejistanian, ordinals are regular. They are declined according to the adjectival guideline (or adverbal).

Comparison in Nordaþ is simple. Since &quot;than&quot; is considered a noun case, its suffix is appended to the root of the noun. &quot;Less&quot; and &quot;more&quot; are considered nouns when following a verb such as &quot;to have&quot; or &quot;to be&quot;, but adverbs when following another noun in English, such as &quot;years&quot;, and are declined as direct objects. Such words as &quot;much/many&quot; and &quot;by far&quot; are treated as standard adjectives and modify the less/more noun/adverb.

For example:

:''Häbiene minieiti jerämynen oktosïs altaïsïï.''
:I have less than eight years of age.

:''Häbiene minilës jerämeiti oktosïs altaïsïï hiynen.'' 
:I have eight years age less than he has.

:''Häbiene mäzereiti manïgïs ïlkaraapanïrunïn dekääses.''
:I have many more than ten automobiles.

== Determiners ==
:''Main article: [[Nordaþ determiners]]''
Determiners function in the same way as adjectives with the exception of possessive adjectives. Declining possessive adjectives in the manner of adjectives is considered uneducated.

== Pronouns ==
:''Main article: [[Nordaþ pronouns]]''
Nordaþ has several pronouns that are all declined like regular nouns.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Pronoun
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Prynäuvi
|-
|I/We (inc)||''Ik''
|-
|You/You all||''Þu''
|-
|We (exc)||''Vi''
|-
|He||''He''
|-
|She||''Si''
|-
|It/They (Neuter)/They (Plural)||''Het''
|}

== Prepositions ==
Nordaþ has no true prepositions, though it has many adverbs that an English speaker may mistake for a preposition - despite the fact that even in English the usage of these words would indicate that they are in-fact an adverb.

== Conjunctions ==
Conjunctions are truly the only class of words which may be considered irregular, at least within itself. Conjunctions have no set endings. They include, for example: ''ja'' (and), ''deme'' (but), ''kot'' (because), ''neke'' (neither), ''neki'' (nor), ''veeke'' (either), ''veki'' (or), ''dym'' (while, until), ''kaike'' (also, too), ''iteke'' (and so), ''vaka'' (although), ''tamï'' (however), ''kyn'' (when), ''kïvasï'' (as if), ''batsï'' (even if), ''si'' (if), ''yt'' (so that, in order that), ''þäs'' (that), ''den'' (then)

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ affixes</title>
    <id>1792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:01:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Nordaþ]] uses prefixes and suffixes (affixes) to convey additional meaning besides simple noun cases and verb conjugations. Below is an exhaustive list of such affixes and their English equivalents.

{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**'''Affixes'''&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

== Prefixes ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|English Prefix
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Meaning
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|English Example
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Prefix (back/front)
|-
|a(n)-||not, without||atonality, asexuality, amoral, anarchy, anonymous||''am/äm-''
|-
|aero-||air||aeronautics, aerodrome, aeroplane, aerodynamics||''brï/bre-''
|-
|anti-||against||antidote, antibody, anticlockwise||''antï/änti-''
|-
|auto-||self||autonomy, autobiography, automobile, autopilot||''ïlka/ilkä-''
|-
|circum-||around||circumnavigation, circumlocution, circumference||''rïng/ring-''
|-
|co/com/col/cor/con-||with, together||cooperative, conference, connotation, context, congregation||''mïd/mid-''
|-
|contra-||opposite||contradictory, contraception||''angï/änge''
|-
|deca/deka-||ten||dekametre||''dak/dek-''
|-
|deci-||tenth||decimetre||''dakþa/dekþä-''
|-
|di-||two||diurnal||''du/dy-''
|-
|dia-||through||diagonal, diagnosis||''þur/þyr-''
|-
|dys-||deformed, abnormal||dyspepsia, dystrophy||''nat/nät-''
|-
|ec(o)-||house||ecology, economy, ecotourism||''haim-''
|-
|electr(o)-||electricity||electrocution, electroencephalogram||''lïman/limän-''
|-
|encephalo-||brain||encephalitis||''bra/brä-''
|-
|end(o)/ent(o)-||inside||endoscope, endothermic||''ïn/en-''
|-
|erg(o)-||work||ergonomics||''arbai/ärbai-''
|-
|ex(o)-||outside||exoskeleton||''au-''
|-
|hyper-||excessively||hyperactive, hyperthyroidism||''su/sy-''
|-
|hypo-||far below normal||hypothermia, hypodermic||''lu/ly-''
|-
|in/im/il/ir-||not||immorality, illiteratacy, infallibility||''nï/ne-''
|-
|inter-||between||internet, international||''ma/mä-''
|-
|intra-||within||intramural, intravenous||''ïïn/en-''
|-
|kilo-||thousand||kilogram, kilometre||''tau-''
|-
|macro-||big||macroscopic||''kru/kry-''
|-
|mega-||million||megabyte||''mïl/mil-''
|-
|micro-||millionth, very small||microgram, microscopic, microorganism||''mïlþa/milþä-''
|-
|mid-||middle||mid-terms||''mïd/mid-''
|-
|milli-||thousandth||milligram, millimetre||''täuþa/täuþä-''
|-
|mis-||wrong||misanthropy, miscarriage, misogyny||''mïs/mis-''
|-
|over-||excessiveness||über, overanxious||''uubïr/yyber-''
|-
|over-||above||overview||''ubïr/yber-''
|-
|post-||after||postpartum depression, postmodernity, postmodernism||''aftï/äfte-''
|-
|pre-||before||prediction, preview, precedent, prenatal care||''far/fär-''
|-
|psycho-||mind, mental||psychology, psychosomatic||''mund/mynd-''
|-
|re-||again||return, review, remark||''aib-''
|-
|rect(i)-||straight, upright||rectangle, rectify||''rïk/rek-''
|-
|retro-||backwards, reverse||retrograde||''baa/bää-''
|-
|sub-||below, less than, under||subset, subsonic, subway, subtitles||''bulg/bylg-''
|-
|super-||extremely, more than||superhuman, Superego, supersonic||''maa/mää-''
|-
|syn-||along with, together, at the same time||synergy, synchronicity||''aal/ääl-''
|-
|tel(e)/tel(o)- ||(the other) end, far, over a long distance||telecommunications, television, telephoto lens, telodynamic||''tïl/tel-''
|-
|trans-||across||transfer, transatlantic, Trans-Siberian railway||''tran/trän-''
|-
|trans-||beyond||transubstantiation||''ïþ/eþ-''
|-
|tri-||three||triangle||''trï/tre-''
|-
|un-||taking something away||undo, undelete||''rïm/rem-''
|-
|uni-||one||unilateral||''un/yn-''
|}

== Suffixes ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|English Suffix
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Meaning
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|English Example
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Suffix (back/front)
|-
| -arch||ruler, leader||monarch, tetrarch||''-for/fyr*''
|-
| -cide||murder||regicide, homicide, genocide||''-däud*''
|-
| -cide||killing agent||pesticide, insecticide||''-däudïr/däuder*''
|-
| -cracy||rule||kakistocracy, democracy, androcracy||''-rïïk/rik*''
|-
| -cy||expressing the quality of an adjective||peccancy, agency, idiocy||''-sïï/si*''
|-
| -ectomy||surgical removal||laryngectomy, vasectomy||''-nïm/nim*''
|-
| -esque||in style of||Pythonesque, Romanesque||''-gïk/gek*''
|-
| -ful||full of, having some or much||hopeful, useful||''-ful/fyl*''
|-
| -gon||geometric shape||octagon, polygon||''-häu*''
|-
| -hedron||geometric solid||tetrahedron||''-hïran/hirän*''
|-
| -holic||love, addiction||alcoholic, workaholic||''-naik*''
|-
| -ics||study of||economics, astronomics||''-ïk/ik*''
|-
| -ish/i/ese||language||English, Punjabi, Chinese||''-ïsk/esk*'' 
|-
| -ish/i/ese||ethnicity||Pakistani, Finnish, Japanese||''-vam/väm*''
|-
| -ism||doctrine, act, practice, condition||Protestantism, alcoholism, Buddhism, southernism||''-ïsmï/esme*''
|-
| -ist||person (to be used only when ''-ïr/er'' is unsuitable||dentist, optometrist||''-ïst/est*''
|-
| -itis||disease or inflammation||gingivitis, hepatitis||''-ait*''
|-
| -ity||expressing state or condition||normality, formality, banality||''-ïït/it*''
|-
| -less||lack of||homeless, useless||''-läus*''
|-
| -let||diminutive, or denoting a relation to some part of the body||ringlet, hamlet, anklet||''-lït/let*''
|-
| -ly||-like, having the attributes of (non-inclusive of adverbs)||quickly||''-lo/ly*''
|-
| -mania||an irrational but irresistible motive for a belief or action||kleptomania, megalomania, mythomania||''-manja/mänjä*''
|-
| -ography/gram||writing, description||stenography, geography, ideogram||''-srïï/sri*''
|-
| -onomy||knowledge||astronomy||''-anam/änäm*''
|-
| -osis||process, action||mitosis, osmosis||''-amal/ämäl*''
|-
| -osis||formation||ostosis||''tïm/tim*''
|-
| -phone||sound, audio||telephone, homophone||''-lud/lyd*''
|-
| -scope||from Greek skopos, view; instrument for viewing and observing spaces||microscope, telescope||''-sï/se*''
|-
| -ward/wise||direction||clockwise, northward||''-stï/ste*''
|}

=== Other suffixes ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|English Part of Speech
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Additional Information
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Suffix (back/front)
|-
|Ability Nouns||-able||''-daas/dääs*''
|-
|Act of Doing||-tion/ing (gerund)||''-song/syng*''
|-
|Action Nouns||-er/or*||''-ïr/er*''
|-
|Action Receiver Nouns||-ed||''-ït/et*''
|-
|Adjective||(Excluding the -er/-est bits)||''-ïs/es*''
|-
|Adverb||&amp;nbsp;||''-lïïs/lës''
|-
|Comparative||&amp;nbsp;||''-ïïr/ër''
|-
|Conjunction||&amp;nbsp;||''-(ai)nd''
|-
|Definite Article||the||''-dï/de*''
|-
|Indefinite Article||a/an||''-ïn/en*''
|-
|Interjection||&amp;nbsp;||''-jï/je''
|-
|&quot;ness&quot;||-ness||''-nïs/nes*''
|-
|Superlative||&amp;nbsp;||''-ït/et''
|}

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ pronouns</title>
    <id>1793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:06:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Time */ categ. nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Personal pronouns ==

{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Pronouns'''&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

Here is a list of personal pronouns in the most common usages. The next section explains their usage.

'''Subject (&quot;Nominative case&quot;)'''
*ike/ikä, þuï/þua/þuïï, iken, þuïn, vien, heä, sie, heti, heten

'''Object (&quot;Accusative case&quot;)'''
*ikeite/ikeitä, þuïïtï/þuïïta/þuïïtïï, ikeiten, þuïïtïn, vieiten, heeitä, sieite, heteiti, heteiten

'''Indirect Object (&quot;Dative case&quot;)'''
*ikäte/ikätä, þuatï/þuata/þuatïï, ikäten, þuatïn, viäten, heätä, siäte, hetäti, hetäten

'''Possessive (&quot;Genitive case&quot;)'''
*ikise/ikisä, þuïsï/þuïsa/þuïsïï, ikisen, þuïsïn, viisen, heisä, siisen, hetisi, hetisen

Pronouns can be declined in other ways, as well: Refer to [[Nordaþ noun cases]]

== General explanation of usage ==
The dative pronouns (icäte/icätä, duatï/duata/duatïï, et al) are used to replace the indirect object of a sentence. They are generally placed in front of any accusative pronouns. The accusative pronouns are used to replace the direct object of the sentence. These are generally put directly before the verb. The genitive forms are akin to the English terms &quot;of me&quot;, &quot;of you&quot;, &quot;of him&quot; etc. However, they are not restricted to either the front or the back of the word which is owned. Additionally, they can stand alone and function as the noun forms &quot;mine&quot;, &quot;yours&quot;, &quot;his&quot; etc. while still literally saying &quot;of me&quot; et al.

== Demonstrative pronouns ==
*Near the speaker (&quot;this&quot;): þesämä, þesämi, þesäme
*Near the listener (&quot;that&quot;): þasemä, þasemi, þaseme
*Away from both the speaker and listener (&quot;that over there&quot;): þesemä, þesemi, þeseme&lt;br /&gt;
(Note that the above are only given in the nominative forms and always decline regularly)

== Relative pronouns ==
=== Ke* ===
''Ke*'' is derived from the Latin ''QVID'' and means 'that' or 'which'.
:''Þäsemi, kei senþ, senþ. Þäsemi, kei nänsenþ, nänsenþ. Senþ þäsemi esi? Esi senþ.''
:That, that is, is. That, that is not, is not. Is that it? It is.

Ke* inflects for the gender of the item it is describing and declines as a regular noun in every form.

=== Ve* ===
''Ve*'' is derived from the ancient Proto-Germanic ''χwas'', and means 'who'/'whom'. It inflects for number and gender. Ve* can replace ke* when the subject is a person.

=== Kwis*, Van*, Kwe* ===
''Kwis*'' means where. Van* signifies when. Kwe* means how.

==== Location &amp; movement ====
Like ve*, kwis* can replace ke* when the subject is a location. This expression must utilise the locative case.
*Letjendei, keääti/kwiääti sene. ''The place that/where I am at.''

==== Manner ====
Kwe* can replace ke* when the subject concerns the manner in which something is performed. This expression must utilise the instrumental case.
*Formdei, keþairi/kweþairi deädfikst þuïn.  ''The way that/how you all reacted.''

==== Time ====
Van* can replace ke* when the subject deals with time. This expression utilises the postpositional case of &quot;during&quot;.
Van* tends to be used in non-defining clauses, whereas ke* is usually used with defining clauses. However, they are still interchangeable.
*Äugustmïþïï, vanmïþïï/kemïþi vekaien häbiþ fraidägeiten, byrkdei besenþ läuseis. ''In August, during when/during that the people have holidays, the town will be empty.''

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ verbs</title>
    <id>1794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:07:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Negation */ categ. nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Nordaþ_language|Nordaþ]] verbs''' are the fusional part of the synthetic language Nordaþ. They conjugate according to the indicative, conditional, subjunctive, potential, and imperative moods. Verbs have infinitive forms, but unlike many other languages, they do not have participle or gerund forms. They are also conjugated by two declensions which match Nordaþ nouns, wherein front-vowelled and middle-vowelled words will take a front-vowel affix over a middle-vowel affix, unless only a middle-vowel and back-vowel affix are available, and a back-vowelled word will take a back-vowelled affix over a middle-vowel affix, unless only a front-vowel and middle-vowel affix are present.

== Mood, tense, and aspect - forms of the verb ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Verbs'''&lt;br /&gt;
|}

To illustrate the behaviour of verb conjugations in Nordaþ, let us use ''dekäsäm'' &quot;to help&quot;. First, here is the non-finite conjugation of the verb:

=== Infinitive ===
Front-vowel: ''dekäsäm''

(Middle-vowelled words take front-vowel affixes over middle-vowel affixes, so they will follow the front-vowel example. Thus, a back-vowel infinitive will use the -am suffix.)

Ignoring momentarily the -i suffix part of progressive verbs, the following table represents the endings of verbs according to their subject.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|'''Indicative'''||'''''iki/ä/e'''''||'''''þuïï/a/ï'''''||'''''heä, sie, heti'''''||'''''vien'''''
|-
|Subject||-e/ï||-(e/ï)st||-(e/ï)þ||-(e/ï)em
|}

Respectively, they all mean &quot;I&quot;, &quot;you&quot;, &quot;he, she, it&quot;, and &quot;we&quot; (inclusive). Ik, þu, and het can take on plurals. Even as plurals, they all retain the same verb endings. Ik pluralised becomes &quot;we&quot; in the exclusive sense. Þu pluralised takes on the meaning &quot;you all&quot; and &quot;het&quot; pluralised becomes &quot;they&quot;.

=== Indicative ===
Next, there is the indicative mood with its eleven tenses. The indicative mood is used to describe factual events.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|'''Indicative'''||Affixes||Example||English usage
|-
|Present||&amp;nbsp;||dekäse||I help
|-
|Present Perfect||er/ïr-||erdekäse||I have helped
|-
|Present Progressive||ei/ïï- + -i/ï||eidekäsei||I am helping
|-
|Present Perfect Progressive||er/ïr- + -i/ï||erdekäsei||I have been helping
|-
|Praeterite||de/dï-||dedekäse||I helped
|-
|Pluperfect||der/dïr-||derdekäse||I had helped
|-
|Praeterite Progressive||de/dï- + -i/ï||dedekäsei||I was helping
|-
|Pluperfect Progressive||der/dïr- + -i/ï||derdekäsei||I had been helping
|-
|Future||be/bï-||bedekäse||I will help
|-
|Future Perfect||ber/bïr-||berdekäse||I will have helped
|-
|Future Progressive||be/bï- + -i/ï||bedekäsei||I will be helping
|-
|Future Perfect Progressive||ber/bïr- + -i/ï||berdekäsei||I will have been helping
|-
|Imperfect||ke/kï-||kedekäse||I used to help
|-
|Imperfect Perfect||ker/kïr||kerdekäse||I have used to help
|-
|Imperfect Pluperfect||dek(e)/k(ï)-||dekdekäse||I had used to help
|-
|Imperfect Progressive||ke/kï- + -i/ï||kedekäsei||I used to be helping
|-
|Imperfect Perfect Progressive||ker/kïr- + -i/ï||kerdekäsei||I have used to be helping
|-
|Imperfect Pluperfect Progressive||dek(e)/k(ï)-||dekdekäsei||I had used to be helping
|}

=== Subjunctive ===
The subjunctive mood is a complex one and is classified into six patterns. All use the particle &quot;se&quot; to indicate the subjunctive.

==== Hypothetical ====
Also referred to by the term &quot;second conditional&quot;, the hypothetical has two forms. They are structured in much the same way as English, with the main difference being that whilst one can invert word order and omit &quot;if&quot; in English, in Nordaþ this is required to prevent ambiguosity.

Present

If + subjunctive, would + verb (English)&lt;br /&gt;
Si + se + praeterite, se + present tense (Nordaþ)

:''Si se desene þua, se puhuaï siäte.''
:If I were you, I would talk to her.

Present II

If + were + present participle, would + verb (English)&lt;br /&gt;
Si + se + present progressive, se + present tense (Nordaþ)

:''Si se ïïmatjaï, se istyäe.''
:Were I eating, I should sit.


==== Jussive ====
The jussive carries three forms. These forms all use &quot;se&quot;, but &quot;si&quot; cannot be used in conjunction with these forms of the subjunctive.

I. Subordinate

that + subjunctive (English)&lt;br /&gt;
that + se + present tense (Nordaþ)

:''Vaatjaï, þäs Napolïona se selenþ.''
:I demand that Napoleon surrender.

II. Present

se + present tense (Nordaþ)

:''Se senþ loïï esgeki se senþ.''
:Be that as it may (be).

:''Kibene yt se kibenst.''
:I give so that you may give.

III. Praeterite

se + praeterite tense (Nordaþ)

:''Se desenþ esgeki''
:As it were

==== Third Conditional ====

If + past perfect, would have + past participle (English)&lt;br /&gt;
Si + se + pluperfect, se + praeterite (Nordaþ)

:''Si se derlieme ereenmïþii Elisebeþise, se dïhoita alasïï pleiisen Šëkspirisä.''
:If I had lived during the Elizabethan era, I would have attended all of Shakespeare's plays.


=== Imperative ===
The imperative mood states a command. It only exists in present form.

The imperative is formed by a prefix attaching to other prefixes in the indicative. The imperative can attach to the present, the future, and the future progressive. The prefix is re/rï-

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|'''Imperative'''||Affixes||Example||English usage
|-
|Present||re/rï-||redekäsest||You help
|-
|Future||re/rï-||rebedekäsest||You will help
|-
|Future Progressive||re/rï-||rebedekäsesti||You will be helping
|}

:''Rebedekäsesti. Nuvlïïs.''
:You will be helping. Now.

=== Passive ===
The passive is formed by a prefix attaching to the other prefixes in the indicative. The passive attaches to all but the imperfect progressives. The prefix is &quot;fe/fï&quot;.

:''Heeitä fededekäseþ Toda.''
:He was helped by Tod.

=== Negation ===
To express negativity, the nän/nan prefix is used regardless of mood or aspect/tense. If the verb is imperative, the negating prefix attaches before it. If the verb isn't, the negative prefix attaches directly to the inflected verb.

:''Nänredekäsest!''
:Don't help!

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ verb paradigm</title>
    <id>1795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9340</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:06:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Second declension (back vowels) */ categ. nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Main article: [[Nordaþ verbs]]''
This is a paradigm of [[Nordaþ_language|Nordaþ]] verbs - a set of conjugation tables for the two declensions.

These tables include every possible conjugation of a verb.

{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ prepositions|Prepositions]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
**'''Conjugation'''&lt;br /&gt;
|}

== First (Front/middle) declension ==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Non-finite||colspan=&quot;9&quot;|
|-
|Infinitive||colspan=&quot;9&quot;|''libiäm'' (to love)
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Indicative||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present*||''libiie''||''libiäs''||''libiän''||''libiiäþ''||''libiieþ''||''libiäþ''||''libieþ''||''libioiþ''||''libiäuþ''
|-
|Present Progressive*||''libide''||''libidäs''||''libidän''||''libidiäþ''||''libidieþ''||''libidäþ''||''libideþ''||''libidoiþ''||''libidäuþ''
|-
|Present Perfect Progressive*||''libise''||''libisäs''||''libisän''||''libisiäþ''||''libisieþ''||''libisäþ''||''libiseþ''||''libisoiþ''||''libisäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect*||''libime''||''libimäs''||''libimän''||''libimiäþ''||''libimieþ''||''libimäþ''||''libimeþ''||''libimoiþ''||''libimäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect Perfect*||''libize''||''libizäþ''||''libizän''||''libiziäþ''||''libizieþ''||''libizäþ''||''libizeþ''||''libizoiþ''||''libizäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect Pluperfect Progressive||''libiše''||''libišäs''||''libišän''||''libišiäþ''||''libišieþ''||''libišäþ''||''libišeþ''||''libišoiþ''||''libišäuþ
|-
|Imperfect Progressive||''libire''||''libiräs''||''libirän''||''libiriäþ''||''libirieþ''||''libiräþ''||''libireþ''||''libiroiþ''||''libiräuþ''
|-
|Pluperfect*||''libine''||''libinäs''||''libinän''||''libiniäþ''||''libinieþ''||''libinäþ''||''libineþ''||''libinoiþ''||''libinäuþ''
|-
|Pluperfect Progressive*||''libike''||''libikäs''||''libikän''||''libikiäþ''||''libikieþ''||''libikäþ''||''libikeþ''||''libikoiþ''||''libikäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite*||''libite''||''libitäs''||''libitän''||''libitiäþ''||''libitieþ''||''libitäþ''||''libiteþ''||''libitoiþ''||''libitäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite Progressive*||''libive''||''libiväs''||''libivän''||''libiviäþ''||''libivieþ''||''libiväþ''||''libiveþ''||''libivoiþ''||''libiväuþ''
|-
|Future*||''libife''||''libifäs''||''libifän''||''libifiäþ''||''libifieþ''||''libifäþ''||''libifeþ''||''libifoiþ''||''libifäuþ''
|-
|Future Progressive*||''libile''||''libiläs''||''libilän''||''libiliäþ''||''libilieþ''||''libiläþ''||''libileþ''||''libiloiþ''||''libiläuþ''
|-
|Future Perfect*||''libice''||''libicäs''||''libicän''||''libiciäþ''||''libicieþ''||''libicäþ''||''libiceþ''||''libicoiþ''||''libicäuþ''
|-
|Future Perfect Progressive*||''libibe''||''libibäs''||''libibän''||''libibiäþ''||''libibieþ''||''libibäþ''||''libibeþ''||''libiboiþ''||''libibäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Conditional||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||''libiäke''||''libiäkäs''||''libiäkän''||''libiäkiäþ''||''libiäkieþ''||''libiäkäþ''||''libiäkeþ''||''libiäkoiþ''||''libiäkäuþ''
|-
|Perfect||''libiäde''||''libiädäs''||''libiädän''||''libiädiäþ''||''libiädieþ''||''libiädäþ''||''libiädeþ''||''libiädoiþ''||''libiädäuþ''
|-
|Perfect Progressive||''libiäve''||''libiäväs''||''libiävän''||''libiäviäþ''||''libiävieþ''||''libiäväþ''||''libiäveþ''||''libiävoiþ''||''libiäväuþ''
|-
|Progressive||''libiäne''||''libiänäs''||''libiänän''||''libiäniäþ''||''libiänieþ''||''libiänäþ''||''libiäneþ''||''libiänoiþ''||''libiänäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Subjunctive||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Jussive||''libiyke''||''libiykäs''||''libiykän''||''libiykiäþ''||''libiykieþ''||''libiykäþ''||''libiykeþ''||''libiykoiþ''||''libiykäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Potential||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||''libikäne''||''libikänäs''||''libikänän''||''libikäniäþ''||''libikänieþ''||''libikänäþ''||''libikäneþ''||''libikänoiþ''||''libikänäuþ''
|-
|Progressive||''libisäne''||''libisänäs''||''libisänän''||''libisäniäþ''||''libisänieþ''||''libisänäþ''||''libisäneþ''||''libisänoiþ''||''libisänäuþ''
|-
|Perfect||''libiväne''||''libivänäs''||''libivänän''||''libiväniäþ''||''libivänieþ''||''libivänäþ''||''libiväneþ''||''libivänoiþ''||''libivänäuþ''
|-
|Perfect Progressive||''libitäne''||''libitänäs''||''libitänän''||''libitäniäþ''||''libitänieþ''||''libiränäþ''||''libiräneþ''||''libiränoiþ''||''libiränäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite||''libiräne''||''libiränäs''||''libiränän''||''libiräniäþ''||''libiränieþ''||''libiränäþ''||''libiräneþ''||''libiränoiþ''||''libiränäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Imperative||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||&amp;nbsp;||''libinäs''||''libinän''||''libiniäþ''||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}

== Second declension (back vowels) ==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Non-finite||colspan=&quot;9&quot;|
|-
|Infinitive||colspan=&quot;9&quot;|''altaam'' (to age)
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Indicative||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present*||''altaïï''||''altaas''||''altaan''||''altaïaþ''||''altaïïþ''||''altaaþ''||''altaïþ''||''altaoiþ''||''altaäuþ''
|-
|Present Progressive*||''altadï''||''altadas''||''altadan''||''altadïaþ''||''altadïïþ''||''altadaþ''||''altadïþ''||''altadoiþ''||''altadäuþ''
|-
|Present Perfect Progressive*||''altasï''||''altasas''||''altasan''||''altasïaþ''||''altasïïþ''||''altasaþ''||''altasïþ''||''altasoiþ''||''altasäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect*||''altamï''||''altamas''||''altaman''||''altamïaþ''||''altamïïþ''||''altamaþ''||''altamïþ''||''altamoiþ''||''altamäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect Perfect*||''altazï''||''altazas''||''altazan''||''altazïaþ''||''altazïïþ''||''altazaþ''||''altazïþ''||''altazoiþ''||''altazäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect Pluperfect Progressive||''altašï''||''altašas''||''altašan''||''altašïaþ''||''altašïïþ''||''altašaš''||''altašïþ''||''altašoiþ''||''altašäuþ''
|-
|Imperfect Progressive||''altarï''||''altaras''||''altaran''||''altarïaþ''||''altarïïþ''||''altaraþ''||''altarïþ''||''altaroiþ''||''altaräuþ''
|-
|Pluperfect*||''altanï''||''altanas''||''altanan''||''altanïaþ''||''altanïïþ''||''altanaþ''||''altanïþ''||''altanoiþ''||''altanäuþ''
|-
|Pluperfect Progressive*||''altakï''||''altakas''||''altakan''||''altakïaþ''||''altakïïþ''||''altakaþ''||''altakïþ''||''altakoiþ''||''altakäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite*||''altatï''||''altatas''||''altatan''||''altatïaþ''||''altatïïþ''||''altataþ''||''altatïþ''||''altatoiþ''||''altatäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite Progressive*||''altavï''||''altavas''||''altavan''||''altavïaþ''||''altavïïþ''||''altavaþ''||''altavïþ''||''altavoiþ''||''altaväuþ''
|-
|Future*||''altafï''||''altafas''||''altafan''||''altafïaþ''||''altafïïþ''||''altafaþ''||''altafïþ''||''altafoiþ''||''altafäuþ''
|-
|Future Progressive*||''altalï''||''altalas''||''altalan''||''altalïaþ''||''altalïïþ''||''altalaþ''||''altalïþ''||''altaloiþ''||''altaläuþ''
|-
|Future Perfect*||''altacï''||''altacas''||''altacan''||''altacïaþ''||''altacïïþ''||''altacaþ''||''altacïþ''||''altacoiþ''||''altacäuþ''
|-
|Future Perfect Progressive*||''altabï''||''altabas''||''altaban''||''altabïaþ''||''altabïïþ''||''altabaþ''||''altabïþ''||''altaboiþ''||''altabäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Conditional||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||''altaakï''||''altaakas''||''altaakan''||''altaakïaþ''||''altaakïïþ''||''altaakaþ''||''altaakïþ''||''altaakoiþ''||''altaakäuþ''
|-
|Perfect||''altaadï''||''altaadas''||''altaadan''||''altaadïaþ''||''altaadïïþ''||''altaadaþ''||''altaadïþ''||''altaadoiþ''||''altaadäuþ''
|-
|Perfect Progressive||''altaavï''||''altaavas''||''altaavan''||''altaavïaþ''||''altaavïïþ''||''altaavaþ''||''altaavïþ''||''altaavoiþ''||''altaaväuþ''
|-
|Progressive||''altaanï''||''altaanas''||''altaanan''||''altaanïaþ''||''altaanïïþ''||''altaanaþ''||''altaanïþ''||''altaanoiþ''||''altaanäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Subjunctive||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Jussive||''altaukï''||''altaukas''||''altaukan''||''altaukïaþ''||''altaukïïþ''||''altaukaþ''||''altaukïþ''||''altaukoiþ''||''altaukäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Potential||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||''altakanï''||''altakanas''||''altakanan''||''altakanïaþ''||''altakanïïþ''||''altakanaþ''||''altakanïþ''||''altakanoiþ''||''altakanäuþ''
|-
|Progressive||''altasanï''||''altasanas''||''altasanan''||''altasanïaþ''||''altasanïïþ''||''altasanaþ''||''altasanïþ''||''altasanoiþ''||''altasanäuþ''
|-
|Perfect||''altavanï''||''altavanas''||''altavanan''||''altavanïaþ''||''altavanïïþ''||''altavanaþ''||''altavanïþ''||''altavanoiþ''||''altavanäuþ''
|-
|Perfect Progressive||''altatanï''||''altaranas''||''altaranan''||''altaranïaþ''||''altaranïïþ''||''altaranaþ''||''altaranïþ''||''altaranoiþ''||''altaranäuþ''
|-
|Praeterite||''altaranï''||''altaranas''||''altaranan''||''altaranïaþ''||''altaranïïþ''||''altaranaþ''||''altaranïþ''||''altaranoiþ''||''altaranäuþ''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Imperative||''ic''||''du''||''oic''||''ver''||''ïr''||''er''||''si''||''lec''||''läc''
|-
|Present||&amp;nbsp;||''altanas''||''altanan''||''altanïaþ''||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}

* denotes a verb that can be put into the passive voice by adding ym/um to the front of it

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ determiners</title>
    <id>1796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:01:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Nordaþ language]] uses determiners in a mostly similar way to English. The main difference is that that they &quot;agree&quot; with what they refer to in terms of both number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) and inflect to show placement.

== Demonstrative determiners ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Determiners'''&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

Nordaþ has three levels of demonstrative adjectives:
:1. Closest to the speaker (proximal): þesämis
:2. Closest to the hearer (distal): þäsemis
:3. Far from both (distal): þesemis

== Articles ==
=== Definite article ===
The definite article in Nordaþ is -de*/-dï*, and attaches directly to the stem word. Any inflections to it are added after the de/dï. The D is dropped if the stem ended in a D.

=== Indefinite article ===
The indefinite article in Nordaþ is -en*/-ïn*, and is used the same way that -de*/-dï* is. The E is only dropped if the stem ended in two.

== Possessive determiners ==
Unlike Romance languages, Nordaþ does not distinguish between genitive pronouns and genitive adjectives - they are both genitive pronouns in Nordaþ. (See also [[Nordaþ pronouns]].)

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ nouns</title>
    <id>1797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:05:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Nordaþ language]] has nouns that express concrete objects, groups and classes of objects, qualities, feelings and other abstractions. All nouns have a conventional grammatical gender. Countable nouns inflect for number (singular and plural).

== Gender ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Nouns'''&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ adjectives|Adjectives]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

All Nordaþ nouns have one of three grammatical genders: Masculine, neuter, and feminine. Unlike most languages, Nordaþ uses mostly the neuter gender as its genders are not arbitrarily assigned. Unlike many other languages, adjectives do not agree in number nor gender with nouns and they usually come before the noun. Additionally, they do not inflect as in Latin.

Pronouns also take gender. When any pronoun is unknown, the neuter may be used. It is akin to English &quot;it&quot;, though without the negative conotations. Nordaþ also has an &quot;it&quot; that takes English's singular &quot;they&quot; function. It only ever takes the neuter gender. Note - Nordaþ has a separate it with which verbs from &quot;it&quot; are conjugated as they would 'lec' (they).

Proper names when not referring to a person are usually neuter. The exception is when a word in the proper segment takes a masculine or feminine gender.

Like pronouns, verbs, et al their endings are based on whether they are a front-vowelled word or a back-vowelled word.

== Number ==
Nouns in the Nordaþ language are inflected to show singular and plural. Plurals end in -en and are all considered to be neuter. Also, in some cases, Nordaþ will use a singular where English uses plural. For example, the English &quot;pants&quot; can be taken to mean either one pair of pants or many. In Nordaþ, the singular word is ''broksaïï'', but the plural is ''broksaïn''. In this case, the singular refers to only one.

== Diminutive ==
In Nordaþ, the diminutive is -let*/-lït*. It conveys the meaning of smallness or dearness. The L is dropped if the stem ended with an L.

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ adjectives</title>
    <id>1798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:01:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. nordaþ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Nordaþ language]] uses adjectives in a very similar fashion to English. One difference is in that adjectives' endings reflect the type of vowels (front or back) in the word.

== Descriptive and attributive uses ==
{| cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot;
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;padding: 1px&quot;|[[Nordaþ language]]
|- 
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#F9F9F9&quot; style=&quot;padding: 3px 2px 3px 5px&quot;|
[[Nordaþ phonology|Pronunciation]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Writing system of Nordaþ|Writing system]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nordaþ grammar|Grammar]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ determiners|Determiners]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ nouns|Nouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ noun cases|Cases]]&lt;br /&gt;
**[[Nordaþ affixes|Affixes]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ pronouns|Pronouns]]&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Adjectives'''&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Nordaþ verbs|Verbs]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}

=== Comparative ===
Adjectives take on suffixes to distinguish comparative and superlative. Adjectives take on the -ïïr/ër endings to reflect comparativeness.

''belideses'' (popular) → ''belidesër'' (more popular)&lt;br /&gt;
''dukasïs'' (able) → ''dukasïïr'' (more able)

=== Superlative ===
The superlative uses -ït/et in the same way as the comparative suffix is attached to the adjective.

''nisnäis'' (bendy) → ''nisnäet'' (most bendy)&lt;br /&gt;
''falïþïs'' (faded) → ''falïþït'' (most faded)

[[Category:Nordaþ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ prepositions</title>
    <id>1799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5524</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T18:02:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matsu</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nordaþ noun cases]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilabial consonant</title>
    <id>1800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31663</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-21T20:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of bilabial consonants */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bilabial''' consonants are those whose production involves contact between the lower lip and the upper lip.  

They are widespread among human languages, and the [[bilabial nasal]] exists in most natural languages.   

== List of bilabial consonants ==
* /m/ - [[Bilabial nasal]]
* /b/ - [[Voiced bilabial stop]]
* /p/ - [[Voiceless bilabial stop]]
* /β/ - [[Voiced bilabial fricative]]
* /φ/ - [[Voiceless bilabial fricative]]
* /ʙ/ - [[Bilabial trill]]
* /ʘ/ - [[Bilabial click]]
* /w/ - [[Labial-velar approximant|Bilabial/Velar approximate]]
* /ʍ/ - [[Voiceless labial-velar fricative|Voiceless Bilabial/Velar approximate]]

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilabial</title>
    <id>1801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5535</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T02:31:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Bilabial moved to Bilabial consonant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bilabial consonant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karkl</title>
    <id>1802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:06:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[category:conlangs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==
This language is intended to be simple to learn and simple to speak and write. It follows a few simple rules:

* Static conjugation
* Static declension
* No gramatical gender
* No diacritic marks

== Sounds and Phonetics ==

== Letters ==

* abcdefghijlmnoprstuvxz – Pronounced like in Latin
* k = k in English
* y = ы in Russian (like 'e' in 'roses' when muttered through the teeth)
* w = short u

== Letter groups ==
* sh    = “sh” in English /ʃ/ 
* ts    = “ts” in English /ʦ/
* zh    = “zh” in English /ʒ/
* ce,ci = “che” , “chi” in English /ʧ/

== Diphtongs ==

AW ; AJ ; EW ; EJ ; OW ; OJ ; UJ ; YJ ; WA ; WE ; WO ; JA ; JE ; JO ; JU ; JY

Everything else in in separate syllables.

== Grammar and Morphology ==

== Noun ==

 Static declension
 No gramatical gender
 Definite article sg: lo
 Definite article pl: le (plural is achieved by adding an i to the noun)
Can be: 
 -	Subject - DIR
 -	Predicative Denominator - DIR
 -	Apposition - DIR
 -	Direct, Indirect, Circumstantial Object – DIR;IND;IND
 -	Attribute – IND
 -	Agent Object - DIR

* Has 2 cases N/A ; G/D = Direct ; Indirect = Dir ; Ind
* For case-specific prepositions see ‘Prepositions’ section

Ex:

Crat ; lo Crat ; Vaka ; lo Vaka

== Verb ==
Static conjugation

* grI  &lt;=&gt; R = X + [consonant]
* grII &lt;=&gt; R = X + [vowel]

Indicative:
    Past  &gt;  Present  &gt;  Future
     ||        | |         ||
     \/        \ /         \/
    R+ec        R         R+av
 [esec;irec] [es;ir]  [esav;irav]

 Infinitive: R + ‘at’  [esat ; irat]
 Gerund: R + ‘and’ [esand ; irand]
 Participle: R + ‘it’  [esit ; irit]
 Conditional: R + ‘-ko’ [es-ko ; ir-ko]
 Imperative: for grI : R + last cons of R + ‘i’ [essi ; irri]
 Imperative: for grII: R + ‘i’                   [moi ; saj]
 Imperative: for pl. and politeness = Imp + ‘te’ [essite;sajte]

Copulative verbs:

 -	Esat    = to be         |
 -	Menat   = to mean       |
 -	Numat   = to be called  |+ what OR how
 -	Rodat   = to be born    |
 -	Devenat = to become     |

== Pronoun ==
Personal:
 ____________________
 pI    | Jo  || Mi  |
 pII   | Tu  || Vu  |
 pIIIm | Il  || Ili |
 pIIIf | Ilo || Ili |
  Imp  | Ilo ||  X  |
  Refl |    Sinu    |

Posessive: Personal + ‘m’ [Jom ago ; Tum ago]

Demonstrative: 
    ke  |ka  = this     |that
    ket |kat = this+noun|that+noun
Relative / Interrogative:
    Ho  - What
    Hno – Who
    Ki - which
Negative:
    Nihno - Nobody
    Niho  - Nothing
Indefinite:
    Hemi         - all
    Hemiti + noun – all + noun

== Numeral ==

Cardinal: 

Simple:
 on duv trej shtar sen sei set pot nov tsek sent limm milion
 1  2   3    4     5   6   7   8   9   10   100  1000 1000000
Compound:
 tsek-on tsek-duv sent-duvtsek-duv
 11      12       122             

Ordinal = Cardinal + ‘st’
Divisive: x/y = Xcard + Ydivisive ; Divisive = Cardinal + ‘ton’

Ex:

* 19,382,948,395,280 = 19 limm 382 sent miliardi 948 milioni 395 limm 282
* 1,248,225 = on milion duvsent-shtartsek-pot limm duvsent-duvtsek-sen
* 285,482,333 = duvsent-pottsek-sen milioni shtarsent-pottsek-duv limm trejsent-trejtsek-trej

== Preposition ==
Direct Case:

DObj: 
 ‘po’ 
 Ø
AgObj:
 ‘de’

Indirect Case:
CObj
 ‘cam’ – CM = like
 ‘po’  – CL = on
 ‘o’   - CL = to
  ...etc... (indicating time,place,manner,scope,cause)
Atribute
 ‘o’ = lo Crat o lo mad = the house of the girl
IObj
 ‘o’ = Io saj o lo mad = I say to the girl
 ‘so’ = with
 ...etc... (any other)


== Adjective / Adverb ==

* Lo ret crat.     – Attribute    , IND &lt;- Adject
* Lo crat es ret.  – Pred. Denom. , DIR &lt;- Adject
* Lo mad scrib ret – Cobj         , IND &lt;- Adverb

Comparative Degree:

 -Positive      = ret
 -Comparative
 -	Superior  = reter     |\
 -	Inferior  = sam ret   | + cam [smth]
 -	Equal     = puste ret |/
 -Superlative
 -	Absolute  = forte ret
 -	Relotive  = retest

* Evidentalmente - obviously
* Clasicalmente  - classically

== Translation Samples ==

English:

 A chemical reaction is a process involving one, two or more substances (called reactants), characterized by a chemical change and
 yielding one or more product(s) which are different from the reactants. 
 Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that
 strictly involve the motion of electrons, although the general concept of a chemical reaction (in particular the notion of a
 chemical equation) is applicable to transformations of elementary particles, as well as nuclear reactions.

Karkl:

 On reactsion kimik es on proces implicand on, duv aj multer substantsi (numiti reactanti), caracterizati de on camb kimik ej
 rezultand on aj multer product(i) ki es diferent(i) o le reactanti.
 Clasicalmente, reactsioni kimiki avolget cambi ki
 strictalmente impliket lo motsion o electroni, ben ke lo concept general o reactsii kimiki (spetsialmente lo notion o ekuatsion  
 kimik) es aplicable o le transformatsionii o particuli elementari, cam es reactii nucleari


[[User:Danielsavoiu|Danielsavoiu]] 03:09, 16 November 2005 (PST)

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demui</title>
    <id>1803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5545</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-16T20:55:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mri</username>
        <id>54</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>a quick info boost.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Brainstorming Period==
&lt;br&gt;
Demui is my conlang, and It is still in the planning phase. So don't expect a lot of information soon. I will, however, be updating every wedseday. Or at least, I hope too. ^p^ I'm horrible with that stuff. :^)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantisite</title>
    <id>1804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:11:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>-&gt; category redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A native stone found on [[Atlantis]]

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantis</title>
    <id>1805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5947</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:36:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stub, categ. source material</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantis''' is a lost continent of [[Earth]] said to have been consumed by the sea.


----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earth</title>
    <id>1806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5569</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T17:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Duccio</username>
        <id>58</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The realm of people, demons who wants to take over the world and more nightmares. Earth also is in trouble with terrorists, and madmen.The languages of Earth are very known from [[English]] to [[Chinese]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Duccio</title>
    <id>1809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5577</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T16:37:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>welcome and suggestion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi, welcome to the wiki!

Feel free to enter what information about worlds and languages you like, but keep in mind that the namespace is shared among everybody, so choose page titles carefully when writing about things with everyday names.  For example, if you are writing about language in world X, it is better to have a page titled something like [[Language in world X]] than just [[Language]].  However if you are writing about things that are true or common mythology *here* you can use a more general name (so [[Atlantis]] as it stands now would be okay, but if you were to make it about your own or your group's Atlantis it would be better to choose a different page title).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 08:37, 28 November 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki:Naming conventions</title>
    <id>1810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5578</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T17:10:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>new.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; 
|-
||'''This page is a proposed FrathWiki  policy.  Please consider improving it or discussing improvements on the [[Frathwiki talk:Naming conventions|talk page]].'''  
|}


&lt;center&gt;''Be patient, for the world is broad and wide.''&lt;/center&gt;

[[Project:What FrathWiki is|FrathWiki is]] a place where anyone may write about constructed worlds, cultures, and languages.  

However, as many of the same things exist across worlds, it is important to name pages in a way that they don't interfere with the creations of others, or with those who are searching for factual information to further their own creations.

== Suggested guidelines ==
=== Reality gets priority ===
An article titled [[Mars]] should be about Mars ''here,'' not alternate versions of it.  It may, of course, mention alternate versions of Mars, or discuss its conceptions in popular mythology ''here,'' but such things should be noted as fiction, not presented as facts, and it should if possible be secondary to facts.   (As not everyone agrees on what the facts may be, try to write reality-based articles from a [[Project:Neutral Point of View|Neutral Point of View]].)

If you wish to write an article about Mars in another reality—whether as fact or as fiction—choose a different name, either descriptive or perhaps a native one:  [[Mars in Ill Bethisad]], [[Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars]], or [[Malacandra]].   (Then be sure to link to it from [[Mars]] so those interested in alternate Martianity can find it.)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Sohlobalph.png</title>
    <id>1811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5583</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T22:21:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Improved image of Sohlob alphabet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Improved image of Sohlob alphabet</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evenstar Flag</title>
    <id>1825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35507</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-13T00:50:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Litrc4tmon|Litrc4tmon]] ([[User talk:Litrc4tmon|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Muke|Muke]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Evenstar Flag''' ([[Low Elvish]] '''Dannar Sar Vestal''') is the national flag of the [[British Elves]].  The flag shows a white eight-pointed star in a blue field.

[[Image:Star3.gif]]

==History==

It is not known with certainty when this flag was first used, but tradition has it that it dates back to the ancient Elvish civilization, and the white 8-pointed star in a blue field appears to have been used as a device representing the British Elves at least since early Mediaeval times.  It is not only traditionally used by the Elves of the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]], but also by their cousins in [[Macaronesia]], whose coat of arms also contains the Evenstar.

==Usage==

In the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]], the Evenstar Flag is the official flag of the [[Province of Elfham]] and displayed on public building together with the flags of the UKW and the [[European Confederation]].

[[Category:UKW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United Kingdom of the Westlands</title>
    <id>1826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47428</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:41:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''United Kingdom of the Westlands''' ('''UKW''') is a country located off the northwestern coast of Europe (in the [[UKW World]]), surrounded by the North Sea, the English Channel and the Atlantic Ocean.  The territory of the UKW consists of the Westlands, or British Isles.

The UKW is composed of seven constitutent nations, in alphabetical order:

*[[Cambria (UKW)|Cambria]]
*[[Cornwall (UKW)|Cornwall]]
*[[Elfham]]
*[[England (UKW)|England]]
*[[Isle of Man (UKW)|Isle of Man]]
*[[Ireland (UKW)|Ireland]]
*[[Scotland (UKW)|Scotland]]

==History==

The Westlands have been settled by humans since Palaeolithic times.  Written history in the Westlands begins with the [[Commonwealth of the Elves]], which according to tradition was established in the year 815 BC, though many historians assume that it was really established at a later date.

After the [[Tartessian War]], the Westlands were taken over by Celtic tribes, and the history of this era remains largely unwritten until the Roman conquest of southern Britain in 43 CE.  Southern Britain remained part of the Roman Empire until 410.

In the 5th century, Germanic tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, conquered most of southern Britain.  This part of Britain became the nation of England, which was unified in the 9th century by Alfred the Great.  At about the same time, Scotland and Ireland became unified kingdoms.  England was conquered by Norman French nobles under William the Bastard, who thus earned the name the Conqueror, in 1066.

The Pendragon kings of the remaining Kingdom of Cambria, however, would eventually inherit the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland.  By the year 1600, all four crowns of the Westlands were worn by the same head, and in 1701, the four kingdoms were officially united as the United Kingdom of the Westlands.

==Government and Politics==

The UKW is a constiutional monarchy.  The executive power is exercised on behalf of the monarch (King or Queen) by the Prime Minister and the cabinet.  The cabinet is drawn from and responsible to Parliament, the legislative branch of the government.

Parliament is a bicameral organ, consisting of the virtually powerless House of Lords and the democratically elected House of Commons.  Since 1922, the [[Wikipedia: Single Transferable Vote|single transferable vote]] system has been used to elect the members of the House of Commons.

The two largest parties of the UKW are the Labour Party and the Conservative Party; other important parties are the Liberal Party, the Green Party and the Alliance of Free Nations which consists of the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru (Cambria), Arthad Elbhrin (Elfham) and Mebyon Kernow (Cornwall).

===Subdivisions===

The UKW is a federal state; each of the seven constituent nations has its own executive and legislature.
England, Cambria, Scotland and Ireland are subdivided into counties.  Ireland is also subdivided into four traditional provinces (Ulster, Connacht, Leinster and Munster), each with an elected Provincial Council.  England is subdivided into seven regions at an intermediate level (above counties).

==Languages==

There are several different languages spoken in the UKW.  The most important language of the UKW is English, which is the native language of the vast majority of the population.  It is the only official language of England, but it is also official in all other constituent nations.  Closely related is Scots, which is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands and has official status in Scotland.

The Celtic languages of the UKW fall into two groups: Brythonic and Goidelic.  The Brythonic languages of the UKW are Cambrian (official in Cambria, spoken by about 40% of the population of Britain) and Cornish (official in Cornwall, spoken by about 10% of the population of Cornwall).  The Goidelic languages are Irish (official in Ireland), Manx (official in the Isle of Man) and Scots Gaelic (spoken in the Scottish Highlands and islands, official in Scotland).

Other languages include Shelta, Polari and Romani.  Besides these, two non-Indo-European families are indigenous to the Westlands.  The [[Albic]] languages include [[Low Elvish]] (official language of Elfham), and the tiny minority languages [[Caledonian]] in Scotland and [[Iverinian]] in Ireland.  [[Pictish]], an unrecognized minority language of Scotland, is the sole survivor of the [[Coric]] family.

Besides these, numerous immigrant languages are spoken in the UKW, mostly languages from former colonies of the kingdom.  These include Hindustani, Panjabi, Tamil, Swahili and many others.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>UKW World</title>
    <id>1827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47433</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:47:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''UKW World''' is an alternative history invented by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is named after the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]], a nation occupying the Britsh Isles in said universe.  The UKW world is in most aspects similar to our world, with much of its history running in parallel.

The point of divergence lies in the Dark Ages of Britain, and much of it is unclear (less unclear from the UKW World's side than from our viewpoint).  Apparently, it involved King Arthur ''not'' campaigning against the Elves of [[Elfham]]; the result was that the Battle of Camlann never occured, but Arthur became the founder of a royal dynasty that united the Britons againt the Anglo-Saxons.  Nevertheless, the Kingdom of Cambria suffered losses at the English in later centuries, though it fared better than Wales in our timeline.  Eventually, through a series of dynastic marriages, the Pendragon dynasty would acquire the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland, which were united in the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]] in 1701.

==Countries in the UKW World==

This list is of course incomplete.

*[[Commonwealth of North America]]
*[[Macaronesia]]
*[[United Kingdom of the Westlands]]

===Historical countries===

*[[Commonwealth of the Elves]]

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Still</title>
    <id>1828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5650</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T21:00:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Still</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Language: [[Mvaqi]]
Is currently being developed for a book. The language is not an live language in the story, but is developed by one of the characters for academic purposes. Someone else then appropriates this language and uses it to create a national identity for a group of ex-pats on a remote island.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mvaqi</title>
    <id>1829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-12T05:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. conlangs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==History==
Mvaqi has two histories. The first history is that it was created by a graduate student of linguistics, Nathan Plains, as an academic exercise over the course of four years. The second is it is the indigenous language of the Mvaq people, whose origins are lost to the mists of time.

The Mvaq people share many common characteristics with other Pacific Islander natives and Native Americans. However, their language does not resemble in any way either of those two groups.

Original Mvaqi was not a written language until the 16th century, when Spanish/Portuguese explorer Mateo de la Nuestra Nostra Brisia de Orpheo Caltha landed on the shores of Mvaqi, an island chain in the eastern Pacific, 90 miles off the coast of Oregon. Since he was hard of hearing, he ordered that the native language of the Mvaq people be transcribed so that he may communicate with them. The Mvaqi written language has evolved slightly, but not much, from the original transcription.

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shadow Realm</title>
    <id>1831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14703</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-20T01:46:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category for context</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A place where tortured sould go if they destroy [[Gid]]. [[Hissler]], the most evil person to ever live hunted the Ridders and their student. But the Ridders had a suprise party for him which they poisoned him with the most toxic tonic that was ever made. But Hissler was again sent out of Hell to finish the job but the Ridders had God and Jesus on their side. Then Hissler saw that he was outnumbered but fought anyway with all the Darkest Power he had but was cast into his own prison as the Earth swallowed him whole.


He was a target for the Shadow Realm when he tried to burn a church and massacre a whole town called [[Glenwitz]] but fail to do so he was forces into exile.

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hissler</title>
    <id>1832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12101</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-10T13:12:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El Duccio del Pieta</username>
        <id>209</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The follower of [[Faust]] and a master of dark magic he is the one who caused the world to be a terrible place. He caused families to fight to the death over money and power. He has the power to speak a number of tongues but the majority of languages are evil. 


[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Spelldown</title>
    <id>1837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-20T01:49:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">衝魃 戰士 Great Demon Fighter 


A great fighter of Demons who grew up in Northern [[China]] as  ''Zhàn shì'' meaning &quot;fighter&quot; in [[Chinese]]. His title Spelldown came from an [[Old English]] title meaning &quot;a pledge done by a reaping hook&quot;.

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Spelldown</title>
    <id>1839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5677</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T02:14:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spelldown</username>
        <id>69</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Spelldown]] is a title of his own he is also called El Duccio</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Language</title>
    <id>1841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47546</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T11:51:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See also */ cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Language is what this whole wiki is about!

A language is a system of signals used by two beings to communicate with one another. Language is set apart from other form of communication chiefly by it's capacity for abstraction and reference to things not present. Languages are most commonly spoken or signed, with the vast majority of languages being spoken, and a few being expressed in some other manner.

Telling one language apart form another is usually quite simple, but there are cases where it can be difficult to say wheather or not two dialects belong to the same language, or if they are two different languages. This is because language, like living organisms, is subject to evolution, and therefore each language is analgogous to a species, and languages can in fact be classified genetically like living things can.
Take for example English, English is a very large language, with very many dialects, sometimes two people who both speak english, but who speak different dialects, will not be able to understand one another, however, we can still call both dialects english, because there is a chain of dialects that can understand each other that lies between the two dialects, however, if for some reason everyone who spoke the dialects in between the two languages changed how they spoke enough that there was no longer a continum of understanding between the two dialects, they would then be different languages. Linguists think that this is how all languages came to be from thier parent language.
In this example, we would have a new language that had english as a parent langauge.


== See more articles on: ==
 
[[Latin]], [[Chinese]], [[Spanish]], [[Greek]], [[Albanian]]

== See also ==
* [[Wikipedia:Language|Wikipedia's description of language]]

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Growth and love</title>
    <id>1843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:17:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A way of thinking about people and their behavior in life with each other as a [[community]] of peace. Like in the communes where one [[language]] is spoken but another takes the place.


In their words or languages:

[[Chinese]]: [[成長和愛]] 

[[Greek]]: [[Αύξηση και αγάπη]]

[[Japanese]]: [[成長及び愛]]

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pomo</title>
    <id>1847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47787</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-28T11:20:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>not in use</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A group of [[Native American]] peoples inhabiting an area of the [[Coast Ranges]] of northern [[California]]. 


The Pomo, like other Northern Californian Native Americans lived in small groups with a decentralized political structure, and lived from hunting and gathering.

There were about 8,000 Pomo in 1770. The 1910 Census reported 777 Pomo, but that is probably low. Kroeber estimated 1,200 in the same year. According to the 1930 census there were 1,143.


== Location ==
 
Pomo is a word believed to be derived from Poma, the village name given by anthropologists at the beginning of the century.  The Pomo originated in [[California]] and were divided into three regions, the coast, the valley, and the lake regions of northern, central and southern California. They inhabited Mendicino, Sonoma and Lake counties. They also resided in the [[Russian River Valley]] and still reside in these areas today. The northern Pomo are named the Bokeya, the central are the [[Yokiya]], and the southern Pomo are the [[Kashia]]. 


== Language ==
 

It is believed that there were originally seven different languages but only three are still spoken including [[Hokan]].


== History ==


In the early 1800's, the Pomo had become close allies with the Russian fur traders and constantly traded items between the two camps. The Russian fur traders believed having Indians on their side was to their advantage. The Pomo were forced into Spanish missionaries or onto Indian reservations. During the 1830's &amp; 1840's, they were subjected to numerous raids by the Mexican camps who attempted to secure slaves. There was also dramatic increases in the number of people who contracted smallpox and other deadly diseases. In 1857, the U.S. government set up a reservation for the Pomo Indians at Fort Bragg, California. Ten years later it was deserted and the Pomo were sent to live on other reservations throughout [[California]]. 

Daily Life: The daily life of the Pomo was all based on simplicity. The men were often naked and the women wore short, thick kilts and shirts made of deerskin. One source of warmth during cold weather came from rabbit robes. Their houses were shaped like an elliptical circle and consisted of three layers held by poles. Their daily diet included acorns, berries, fish and  meat. The Pomo had two ceremonial rituals including the “Ghost Dance,” during which the dead were recognized and the “Far South,” which was a rite of passage for children of the tribe. 

Because the Pomo Indians lived in a variety of environments, there was a large variety of food available to them. The communities living inland made journeys to the coast for sea food, and the coastal communities made journeys inland to gather foods not found in their local environment. The Pomo Indians ate nuts from acorns, chestnuts, buckeyes, pepperwood, and conifer trees. They also ate wild grapes and berries. “Almost all species of mammals, birds, fishes, etc. were utilized, chiefly as sources of food.” (Material Aspects of Pomo Culture. page. 96). Among these were land birds like quail, pigeons, doves, woodpeckers, and blue jays. The clear lake communities had access to ducks, geese, swan, cormorants, cranes, egrets, herons, bitterns, and snipe. There were also certain animals that were considered taboo to hunt or eat. Here is a small list of some of these animals and reasons not hunted.


See: [[language]]

{{wikipedia|Pomo}}
[[Category:Off topic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Násilí Proti Čech</title>
    <id>1852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5713</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T02:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spelldown</username>
        <id>69</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Násilí Proti Čech'' means lit. &quot;Violence Against Czechs&quot; in [[Czech]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech</title>
    <id>1853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47460</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-22T08:26:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>concentrating redlinks ;)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[West Slavic]] language spoken in the Czech Republic.

{{stub}}

[[Category:Slavic natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Spelldown</title>
    <id>1854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5732</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T06:40:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Please stop the copyright violations. - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Zhen Lin|T]]&lt;/sub&gt; 21:09, 24 December 2005 (PST)

----

Hi,&lt;br&gt;
please try and focus your contributions to the topic of the wiki, namely the invention of languages and cultures.  If pages like [[Non futurus duco ut populus inter nostrum natio nationis]] have relevance to this topic, you may help make this clear by putting it in a category comprising your creations, or by adding it to a more comprehensive writeup.  

Also, violations of copyright are not permitted here and may subject you to being blocked.  Wikipedia content is possible (if marked with &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{wikipedia}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; and a link to the original wikipedia article, but there is really no point in duplicating the information (it will only go stale here compared to there), and it may be more prudent to contribute new information or rewrite for a point of view useful to the wiki.     —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 22:40, 25 December 2005 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Non futurus duco ut populus inter nostrum natio nationis</title>
    <id>1855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47557</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:05:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>&gt;cat:latin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Non futurus duco ut populus inter nostrum natio nationis'' Latin for &quot;Not to be counted as people among our race&quot; this was a common phrase used against people who did not speak [[Latin]].

[[Category:Latin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Michał P.</title>
    <id>1864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5735</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T22:11:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michał P.</username>
        <id>75</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Le Pommeranais]] - artificial language of Pomerania</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cimmerian</title>
    <id>1879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32408</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-06T16:46:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A now long long gone group of languages spoken by the [[Medes]].

[[Category:Indo-Iranian natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Medes</title>
    <id>1880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5755</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T01:02:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spelldown</username>
        <id>69</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Pastoralist]] wiped these people from the Earth and killed them in the [[Caucasia]] region.


== See also ==
 

[[Mede]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tabletas</title>
    <id>1883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5765</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T01:31:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spelldown</username>
        <id>69</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name for tablets or [[ancient inscriptions]] or ''inscripciones anciente'' for writing and for keeping busy little linguists up to their knees in work.


== Alphabet &amp; sounds ==
 

 [[۞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pahlavi</title>
    <id>1885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32409</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-06T16:46:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The dialect of [[Persian]] well known to be hard to speak.


Here are some sounds:

š (sh) ç (ch) 


[[Category:Indo-Iranian natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italic languages</title>
    <id>1890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45929</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-11T13:12:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Oscan]], [[Umbrian]], and [[Latin]] are all Italic languages.
The languages derived from Latin are technically Italic as well, but are normally referred to as '''Romance languages'''.  

*Romance Languages
**[[Latin]]
***[[Vulgar Latin]]
***Ibero Romance Languages
****[[Old Spanish]]
****[[Spanish]]
****[[Old Portuguese]]
****[[Portuguese]]
***Italic Romance
****[[Old Italian]]
****[[Italian]]
***Gallo Romance
****[[Old French]]
****[[Middle French]]
****[[French]]
*****[[Old Norman French]]
*****[[Norman French]]
***Slavo Romance
****[[Old Romanian]]
****[[Romanian]]

== Italic conlangs ==
*  [[Lingvo Rustico]] 

----
{{stub}}

[[Category:Italic natlangs]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lingvo Rustico</title>
    <id>1891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22363</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Lit.'' &quot;rustic language&quot; a dialect that is getting in the process of getting created. Based on all the [[Italian]] dialects for wider communications.

[[Category:Italic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kyratopian</title>
    <id>1892</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12048</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-07T21:20:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El Duccio del Pieta</username>
        <id>209</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The true language of [[Spelldown]] a language based on [[Italian]] and [[Germanic]] languages. [[El Duccio]] the title of the leader of [[Kyratopia]].


== Alphabet ==
 
a, e, i, o, u, ou, ue, eu, oe, oi, ie 

b, c, cc, d, f, g, gn, h, g(j), k, l, m, n, p, q, rr, s, sc(sh), t, th, v, w, x, y, z(ts)


== Dialects ==
 
Many in regions [[Boscovian]], [[Giallonse]]


Standard Kyratopian sample:'' El noticios und condiciones del mundo''... Boscovian sample: ''Das momento und koendition den weelt''... Translation: The news and conditions of the world... 

== See also ==
 

[[Kyratovsko al español]]
{{stub}}

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]
[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Italic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Newsburg</title>
    <id>1895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T13:55:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. redlands saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An old settlement on the conworld [[Chaldea]] invaded by [[Felinid]] armies and changed to [[Urbis Felinus Nostrum]]. 


== People ==
 

Their mostly [[Italian]]-speakers in this commune and [[English]] or [[Itanglian]]s

[[Category:Redlands Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Dauyn</title>
    <id>1896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7500</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Dauyn'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| &lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| May 11, 1971 in Sacramento, California
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Photography Coordinator
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| English, Chinese Mandarin, Irish (Old and Modern), Welsh (Middle and Modern), Latin, French, Spanish, Italian
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| [[Taalen]], Aelya (now defunct and no longer developed); [[Dele]] and Taxa, proto-Langs for use in the Ardalang project.
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs I like:'''
|| Tokana, Kelen, Glide, Brithenig and other &quot;Celtic&quot; langs in Ill Bethisad
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Hiking, gaming, camping, cooking
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| Gay bearded right-handed
|}
'''Dauyn, aka Aidan Grey''' &lt;br&gt;
Primary conlang: [[Taalen]] &lt;br&gt;
Primary conworld: Sovrandas, a Realm in the Plasm&lt;br&gt;


==Language==
[[Taalen]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Taalen_Phonology | Taalen Phonology]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Taalen_Morphology | Taalen Morphology]]&lt;br&gt;

==Tell and Plasm==
[[Plasm]]


==Crux==
nothing yet</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taalen</title>
    <id>1897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40385</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-01T03:03:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#0000CC&quot; color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Taalen'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
|| Sovrandas /soˈvran.dəs/
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
|| The Coil (the Crux universe)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
|| 2.8 million (or something)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
|| Súren branch of the Sovrandian family
|}

'''Pronounced /'tɑ.lɛn/.''' &lt;br&gt;
From ''tal'' 'tree' + ''ra'' 'speak' + ''-en'' agentive suffix: 'Treespeaker', used metonymically. If compounded currently instead of anciently, this results in ''tallen'', which is used to indicate the individual Treespeaker (roughly equivalent to a shaman) as opposed to the language.


[[Taalen_Phonology | Taalen Phonology]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Taalen_Morphology | Taalen Morphology]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taalen Morphology</title>
    <id>1899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T15:48:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Nominals=

==Plurals==


==Cases==

===Agentive===
===Patientive===
===Focal===
===Genitive and Possessive Structures===

The marker of the genitive case is ''-(e)n'' in the singular, and ''??'' in the plural.

Taalen is dependent marking, meaning that the possessor is explicitly marked as such, while the possessum is marked with the case corresponding to its grammatical role in the sentence.

{|
| '''mau''' || '''Saran''' || style=&quot;width:60px&quot; | ||  '''mau''' || '''men'''
|-
| mau-0 || Sara-n || || mau-0 || me-n
|-
| cat-PAT || Sara-GEN || || cat-PAT || 1+2-GEN
|-
| colspan=2 | ''Sarah's cat'' || || colspan=2 | ''Our cat''
|}


This structure is a generic situation, making no reference to the alienability of the relationship. Taalen does distinguish alienable from inalienable relationships, which can change the meaning of a word. Some words (notably relationships, parts of the body, and spiritual and magical concepts) always require overt alienability marking.

Alienable relationships are those which can be broken, and alienable possessions can be lost, given away, or otherwise destroyed. They are marked with suffixes corresponding to person. In cases where the possessor is explicitly mentioned, both the possessor (in the genitive) and the person marker are required.

{| 
| '''mava''' || '''Saran'''
|-
| mau-a-0 || Sara-n
|-
| cat-3an.AGT-PAT || Sara-GEN
|}
''Sara's cat (i.e. the one she found, or just received as a gift)''

{|
| '''mavamme''' || || '''mavamme''' || '''men'''
|-
| mau-amme-0 || style=&quot;width:60px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | VS. || mau-amme-0 || me-n
|-
| cat-1+2.AGT-PAT || || cat-1+2.AGT-PAT || 1+2-GEN
|-
| ''Our cat'' || || colspan=2 | '''OUR''' cat
|}

Note that the second example ('our cat') has the same implications as the first, namely that the cat is not closely or permanently assicated with us. Instead, it is the cat we saw, or found, are betting on, or are otherwise loosely and alienably connected to.

Inalienable possession follows a similar structure, though with personal prefixes instead of suffixes. 

{|
| '''mau''' || '''Saran''' || style=&quot;width:60px&quot; | || '''samau''' || '''emethen''' || style=&quot;width:60px&quot; | ||'''timau'''
|-
| 0-mau-0 || Sara-n || || sa-mau-0 || emeth-en || || ti-mau-0
|-
| 3an.PAT-cat-PAT || Sara-GEN || || 3in.PAT-cat-PAT || shrine-GEN || || 2.PAT-cat-PAT
|-
| colspan=2 | ''Sara's cat'' || || colspan=2 | ''shrine's cat'' || || ''Your cat''
|}

Note that in the 3an, this is identical to the unmarked forms above. In all of these cases, the implication is that the cat is in an inherent and inalienable relationship. Sara has had the cat for years, or raised in, or the cat is named for her, and the shrine's cat was likely born there.

===Allative===
===Ablative===
===Locative===
===Perlative===
===and something else I haven't figured out yet===

==Pronouns==
The pronominal system of Taalen distinguishes for person (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and an obviative 4th) and animacy (in the 3rd person), but not number. Number is instead handled by ''complex'' pronouns, wherein the semantics of the pronoun are concatenations of person:

1+2 : 'I and you'; inclusive 'we'&lt;br&gt;
1+3 : 'I and s/he or them'; exclusive 'we'&lt;br&gt;
2+3 : 'you and s/he or them'; you, pl. &lt;br&gt;
:::This is not quite the same as the usual 2nd pl. pronoun, as it does not address directly more than one person. Instead it focuses on one individual as representative of a group.
1+2+3 : 'I and you and s/he or them'; people, the ubiquitous &quot;they&quot;, a generic plural&lt;br&gt;
4 : the other, one, a generic singular 
:::Implies more time or location specific identity than 1+2+3

Each person has a characteristic consonant and epenthetic vowel, used when marking verbs and nouns.

{| cellpadding=5
! Person !! Consonant !! Vowel !! Prefixed (V-/C-) !! Suffixed (-V/-C)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1 || n || e || n-/ne- || -n/-en
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2 || t / h || i || t-/ti- || -h/-ih
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 3an || 0 (null) || a || 0-/a- || -0/-a
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 3in || s || a || s-/sa- || -s/-as
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 4 || r || o || r-/o- || -r/-o
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1+2 || m || e || m-/me- || -me/-amme
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1+3 || th || e || th-/the- || -th/-atthe
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2+3 || v || u || v-/u- || -v/-u
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1+2+3 || l || o || l-/lo- || -l/-o
|}

As can be seen from the verbal complex, these pronominal affixes are agentive when suffixed, and patientive when prefixed. The prefix/suffix distinction holds on nouns as well, prefixed to indicate inalienable possession and suffixed for the alienable variety.

Alternation between vowel or consonant initial or final roots, for both patientive/inalienable (prefixed) and agentive/alienable (suffixed) morphemes. Agentively, note that 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 1+2+3 are indentical, when affixed to a consonant-final root. 

{| cellpadding=5
! mode !! shouva 'picture' !! ora 'water' !! tal 'tree'
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| Pref. || ''neshouva'' 'the picture I took' || ''tora'' 'your urine' || ''adal'' 'her tree that she planted'
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| Suff. || ''shouvan'' 'the picture of me' || ''orah'' 'your water' || ''tala'' 'her tree'
|}

=Verbs=

==Verbal Complex==

{| cellpadding=5
! PAT !! ASP&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; !! DER&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; !! ROOT !! DER&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; !! ASP&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; !! AGT
|}

PAT : Patient: the patient or experiencer of the verb&lt;br&gt;
ASP&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; : Aspect prefix: provides specialization of primary (ASP&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) aspectual marker&lt;br&gt;
DER&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; : Derivative prefix: instrumental and claassifying prefixes&lt;br&gt;
ROOT : the verb itself&lt;br&gt;
DER&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; : Derivative suffix: directionals, applicatives, evidentials&lt;br&gt;
ASP&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; : Aspect suffix: primary aspectual marker&lt;br&gt;
AGT : Agent : the agent or causative force of the verb&lt;br&gt;

=Particles=


=Links=
[[Taalen_Phonology | Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A priori conlangs</title>
    <id>1900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5927</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:09:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A priori conlangs moved to A priori conlang: singular in title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[A priori conlang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Conlangs</title>
    <id>1901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34826</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-02T08:20:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cedh audmanh</username>
        <id>313</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>repair...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for conlangs which have not been better identified as  [[:Category:a priori conlangs|a priori conlangs]] or [[:Category:a posteriori conlangs|a posteriori conlangs]].  

If one of these languages is yours, please recategorize it more aptly.

[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Phonetic segments</title>
    <id>1902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5933</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:17:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>description</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">List of articles treating phonetic segments.

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Atlantic</title>
    <id>1904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5951</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:42:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Atlantic]] is an Indo-European conlang by [[User:Muke]].

[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Nother]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nother</title>
    <id>1905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5952</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:45:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nother''' is a generic alternate [[Earth]] envisioned by [[User:Muke]].


[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Lexica</title>
    <id>1906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5953</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:46:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of pages containing conlang wordlists, glossaries, lexica, etc. 

[[Category:Language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Dele languages</title>
    <id>1907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5955</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:48:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of languages derived from [[User:Dauyn|Aidan Grey]]'s [[Dele]] for the conworld [[Arda]].

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Dele]]
[[Category:Arda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Collaborations</title>
    <id>1908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5957</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:49:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of collaborative conlang and conculture projects, whether coordinated on FrathWiki or elsewhere.

[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Middle-earth</title>
    <id>1909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45971</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T12:49:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>broken link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Middle-earth is a very famous and influential conworld developed by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]].  

(Contributions to this category should keep in mind avoiding copyright violations.)

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Swadesh lists</title>
    <id>1910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5961</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T23:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of pages with [[Swadesh list]]s for various languages.

[[Category:Lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Incipitmaerik.gif</title>
    <id>1911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T00:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;Here begins the language Mærik&quot; in Latin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;Here begins the language Mærik&quot; in Latin</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Azir</title>
    <id>1912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:10:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">These are articles about the [[conworlds]] of [[Azir]].

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:General lexica</title>
    <id>1913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5979</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:04:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Conscripts</title>
    <id>1914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:04:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Natscripts</title>
    <id>1915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:04:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Isolate natlangs</title>
    <id>1916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:04:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Romance natlangs</title>
    <id>1917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42758</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-05T11:53:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Italic natlangs</title>
    <id>1918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:04:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Conworlds</title>
    <id>1919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28866</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-14T01:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mos</username>
        <id>723</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Language</title>
    <id>1920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40187</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-26T01:12:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Natlangs</title>
    <id>1921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5987</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:06:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Scripts</title>
    <id>1922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>5988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:06:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Grammar</title>
    <id>1923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22375</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-11T04:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: almost missed this one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Germanic natlangs</title>
    <id>1924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42763</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-05T12:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Phonology</title>
    <id>1925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47537</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T10:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Articles relating to [[phonology]], but also [[phonetics]].

[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Linguistics</title>
    <id>1926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40186</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-26T01:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Slavic conlangs</title>
    <id>1927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Plasm</title>
    <id>1928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T07:19:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Plasm is the Otherworld of mythology, populated by every imagined being, living in every imagined world. Each of those worlds is a Realm.

More detail coming...</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Imported from Wikipedia</title>
    <id>1929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:01:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">List of articles imported from Wikipedia.  Should be marked with the template &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:wikipedia|wikipedia]]}}&lt;/tt&gt;. 

There is probably not much call to import articles here.  People know where Wikipedia is and moved information will only grow stale here.  It may be better to rewrite these articles to better conform to the conlanger/conculturer's point of view.

[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Top-level categories</title>
    <id>1930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:02:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
Category of categories that can't be further sorted.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Spelldown</title>
    <id>1931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6025</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:04:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>can replace this with something better when you get to it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Contributions of [[User:Spelldown]] / [[User:Duccio]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Source material</title>
    <id>1932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6026</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Index of things that may be useful to those looking for material to work with. 

[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Arda</title>
    <id>1933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A now mostly-dormant collaborative world project.

See:
* [[Arda]]
* http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Arda-Lang/

Not to be confused with [[:Category:Middle-earth|Middle-earth]].

[[Category:Collaborations]]
[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Dele</title>
    <id>1934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T01:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">One of the proto-languages of [[Arda]].

See:
* [[Dele]]

[[Category:Arda]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:IPA</title>
    <id>1935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T07:48:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hmkay...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;IPA&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:IPA</title>
    <id>1936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T18:35:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Usage: {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;{{IPA|[fouˈnɛtɪk tɹænˌskrɪpʃn]}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sohlob</title>
    <id>1937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-31T13:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Font size</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span title=&quot;Sohlob alphabet&quot; class=&quot;red&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Sohlob; font-size: 120%;&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Sohlob</title>
    <id>1938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T19:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sohlob|borhos}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Red</title>
    <id>1939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:24:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>changed to class</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;red&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nordaþ lexicon</title>
    <id>1940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-07T18:23:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matsu</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[Nordaþ language|Nordaþ]] words.

Entries are ordered thus: '''spelling''' /pronunciation/ ''part of speech'' definition &amp;mdash; notes &amp; etymology. Where irregular forms are listed, only the relevant inflections are given. Pronunciations are broadly transcribed, with canonical, phonemic values.

This lexicon follows the Nordaþ -&gt; English format.

''n.'' = noun (root); ''p.'' = pronoun (personal, interrogative or demonstrative); ''c.'' = conjunction; ''f.'' = affix; ''i.'' = interjection; ''part.'' = particle

''dial.'' = dialectal; ''colloq.'' = colloquial; ''obs.'' = obsolete

==a==
*'''Afganïstan''' /{{IPA|af.ga.ˈnɪ.stan}}/ ''n.'' Afghanistan. &amp;mdash; Pash. ''افغانستان  (Afğānistān)''
*'''aiv''' /{{IPA|ˈa.iv}}/ ''n.'' Ever. &amp;mdash; O.Eng. ''æfre''
*'''akiivat''' /{{IPA|ˈa.kiː.vat}}/ ''n.'' Acceptance of item. &amp;mdash; L. ''acceptare'' &quot;To receive willingly&quot;.
*'''Akrotiri''' /{{IPA|a.kɹo.ˈti.ɹi}}/ ''n.'' Akrotiri. &amp;mdash; Gk. ''Ακρωτήρι'' (Akrotéri)
*'''allennes''' /{{IPA|a.lːɛn.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Aloneness.
*'''alsat''' /{{IPA|ˈal.sat}}/ ''n.'' Understanding. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*alnaz'' &quot;Everything&quot; + ''*satjan'' &quot;To place, set.&quot;
*'''amalsat''' /{{IPA|a.ˈmal.sat}}/ ''n.'' Abstrusity. &amp;mdash; ''am'' &quot;Un-&quot; + ''alsat'' &quot;Understanding&quot;.
*'''amaiv''' /{{IPA|a.ˈma.iv}}/ ''n.'' Never. &amp;mdash; ''am'' &quot;Un-&quot; + O.Eng. ''æfre''
*'''amilust''' /{{IPA|ˈa.mi.lust}}/ ''n.'' Apathy. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*andi lustaz'' &quot;Without want&quot;. Irregular stress.
*'''amtraünes''' /{{IPA|am.ˈtɾaʊ}}/ ''n.'' Falsity. &amp;mdash; ''am'' Un- + ''traünes'' &quot;Trustworthyness&quot;.
**'''amtraüe onkata''' /{{IPA|am.ˈtɾaʊ.ɛn on.ˈka.ta}}/ ''n.'' Hallucination. &amp;mdash; ''am'' &quot;Un-&quot; + ''traü'' &quot;Trustworthy&quot; + ''onketa'' &quot;Perception&quot;.
**'''amtraüe reveekti''' /{{IPA|am.ˈtɾaʊ.ɛn ɾɛ.ˈvɛːk.ti}}/ ''n.'' Mirage. &amp;mdash; ''am'' &quot;Un-&quot; + ''traü'' &quot;Trustworthy&quot; + ''refekti'' &quot;Reflection&quot;.
**'''amtraüe sek''' /{{IPA|am.ˈtɾaʊ.ɛn sɛk}}/ ''n.'' Illusion. &amp;mdash; ''am'' &quot;Un-&quot; + ''traü'' &quot;Trustworthy&quot; + ''sek'' &quot;Sight&quot;.
*'''anarva''' /{{IPA|ˈan.aɹ.va}}/ ''n.'' Work on. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''an'' &quot;On&quot; + ''arva'' Work.
*'''anbiiri''' /{{IPA|an.ˈbiː.ɹɪ}}/ ''n.'' Abide. &amp;mdash; OE. ''anbidian''
*'''Apsnï''' /{{IPA|ˈap.snɪ}}/ ''n.'' Abkhazia. &amp;mdash; Abk. ''Аҧсны'' (Aphsny)
*'''Aprise''' /{{IPA|ap.ˈɹi.sɛ}}/ ''n.'' Revolution. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*up-'' &quot;Up&quot; + ''*risanan'' &quot;Rise&quot;.
*'''arva''' /{{IPA|ˈaɹ.va}}/ ''n.'' Labour. &amp;mdash; O.H.G. ''arabeit''
**'''arvasok''' /{{IPA|ˈaɹ.va.ˌsok}}/ ''n.'' Worktools.
**'''arvasumaria''' /{{IPA|ˌaɹ.va.su.ma.ˈɾi.a}}/ ''n.'' Résumé. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*arbaiðaz'' &quot;Labour&quot; + L. ''summaria'' &quot;Pertaining to the sum or substance&quot;.
*'''ask''' /{{IPA|ask}}/ ''n.'' Ash. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc ''*askon''
*'''aübyr''' /{{IPA|ˈaʊ.byɹ}}/ ''n.'' Abbess, abbot. &amp;mdash; OE. ''abudisse'', ''abbod''
*'''aübyrë''' /{{IPA|aʊ.ˈby.ɾe}}/ ''n.'' Abbey.
*'''aük''' /{{IPA|aʊk}}/ ''n.'' Eye. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*augon''
**'''aükpek''' /{{IPA|ˈaʊk.pɛk}}/ ''n.'' Optical illusion. ''aük'' &quot;Eye&quot; + ''pek'' &quot;Play&quot;.
*'''ava''' /{{IPA|ˈa.va}}/ ''c.'' But. &amp;mdash; cf. Ger. ''aber''
*'''avaïka''' /{{IPA|a.ˈvaɪ.ka}}/ ''n.'' Abdication. &amp;mdash; L. ''abdicatio''
*'''avorïka''' /{{IPA|a.vo.ˈɾɪ.ka}}/ ''n.'' Abduction. &amp;mdash; OE. ''forwgan''
*'''avotï''' /{{IPA|a.ˈvo.tɪ}}/ ''n.'' Abortion. &amp;mdash; L. ''abortio''
*'''avoradï''' /{{IPA|a.vo.ˈɾa.dɪ}}/ ''n.'' Abrasion. &amp;mdash; L. ''abradere''
*'''Azïrbaïdžan''' /{{IPA|a.zɪɾ.ˈbaɪ.dʒan}}/ ''n.'' Azerbaijan. &amp;mdash; Az. ''Azərbaycan''

==ä==
*'''äänines''' /{{IPA|æː.ˈni.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Suddenness. &amp;mdash; Goth. ''anaks'' &quot;Suddenly&quot;.
*'''ääpel''' /{{IPA|ˈæː.pɛl}}/ ''n.'' Apple. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*apalaz''
*'''ääpsä''' /{{IPA|ˈæːp.sæ}}/ ''n.'' Abstract (computer). &amp;mdash; Matsu Eng. ''äbsträkt''
*'''ääpsin''' /{{IPA|ˈæːp.sin}}/ ''n.'' Absinthe. &amp;mdash; Fr. ''absinthe''
*'''äles''' /{{IPA|ˈæ.lɛs}}/ ''n.'' Eel. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ælaz''
*'''ärme''' /{{IPA|ˈæɾ.mɛ}}/ ''n.'' Arm. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*armaz''
*'''äririin''' /{{IPA|æ.ɾi.ˈɾiːn}}/ ''n.'' Assembly. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*harihringa''
*'''ävääke''' /{{IPA|æ.ˈvæː.kɛ}}/ ''n.'' Abdomen. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*bukaz''
*'''ävyse''' /{{IPA|æ.ˈvy.sɛ}}/ ''n.'' Abyss. &amp;mdash; Gk. ''αβυσσος'' through L.L. ''abyssus''

==b==
*'''bäkäli''' /{{IPA|ˈbæk.ˌæ.li}}/ ''n.'' Alley. &amp;mdash; Eng. ''back alley''
*'''bäki''' /{{IPA|ˈbæ.ki}}/ ''n.'' Shore of a river. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*bakiz''
*'''beres''' /{{IPA|ˈbɛ.ɾɛs}}/ ''n.'' Baby. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*bernaz''
*'''bïdon''' /{{IPA|ˈbɪ.don}}/ ''n.'' Accent mark. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.
*'''bikini''' /{{IPA|bi.ˈki.ni}}/ ''n.'' Bikini top. &amp;mdash; Polynesian language of Marshall Islands. ''Pikinni''
*'''bisang''' /{{IPA|ˈbi.saŋ}}/ ''n.'' Banana. &amp;mdash; Bahasa Indonesia ''Pisang''
*'''blosa''' /{{IPA|ˈblo.sa}}/ ''n.'' Flower. &amp;mdash; O. Eng. ''blostma''
*'''bonsai''' /{{IPA|bon.ˈsa.i}}/ ''n.'' Bonsai. &amp;mdash; Jpn. ''盆'' (''bon'') &quot;Tray&quot; + ''栽'' (''sai'') &quot;Gardening&quot;
*'''brest''' /{{IPA|bɹɛst}}/ ''n.'' Breast. &amp;mdash; ''*breustam''
*'''brestkald''' /{{IPA|ˈbɹɾɛst.kald}}/ ''n.'' Bra. &amp;mdash; ''breste'' &quot;Breast&quot; + ''kalda'' &quot;To hold&quot;.

==d==
*'''dasa''' /{{IPA|ˈda.sa}}/ ''c.'' That.
*'''däg''' /{{IPA|dæg}}/ ''n.'' Day. &amp;mdash; ''*dagaz''
*'''Dekeleïe''' /{{IPA|dɛ.kɛ.ˈlɛɪ.ɛ}}/ ''n.'' Dhekelia. &amp;mdash; Gk. ''Δεκέλεια'' (Dēkḗlēa)
*'''de''' /{{IPA|dɛ}}/ ''part.'' Subjunctive marker.
*'''den''' /{{IPA|dɛn}}/ ''adv/adj/n.'' Then. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ðana''
*'''doka''' /{{IPA|ˈdo.ka}}/ ''c.'' But, just, though. &amp;mdash cf. Ger. ''doch''
*'''döte''' /{{IPA|ˈdø.tɛ}}/ ''n.'' File. &amp;mdash; Ger. ''datei''
*'''dukas''' /ˈ{{IPA|du.kas}}/ ''n.'' Ability. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*duχtas''
*'''dykpryk''' /{{IPA|ˈdyk.pɹyk}}/ ''n.'' Access. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc ''*duχtas'' &quot;Able&quot; + ''*brûkjan'' &quot;Use&quot;.

==e==
*'''ejäke''' /{{IPA|ɛ.ˈjæ.kɛ}}/ ''n.'' Ejaculation. &amp;mdash; L. ''ex'' &quot;Out&quot; + ''jacere'' &quot;To throw&quot;.
*'''ekente''' /{{IPA|ɛ.ˈkɛn.tɛ}}/ ''n.'' Accent of speech. &amp;mdash; L. ''accentus'' &quot;Song added to speech&quot;.
*'''elen''' /{{IPA|ˈɛ.lɛn}}/ ''v.'' To be.
*'''eleþän''' /{{IPA|ɛ.ˈlɛ.θæn}}/ ''n.'' Abandonment. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*lêðan''
*'''engang''' /{{IPA|ˈɛn.gaŋ}}/ ''n.'' Entrance. &amp;mdash; ''en'' &quot;In&quot; + ''gang'' &quot;Way&quot;.
*'''ensek''' /{{IPA|ˈɛn.sɛk}}/ ''n.'' View. &amp;mdash; ''en'' &quot;In&quot; + ''sek'' &quot;Sight&quot;.
*'''erþ''' /{{IPA|ɛɹθ}}/ ''n.'' Earth, ground. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*erðo''
*'''es''' /{{IPA|ɛs}}/ ''p.'' It.
**'''esit''' /{{IPA|ˈɛs.it}}/ ''p.'' They (inanimate).
*'''estat''' /ɛ.ˈstaːt/ ''n.'' State. &amp;mdash; Matsu Eng. ''stët'' from L. ''status'' &quot;state or condition&quot;, from root of ''stare'' &quot;to stand&quot;, from PIE base ''*sta-'' &quot;to stand&quot;

==f==
*'''faüta''' /{{IPA|ˈfaʊ.ta}}/ ''n.'' Dread. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*faurχtjan''
*'''foka''' /{{IPA|ˈfo.ka}}/ ''n.'' Fuck. &amp;mdash; Swedish dial. ''focka'' &quot;Copulate, strike, push&quot;.
*'''foksali''' /{{IPA|fok.ˈsa.li}}/ ''n.'' Prostitution. ''foka'' &quot;To fuck&quot; + ''salja'' &quot;To sell&quot;.
*'''frines''' /{{IPA|ˈfɹi.nɛs}}/  ''n.'' Freedom. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*frijaz''

==g==
*'''gang''' /{{IPA|gaŋ}}/ ''n.'' Way. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*gai-/*gæ-'' &quot;Go&quot;.
*'''ge''' /{{IPA|gɛ}}/ ''n.'' Going. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*gai-/*gæ-''
*'''gelis''' /{{IPA|ˈgɛ.lis}}/ ''n.'' Gill. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*geliz''
*'''genaüi''' /{{IPA|gɛ.ˈnaʊ.i}}/ ''adv.'' Indeed. &amp;mdash; cf. Ger. ''genau''
*'''geta''' /{{IPA|ˈgɛ.ta}}/ ''c.'' Yet. &amp;mdash; O.Eng. ''get''
*'''gev''' /{{IPA|gɛv}}/ ''n.'' Giving. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*gebanan''
*'''gotnes''' /{{IPA|ˈgot.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Goodness. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*goðaz''

==h==
*'''halkepa''' /{{IPA|hal.ˈkɛ.pa}}/ ''n.'' Abortion (medical). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*halðan'' &quot;Stop&quot; + ''*gaburðis'' &quot;Birth&quot;
*'''halt''' /{{IPA|halt}}/ ''n.'' Stop. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*halðan''
*'''halþ''' /{{IPA|halθ}}/ ''n.'' Embrace. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χaldanan'' &quot;To hold&quot;.
*'''hapnes''' /{{IPA|ˈhap.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Existence. The verb form can mean &quot;there is&quot;, in addition. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χaf-''
*'''haši''' /{{IPA|ˈha.ʃi}}/ ''n.'' Chopstick(s). &amp;mdash; Jpn. ''箸''
*'''hät''' /{{IPA|hæt}}/ ''p.'' Reflexive pronoun. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. base ''*χi''
*'''he''' /{{IPA|hɛ}}/ ''p.'' He. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. base ''*χi''
*'''heim''' /{{IPA|hɛɪm}}/ ''n.'' Home. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χaim-''
*'''help''' /{{IPA|hɛlp}}/ ''n.'' Help. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χalpanan''
*'''heronaüti''' /{{IPA|hɛɹ.on.ˈaʊ.ti}}/ ''adv.'' Henceforth.
*'''hert''' /{{IPA|hɛɹt}}/ ''n.'' Heart. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*khertan-''
*'''het''' /{{IPA|hɛt}}/ ''p.'' They (singular animate). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. base ''*χi''
**'''hetit''' /{{IPA|ˈhɛ.tit}}/ ''p.'' They (plural animate). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. base ''*χi''
*'''hi''' /{{IPA|hi}}/ ''p.'' She. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. base ''*χi''
*'''him''' /{{IPA|him}}/ ''n.'' Sky. &amp;mdash; O. Eng. ''heofon''
*'''hoïta''' /{{IPA|ˈhɔɪ.ta}}/ ''n.'' Attendance. &amp;mdash; Fin. ''hoita'' &quot;Attend&quot;.
*'''horizon''' /{{IPA|ho.'ɹi.zon}}/ ''n.'' Horizon.
**'''horizonlink''' /{{IPA|ho.'ɹi.zon.ˌliŋk}}/ ''n.'' Horizon light.
*'''hus''' /{{IPA|hus}}/ ''n.'' House. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χusan''
*'''hytnes''' /{{IPA|ˈhyt.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Hiddenness. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*χuθjanan''

==i==
*'''ilkarapaan''' /{{IPA|il.ka.ɾa.ˈpaːn}}/ ''n.'' Automobile. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ilka'' &quot;Self&quot; + ''*hrapan'' &quot;Move&quot;.
*'''imä''' /{{IPA|ˈi.mæ}}/ ''n.'' Absorption. &amp;mdash; Fin. ''imeä'' &quot;Absorb&quot;.
*'''is''' /{{IPA|is}}/ ''p.'' I. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*eke''
**'''isit''' /{{IPA|ˈi.sit}}/ ''p.'' We (exclusive)

==ï==


==j==
*'''ja''' /{{IPA|ja}}/ ''c.'' And. &amp;mdash; Fin. ''ja''
*'''je''' /{{IPA|jɛ}}/ ''i.'' Yes. &amp;mdash; O.Eng. ''gise'' &quot;So be it&quot;.
*'''jeräm''' /{{IPA|ˈjɛ.ɾæm}}/ ''n.'' Year. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*jêram''

==k==
*'''kalda''' /{{IPA|ˈkal.da}}/ ''n.'' Hold. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*khaldanan'' &quot;To hold&quot;.
*'''kaltnes''' /{{IPA|ˈkalt.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Coldness.
*'''kamote''' /{{IPA|ka.ˈmo.tɛ}}/ ''n.'' Sweet potato. &amp;mdash; Spn. ''camote''
*'''kejen''' /{{IPA|ˈkɛ.jɛn}}/ ''v.'' To go on (mental)
*'''kemät''' /{{IPA|ˈkɛ.mæt}}/ ''n.'' Absurdity. &amp;mdash; OE. ''*gemædan'' &quot;To make insane or foolish&quot;.
*'''kene''' /{{IPA|ˈkɛ.nɛ}}/ ''adj.'' No
*'''kerit''' /{{IPA|ˈkɛ.ɾit}}/ ''n.'' Government. &amp;mdash; OE. ''gerihtan'' &quot;To direct&quot;.
*'''keriter''' /{{IPA|kɛ.ˈɾi.tɛr}}/ ''n.'' Administration.
*'''kivo''' /{{IPA|ˈki.vo}}/ ''n.'' Speech. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*kwiðô'' &quot;Speak&quot;.
*'''kraüen''' /{{IPA|ˈkɹaʊ.ɛn}}/ ''n.'' Abhorrence. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*grûwan''
*'''krotš''' /{{IPA|ˈkɹotʃ}}/ ''n.'' Crotch. &amp;mdash; O.N.Fr. croche &quot;shepherd's crook&quot;
*'''kungalï''' /{{IPA|kun.ˈga.lɪ}}/ ''n.'' Aborigine. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.
*'''kural''' /{{IPA|ˈku.ɾal}}/ ''n.'' Abeyance. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.
*'''kynink''' /{{IPA|ky.niŋk}}/ ''n.'' King. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*kuningaz''

==l==
*'''lanžïreï''' /{{IPA|lan.ˈʒɪ.ɾɛɪ}}/ ''n.'' Lingerie. &amp;mdash; Fr. ''lingerie''
*'''lauv''' /{{IPA|ˈla.uv}}/ ''n.'' Leaf. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*laubaz''
*'''laüp''' /{{IPA|laʊp}}/ ''n.'' Permission. &amp;mdash; Lat. ''allaudare'', compound of ''ad-'' &quot;to&quot; + ''laudare'' &quot;to praise&quot;
*'''leuv''' /{{IPA|ˈlɛ.uv}}/ ''n.'' Left. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*hlêumas'', possibly affected by dialectal ''*lubtan''
*'''lib''' /{{IPA|lib}}/ ''n.'' Love. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*lubo''
*'''link''' /{{IPA|ˈliŋ.kɛ}}/ ''adj.'' Light(ness). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*lingkhtaz''
*'''lisne''' /{{IPA|ˈlis.nɛ}}/ ''n.'' Lesson. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*liznojan''
*'''luda''' /{{IPA|ˈlu.da}}/ ''n.'' Academy, school. &amp;mdash; L. ''ludus''
*'''lukta''' /{{IPA|ˈluk.ta}}/ ''n.'' Light. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*leukhtam''
*'''lykerne''' /{{IPA|ly.ˈkɛɹ.nɛ}}/ ''n.'' Lamp. &amp;mdash; L. ''lucerna''
*'''lykjän''' /{{IPA|ˈly.kjæn}}/ ''n.'' Aberration. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.

==m==
*'''maïsikra''' /{{IPA|maɪ.ˈsi.kɾa}}/ ''n.'' Acceleration. &amp;mdash; ''*maizera'' More + ''*higas'' &quot;Fast&quot; + ''*hrapan'' &quot;Move&quot;.
*'''mal''' /{{IPA|mal}}/ ''n.'' Mail. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*malho-''
**''malstamves'' /{{IPA|ˈmal.ˌstam.vɛs}}/ ''n.'' Postage stamp. &amp;mdash; ''mal'' &quot;Mail&quot; + ''stamves'' &quot;Stamp&quot;.
*'''marja''' /{{IPA|ˈmaɹ.ja}}/ ''n.'' Abbreviation. &amp;mdash; Goth. ''ga-maúrgjan'' &quot;To cut short&quot;.
*'''mer''' /{{IPA|mɛɹ}}/ ''n.'' More. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*mais''

==n==
*'''nakas''' /{{IPA|na.ˈka.sa}}/ ''n.'' Nude. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*nakwathaz'' &quot;Clothesless&quot;.
*'''Napoleon''' /{{IPA|na.po.ˈlɛ.on}}/ ''n.'' Napoleon. &amp;mdash; Fr. ''Napoleon''
*'''näni''' /{{IPA|ˈnæ.ni}}/ ''adv.'' Not.
*'''nänþääv''' /{{IPA|ˈnæn.θæːv9}}/ ''n.'' Abstinence. &amp;mdash; Goth. ''ga-þarban'' &quot;To abstain from&quot;.
*'''nänwer''' /{{IPA|'næn.wɛɹ}}/ ''n.'' Abstraction. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.
*'''ne''' /{{IPA|nɛ}}/ ''adj.'' A, an. &amp;mdash; Inversion of Kyþ. ''ẃn'' &quot;One&quot;.
*'''nep''' /{{IPA|nɛp}}/ ''n.'' Nipple. &amp;mdash; M.Eng. ''neble''
*'''nettai''' /{{IPA|nɛt.ˈta.i}}/ ''n.'' Tropics. &amp;mdash; Jpn. ''熱'' &quot;Heat&quot; + ''帯'' &quot;Band&quot;.
*'''niima''' /{{IPA|ˈniː.ma}}/ ''n.'' Acceptance of the way things are. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*nimman'' &quot;Take&quot; + ''*haban'' &quot;Have&quot;.
*'''njame''' /{{IPA|ɲame}}/ ''n.'' Yam. &amp;mdash; Wolof ''nyami''
*'''nuukas''' /{{IPA|ˈnuː.kas}}/ ''n.'' Point. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χnukkaz''

==o==
*'''oktos''' /{{IPA|ˈok.tos}}/ ''n.'' Eight. &amp;mdash; PIE. {{IPA|''*oḱtō'', ''*oḱtou'' or ''*h₃eḱtō'', ''*h₃eḱtou''}}
*'''Oland''' /{{IPA|ˈo.land}}/ ''n.'' Åland.
*'''onkata''' /{{IPA|on.ˈka.ta}}/ ''n.'' Perception. &amp;mdash; OE. ''ongietan''
*'''orkama''' /{{IPA|oɹ.ˈka.ma}}/ ''n.'' Orgasm. &amp;mdash; Gk. ''οργασμός'' &quot;Excitement, swelling&quot;.

==p==
*'''papa''' /{{IPA|ˈpa.pa}}/ ''n.'' Potato. &amp;mdash; Quechua ''papa'
*'''pek''' /{{IPA|pɛk}}/ ''n.'' Play. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*plegan''
*'''pendžing''' /{{IPA|ˈpɛn.dʒiŋ}}/ ''n.'' Penjing. &amp;mdash; Mandarin Chinese ''盆'' (''pén'') &quot;Tray&quot; + ''景'' (''jǐng'') &quot;Scenery&quot;
*'''plat''' /{{IPA|plat}}/ ''n.'' Place. &amp;mdash; L. ''platea'' &quot;Courtyard, open space, broad street&quot;
**'''platkald''' /{{IPA|ˌplat.ˈkald}}/ ''n.'' Placeholder, bookmark. &amp;mdash; ''plat'' &quot;Place&quot; + ''kald'' &quot;Hold&quot;
*'''purka''' /{{IPA|ˈpuɹ.ka}}/ ''n.'' City. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*burgaz''
*'''purkaïs''' /{{IPA|puɹ.ˈka.ɪs}}/ ''adj.'' Public.
*'''purterv''' /{{IPA|ˈpuɹ.tɛɹv}}/ ''n.'' Police.

==r==
*'''räänän''' /{{IPA|ˈɹæː.næn}}/ ''n.'' Walk, stroll. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*trampan'' &quot;To walk&quot;.
*'''renti''' /{{IPA|ˈɹɛn.ti}}/ ''n.'' Division. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc ''*rendijan'' &quot;To split&quot;.
*'''rekt''' /{{IPA|ɹɛkt}} ''n.'' Right (opposite of left). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc ''*reχtaz'' &quot;Straight&quot;.
*'''run''' /{{IPA|ɾun}}/ ''n.'' Rune. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*runo'' &quot;Secret&quot;.
*'''rybje''' /{{IPA|ˈɹyb.jɛ}}/ ''n.'' Abundance. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*rubjas''
*'''rynlaï''' /{{IPA|ˈɹyn.laɪ}}/ ''n.'' Abscond. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*runo'' &quot;Secret&quot; + ''*laibjan'' &quot;Leave&quot;.
*'''ryn''' /{{IPA|ɹyn}}/ ''n.'' Secret. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*runo''

==s==
*'''sak''' /{{IPA|sak}}/ ''n.'' Spoken utterance. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*sagjanan'' &quot;To utter, say&quot;.
*'''salja''' /{{IPA|ˈsal.ja}}/ ''v.'' Sell. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*saljanan''
*'''saüna''' /{{IPA|ˈsaʊ.na}}/ ''n.'' Sauna. &amp;mdash; Fin. ''sauna''
*'''se''' /{{IPA|sɛ}}/ ''adj.'' The. &amp;mdash; O.Eng. ''se''
*'''sek''' /{{IPA|sɛk}}/ ''n.'' Sight. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*sekh(w)-''
*'''selen''' /{{IPA|ˈsɛ.lɛn}}/ ''n.'' To surrender. &amp;mdash; OHG. ''sellen'' &quot;To surrender&quot;.
*'''sem''' /{{IPA|sɛm}}/ ''n.'' One. &amp;mdash; PIE. ''*sem'' &quot;One&quot;.
*'''semönnes''' /{{IPA|ˈsɛ.møn.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Properness. &amp;mdash; cf. Ger. ''ziemen'' &amp; Kyþ. ''asom''
*'''semnes''' /{{IPA|ˈsɛm.nɛs}}/ Unity. &amp;mdash; PIE. ''*sem'' &quot;One&quot;.
**'''Semnesen Estaat-i Emerikeisi''' /{{IPA|sɛm.ˈnɛ.sɛn ɛ.ˈstaːt-i ɛ.mɛ.ɾi.kɛ.ˈi.si}}/ ''n.'' United States of America. &amp;mdash; Nor. ''semnes'' &quot;United&quot; + Nor. ''stat'' &quot;State&quot; + Eng. ''America''
*'''sernes''' /{{IPA|'sɛɹ.nɛs}}/ Tenderness. &amp;mdash; Of unknown origin.
*'''sleng''' /{{IPA|slɛŋ}}/ ''n.'' Sling. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*slenganan''
*'''sa''' /{{IPA|sa}}/ ''c.'' If.
*'''sneï''' /{{IPA|snɛɪ}}/ ''n.'' Snow. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*snaiwaz''
*'''sok''' /{{IPA|sok}}/ ''n.'' Tools. &amp;mdash; Ger. ''zeug''
*'''spän''' /{{IPA|spæn}}/ ''n.'' Spoon. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*spænuz''
*'''sprek''' /{{IPA|sprɛk}}/ ''n.'' Speech. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*sprekanan''
*'''sran''' /{{IPA|sɾan}}/ ''n.'' Beach. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*strandas''
*'''stakoja''' /{{IPA|sta.ˈko.ja}}/ ''v.'' Stalk. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*stalkojanan''
*'''stamves''' /{{IPA|ˈstam.vɛs}}/ ''n.'' Stamp. &amp;mdash; .Gmc. ''*stampojanan''
*'''stehen''' /{{IPA|ˈstɛ.hɛn}}/ ''v.'' To stand.
*'''stran''' /{{IPA|stɾan}}/ ''n.'' String. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*strangiz''
*'''sun''' /{{IPA|sun}}/ ''n.'' Sun. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*sunnon
**'''sunlink''' /{{IPA|ˈsun.liŋk}}/ ''n.'' Sunlight. &amp;mdash; ''sun'' &quot;Sun&quot; + ''link'' &quot;Light&quot;.
**'''sunglo''' /{{IPA|ˈsun.glo}}/ ''n.'' Dawn. &amp;mdash; ''sun'' &quot;Sun&quot; + ''glo'' &quot;Glow&quot;.
*'''suran''' /{{IPA|ˈsu.ɹan}}/ ''n.'' Disturbance. &amp;mdash; Origin unknown
*'''swenje''' /{{IPA|ˈswɛn.jɛ}}/ ''v.'' To swim. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*swemjanan''
*'''swenvasï''' /{{IPA|swɛn.ˈva.sɪ}}/ ''n.'' Swimsuit. &amp;mdash; ''swenje'' &quot;Swim&quot; + ''vesja'' &quot;Clothing&quot;.
*'''syk''' /syk/ ''n.'' Suck. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*sukan''
*'''Škiperise''' /{{IPA|ʃki.pɛ.ˈɾi.sɛ}}/ ''n.'' Albania. &amp;mdash; Alb. ''Shqipërisë''

==t==
*'''taïhu''' /{{IPA|ˈtaɪ.hu}}/ ''n.'' Hurricane. &amp;mdash; Jpn. ''台'' (''tai'') &quot;big&quot; + ''風'' (''fuu'') &quot;Wind&quot;.
*'''takra''' /{{IPA|ˈtak.ɹa}}/ ''n.'' Tear. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*takh-'', ''*tagr-''
*'''tataü''' /{{IPA|ˈta.taʊ}}/ ''n.'' Tattoo. &amp;mdash; Tahitian &amp; Samoan ''tatau'', Marquesan ''tatu'' &quot;Puncture, mark made on skin&quot;.
*'''täkid''' /{{IPA|ˈtæ.kid}}/ ''n.'' Play. &amp;mdash; Gk. ''τραγῳδία'' through L. ''tragoedia'' &quot;Tragedy&quot;.
*'''teväs''' /{{IPA|ˈtɛ.væs}}/ ''n.'' Order (legal). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*tewaz''
*'''tere''' /{{IPA|ˈtɛ.ɹɛ}}/ ''n.'' Planet earth. &amp;mdash; Lat. ''terra''
*'''traüm''' /{{IPA|tɹaʊm}}/ ''n.'' Dream. &amp;mdash; W.Gmc. ''*draugmas'' &quot;deception, illusion, phantasm&quot;
*'''traünes''' /{{IPA|ˈtɹaʊ.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Trustworthyness. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*trewwjaz''
*'''trej''' /{{IPA|tɹɛj}}/ ''n.'' Three. &amp;mdash; PIE ''*trejes''
*'''trepun''' /{{IPA|ˈtɹɛ.pun}}/ ''n.'' Triangle. ''trej'' Three + ''pun'' &quot;Point'.
*'''triänkyli''' /{{IPA|tɹi.æn.ˈky.li}}/ ''n.'' Bottom piece of bikini. &amp;mdash; L. ''triangulus'' &quot;Triangle&quot;.
*'''tsunami''' /{{IPA|tsu.ˈna.mi}}/ ''n.'' Tsunami. &amp;mdash; Jpn. ''津'' (''tsu'') &quot;Harbour&quot; + ''波'' (''nami'') &quot;Wave&quot;.
*'''tyfön''' /{{IPA|ty.ˈføn}}/ ''n.'' Typhoon. &amp;mdash; Gk. Τυφών (''tyfón'')
*'''Tyrkije''' /{{IPA|tyɹ.ˈki.je}}/ ''n.'' Turkey. &amp;mdash; Tur. ''Türkiye''

==þ==
*'''þat''' /{{IPA|θat}}/ ''p.'' That (hearer-proximal).
*'''þäs''' /{{IPA|θæs}}/ ''p.'' That (deixis).
*'''þät''' /{{IPA|θæt}}/ ''p.'' That (Speaker &amp; hearer distal).
*'''þis''' /{{IPA|θis}}/ ''p.'' This (deixis).
*'''þit''' /{{IPA|θit}}/ ''p.'' This.
*'''þeljäs''' /{{IPA|ˈθɛl.jæs}}/ ''n.'' Board. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ðiljaz''
*'''þong''' /{{IPA|θoŋ}}/ ''n.'' Thong. &amp;mdash; OE. ''þwong'' &quot;Thin strip of leather&quot;.
*'''þu''' /{{IPA|θu}}/ ''p.'' Thou. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ðu''
**'''þuit''' /{{IPA|ˈθu.it}}/ ''p.'' You.

==u==

==v==
*'''vas''' /{{IPA|vas}}/ ''p.'' Who. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χwas, *χwes, *χwo''
*'''vasja''' /{{IPA|ˈva.sja}}/ ''n.'' Clothes, -wear, suit. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*wazjanan'' &quot;To clothe&quot;.
*'''vatja''' /{{IPA|ˈva.tja}}/ ''n.'' Demand. &amp;mdash; Fin. ''vaatia''
*'''vänderen''' /{{IPA|væn.ˈdɛ.ɹɛn}}/ ''v.'' To change.
*'''vekis''' /{{IPA|ˈvɛ.kis}}/ ''n.'' Person. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*weχtiz''
*'''vekiski''' /{{IPA|vɛ.ˈkis.ki}}/ ''n.'' Public.
*'''velitnes''' /{{IPA|vɛ.ˈlit.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Beauty.
*'''venþ''' /{{IPA|vɛnθ}}/ ''n.'' Wind. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*winkja'' likely influenced by archaic dialectal form ''wenkþ''
*'''veraünes''' /{{IPA|vɛ.ˈɹaʊ.nɛs}}/ ''n.'' Intimacy.
*'''ves''' /{{IPA|vɛs}}/ ''p.'' What. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*χwat''
*'''vil''' /{{IPA|vil}}/ ''n.'' Want. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*welljan''

==w==
*'''watras''' /{{IPA|ˈwa.tɹas}}/ ''n.'' Water. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*watraz''
*'''wes''' /{{IPA|wɛs}}/ ''p.'' We (inclusive). &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*wiz''
*'''wit''' /{{IPA|ˈwi.tɛ}}/ ''n.'' Knowledge. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*witjan'' &quot;knowledge, understanding, intelligence, mind&quot;

==y==
*'''ybjä''' /{{IPA|ˈyb.jæ}}/ ''n.'' Excessiveness. &amp;mdash; P.Gmc. ''*ubjo'' &quot;Excess&quot;.

==z==

[[Category:Nordaþ]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki:Common.css</title>
    <id>1941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46067</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-15T14:39:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">/* &lt;pre&gt; */

body {
  font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, Thryomanes, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Cardo, Free Sans, Junicode, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;
  font-family /**/:inherit;
}

/* Firefox's default table style looks like
   an obituary notice, so we have to make it
   more wiki-like */
table, th, td { border-style: hidden; }

/* prevent ugly horizontal page expansion */
/* stolen from mediawiki.org */
pre { overflow: auto; }

.IPA {
  font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, Thryomanes, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Cardo, Free Sans, Junicode, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;
  font-family /**/:inherit;
}

/* Medieval Unicode Font Initiative see &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.mufi.info/&quot;&gt;MUFI&lt;/a&gt; /*
.MUFI {
  font-family: &quot;Andron Scriptor Web&quot;, Cardo, Junicode;
  /*font-family /**/:inherit;*/
}

.sans {font-family: sans-serif;}
.red {color: red;}
.small {font-size: x-small;}
.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps !important;}
.sc{font-variant: small-caps !important;}
.big {font-size: x-large;}

.morpho-label {font-variant: small-caps;}

* .grayout { background-color: gray; }

.border-left {
   border-left: 2px solid gray;
   padding-left: 1em;
}

.align-top-left th {
   vertical-align: top;
   text-align: left;
}
.align-top-left td {
   vertical-align: top;
   text-align: left;
}

.bluetable, .graytable {
  border-collapse: collapse;
}

.bluetable .bg1, .blueinfobox .bg1, .lightbluebg { background: #f8f8ff; }
.graytable .bg1, .grayinfobox .bg1, .lightgraybg { background: #f8f8f8; }

.blueborder { border: 1px solid #88a; }
.grayborder { border: 1px solid #999; }

.bluetable .bg2, .blueinfobox .bg2 { background: #eef; }
.bluetable .bg3, .blueinfobox .bg3 { background: #ddf; }
.bluetable .bg4, .blueinfobox .bg4 { background: #ccf; }

.graytable .bg2, .grayinfobox .bg2 { background: #f0f0f0; }
.graytable .bg3, .grayinfobox .bg3 { background: #e1e1e1; }
.graytable .bg4, .grayinfobox .bg4 { background: #d2d2d2; }

.bluetable, .graytable, .blueinfobox, .grayinfobox { border-collapse: collapse; }
.blueinfobox, .grayinfobox {
	float: right;
	margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em;
}
.blueinfobox { background: #f8f8ff; }
.grayinfobox { background: #f8f8f8; }

.bluetable, .blueinfobox { border: 1px solid #88a; }
.graytable, .grayinfobox { border: 1px solid #999; }

.bluetable td, .bluetable th, .blueinfobox td, .blueinfobox th { border: 1px solid #88a; }
.graytable td, .graytable th, .graytable td, .graytable th { border: 1px solid #999; }

.bluetable td, .bluetable th, .graytable td, .graytable th,
.blueinfobox td, .blueinfobox th, .graytable td, .graytable th { padding: 2px; }
.bluetable td, .bluetable th, .blueinfobox td, .blueinfobox th { border: 1px solid #88a; }
.graytable td, .graytable th, .grayinfobox td, .grayinfobox th { border: 1px solid #999; }

.bluetable th { background: #ccf; }
.graytable th { background: #d2d2d2; }

.bluetable th:first-child, .graytable th:first-child, .blueinfobox th, .grayinfobox th { text-align: right; }

.bluetable .divider, .blueinfobox .divider, .bluetable .header, .blueinfobox .header,
.graytable .divider, .grayinfobox .divider, .graytable .header, .grayinfobox .header { text-align: center !important; }
.bluetable .header, .bluetable .divider, .blueinfobox .header { background: #ccf; }
.graytable .header, .graytable .divider, .grayinfobox .header { background: #d2d2d2; }

.blueinfobox .divider { background: #eef; }
.grayinfobox .divider { background: #f0f0f0; }

.l { text-align: left; }
.c { text-align: center; }
.r { text-align: right; }

.t td, .t th { vertical-align: top; }
.m td, .m th { vertical-align: center; }
.b td, .b th { vertical-align: bottom; }


table.bordertable {
	border-width: 1px;
	border-spacing: 1px;
	padding: 4px;
	border-style: solid;
	border-color: #aaa;
	border-collapse: collapse;
}
table.bordertable td, table.bordertable th {
	border-width: 1px;
	border-spacing: 1px;
	padding: 4px;
	border-style: solid;
	border-color: #aaa;

}


table.gridtable, table.wikitable, table.prettytable {
	border-width: 1px;
	border-spacing: 1px;
	border-style: solid;
	border-color: #aaa;
	border-collapse: collapse;
}
table.gridtable th, table.wikitable th, table.prettytable th {
	border-width: 1px;
	padding: 4px;
	border-style: solid;
	border-color: #aaa;
	background-color: #eee;
        vertical-align: top
}
table.gridtable td, table.wikitable td, table.prettytable td {
	border-width: 1px;
	padding: 4px;
	border-style: solid;
	border-color: #aaa;
	background-color: white;
        vertical-align: top
}

table.voweltable td { text-align: center;
        vertical-align: middle;
    }
table.voweltable th { text-align: left;
        vertical-align: middle;
    }


/*Add formatting to make sure that &quot;external references&quot; from [[Template:Ref]] do
  not get URL expansion, not even when printed. The mechanism up to MediaWiki 1.4 was
  that the HTML code contained a SPAN following the anchor A; this SPAN had the class
  &quot;urlexpansion&quot;, which was not displayed on screen, but was shown when the medium was
  &quot;print&quot;. The rules below ensure (a) that there is no extra padding to the right of
  the anchor (displayed as &quot;[&lt;number&gt;]&quot;), (b) that there is no &quot;external link arrow&quot; for
  the link, and (c) that this SPAN of class &quot;urlexpansion&quot; is never shown.
  ~~~~
*/

.plainlinksneverexpand {
  background: none ! important;
  padding: 0 ! important;
}

.plainlinksneverexpand .urlexpansion {
  display: none ! important;
}

/* Make sure that ext links displayed within &quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot; don't get
   the arrow...
*/
.plainlinksneverexpand a {
   background: none !important;
   padding: 0 !important;
}

/* With MediaWiki 1.5, the mechanism has changed: instead of a SPAN of class &quot;urlexpansion&quot;
   following the anchor A, the anchor itself now has class &quot;external autonumber&quot; and the
   expansion is inserted when printing (see the common printing style sheet at
   http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/commonPrint.css) using the &quot;:after&quot; pseudo-
   element of CSS. We have to switch this off for links due to Template:Ref!
   ~~~~
*/
.plainlinksneverexpand a.external.text:after {
  display: none !important;
}
.plainlinksneverexpand a.external.autonumber:after {
  display: none !important;
}

.reference { font-family: sans-serif ! important;
 font-weight: normal ! important;
 font-style: normal ! important;
 text-decoration: none ! important;
}

/* Make charinsert links not underlined */

p.charinsert &gt; a, span.charinsert &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.charinsert &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.charinsert &gt; p &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.charinsert &gt; span &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }

p.insertchar &gt; a, span.insertchar &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.insertchar &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.insertchar &gt; p &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }
div.insertchar &gt; span &gt; a { text-decoration: none ! important; }

table.aligntop  td, table.aligntop  th {vertical-align: top ! important; }

span.nobreak	{ white-space: nowrap;}

span.gloss[title] { border-bottom-width: thin;
border-bottom-style: dashed;
border-bottom-color: #999;
  }

table.shadedtable { text-align: center;
    background: #f9f9f9;
    border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;
    vertical-align: center;
    }
th.shadedtable { text-align:center;
    background: #efefef;
    vertical-align: center;
    }
table.shadedtable td { text-align:center;
    vertical-align: center;
    }


/* &lt;/pre&gt; */</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Templates</title>
    <id>1942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T10:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Templates moved to FrathWiki:Templates: Meta-stuff.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[FrathWiki:Templates]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Sohlob.ttf</title>
    <id>1943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T18:34:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The Sohlob alphabet font</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Sohlob alphabet font</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/monobook.css</title>
    <id>1944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34471</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-24T10:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">/* &lt;pre&gt; */
body { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Serif&quot;, &quot;Charis SIL&quot;, &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, Thryomanes, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;,&quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;, serif !important;
   font-size: 8pt; 
 /* text-align: justify; */
}

h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, h7 { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;, sans-serif ! important;
}

sup { vertical-align: 50%;
  font-size 70%;
}

sub { vertical-align: -25%;
  font-size 70%;
}

a:link, a:visited, a:active, a:hover {
  text-decoration: underline ! important;
}

a:visited { color: #a00 }

a.new, #p-personal a.new {
	color: #FF9900;
}
a.new:visited, #p-personal a.new:visited {
	color: #FF33FF;
}


th { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;, sans-serif; 
text-align: left;
}

caption { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;, &quot;DejaVu Sans Mono&quot;, sans-serif;
/* font-weight: bold; */
font-size: 10pt ! important;
}

textarea#wpTextbox1 { font-family: &quot;Bitstream Vera Sans Mono&quot;, &quot;DejaVu Sans Mono&quot;, Junicode; 
font-size: 11pt ! important;
}

textarea, input { font-family: &quot;Bitstream Vera Sans&quot;, &quot;DejaVu sans&quot;, Junicode; 
font-size: 8pt ! important;
}


div.editsection { font-size: smaller; }

.IPA { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;DejaVu Serif&quot;, &quot;Charis SIL&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, Thryomanes, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;,&quot;Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;;
}

.Unicode { font-family: &quot;Charis SIL&quot;; font-size: 12pt ! important; }

.MUFI { font-family: Junicode, Cardo;
}


.sans { font-family: &quot;DejaVu Sans&quot;, &quot;Arial Unicode MS&quot;, &quot;Microsoft Sans Serif&quot;, sans-serif;
}

.red {color: #E41B17;}

.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps;}

table.gridtable, table.gridtable th, table.gridtable td {
   border-color: #aaa;
}
/* save ink and paper with very small fonts */
@media print {
    #footer,
    #content,
    body { font-size: 8pt !important;
        margin 1in;
    }

    .IPA { font-family: &quot;Charis SIL&quot;; 
          font-size: 8pt !important; 
    }

    h1 { font-size: 16pt;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
    h2 { font-size: 14pt;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
    h3 { font-size: 12pt;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
    h4 { font-size: 10pt;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
    h5 { font-size: 8pt;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
    h6 { 
        font-size: 8pt;
        font-weight: normal;
        page-break-after: avoid;
    }
   .toc {display: none}
   a:link, a:visited, a:active, a:hover {
        text-decoration: underline ! important;
    }

}
/* &lt;/pre&gt; */</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornwall (UKW)</title>
    <id>1949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47418</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:23:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Duchy of Cornwall''' is the second-smallest of the constituent nations of the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]].  It is located on the southwestern tip of Great Britain.  Cornwall has about 500,000 inhabitants; the capital is Truro.  Most of the population is English-speaking, but the Cornish language, a Celtic language closely related to Breton and British (Welsh), survives in some villages in the west of Cornwall.

[[Category:UKW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elfham</title>
    <id>1950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47424</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Province of Elfham''' is one of the constituent nations of the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]].  It is located in the southwest of Britain between [[England (UKW)|England]] and [[Cornwall (UKW)|Cornwall]].  Elfham has 1.1 million inhabitants; its capital is [[Glastonbury (UKW)|Glastonbury]].

==Languages of Elfham==

[[Low Elvish]], an [[Albic]] language, is considered the national language of Elfham and has official status; it is spoken by about 60% of the population as native language and by further 15% as second language.  Virtually all native speakers of Low Elvish are bilingual in English, the other official language of Elfham.  Bilingual signage (in Low Elvish and English) is seen everywhere in the province.

==Flag of Elfham==

The flag of Elfham (known as the [[Evenstar Flag]]) shows a white eight-pointed star in a blue field.

==Politics of Elfham==

The province's parliament, the '''Theleg Dar''', is one of the world's oldest sitting parliaments; its tradition reaches back into the time of the [[Commonwealth of the Elves]].  The Theleg Dar is a unicameral legislature elected using the [[Wikipedia:Single Transferable Vote|single transferable vote]] system.

==Economics of Elfham==

The Province of Elfham is the wealthiest of the constituent nations of the UKW.  The province has a long-standing tradition of craftsmanship, which resulted in a well-developed industry of fine mechanics, optics, electronics and, more recently, information technology and renewable energy technology.  The province's agriculture is based on dairy and arable farming.  Tourism also plays an important role.

[[Category:UKW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glastonbury (UKW)</title>
    <id>1951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47425</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glastonbury''' ([[Low Elvish]] '''Glathmar''') is a city in the [[United Kingdom of the Westlands]].  It is the capital of [[Elfham]] and center of [[British Elves|British Elvish]] culture.  With 240,000 inhabitants, it is also the biggest city of the province.  Glastonbury is seat of the Elfham provincial government and an Anglican bishop; it also has one of the oldest universities of the Westlands.  In 1967, Glastonbury hosted the biannual Westlands Fair.

==Transportation==

Glastonbury is located on the southern branch of the Great Western Railway and served by high-speed trains.  Travel time to London is a little more than two hours.

The backbone of public transit in Glastonbury is its tram system.  The first horse trams commenced service in 1876; in 1893 the system was electrified.  Today, it is one of the world's most modern tram systems, with state-of-the-art low floor vehicles.  There is also a monorail line which was built on occasion of the 1967 Westlands Fair, and a network of bus routes supplementing the tram network.

==Economy==

Glastonbury is the economic centre of Elfham.  The most important industries are information technology, electronics, optics and fine mechanics.  Glastonbury has one of the highest average incomes in the entire UKW.

==Culture==

Glastonbury is the centre of Westlands Elvish culture and has a very vibrant art and music scene.  Especially famous is the ''Glastonbury scene'' of progressive rock bands.  Since 1969, Glastonbury is host of the annual ''Glastonbury Progressive Rock Festival''.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commonwealth of the Elves</title>
    <id>1952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29390</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-25T21:07:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commonwealth of the Elves''' was the political body that united the [[British Elves]] prior to the [[Tartessian War]].  According to tradition, it was established in the year 671 BC.

The Commonwealth consisted of twelve tribes ('''tøthi'''), each of which was subdivided into twelve 'shiphoods' ('''ciphrili''').  Each '''ciphrela''' elected a representative into the 'High Table' ('''Theleca Tara'''), the legislature of the Commonwealth, which thus consisted of 144 members.

[[Category:Albic]]
[[Category:LLL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JonMoore</title>
    <id>1953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T03:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonMoore</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Dcueâ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dcuea</title>
    <id>1954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T20:28:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonMoore</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:auto; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #88a; background: #f7f8ff;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
!colspan=10| ''Vowels''
|- style=&quot;background: #ddf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle; font-size: 1.3em;&quot;
| a || e || i || u ||  aa || ee || ii || uu
|- style=&quot;background: #ccf; height: 1.8em; vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| /ah/ || /schwa/ || /ih/ || /uh/ || /aa/ || /eh/ || /ee/ || /oo/
|}

==Declension==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''1st declension: Ending in&lt;br /&gt; vowels or double vowels'''||colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;''aattu'', &quot;woman&quot;&lt;/center&gt;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;center&gt;''dceaa'', &quot;foot&quot;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
!Singular!!Plural!!Dual!!Singular!!Plural!!Dual
|-
|[[wikipedia:Absolutive case|Absolutive]]||aattu||aattue||aattuekc||dceaa||dceaak||dceaakc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Ergative case|Ergative]]||aattui||aattuiu||aattuiukc||dceaai||dceaaiu||dceaaiukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Locative case|Locative]]||aattuvaa||aattuvaak||aattuvaakc||dceaavaa||dceaavaak||dceaavaakc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Lative case|Lative]]||aattuttee||aattutteeu||aattutteeukc||dceaattee||dceaatteeu||dceaatteeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Absolutive case|Ablative]]||aattum||aattumk||aattumkc||dceaam||dceaamk||dceaamkc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Prolative case|Prolative]]||aattuz||aattuzzeu||aattuzzeukc||dceaaz||dceaazeu||dceaazeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Genitive case|Genitive]]||aattunnai||aattunnaik||aattunnaikc||dceaannai||dceaannaik||dceaannaikc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Benefactive case|Benefactive]]||aattus||aattusseu||aattusseukc||dceaas||dceaasseu||dceaasseukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Comitative case|Comitative]]||aattugc||aattuggceu||aattuggceukc||dceaagc||dceaaggceu||dceaaggeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Instrumental case|Instrumental]]||aattutc||aattuttceu||aattuttcekc||dceaatc||dceaattceu||dceaattceukc
|}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''2nd declension: Ending in&lt;br /&gt; consonants'''||colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;''dcek'', &quot;man&quot;&lt;/center&gt;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;center&gt;''auuz'', &quot;flower&quot;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
!Singular!!Plural!!Dual!!Singular!!Plural!!Dual
|-
|[[wikipedia:Absolutive case|Absolutive]]||dcek||dcekkeu||dcekkeukc||auuz||auuzzeu||auuzzekc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Ergative case|Ergative]]||dcekkei||dcekkeiu||dcekkeiukc||auuzzei||auuzzeiu||auuzzeiukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Locative case|Locative]]||dcekfaa||dcekfaak||dcegvaakc||auuzvaa||auuzvaak||auuzvaakc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Lative case|Lative]]||dcektee||dcekteeu||dcekteeukc||auuzdee||auuzdeeu||auuzdeeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Absolutive case|Ablative]]||dcekkem||dcekkemk||dcekkemkc||dceaam||dceaamk||dceaamkc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Prolative case|Prolative]]||aattuz||aattuzzeu||aattuzzeukc||dceaaz||dceaazeu||dceaazeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Genitive case|Genitive]]||aattunnai||aattunnaik||aattunnaikc||dceaannai||dceaannaik||dceaannaikc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Benefactive case|Benefactive]]||aattus||aattusseu||aattusseukc||dceaas||dceaasseu||dceaasseukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Comitative case|Comitative]]||aattugc||aattuggceu||aattuggceukc||dceaagc||dceaaggceu||dceaaggeukc
|-
|[[wikipedia:Instrumental case|Instrumental]]||aattutc||aattuttceu||aattuttcekc||dceaatc||dceaattceu||dceaattceukc
|}


Dcuea is an [[wikipedia:Ergative-absolutive language|Ergative-absolutive language]].

==Alphabet==
a aa b d dc e ee f g gc i ii k kc m n p s sc t tc u uu v z zc

*The man sees the woman.
*''Aattu kii dcekkei''


Some transitive and intransitive verbs have different forms:
''nevuu'' to boil (something, transitive)
''naffeu'' to (be) boiled (intransitive)

''Kaffiu nev dcekkei.''
The man boils the coffee.

''Kaffiu naffe.''
The coffee boils. (becomes boiled)

''kiu'' to see something (tr)
''kigguu'' to (be) seen (intr)

''Ueiz kii zcuei.''
The dog sees the tree.

''Zcui kigg.''
The dog is seen.

BUT

''Zcui kii.''
The dog sees (engages in the act).

Using a noun in the absolutive by itself with an inherently transitive noun also may create a reflexive sentence:

aeizuu'' to shave

''Zcui aeiz dcekkei.''
The man shaves the dog.

''Dcek aeiz.''
The man shaves (himself).

==Plurals==
*after  -uu = -uue 
*after -u, = -ue ''kceiu'' tea, ''kceiue'' teas, ''aattu'' woman, ''aattue'' women
*after -aa, -ee, -ii = -aak, -eek, -iik ''dceaa'' foot, ''dceaak'' feet
*after -a, -e, -i = -au, -eu, -iu
*after -m, -n = -mk, -nk ''iaim'' lip ''iaimk'' lips
*after all other consonants(usually doubled cononant) = -eu (-ggeu, -zzeu, etc)

===Dual===
Dcuea also has a dual plural, which is simply the normal plural + -kc.

[[Category:Conlangs]]

==Lexicon==
dezcaa
azea
augc
affei
iaum
gcaee
zcaiu
ekcui
tcai
iikcaa
utiai</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Spelling and pronunciation of Slevan</title>
    <id>1955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46880</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:24:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Slevan alphabet consists of the following letters:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #fc9&quot;
!a á b c ch cz d dj dz dzs e é f g h i í j k l lj m n nj o ó p r s sz t tj u ú v y ý z zs
|}

The letters '''b d f h k m n p t z''' have approximately the same pronunciation as in English.

The pronunciation of the other letters is as follows:

=== Vowels ===

In general the vowels have the same pronunciation as in Italian or Spanish. Native speakers of English should note the following:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''a'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=50|{{IPA|[a]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|as in English ''father'', but shorter.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''e'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|as in English ''dress''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''i'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[i]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|as in English ''machine'', but shorter.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''o'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[o]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|as in English ''north'', but shorter.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''u'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[u]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|as in English ''brute'', but shorter.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''y'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɨ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is usually pronounced the same as '''i''', but in some dialects '''y''' is pronounced similarly to English ''i'' in ''kit'', though darker. Polish ''ryba'' or Russian ''рыба'' has the exact sound.
|}

=== Vowel length ===

Vowels with an acute accent above ('''á é í ó ú ý''') are in general pronounced the same as the vowels without such a mark, but longer. The exceptions are '''é''' and '''ó''', which for many speakers -- perhaps a majority, although this pronunciation is not considered part of the standard language -- are pronounced as rising diphthongs {{IPA|[iɛ]}} and {{IPA|[uo]}}, similar to ''ye'' in English ''yes'' and ''wa'' in English ''want'' respectively. In the pronunciation of these speakers the spellings '''é''' and '''je''' are pronounced the same.

Slvanjec vowel length does usually ''not'' reflect Latin vowel length, which was lost in [[Wikipedia:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]],
but was caused by the loss of a short ''ĭ'' or ''ŭ'' in the following syllable, hence the long vowels in the final syllable of the nominative/accusative of most second declension nouns.

There is a number of loanwords that have long vowels adopted from the pronunciation of other languages, e.g. '''táler''' 'dollar' from German ''Taler'', or '''skóla''' from the Renaissance pronunciation of Latin.

== Stress ==

The word stress in Slevan always falls on the first syllable of the word. It should be carefully noted that the acute accent mark does ''not'' indicate stress, but vowel length.

== Consonants ==

The consonant letters and digraphs that differ from English are as follows:

{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px #aaa solid; background: #cfc&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''c'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=60|{{IPA|[ts]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is in all positions pronounced like the ''tz'' in English ''waltz''. English speakers should take special care to preserve this pronunciation also at the beginning of words, e.g. in '''cék''' 'blind'.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''ch'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[χ] or [x]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced as in Scots ''loch'' or in German ''Bach'', or in the English interjection ''yech''. It is not a very frequent sound in Slevan.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''cz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[tʃ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like the English ''ch'' in ''church''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''dj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɟ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced approximately like the ''di'' in English ''medium''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''dz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[dz]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like the ''ds'' in English ''beds''. It is an infrequent sound in Slevan, having mostly been replaced by simple '''z'''.  As with '''c''' English speakers should take care to preserve the correct pronunciation at the beginning of words.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''dzs'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[dʒ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like ''j'' or ''dg'' in English ''judge''.  It is an infrequent sound in Slevan, having mostly been replaced by simple '''zs'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''g'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is always hard, like in English ''go'' or ''get'', never soft like in English ''gem'', e.g. '''gezél''' 'yourneyman'. The '''g''' sound isn't very frequent in Slevan, since it is found only in loan words.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''j'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[j]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|has the sound of the English consonantal ''y'' in ''you, yet, yard''. The English sound of ''j'' in ''judge'' is written '''dzs''' in Slevan, but this combination has in most cases been replaced by the simple '''zs'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''l'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɫ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|at the beginning of a word before the vowels '''a á o ó u ú y ý''' has the dark sound of ''l'' in English ''loll''. Before the vowels '''e é i í''' or before '''dj nj tj''' the letter '''l''' is pronounced like the ''li'' in English ''million'', i.e. the same as Slevan '''lj'''. Before other consonants or at the end of a word many speakers pronounce '''l''' like an English ''w'', but this pronunciation is not considered part of the standard language.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''lj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ʎ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like the ''li'' in English ''million''. Some speakers tend to pronounce '''lj''' as a simple (Slevan) '''j''' in some positions, but this is not considered part of the standard language.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''nj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like the ''ny'' in English ''canyon'', or more exactly like the ''ñ'' in Spanish ''cañón'' !
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''r'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[r]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is a rolled sound like in Italian or Spanish ''carro''. Note that Slevan '''r''' is never silent as in British English.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''s'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[s]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is always pronounced voiceless like in English '''sit, miss''', never voiced, like ''z''. When a voiced ''s'' occurs in loanwords it is replaced by '''z''', e.g. in '''prezident'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''sz'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like the English ''sh'' in '''ship'''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''tj'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[c]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced approximately like the ''te'' in the English word ''meteor''.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''v'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[v] and [w]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|is pronounced like in English, but before another consonant or at the end of a word many speakers pronounce '''v''' like an English ''w''. Unlike the similar pronunciation of '''l''' this is accepted as part of the standard language. 
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''zs'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|{{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|has the sound of ''z'' in English ''azure'' or of ''j'' in French ''jour''. Cf. '''j'''.
|}

The letters ''q'' and ''x'' are never used in Slevan. They are always replaced by '''k''' and '''ks''' respectively,

e.g. '''kvarc''' 'quartz' and '''tekst'''.

== Syllabic liquids ==

The letters '''l''' and '''r''' can in Slevan form a syllable of their own without a supporting vowel, e.g. '''slván''' 'Slevan man', '''blb''' 'onion', '''dzrn''' 'diurnal span, date', '''krce''' 'cross'.

A native Slevan speaker would never confuse '''tj''' with '''cz''' or '''dj''' with '''dzs''', but Slevans are rather used to speakers of German or Romany confusing these pairs of sounds.

[[Category:Slevan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taaluketti</title>
    <id>1956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48468</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-16T08:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo5</username>
        <id>1324</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pronunciation and orthography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See also

[[Taaluketti:Lexicon]]

= Background =

'''Taaluketti''' developed from [[Gaaziketti]]. It is considered by its creator to be better than Gaaziketti at fulfilling the goals of grammatical generality and flexibility. The below is an outline of the structure of this language at its most general level. It remains to generate a lexicon of morphemes that would enable this structure to be applied to achieving the expressive capabilities of natural language.

Taaluketti may be broadly categorised as a highly regular SOV type language which makes use of particles rather than inflexions to indicate such things as case and tense. Like Gaaziketti, it uses parsing markers to enable any sentence to be unambiguously parsed. However, while Gaaziketti took the ''noun'' to be basic, in Taaluketti the basic part of speech is the ''verb''. In some ways Taaluketti is similar to Loglan. However, Taaluketti aims to be more flexible and intuitive than Loglan. Each &quot;verb&quot; (or rather, predicate) in Loglan has associated with it a certain place structure, and it is this place structure, rather than the use of adpositions or case endings, that enables one to know where each noun phrase stands in relation to the verb/predicate. In Taaluketti, however, a verb will come with no fixed place structure. Rather, any number of noun phrases may be coupled with a given verb, and their relation to the verb is indicated by the use of postpositions (such as '''ko''' to indicate the accusative case).

= Pronunciation and orthography =

The following 21 Roman letters are used.

'''a b c d e g h i k l m n o p q r s t u v z'''

The vowels are read approximately as in Spanish. But double vowels are pronounced long.

'''ai''' is pronounced like 'eye' in 'eye'.

'''au''' is pronounced like the 'ow' in 'cow'.

'''q''' is pronounced like the 'ni' in 'onion'.

'''c''' is pronounced like the 'ch' is 'chair'.

'''n''' when at the ''end'' of a word (or medially immediately before 'g' or 'k') is pronounced like the 'ng' is 'song', or else is assimilated to the following consonant, as in Japanese. Elsewhere, it is pronounced like the 'n' in 'sonnet'.

'''s''' is always unvoiced.

'''r''' is rolled.

The other consonants are pronounced as in English. But unvoiced stops are not aspirated. E.g. '''p''' is pronounced always as in 'spot', never as in 'pack'.

Double consonants are pronounced double, as in Italian, Finnish, etc..

'''ng''' is pronounced as in 'finger', not as in 'singer'.

In a word with more than one syllable, the first syllable takes the stress.

= Syntax =

== Parsing markers, modification, functors and phrases ==

Every word-token (i.e. individual occurrence of a word in a sentence) will take one of four ''parsing markers'':

(null)		&quot;leftmost and only argument of its phrase&quot;

'''-s''' 		&quot;leftmost argument, but not only argument, of its phrase&quot;

'''-n'''		&quot;final argument, but not only argument, of its phrase&quot;

'''-k'''		&quot;neither the first argument, not the last argument, of its phrase&quot;

Parsing markers are not treated as words –  they are “spoken punctuation”. All other morphemes are treated as words except those which are sub-elements of a compound-word. (Compound words are treated as words. Compounds words are strings of morphemes which morphemes, if they were words, would be verbs – see below.)

Parsing markers clarify the structure of ''modification'' relations within a sentence. ''Modification'' is a relationship between one individual word-token, and another. 

Each word-token is modified by some number (possibly zero) of other word-tokens. No word-token modifies more than one word-token. No word-token modifies a word-token in another sentence. No word-token modifies itself. No word-token modifies a word-token to its left.

Each word-token is in fact a ''functor'', and the words that modify it are the heads of the phrases which are its ''arguments''. 

As functors, word-token always pick up their arguments from their left (the opposite of standard mathematical notation). So suppose you’ve got a chain of word-tokens each (except the first) being modified just by its predecessor. (The only parsing marker punctuating such a chain would be the ''null'' marker.) Then you would assume a “((wx)y)z” type of phrasal pattern - ''i.e.'' the default is that brackets cluster to the left.  

A functor ''f'' together with its arguments forms a phrase, and ''f'' is said to be the ''head'' of that phrase. When a functor modifies some other functor, this means that the phrase of which the modifying functor is the head is an argument of that other functor.

The use of parsing markers to show what modifies what is perhaps best explained as follows. Parsing markers are shown in bold.

The structure of a phrase is like this: (x1, x2, ... xn)y. 

Here y is the head of the phrase, and x1, x2, ..., xn are the n different arguments of y. 

Suppose n=0. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;y&quot;.

Suppose n=1. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;x1 y&quot;.

Suppose n=2. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;x1'''s''' x2'''n''' y&quot;.

Suppose n=3. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''n''' y&quot;.

Suppose n=4. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''n''' y&quot;.

Suppose n=5. Then we have a phrase of this form: &quot;x1'''s''' x2'''k''' x3'''k''' x4'''k''' x5'''n''' y&quot;.

== Phrase types ==

Phrases (including word-tokens, which are themselves phrases) may be classified into ''types'' (also called ''classes''). 

The notation “[x…x&gt;y]” means that an item of the type [x...x&gt;y] is a functor which takes any number of arguments of class x and, together with these arguments, forms a phrase of class y. So the class of the functor itself is [x…x&gt;y]. In other words, if a functor ''f'' belongs to the class [x...x&gt;y], any phrase of which it is the head is of the class [y]; and each of its arguments is of the class [x].

The most general class is simply the ''phrase'' [F]. All phrases belong to type [F].

== Statements [S] ==

A very basic type is the ''statement'' [S]. Semantically, a statement may be thought of as a phrase which ''says of something that it is the case''.

== Adverbial phrases [A], noun phrases [N] and postpositions [N&gt;A] ==

Another basic type is the adverbial phrase [A].

There are two kinds of adverbial phrase. There are nominative adverbial phrases, which are just noun-phrases [N]. And there are complex adverbial phrases, which consist of a noun-phrase followed by a postposition. Postpositions are functors which take a single argument of class [N] and form a phrase of class [A], i.e. postpositions are of class [N&gt;A]. 

A common postposition is '''ko''', which essentially serves to mark the accusative case. 

In summary: any noun-phrase is an adverbial phrase. And any phrase consisting of a single noun-phrase modifying a postposition is an adverbial phrase.

=== Pronouns ===

A basic kind of noun phrase is the pronoun. Some common pronouns are as follows.

1st person singular   '''qe'''

1st person plural   '''quu'''
 
2nd person singular   '''ve'''

2nd person plural   '''vuu'''

3rd person animate singular   '''taa''' 

3rd person inanim. singular   '''zo'''

3rd person plural (animate or inanimate)   '''dau'''

Like other noun phrases, pronouns take postpositions, such as '''ko'''.

== Verbs [A…A&gt;S] ==

Words of the class [A…A&gt;S] are called ''verbs''. A verb in Taaluketti is a bit like a predicate in Loglan; ''however'', it doesn’t have an order-based place-structure; and it doesn't have a fixed number of arguments. Syntactically speaking, a verb can take any number of arguments (including 0) (even though some combinations of arguments might not make sense ''semantically'' speaking). Each of the arguments of a verb will be an adverbial phrase [A]. The phrase thus formed will be a statement [S].

== Articles [F&gt;S] ==
To make a noun-phrase [N], you need an ''article'' [F&gt;S]. A common article is '''le''', which, roughly speaking, corresponds to the definite singular article. A phrase of the form &quot;Y '''le'''&quot; (&quot;Y&quot; being some phrase that is an argument of '''le''') is a noun-phrase [N], meaning &quot;the (single) person/object x (in a given context) such that &quot;x Y&quot; would be a true sentence&quot;, i.e. &quot;the x which satisfies &quot;Y&quot; &quot;. If many Ys each modify '''le''', then '''le''' picks out the single x that satisfies ''all'' of those Ys.

The four most common articles are the following.

'''le''' ''definite singular article''

'''go''' ''definite plural article''

'''so''' ''indefinite singular article''

'''ve''' ''indefinite plural article''

== Verbal particles [V&gt;V] ==

Verbal particles are added after a verb, and form an extension of the verb. These are generally used to indicate verbal aspect, tense and mood.

=== Aspect ===

The following verbal particles come immediately after a verb and are used to indicate aspect.

Simple ''(nil)''

Habitual '''baa'''

Continuous '''nii'''

Perfect '''haa'''

Future '''tau'''

=== Tense ===

The following verbal particles come immediately after the aspect particle (if there is one), and are used to indicate tense. 

Present (usually omitted) '''nee'''

Past (sometimes omitted if context allows) '''co'''

Future (same as aspect marker for future) '''tau'''

=== Mood ===

The following verbal particles come immediately after the aspect and tense particles (if there are any), and are used to indicate mood.

Indicative ''(nil)''

Imperative '''vaa'''

Infinitive ''(nil)''

= Example phrases =

Here are some example phrases (some of which are complete sentences), written first with the parsing markers, and then with brackets ''instead'' of parsing markers, in order to show the grammatical structure – the brackets surround a bunch of phrases each of which is an argument of the functor just after the brackets. 


'''haara le'''	&lt;&gt; the (one that is a) woman

(haara)le	


'''hecci le''' &lt;&gt; the one that climbs

(hecci)le


'''heccis haaran le''' &lt;&gt; the one that both climbs and is a woman; the woman that climbs

(hecci.haara)le


'''ko hecci le''' &lt;&gt; the one that is climbed

((ko)hecci)le


'''Gaazi le ko hecci.''' &lt;&gt; The hill is climbed.

(((gaazi)le)ko)hecci


'''Haara le hecci.''' &lt;&gt; The woman climbs.

((haara)le)hecci


'''gaazi le ko hecci le''' &lt;&gt; the one that climbs the hill

((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci)le


'''Haara les gaazi le kon hecci.''' &lt;&gt; The woman climbs the hill.

((haara)le.((gaazi)le)ko)hecci


'''gaazi le ko heccis haaran le''' &lt;&gt; the woman that climbs the hill

((((gaazi)le)ko)hecci.haara)le  

	
'''kos haara len heccis gaazin le''' &lt;&gt; the hill which the woman climbs

((ko.(haara)le)hecci.gaazi)le


'''Hecci le haara.''' &lt;&gt; The one that climbs is a woman.

((hecci)le)haara


'''kos hecci len heccis gaazin le''' &lt;&gt; the hill which the one that climbs climbs

((ko.(hecci)le)hecci.gaazi)le


'''kos haara len hecci le''' &lt;&gt; the one which the woman climbs

((ko.(haara)le)hecci)le

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Taaluketti]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ch-m- Tlondor</title>
    <id>1957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T05:05:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ch-m- Tlondor]] is a constructed language developed by [[User:JeffLilly]].

[[Category:Tl-nd-]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Tl-nd-</title>
    <id>1958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T05:05:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tl-nd- is a conworld setting developed by [[User:JeffLilly]].

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Phonetic alphabets</title>
    <id>1959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T05:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A phonetic alphabet is a tool used to transcribe speech.  It is generally not tied to a particular language's orthography, whose relation to its spoken form may change over time.

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Redlands Saga</title>
    <id>1960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T03:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hmkay</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Redlands Saga]] was described by an [[User:Spelldown]]/[[User:Duccio]] and several IPs who may or may not be the same person (?).  

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Slavic natlangs</title>
    <id>1961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47554</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:02:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat:IE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Slavic languages are those spoken by the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe.  Examples are [[Polish]], [[Czech]], [[Bosnian]], and [[Russian]].

Closely related are [[:Category:Baltic natlangs|Baltic languages]].

[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Indo-Iranian natlangs</title>
    <id>1962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T05:15:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Before the discovery of [[Tocharian]], the Indo-Iranian languages  constituted the easternmost group of Indo-European languages.  The ancient representatives include [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]], and among the modern descendants are [[Hindi]], [[Persian]] (Farsi) and [[Bengali]].

[[Category:Natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:UKW</title>
    <id>1963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22806</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-05T20:20:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[UKW World]] is developed by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dcueâ</title>
    <id>1964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T01:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>undouble redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dcuea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12</title>
    <id>1965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32402</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-06T16:29:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Relay 12=

This relay was a scheduleless relay run by Jeffrey Henning.  Unfortunately, Jeffrey completely disappeared during the course of the relay, which is quite eldritch.  We all hope he is well and found no time for the relay only because he is involved in real-life occupations.

This page aims at gathering the texts of relay 12.

==Order of participants==

Apparent order of participants in this relay was:

#Jeffrey Hennning, [[Conlang Relay 12#Zyvlusda|Zyvlusda]]
#Philip Newton, [[Conlang Relay 12#Klingon|Klingon]]
#Rebecca Harbison, [[Conlang Relay 12#Darynese|Darynese]]
#Henrik Theiling, [[Conlang Relay 12#Da Mätz Se Basa|Da Mätz Se Basa]]
#Jan van Steenbergen, [[Conlang Relay 12#Wenedyk|Wenedyk]]
#Herman Miller, [[Conlang Relay 12#Minza|Minza]]
#Benct Philip Jonsson, [[Conlang Relay 12#Mærik|Mærik]]
#Sylvia Sotomayor, [[Conlang Relay 12#K&amp;#275;len|K&amp;#275;len]]
#Steg Belsky, [[Conlang Relay 12#Rokbeigalmki|Rokbeigalmki]]
#Adam Walker, [[Conlang Relay 12#Carrajena|Carrajena]]
#Amanda Babcock Furrow, [[Conlang Relay 12#Toma Heylm|Toma Heylm]]
#René Uittenbogaard, [[Conlang Relay 12#Calénnawn|Calénnawn]]
#Jonathan North Washington, [[Conlang Relay 12#Tæĺf|Tæĺf]]
#Yann Kiraly, [[Conlang Relay 12#nala na ti ka'i|nala na ti ka'i]]
#Phurrball, [[Conlang Relay 12#Etora|Etora]]
#Ángel Serrano, [[Conlang Relay 12#Aingelj.C3.A3|Aingelj&amp;atilde;]]
#P. A. Kramm, [[Conlang Relay 12#Dewagistarah|Dewagistarah]]

Arthaey Angosii also did a translation from Minza into [[Conlang Relay 12#Asha'ille|Asha'ille]], but had to drop out.

[http://www.kunstsprachen.de/relay11/ Previous Relay 11 (Irina Rempt)]
[http://www.conlang.info/relay/relay13.html Next Relay 13 (Henrik Theiling)]

==Zyvlusda==

(as received by Philip)

===Gutpodin Guta Vuta: Fulvuta Zyvgezer===

; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Gutsaleb :  Busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Pankesid :  Raralar!
; Gutsaleb :  Gutpodin move, o relpodin. Ukakip kepazu.  Busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Pankesid :  Raralar!!
; Gutsaleb :  Dinep suke serobe.
; Gutpodin :  Vuvufuv, ak anam bina unt ak fule a akgezer.
; Gutsaleb :  Raralar!!!
; Pankesid :  Fifivif?
; Gutsaleb :  Sosozos, busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Gutpodin :  Dispodin izekpuvir keni disevi kenmi i ak? Sudira ak teba lasuba kafkenmi a esvatra.
; Pankesid :  Zekpodin vute?
; Gutpodin :  Liliril, o fozfe, ak suke lebgefvu e ul.  Ak anam asograkef lasa makid e &quot;Vymtutie&quot;.  Ilas inam maki ak i ulgibin. Alagas rilisa.
; Pankesid :  Akgibin suke diseve dipba. Lebta azekrakif puve akgibin?
; Gutsaleb :  Akvatra suke kepaze esvatra e unt ak dibo gutboreg.  
; Gutpodin :  Ak sura tinra e makid e Rekio. Ulgibin suke lasube makid. Maki ak &quot;Rekio&quot;.
; Pankesid :  Nenemen!
; Gutpodin :  Ak suke ferdarole, teas ak unam - mumunum - babferu.
; Gutsaleb :  Dozi logtenbei, sosozos, Rekio.
; Gutpodin :  A zobzoa tuske ak fera bufferyb.
; Pankesid :  Nenemen!
; Gutpodin :  Nenemen!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.

Kafmonit e dopuze lekmonit a lapugu lekzi mone, &quot;Gutpodin Guta Vuta: Fulvuta Zyvgezer.&quot;

===Details===

[[Conlang Relay 12/Zyvlusda]]

==Klingon==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Klingon|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===yIbej! jatlh vay'!===
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghojmoq : yIyuvtaH, chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; ghojmoq : ghu nach vIleghlaH, chaj. tlhoS Data'pu'. yIyuvqa', chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghojmoq : narghbejpu' nach.
; ghu :     toH. Daqvam vIlegh not 'e' vIQub.
; ghojmoq : ghuy'cha'!
; be'nal :  qaS nuq?
; ghojmoq : yIqImHa'! yIyuvqa', chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghu :     jIHvaD Sut yItuQmoH! roD Sut Doj wItuQ.
; be'nal :  jatlhtaH 'Iv?
; ghu :     HI'Ij, SoS. puqloDlI' jIH. pong &quot;qonnor&quot; vIpar. 'Iq pongvam lughajbogh ghot'e'.
; be'nal :  wItojlu'law'. chay' jatlh loDHom?
; ghojmoq : DaH SoS ghu je rarbogh tlhegh'e' vIpe'ta'.
; ghu :     Heghpu'bogh SuvwI' vISov. &quot;petroS&quot; 'oH pongDaj'e'. QaQ pongvam. jIHvaD &quot;petroS&quot; yIpong!
; ghu :     jI'oj, 'ach rolIjDaq jItlhutlhQo'.
; ghojmoq : yIvIHQo', petroS.
; ghu :     Hut wen, 'Iw HIq vItlhutlh.
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!

jaj veb, ghItlh ja'wI', jatlh: &quot;boghpu' jatlhlaHbogh ghu! Suto'vo'qor Del.&quot;
|
===Look! Someone is talking!===
; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Nurse :   Push, dear, push!
; Nurse :   I can see the baby's head, dear. You have nearly accomplished it. Push again, dear, push!
; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Nurse :   The head has definitely appeared.
; Baby :    Well. I never thought I would see this place.
; Nurse :   *@$%!
; Wife :    What's happening?
; Nurse :   Pay no attention! Push again, dear, push!
; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Baby :    Put clothes on me! I used to wear impressive clothing.
; Wife :    Who's talking?
; Baby :    Listen to me, mother! I'm your son. I dislike the name &quot;Kon'nor&quot;. There are too many people who have that name.
; Wife :    Somebody seems to be tricking us. How does the boy speak?
; Nurse :   I have now successfully cut through the cord which connects the mother and the child.
; Baby :    I know a dead warrior; his name was &quot;Pet'rosh&quot;. That name is good. Call me &quot;Pet'rosh&quot;!
; Baby :    I am thirsty, but I refuse to drink at your torso.
; Nurse :   Don't move, Pet'rosh.
; Baby :    Nine months ago, I drank bloodwine.
; Husband : Success! Be brave!

The next day, a reporter wrote, saying: &quot;A baby that could speak was born! It
described Sto-vo-kor.&quot;
|}

==Darynese==

===Dorunyaera! Nyaram, ilaetraenyaera!===

; Mizaebaiao : Marinyaera!
; Saerai : Saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
; Saerai : Yaetai! Emilonaime mati dorusetas raikae. Yaemi deles se daibe!
; Mizaebaiao : Marinyaera!
; Emilo : A! Teoro dorunyaetas raokae!
; Saerai : rarurileyiza!
; Mizaebaiai : Latrimaelnaor?
; Saerai : Pasaeranyaepara! Aesem saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
; Mizaebaiao : Marinyaera!
; Emilo : Raokae taekonyaera! Yaope tazembo ranneos teonzanyae raokae.
; Mizaebaiai : Taeyinnaor ilaetraese?
; Emilo : Eyilai. Raokaekul laemtraenyaera. Daibenaimao ineyilao zaitrinyae raokae. 'Konor' tusreonyaepa raokae. Taenae menyae yaemi.
; Mizaebaiai : Nanenaor? Ilaetraese emilo!
; Saerai : Emilseyai sem datae raikae.
; Emilo : Nenkenaimeo naer leobysunyae raokae. Yilae aon leobysunyae raokae.'Petros' zaitrinyae raokaenaimae aon.
; Emilo : Aotaelao menyae raokae. Subenyai, ilaoba zelnelonyaepa raokae.
; Saerai : Petros! Ebenyaepara!
; Emilo : Ner trais binyin keoru, saisinsu zelnelonyae raokae.
; Mizaebaiao : Marinyaera!

Ereo mokeorul donyose donyoao -- 'Ilaetraerilo emilo! Taomaenaime kaodi!'

===Details===

[[Conlang Relay 12/Darynese]]

==Da Mätz Se Basa==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Da Mätz Se Basa|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===De kuk un kuja ja he===
; Ä Man : Diu häl dur to.
; Doto :  Ü drük to.  Muin Quän, ü drük to. Muin Quän, ich kan da Bäbi s' Kop ol sä höma. Ü hat de bäna saf ja.
; Man :   Diu häl dur to.
; Bäbi :  Säo, ich kan de hir Urt sä ima.
; Doto :  Chofadem!
; Quän :  Wat is he?
; Doto :  Ü wot nich bang nä to. Ü drük noma to, muin Quän, ü drük to.
; Man :   Diu häl dur to.
; Bäbi :  Ich wil wat dräk an höma. Ich drach of gui Zuich ja.
; Quän :  De kan kuja ima.
; Bäbi :  Diu fan Modo hur ma ze to. Ich is duin Anak. Un ich wil nich &quot;Konol&quot; heis nä höma, omdat de ze tawal is ja.
; Quän :  De do is ne Drik he.  De Bäbi kuja he.
; Doto :  Ich wirt gätz de Nalsur snä dur.
; Bäbi :  Ich hat na Gäral se Maut hat. Un ich hat ne hau Nam ja, nämich heis ich &quot;Pädrus&quot;. Un ich hat ne Durs ja, ma ich wil kein Nai nä höma.
; Doto :  Pädrus, diu zape nich säo nä to.
; Bäbi: Di lätz ach Mat hat ich ne Woka drik.
; Man :  Diu häl dur to.
Ana näs Dach sir di Sir-Mätz: &quot;Ne kuja s' Bäbi höma!  Ne da Got se Sänk ja!&quot;
|
===It looks and talks!?===
; Husband : Persevere!
; Doctor :  Push!  Madam, push! Madam, I can see the baby's head already! You have almost done it!
; Man : Persevere!
; Baby :  Well!  I can see this place, right!?
; Doctor : Damnit!
; Woman : What is it?
; Doctor :  Don't get disturbed! Push again, madam, push again!
; Man : Persevere!
; Baby :  I want to wear something! I often wear precious clothes!
; Woman : It can talk!?
; Baby : Mother, listen to me! I am your son. And I don't want to be called 'Konor', because that's too common.
; Woman : This is a trick, right?  The baby talks!?
; Doctor :  I will now cut the umbilical cord.
; Baby :    I had a general's death. And I have a good name, that is, I'm called 'Petrus'.&lt;br&gt;And I am thirsty, but I don't want any milk.
; Doctor :  Petrus, don't squirm like that!
; Baby :   The last eight months I drank vodka.
; Man : Persevere!

The next day, the writers wrote: A talking baby! A gift of God indeed!
|}

== Wenedyk ==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Wenedyk|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
=== IŁ ŚPIECZE I PARŁA?! ===
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Miedziek:   Brzosar, kieru donie, w donia brzosarszy! Kieru, kieru, ża posu widziar kapu nieparłarzu. Awie donia tot przeście ża po sie.
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Nieparłarz: No no, kódże, jo posu widziar łok wądź nu ździem.
; Miedziek:   A dzabeł!
; Fiemnia:    Kód pasie?
; Miedziek:   W donia szy nie trzebdar. Fali brzosar, kieru donie, brzosar fali!
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Nieparłarz: Jo włu alkód awieścier, no. Ej, su syt a protar karze szmacie!
; Fiemnia:    Ił pocie parłar.
; Nieparłarz: Uszkiełtaż tu, macierz. Jo su twej nat. Maż nie włu apiołar sie &quot;Konórz&quot;, no nie no, nąk łu jest mółt trów rodnarz.
; Fiemnia:    Łu jest prostokód jo trów mółt biewszy, wiartać? Szy ił nieparłarz parła?
; Miedziek:   Stawiecz partalaru li kroda węblikała.
; Nieparłarz: Przej mroci świe fy generał, szczycie. Maż protu bon nomię, nonialemięć, &quot;Piotr&quot; sie apiołu. I biar mi sie włu, kura, maż nułu łacy nie włu!
; Miedziek:   Piotrze, parsta ża śrepiętar komód wrzem, tu!
; Nieparłarz: Par wółćmie ocu miesiu nie biewa akwiały...
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!

Postru dzei skrzywie skrzyptórz: ''&quot;NIEPARŁARZ PARŁĘĆ! ŁU DON DZIEWIN!&quot;''
|
=== HE LOOKS AND TALKS?! ===
; Man:    Keep up!
; Doctor: Press, madam, you must press! Now look here, I can see the baby's head already. Soon you will have everything behind you.
; Man:    Keep up!
; Baby:   Well, hey, I can see the place where we are.
; Doctor: Oh hell!
; Woman:  What happened?
; Doctor: Please don't worry. You need to press, madam, you must press!
; Man:    Keep up!
; Baby:   I want to put on something, okay? Hey, I'm used to wearing expensive stuff!
; Woman:  He can talk.
; Baby:   Listen up, mother. I am your child. But I don't want to be called &quot;Konórz&quot;, oh no, because that is way too ordinary.
; Woman:  It is because I drank too much, right? Is this baby talking?
; Doctor: Now I will cut through his umbical chord.
; Baby:   Before my death I was a general, you know. And I carry a good name, namely, my name is &quot;Piotr&quot;. And I would like a drink, dammit, but I don't want any milk!
; Doctor: Piotr, stop squirming like a worm, you!
; Baby:   I haven't had any vodka for eight months...
; Man:    Keep up!

The next day, the writer writes: ''&quot;A TALKING BABY! A GIFT FROM GOD!&quot;''
|}

==Minza==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Minza|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;45%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===IPLIMU AI IŠONU?!===
; Xažla: Mimo!
; Čaghyl: Taugho xöy, seira nataughi öyxe! Šöy łe, kazmi kaini ymigi lan rašat! Teka omba öyxu sinatemu aka nymat.
; Xažla: Mimo!
; Raša: Šöy ze, kazmi ymigi tan'ga, đa riteka jexu.
; Xažla: Igá!
; Kövu: Kala čui?
; Čaghyl: Tego łe naziri. Seira nataughi xöy, seira nataughi!
; Xažla: Mimo!
; Raša: Ymagha šöy kö čilaskat. Wei! Yđevu čilas fynarit beži kame!
; Kövu: Zmi išoni va!
; Raša: Duro tö, i viraka. Kari raša öyxat. Ła ymagha de ynšadi šy Konušat, šöy ze de, ži vyönu ghovi nöki nyn.
; Kövu: Ri nevek đa yglibu wöli ghovi kame ža. Fie đa šona rašale?
; Čaghyl: Yreka šöy zörin nalanavat.
; Raša: Vyö xörykakamu, katuonžananu, našara. Epi kamu loga teski, fie ynšadu šy Petrosat. Ai ymaghi yglibi, i peš, ła ymaghu de yglibi kura öli kame!
; Xažla: I Petros, xisčo kaini möghas šy rylat, i öyx!
; Raša: Đo ličimu paže vige, ygliba de lašeunat....
; Xažla: Mimo!
Lišu zy jagu nauke lišyle: &quot;MOZU ŠONYLI! MOREVANU LUGHI VA!&quot;
|
===He observes and talks?!===
; Man: Persist!
; Doctor: Push, madam, you need to push! Now, I can already see the baby's head! You almost have the whole of the event in your past.
; Man: Persist!
; Baby: Well, now I can see the place where we are.
; Man: What the...!
; Woman: What's happening?
; Doctor: Please don't be afraid. You must push, madam, you must push!
; Man: Persist!
; Baby: Now I want something to wear. Hey! I am accustomed to wearing expensive clothes!
; Woman: He can talk!
; Baby: Now listen, my mother. I am your child. But I don't want to be called Konush, well not now, since that is much too ordinary.
; Woman: It's because I drank too much [alcohol], isn't it? That the baby is talking?
; Doctor: I am now cutting his umbilical cord.
; Baby: Before my death, I was a general, you know. I also had a fine name; I called myself Peter. And I want to drink, you fiend, but I don't want any milk!
; Man: Peter, stop squirming like a worm already, you!
; Baby: For the last eight months, I was not drinking any vodka [lit. &quot;firewater&quot;]....
; Man: Persist!

A writer wrote the next day: &quot;Talking baby! He is a holy gift!&quot;
|}

==Mærik==

For grammar and vocabulary see [[Maerik|the Mærik page]]

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===FERMA CRIDHETT BÆT LEKMA===

'''Bræmte skonn:''' Helik!

'''Br. vrtullann:''' pryydh, tws, saklack pryydh!  Vro offsaw taadh mandrom klædd lukth!  Olta jngum tonkum bodhom røwann.

'''Br. skonn:''' Helik!

'''Br. lukann:''' Vro offuaw taadh vrt, øll fere ordhum wisum.

'''Br. skonn:''' Fann berdhær!

'''Br. wanann:''' Fann røwe?

'''Br. vrtullann:''' Ganz vint tonum. saklack pryydh tws, saklack pryydh!

'''Br. skonn:''' Helik!

'''Br. lukann:''' giaaw vro fryydd fors. Ay! Losprow forortz færliwth swadd!

'''Br. wanann:''' Edd offua leeks!

'''Br. lukann:''' Jæ lijt, rik wællk. Ferew luk tonk. Ganta trøør fund wællg øll mistian wælld Konusch, farkt fere edd aldant døtt.

'''Br. wanann:''' Ferso sønc orz øll rensma aldanth bioordh. Fann leka lukann?

'''Br. vrtullann:''' Offaw vro mat aldkth fæærnd.

'''Br. lukann:''' Barwan, fermaw bodhom wællkum situm sachtws.  Ferma bætum wællx liwnt sær, bæt fermaw mistiat Petær.  Bæt fundow renz, vintull tonk, tiællum ganta sidh wællg renz siæn haar dronk!

'''Br. skonn:''' Hey Petær, gær ton vik høghliom tytzskum!

'''Br. lukann:''' Ganta rena wællg førnum entinum apnhusk...

'''Br. skonn:''' Helik!

Bidhalma trænnum jngstum bidhlull fryy: &quot;LEKA HAFRULL! EDD ALT PÆMP!&quot;
|
===IT WAS SEEN AND TOLD===

'''The man says:''' Persist!

'''The healer says:''' Press out, lady, you must press out!  Now I can see the child's head already!  You are almost through with the event.

'''The man says:''' Persist!

'''The child says:''' Now I can see well, what place this is.

'''The man says:''' What the...

'''The woman says:''' What happens?

'''The healer says:''' There is nothing for you to be afraid of.  You must press out, lady, you must press out!

'''The man says:''' Persist!

'''The child says:''' I want something to wear. Hey!  I'm accustomed to wearing expensive clothes!

'''The woman says:''' It can speak!

'''The child says:''' Listen up, my mother.  I'm your child. I hope you will not call me Konusch, because that is too plain.

'''The woman says:''' May all this be because I've drunk too much beer?  What is the child saying?

'''The healer says:''' I can now cut the umbilical chord.

'''The child says:''' You know, before my death I was a general.  I also had an excellent name, and was called Peter.  And I hope I'll get a drink, you monster, on the other hand I will not drink any milk!

'''The man says:''' O Peter, you stop wriggle like a worm!

'''The child says:''' I have not drunk fire-water for eight months...

Next day some scribe wrote: &quot;A BABY TALKS! IT IS A HOLY GIFT!&quot;
|}

==K&amp;#275;len==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/K&amp;#275;len|here]] for details.''

This text contains &amp;#257; (a-macron), &amp;#275; (e-macron), &amp;#299; (i-macron), &amp;#333; (o-macron), &amp;#363; (u-macron), &amp;#241; (n-tilde), &amp;#254; (thorn), &amp;lambda; (lambda), and &amp;#331;&amp;#331; (double-eng)

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===K&amp;#275;len===

tema j&amp;#257;o &amp;#275; mo sar&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a &amp;#275; mo sas&amp;#257;ra;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temme ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien l&amp;#257;mac&amp;#275;na &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; h&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; c&amp;#275;ja
anele m&amp;#299;sa s&amp;#333;lle mo ler&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a; &amp;#241;i antam&amp;#333;l ant&amp;#333;rren anni&amp;#254;en;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien c&amp;#275;ja anele jas&amp;#333;&amp;#254;a &amp;#254;&amp;#333; mo ler&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien an j&amp;#257;o ja-k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temme ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien pa ri&amp;#275;n anm&amp;#299;ra w&amp;#275;; h&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; l&amp;#257;mac&amp;#275;na &amp;#241;arra
jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa j&amp;#299;&amp;lambda;&amp;#299;ke; &amp;#275; l&amp;#257;, luha&amp;#241;en pa li&amp;#275;n j&amp;#299;&amp;lambda;&amp;#299;ke
jaw&amp;#257;len;

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien c&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;amma ans&amp;#333;ri l&amp;#257;!

temme ke m&amp;#299;sa ien l&amp;#257;-m&amp;#257;lmara. la li&amp;#275;n m&amp;#299;s-&amp;#275;ri; c&amp;#275;xeja rehirnele jaw&amp;#275;ra k&amp;#333;nux
w&amp;#257; t&amp;#333; la jaw&amp;#275;ra ja&amp;#331;&amp;#331;&amp;#299;ra n&amp;#257;pie;

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien an j&amp;#257;o to anh&amp;#275;&amp;#331;&amp;#331;i n&amp;#257;pie; tamma ke m&amp;#299;sa ja-k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temirne ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien c&amp;#275;ja analla anp&amp;#275;ra mo sas&amp;#275;rja jap&amp;#363;sa;

temirne ant&amp;#275;li ke m&amp;#299;sa ien il anni&amp;#254;en &amp;#241;i li&amp;#275;n jan&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a il la li&amp;#275;n mac&amp;#333;n&amp;#333;n
mat&amp;#333;ntanen; &amp;#275; pa li&amp;#275;n jaw&amp;#275;ra anc&amp;#257;la n&amp;#257; &amp;#275; tele jaw&amp;#275;ra p&amp;#299;ter; &amp;#299; sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa
jah&amp;#275;&amp;#241;a l&amp;#257;-map&amp;#299;&amp;#241;&amp;#241;ennon ew w&amp;#257; sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa ank&amp;#257;&amp;lambda;i honahan.

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien l&amp;#257;-p&amp;#299;ter wa ri&amp;#275;n ma&amp;#241;iw&amp;#275;&amp;lambda;a &amp;#241;e jap&amp;#299;la;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien w&amp;#257; sele anham&amp;#257;ri il jas&amp;#275;ll&amp;#363;i &amp;#257;nor;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

il jal&amp;#333;na antielen il tamma j&amp;#299;lke ke manahan ien pa m&amp;#299;sa ans&amp;#333;ri l&amp;#257;; la jal&amp;#299;la
jak&amp;#275;ra l&amp;#257;;
|
===English===

This was seen (by someone) and heard.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the healer (to the woman): Woman, make pushes. You must make pushes. I can see the baby's head. The birth becomes over soon.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the baby (to all present): I can see this place.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): Huh?

Said the woman (to all present): What is it?

Said the healer (to the woman): Don't have fear. You must make pushes.
Woman, you must push.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the baby (to all present): I wish for clothes. Hey, usually I have expensive clothes.

Said the woman (to all present): He can make words!

Said the baby (to the woman): My mother. I am your baby. Hopefully you (the clan) will not give me the name Konush because it is a too common name.

Said the woman (to all present): This is from too much beer. What did the baby (say)?

Said the healer (to all present): I can cut the navel cord (now).

Said the baby (to all present) the facts: Before I became dead, I was a high-ranking soldier.  I had a valuable name and the name was Piter.  And, I want a drink, you monster, but I don't want any milk.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): Piter, don't be a wiggler like a worm.

Said the baby (to all present): I haven't had whiskey in 8 'months'.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): make yourself steadfast.

The next day, someone wrote: The baby has words! It's a holy gift!
|}

==Rokbeigalmki==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Rokbeigalmki|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===Rokbeigalmki===

za'dhaz t̂ahaot̂ahao fa'waur khaz fa'waur thwel uzú.

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;sudoitr kha ezé!&quot;

datãv-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;ei-i-mald-a!  eze-dabrol!  eze-beig wa'dabrol; aza-kaun wa'khaz sha'uth-a tze-a ya'ekham — t̂epb̂ard-a uza-telb!&quot;

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;sudoitr kha ezé!&quot;

uth-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;aza-kaun wa'khaz a-kaz.&quot;

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;ha'—?&quot;

mald-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;hawa dhu?&quot;

datãv-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;eze'nyih-telos — eza-beig wa'dabrol!  eze-dabrol, ei-i-mald-a, ezé!&quot;

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;sudoitr kha ezé!&quot;

uth-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;azoi-shus sha'nguhraash; i uzoi-vek wa'tezat oolu-dawaz-ad elikuh-tub!&quot;

mald-a izu-chayik, &quot;uhzoi-kaun wa'gũb!&quot;

uth-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;ei-maba ei-tzii-a, eze'nyih-dasyem ash kónush kha; sem ilúka sudstamb uz.&quot;

mald-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;hawa uzú?  ha'azu-dagul sha'lip sudzid?&quot;

datãv-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;aza-kaun taz wa'oojhg tzuh chong oungki.&quot;

uth-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;tawa ga'azii-met, matóntanen ta'r̂engôktadhm-a azíí -- i tzii sem, píder, uzii-tein kurad-ad-tzat.  ei-miplatz-a!  aza-shus wa'dagul tahao, akh nyeng sha'lẽĩl nilmao!&quot;

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;ei-píder, eze'nyih-kemet ka'yagul yag-ad.&quot;

uth-a uhzu-guvdhab, &quot;aza-shus anhamári nga'tei mefsatm ta'tratz-a.&quot;

gaheish-a izu-guvdhab, &quot;sudoitr kha ezé!&quot;

ta'rezat-a oolu-dume, uzu-thes-ad ya'tazao: &quot;uth uhzu-gũb.  daalnad sudahya uhzú!&quot;
|
===English===

This was something to see and hear.

The [female] elder said, &quot;Please be persevering!&quot;

The healer said, &quot;Woman!  Push out!  You must push out; I can see your baby with my eyes — the end of the birth is coming closer!&quot;

The elder said, &quot;Please be persevering!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I can see here.&quot;

The elder said, &quot;Is—?&quot; (or: &quot;Huh?&quot;)

The woman said, &quot;What's that?&quot;

The healer said, &quot;Do not fear — you need to push out!  Push out, woman, do it!&quot;

The elder said, &quot;Please be persevering!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I want clothing (or: a sarong); and it must be well-made!&quot;

The woman screamed, &quot;[The baby] can communicate!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;My mom, please do not name me Kónush; it's such an ordinary name.&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What was it?  Did I drink too much wine?&quot;

The healer said, &quot;I can now cut [the baby]'s 'womb-stem'.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;When I die, I will be a ''matóntanen'' in the order of warriors — and my name, Píder, will have honor.  Hey monster!  I want to drink something, but not at all any mother's milk!&quot;

The elder said, &quot;Píder, don't spasm like a fished fish.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I want ''anhamári'' that's at least eight months old.&quot;

The elder said, &quot;Please be persevering!&quot;

The following day, it was written by someone: &quot;A baby communicated.  [The baby] was a holy gift!&quot;
|}

==Carrajena==

(as received by Amanda Babcock Furrow)

===Carrajena===

This text contains ñ (n-tilde), « (double open
brackets), » (double closed brackets), ¿ (inverted
question mark), ¡ (inverted exclamation point)

THE TEXT

Esti ul fistu junu minchu miravuisimu.

Diched al presbideja, «¡Esperi!»

Diched al jalada, «¡Forchi, huiña!  Nexida nadari. 
Podju videri ul bambinu cun uls ocuus.  Tembra
compuedejid il nadali.”

Diched al presbideja,  «¡Esperei!»

Diched ul bambinu, «Podju videri ul fistu mundu.»

Diched al presbideja, «¿Man?»

Diched al huiña, «¿Esti?»

Diched al jalada, «Nu timi.  Nexida forchari. 
¡Forchi, huiña!»

Diched al presbideja, «¡Esperi!»

Diched ul bambinu, «Feru junu coxudu, ed nexidad bini
nifaladud.»

Firidud al huiña, «¡Ajovid!»

Diched ul bambinu, «Marri miu, nu cuami mi juni numi
pomu ul Cunux, pervia esti medjogri.»

Diched al huiña, «¿Fid esti?  Bivi ul vinu tan mutu.»

Diched al jalada, «Agora, podju currari ad il fumi
umbuigu.»

Diched ul bambinu, «Pochini morriju, eseju ul
djinerali, ed undrajid il mi numi, ul Perru.  Feru
siñunu, junu bivudu, peru ¡nun lapi!»

Diched al presbideja, «Nu fali ils spazmis pomu juni
pixi in ul molu.»

Diched ul bambinu, «Feru juni cauxi djul vinu djils
opu minchis maduradu.»

Diched al presbideja, «¡Esperi!»

Il dji debosti, niscrived, «Diched ul bambinu, &lt;Fuid
juni nudji sampi.&gt;»

===Details===

[[Conlang Relay 12/Carrajena]]

==Toma Heylm==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Toma Heylm|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===Toma Heylm===

akot edra ey anyelis tamya.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;anya, file!  lo sokril simelal!  eff tisanot kipayu nes oleye efim.  lo delye silkot oriya syin simelalu.&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff tisanyik dampeyu edra&quot;.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;aa?&quot;.

syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure?&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi kakrot lek.  lo sokril filet.  file!&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok sipoyu, lir syim delye mi marelis&quot;.

syin anya seta tamot &quot;sem seta tomyok!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;haya efim, lo delye datil lek tef operu yiv &quot;Cunux&quot;, tal sem ey sureli&quot;.

syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure dava keryik?  eff seta sipil fhasayu tamamelis&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;eff kardot kastet hiya biliyu&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;tarya eff delye elyik dodeyi, eff delye kupra, lir Petra delye haldyik operu efim.  eff sokryok bolgeyu lir syin sipetu, rel eff delye sipyok lek rumiyu&quot;.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi tulyik lek yiv kuyon la yumela&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok topayu mini fhasa seta fharot dolva okostel.&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

elyi seta peyrai yumola kareli &quot;syin kipa seta tomil 'edra seta todat rigeli'&quot;.
|
===English===

This story is very marvelous.

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Woman, push!  You need to give birth!  I see the baby with my eyes.  You will soon complete the birth.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Huh?&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife said &quot;You should not fear.  You need to push.  Push!&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a blanket, and it should be well-made.&quot;

The woman shouted, &quot;He spoke!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;My mother, you will not give me a name like 'Cunux', because it is ordinary.&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What is happening?  I have drunk too much wine.&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Now I am able to cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;When I should die [lit: become dead], I would be a military general, and Peter will honor my name.  I need a monster and a drink, but I won't drink milk.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on the dock.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a cup of wine that has fermented eight months.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

They wrote the next day, &quot;The baby said 'This was a sacred gift'.&quot;
|}

==Calénnawn==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Calénnawn|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;55%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===Calénnawn===

Zévo órmulxo óhucsìnu-qi.

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Réfno, áymo-qoy!1 Stu
astóri-benco!1 Épanaleya so sten uráronur iw lúdi. Sónnti orgre
astórivra.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Épanaleya zévo rofíltu.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e qúmpatme itt &quot;Ay!2&quot;

O réfni$e qúmpatme itt &quot;Qo?3&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu hi búhu-qoy. Áymo-benco!1
Áymo-qoy!1&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Ílmon losówp-benco pélo byu ðálbo-qoy.&quot;

O réfni$e gárpu be qúmpatme itt &quot;Fa$e qúmpatme!2&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Iw re-ganúno, hi lúxci-qoy s-nalástuxo
sum e pélo 'Cúnucs' pso-zóro fa ópalc.&quot;

O réfni$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Qo séffiðes?1 El or nalétuvra f-óttu
móri.&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Émafo qod-gáwna s-heðérro.&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;El orgla áduxavran fáygann égla úceyl
sno Pétergla dópi iw nalástuxo. Épalemo se hínnod s-nalétuxo pey sófa
égla hi nalétu f-ttizáfe.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu hi túggat-dal glaz sínu bórmo
zizawpósse níñciv.&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Épalemo sen úrmed fh tar óttu pélo or
sotáwvra$ úggu-úmper xo el.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

$e zelétt dull o gréra awn itt &quot;O sten bánxa be qúmpatme itt 'Ze$e
úyfin lúxcixo.'&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===English===

This is a very marvelous story.

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Woman, push! You need to give birth! I see the baby with
my eyes. You will soon complete giving birth.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Huh?&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;You should not fear. You need to push. Push!&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a blanket and it should be thick.&quot;

The woman shouted, &quot;He spoke!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;My mother, do not give me a name like 'Cunux' because
that one is ordinary.&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What is happening? I drank too much wine.&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;I can now cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;When I will die, I will be a military general and Peter
will honor my name. I need a monster and the drink, but I will not drink
milk.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on a dock.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a cup of wine that has ripened for eight months.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

They wrote on the next day, &quot;The baby said, 'This was a sacred gift.'&quot;
|}

==Tæĺf==
''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Tæĺf|here]] for details''

===Smooth English from Calénnawn===
This is a very marvelous narration.

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;Woman, push!  You need to give birth!  I see the baby using my eyes.  You are about to give birth.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Oy!&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;Do not fear.  You need to push!  Push!&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I need a blanket, and may it be thick.&quot;

The woman screamed and said, &quot;S/he/it spoke!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;My mother, do not give unto me the name 'Cúnucs' because it is common/ordinary.&quot;

The woman spoke and said, &quot;What is happening?  I have drunk too much wine.&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;I am able to cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;When I die, I will have been a military general and Peter will honour my name.  I need a monster and I need to drink, but I will not drink the milk.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on a dock.&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I need a cup of wine aged 12 months.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

It was written the next day, &quot;The baby speaks and says, 'This is a sacred gift.'&quot;

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===Tæĺf===
Het - her ðeþrek færl.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Þændət, rizdetsaŋajás!

Hasyɬjáp áwrərzydáftōjás kəmzyjáwnō!&quot; keft bindejtsājáð, &quot;Ho blejo sylmōjəlajo mij myśsoh þá riśtsājo.  Hasyɬjáp áwrərzydáftōjás soɣr kəklybám kīláð,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;Het byjðos þá rijo,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Hojś!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

&quot;Nō?&quot; keft þændət fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Tirblāsaŋajás,&quot; keft, &quot;hasyɬjáp áwrəfsyhám kəmzyjáwnō!  Fishysaŋajás!&quot; keft bleŋk giŋ́ftsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

&quot;Həwyðeā læfs kəmzyjáwnō,&quot; keft mæśsəh, &quot;Tiĺĺsaŋajáð&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þændət &quot;Bitnytsājáð!&quot; keft giśtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;Mymo,&quot; keft laśkrygám, &quot;Həwyðeā 'Kūnuxs' kesm sym þá dińtylāsaŋajás, háð - naxl,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þændət &quot;Nō liryś kīláð?  Ho tefr kuhkaɬ þyrros þá fiśttsājo&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;hojā mæśs-y-kymbō þá liryssydámo momgyn&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;mykkō biŕk tēməŕk áwrədrykám dińto, áwrərnylámo beā, 'Kristśin' kesm mylnō biŕk zywrō tēməþkylám sym þá áwrəssyláfsō dińtáð,&quot; keft mitnytsājáð, &quot;həwyðeā kæĺk, áwrəfjytám kəmzyjáwnō, jelyj dyɣgop þá áwrəfjytám dińtlajo.&quot;

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;hasyɬjáp hylðō yðeā hymjok ðek liryɣgyfámás kəlamzyjānā&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;həðəjáp rep jyl kətjydám þyrros sytkonáð kəmzyjáwnō&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Áwrəklybám kyn brer &quot;mæśsəh 'het - kajprykám dæńt' keft firláð&quot; keft kəfðyrám kiśtsājáð.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===English===
This is a very marvelous story.

The priestess said &quot;Hope!&quot;

The birth-assistant-woman (midwife) exclaimed, &quot;Woman, push!  You must give birth!&quot;  She said, &quot;I saw the baby with my own eyes.  You are in a state of giving birth soon (you are about to give birth).&quot;

The priestess said &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby said &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said &quot;Oy!&quot;

The woman said &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Do not fear,&quot; and commanded &quot;You must push!  Push!&quot;

The priestess said &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a blanket,&quot; and said &quot;may it be thick.&quot;

The priestess screamed, &quot;It spoke!&quot;

The baby addressed, &quot;My mother,&quot; and said, &quot;Don't give me the name Kūnuxs, it is ordinary.&quot;

The woman said &quot;What stays going (what's going on)?  I drank too much wine.&quot;

The midwife said &quot;It is possible for me to cut the life-rope (umbilical cord).&quot;

The baby declared, &quot;When I die, I will have become a military general, and the Christian-religion gate-keeper (Peter) will honour my name,&quot; [and continued,] &quot;I need a monster and to drink, but don't give me milk.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;It is unnecessary for you to give commands as a hamster to a cougar.&quot;

The baby said &quot;I need a cup of 1-year-aged wine.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The next day it was written, &quot;The baby says, 'This is a blessèd gift.'&quot;

|}

==Etora==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Etora|here]] for details.''


===Mad mar===

Zhi macheu fel nona fech arala:  &quot;Eshaï.&quot;

Zhi melen ozh matiro fech arala:  &quot;Macheu onalizach mela.  Asa mel mad.  Onalizach e eni!&quot;

Macheu fel nona fech arala:  &quot;Eshaï.&quot;

Onali fech arala: &quot;Selach eni.&quot;

Macheu fel nona fech arala:  &quot;Ai!&quot;

Macheuta fech arala: &quot;Ai?  Pei chíra osim.  Asa doc mad. Pei li-docim!&quot;  matiro arala.

Macheu fel nona fech arala:  &quot;Eshaï.&quot;

Onali fech arala: &quot;Seich cizhon mad.  Dri cici.&quot;

Macheu fech arala: &quot;Onaliza araäyo!&quot;

Onali fech arala:  &quot;Daä shanadi!  Isai &quot;Kunukúlu&quot; mad nom adim.&quot;

Macheu fech arala, &quot;E ba?  Trach dólcach paninezhon fich cos!&quot;

Matiro fech arala, &quot;Mal psapsi!&quot;

Onali fech arala, &quot;Pei seich arom.  Ko-vani hana ich Kilitíni ko-nomi.   Mal azhei roch uso.&quot;

Macheu fel nona fech arala:  &quot;Eshaï.&quot;

In hli gapshash lwev lweu van.  Mar gapsha hana sal iönaliza selayo.


===English translation===
English translation missing


==Aingelj&amp;atilde;==

''Click [[Conlang Relay 12/Aingelj&amp;atilde;|here]] for details.''

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
===Una bona historja===

&amp;#360; dïe una mara diçé pensatïuament: &quot;J’heh fè&quot;.

Denn al’aixillatora dou part diçé super ou naçament: &quot;Una mara pare &amp;#361; piceu cjude. Tou naçament eh b&amp;otilde;. Ou cjude vide!&quot;

A mara diçé pensatïuament: &quot;J’heh fè&quot;.

Ou cjude risponé: &quot;Jo vid ou mond&quot;.

A mara diçé pensatïuament: &quot;Au!&quot;.

Al’autra fama diçé: &quot;Au? N&amp;otilde; tema. Toul’intent eh b&amp;otilde;. Sega intentant! Diçé al’aixillatora dou part.

A mara diçé pensatïuament: &quot;J’heh fè&quot;.

Ou cjude diçé: &quot;Tu mantenes-mi caude. Tu caudes-mi mout.&quot;

A mara risponé: &quot;Ou cjude parle!&quot;

Ou cjude diçé : &quot;Asdouz vos ets moutas. &amp;#360; b&amp;otilde; nome pur tu eh Cunucoul.&quot;

A mara diçé: &quot;Perd&amp;otilde;? T’has bewat &amp;#361; wisci!&quot;

Al’aixillatora dou part diçé: &quot;Jo n&amp;otilde; sent-mi bain.&quot;

Ou cjude diçé: &quot;Protegga-mi. A qwe apelle-si Cilit&amp;#297;n hast venat tantbain. Ou mau rode ma morta.&quot;

A mara risponé: &quot;J’heh fè&quot;.

Ad ou f&amp;#297;n ou temp pasaré. Ou f&amp;#297; dal’historja esaré scriwat tantbain pur ou cjude.

|
===A good story===
One day a mother said thoughtfully: &quot;I hope.&quot;

Then the midwife said about the birth: &quot;A mother gives birth to a little child. Your birth is good. The child sees!&quot;

The mother said thoughtfully: &quot;I hope.&quot;

The child answered: &quot;I see the world.&quot;

The mother said thoughtfully: &quot;Ouch.&quot;

The other woman said: &quot;Ouch? Don’t be afraid. Your try is OK. Keep on trying!&quot; said the midwife.

The mother said thoughtfully. &quot;I hope.&quot;

The child said: &quot;You keep me warm. You warm me much.&quot;

The mother answered: &quot;The child talks!&quot;

The child said: &quot;You both are many. A good name for you is Kunukúlu.&quot;

The mother said: &quot;Pardon? You have drunk a whisky!&quot;

The midwife said: &quot;I don’t feel well.&quot;

The child said: &quot;Protect me. The one who is called Kilitíni has come too. The badness surrounds my death.&quot;

The mother answered: &quot;I hope.&quot;

In the end the time will go by. The end of the story will also be written by the child.

|}

== Dewagistarah ==

{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
=== Tara katsha ===

For mikhet, prasu te ahatuja met tark: &quot;Ek hafja azamsah.&quot;

Dan krtiah af manukh-shap te ahatuja ufar manukh-shap: &quot;Prasu manukh-shapja leitil bala. Manukh-shap af du isja tara. Bala seja!&quot;

Prasu ta ahatuja met tark: &quot;Ek hafja azamsah.&quot;

Bala antwartja: &quot;Ek seja bcjuloka.&quot;

Prasu ta ahatua met tark: &quot;Au!&quot;

Andara fru te ahatuja: &quot;Au? Isja ni bcjajalu.&quot;

&quot;Farsokh af du isja tara. Farsokhja mikhet!&quot; te ahatuja krtiah af manukh-shap.

Prasu ta ahatuja met tark: &quot;Ek hafja azamsah.&quot;

Bala te ahatuja: &quot;Du haltja ek pratap. Du pratapja ek mikhet.&quot;

Prasu te antwartja: &quot;Bala bcjasaja!&quot;

Bala te ahatuja: &quot;Du twa isja mikhet. Tara nam fir du isja Kunukul.&quot;

Prasu te ahatuja: &quot;Unshiltja? Du hafja drikja wiski!&quot;

Krtiah af manukh-shap te ahatuja: &quot;Ek ni folja tara.&quot;

Bala te ahatuja: &quot;Niwaraja ek. Nara ko ga namja Kilitin okhsa isja komja. Muska omgipja tot af ek.&quot;

Prasu te antwartja: &quot;Ek hafja azamsah.&quot;

In ent kala fargaja. Ent af katsha okhsa te isja skrifja fir bala.

|
===A good story===
One day, a mother said thoughtfully: &quot;I have hope.&quot;

Then the birth helper said about the birth: &quot;A mother bears a little child. Your birth is good. The child looks!&quot;

The mother said thoughtfully: &quot;I have hope.&quot;

The child answered: &quot;I see the world.&quot;

The mother said thoughtfully: &quot;Ow!&quot;

An other woman said: &quot;Ow? Don't be afraid.&quot;

&quot;Your try is good. Keep trying!&quot; said the birth helper.

The mother said thoughtfully: &quot;I have hope.&quot;

The child said: &quot;You keep me warm. You warm me much.&quot;

The mother answered: &quot;The child talks!&quot;

The child said: &quot;You two are many. A good name for you is Kunukul.&quot;

The mother said: &quot;Pardon? You have drunken whiskey!&quot;

The birth helper said: &quot;I don't feel well.&quot;

The child said: &quot;Protect me. He who is called Kilitin has also come. The mouse surrounds my death.&quot;

The mother answered: &quot;I have hope.&quot;

In the end the time passed. The end of the story was written also for the child.

|}

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|*]] [[Category:Conlang relays]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Da Mätz Se Basa</title>
    <id>1966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:58:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Conlang Relay 12]] -- [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s9 Da Mätz se Basa] -- [http://www.theiling.de Henrik Theiling]=

==Darynese -- Running Text==
 Dorunyaera! Nyaram, ilaetraenyaera!

 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Saerai: Saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Saerai: Yaetai! Emilonaime mati dorusetas raikae. Yaemi deles se daibe!
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Emilo: A! Teoro dorunyaetas raokae!
 Saerai: rarurileyiza!
 Mizaebaiai: Latrimaelnaor?
 Saerai: Pasaeranyaepara! Aesem saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Emilo: Raokae taekonyaera! Yaope tazembo ranneos teonzanyae raokae.
 Mizaebaiai: Taeyinnaor ilaetraese?
 Emilo: Eyilai. Raokaekul laemtraenyaera. Daibenaimao ineyilao zaitrinyae
 raokae. 'Konor' tusreonyaepa raokae. Taenae menyae yaemi.
 Mizaebaiai: Nanenaor? Ilaetraese emilo!
 Saerai: Emilseyai sem datae raikae.
 Emilo: Nenkenaimeo naer leobysunyae raokae. Yilae aon leobysunyae raokae.
 'Petros' zaitrinyae raokaenaimae aon.
 Emilo: Aotaelao menyae raokae. Subenyai, ilaoba zelnelonyaepa raokae.
 Saerai: Petros! Ebenyaepara!
 Emilo: Ner trais binyin keoru, saisinsu zelnelonyae raokae.
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!

==Darynese -- Interlinears==

This is how I broke it down.

 Dorunyaera!  Nyaram, ilaetraenyaera!
 Doru-nyaera! Nyaram, ilaetrae-nyaera!
 see-IMPER!   And     speak-IMPER!
 Look!  And speak!
 
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Mari-nyaera!
 husband:    persevere-IMPER
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Saerai: Saenyanyaera!  Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Saerai: Saenya-nyaera! Yaetai! saenya-nyaera!
 priest: push-IMPER     Ma'am   push-IMPER
 Doctor: Push! Ma'am, push!
 
 Saerai: Yaetai! Emilonaime       mati dorusetas   raikae.
 Saerai: Yaetai! Emilo-naim-e     mati doru-setas  raikae.
 priest: Ma'am   baby-POSS-thing  head see-POL.POS I.ADULT.FEM
 Doctor: Ma'am! I see the baby's head!
 
 Yaemi  deles    se         daibe!
 Yaemi  deles    se         daibe!
 it     almost   do.POL.POS you.ADULT.FEM
 You have alsmost done it!
 
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Mari-nyaera!
 husband:    persevere-IMPER
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Emilo: A!       Teoro      dorunyaetas     raokae!
 Emilo: A!       Teo-ro     doru-nyaetas    raokae!
 baby:  ah/well! place-this see-POS.UNCERT  I.ADULT.MASC
 Baby: Ah!  I think I see this place!
 
 Saerai: Rarurileyiza!
 Saerai: Rarurileyiza!
 priest: damnit!
 Doctor: Damnit!
 
 Mizaebaiai: Latrimaelnaor?
 Mizaebaiai: Latrimael-naor?
 wife:       any.abstract.idea-QUERY?
 Wife: What?
 
 Saerai: Pasaeranyaepara!          Aesem saenyanyaera!  Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Saerai: Pasaera-nyaepara!         Aesem saenya-nyaera! Yaetai! saenya-nyaera!
 priest: darken.in.mood-NOT-IMPER  again push-IMPER     Ma'am   push-IMPER
 Doctor: Don't get in a bad mood!  Push again, Ma'am, push!
 
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Mari-nyaera!
 husband:    persevere-IMPER
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Emilo: Raokae       taekonyaera!  Yaope      tazembo ranneos        teonzanyae  raokae.
 Emilo: Raokae       taeko-nyaera! Yaope      tazembo ranneos        teonza-nyae raokae.
 baby:  I.ADULT.MASC dress-IMPER   rich-THING clothing much/lot/often wear-POS    I.ADULT.MASC
 Baby:  I want to dress! I often wear expensive clothing.
 
 Mizaebaiai: Taeyinnaor    ilaetraese?
 Mizaebaiai: Taeyin-naor   ilaetrae-se?
 wife:       person-QUERY  speak-POL.POS
 Wife: It can speak?
 
 Emilo: Eyilai.  Raokaekul     laemtraenyaera.
 Emilo: Eyilai.  Raokae-kul    laemtrae-nyaera.
 baby:  mother   I.ADULT.MASC  listen-IMPER
 Baby:  Listen to me, mother.
 
 Daibenaimao                   ineyilao zaitrinyae  raokae.
 Daibe-naim-ao                 ineyilao zaitri-nyae raokae.
 you.ADULT.FEM-POSS-ADULT.MASC son      be-POS      I.ADULT.MASC.
 I am your son.
 
 'Konor' tusreonyaepa  raokae.        Taenae         menyae yaemi.
 'Konor' tusreo-nyaepa raokae.        Taen-ae        me-nyae yaemi.
 'Konor' wish-NEG      I.ADULT.MASC   common-CONCEPT is-POS  it
 I don't want (to be called) 'Konor', that's too common.
 
 Mizaebaiai: Nanenaor?                  Ilaetraese    emilo!
 Mizaebaiai: Nane-naor?                 Ilaetrae-se   emilo!
 wife:       malicious.lie/trick-QUERY  speak-POL.POS baby
 Wife: Is that a trick?  The baby speaks!
 
 Saerai: Emilseyai    sem datae raikae.
 Saerai: Emilseyai    sem datae raikae.
 priest: Nabelschnur  now cut   I.MASC
 Doctor: I will now cut the umbilical cord.
 
 Emilo: Nenkenaimeo                   naer  leobysunyae       raokae.
 Emilo: Nenke-naim-eo                 naer  leobysu-nyae      raokae.
 baby:  General-POSS-place/time/event death exist/possess-POS I.ADULT.MASC
 Baby:  I had the death of a General.
 
 Yilae             aon  leobysunyae       raokae.
 Yil-ae            aon  leobysu-nyae      raokae.
 good-concept/idea name exist/possess-POS I.ADULT.MASC
 I have a good name.
 
 'Petros' zaitrinyae  raokaenaimae                   aon.
 'Petros' zaitri-nyae raokae-naim-ae                 aon.
 'Petrus' be-POS      I.ADULT.MASC-POSS-concept/idea name
 My name is 'Petrus'.
 
 Emilo: Aotaelao            menyae  raokae.
 Emilo: Aotael-ao           me-nyae raokae.
 baby:  thirsty-ADULT.MASC  is-POS  I.ADULT.MASC
 Baby:  I am thirsty.
 
 Subenyai, ilaoba zelnelonyaepa   raokae.
 Subenyai, ilaoba zelnelo-nyae-pa raokae.
 However,  milk   drink-AUTH-NEG  I.ADULT.MASC
 But I don't want to drink milk.
 
 Saerai: Petros!  Ebenyaepara!
 Saerai: Petros!  Ebe-nyae-pa-ra!
 priest: Petrus!  zappeln-AUTH-NEG-IMPER!
 Doctor: Petrus!  Don't squirm like that!
 
 Emilo:  Ner      trais binyin   keoru,   saisinsu zelnelonyae    raokae.
 Emilo:  Ner      trais binyin   keoru,   saisinsu zelnelo-nyae   raokae.
 baby:   previous five  one.half 44.days  vodka    drink-AUTH.POS I.ADULT.MASC
 Baby:   I drank vodka the last 8 months.
 
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Mari-nyaera!
 husband:    persevere-IMPER
 Husband:    Persevere!
 
 Ereo                  mokeorul donyose       donyoao --
 Er-eo                 mokeorul donyo-se      donyoao --
 next-place/time/event day      write-POL.POS writer
 The next day, the writer wrote:
 
 'Ilaetraerilo        emilo! Taomaenaime    kaodi!'
 'Ilaetrae-ril-o      emilo! Taomae-naim-e  kaodi!'
  speak-PART-JUV.MASC baby!  God-POSS-thing gift!
 'A speaking baby!  A gift of God!
 
==Darynese -- Smooth English==
 
 Look! It speaks!
 
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Doctor:  Push! Ma'am, push!
 
          Ma'am! I see the baby's head!
          You have alsmost done it!
 
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Baby:    Ah!  I think I see this place!
 
 Doctor:  Damnit!
 
 Wife:    What?                                  
                                                 
 Doctor:  Don't get in a bad mood!               
          Push again, Ma'am, push!               
 
 Husband: Persevere!
                                                 
 Baby:    I want to dress!
          I often wear expensive clothing.        
                                                 
 Wife:    It can speak?
 
 Baby:    Listen to me, mother.
          I am your son.
          I don't want to be called 'Konor',
          that's too common.
 
 Wife:    Is that a trick?  The baby speaks!
 
 Doctor:  I will now cut the umbilical cord.
 
 Baby:    I had the death of a General.
          I have a good name.
          My name is 'Petrus'.
 
          And I am thirsty,
          but I don't want any milk.
 
 Doctor:  Petrus!  Don't squirm like that!
 
 Baby:    I drank vodka the last 8 months.
 
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 The next day, the writer wrote:
 'A speaking baby!  A gift of God!

==Da Mätz se Basa -- Running Text==

 De kuk un kuja ja he
 
 
 Ä Man: Diu häl dur to.
 
 Doto:  Ü drük to.  Muin Quän, ü drük to.
        Muin Quän, ich kan da Bäbi s' Kop ol sä höma.
        Ü hat de bäna saf ja.
 
 Man:   Diu häl dur to.
 
 Bäbi:  Säo, ich kan de hir Urt sä ima.
 
 Doto:  Chofadem!
 
 Quän:  Wat is he?
 
 Doto:  Ü wot nich bang nä to.
        Ü drük noma to, muin Quän, ü drük to.
 
 Man:   Diu häl dur to.
 
 Bäbi:  Ich wil wat dräk an höma.
        Ich drach of gui Zuich ja.
 
 Quän:  De kan kuja ima.
 
 Bäbi:  Diu fan Modo hur ma ze to.
        Ich is duin Anak.
        Un ich wil nich &quot;Konol&quot; heis nä höma,
        omdat de ze tawal is ja.
 
 Quän:  De do is ne Drik he.  De Bäbi kuja he.
 
 Doto:  Ich wirt gätz de Nalsur snä dur.
 
 Bäbi:  Ich hat na Gäral se Maut hat.
        Un ich hat ne hau Nam ja, nämich heis ich &quot;Pädrus&quot;.
        Un ich hat ne Durs ja, ma ich wil kein Nai nä höma.
 
 Doto:  Pädrus, diu zape nich säo nä to.
 
 Bäbi:  Di lätz ach Mat hat ich ne Woka drik.
 
 Man:   Diu häl dur to.
 
 Ana näs Dach sir di Sir-Mätz: &quot;Ne kuja s' Bäbi höma!  Ne da Got se Sänk ja!&quot;
 
==Da Mätz se Basa -- Interlinears==

 De         kuk  un  kuja ja  he
 DEF.NOM.SG look and talk POS UNCERT
 It looks and talks!?
 
 Ä Man:           Diu  häl  dur     to
 Matrimonial man: Thou hold through IMPER
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Doto:   Ü      drük  to.    Muin Quän,  ü      drük to.
 Doctor: you.SG push  IMPER  My   woman  you.SG push IMPER
 Doctor: Push!  Madam, push!
 
       Muin Quän, ich kan da         Bäbi s'  Kop  ol      sä  höma
       my   woman I   can DEF.DAT.SG baby REL head already see EMPHAT
       Madam, I can see the baby's head already!
 
       Ü      hat  de         bäna   saf  ja
       you.SG have DEF.NOM.SG almost made POS
       You have almost done it!
 
 Man:  Diu  häl  dur     to
 Man:  Thou hold through IMPER
 Man:  Persevere!
 
 Bäbi: Säo,  ich kan de         hir  Urt   sä  ima
 Baby: Well, I   can DEF.NOM.SG here place see VAGUE
 Baby: Well, I can see this place, then...
 
 Doto:   Chofadem!
 Doctor: Damnit!
 Doctor: Damnit!
 
 Quän:  Wat  is he?
 Woman: what is INTERROG
 Woman: What is it?
 
 Doto:   Ü      wot    nich bang    nä  to
 Doctor: you.sg become not  anxious NEG IMPER
 Doctor: Don't get disturbed!
 
         Ü      drük noma  to,   muin Quän,  ü      drük to
         you.sg push again IMPER my   woman  you.sg push IMPER
         Push again, madam, push again!
 
 Man:  Diu  häl  dur     to
 Man:  Thou hold through IMPER
 Man:  Persevere!
 
 Bäbi: Ich wil  wat  dräk an   höma
 Baby: I   want what pull onto EMPHAT
 Baby: I want to wear something!
 
       Ich drach of gui Zuich ja
       I often wear precious clothes
 
 Quän:  De         kan kuja ima
 Woman: DEF.NOM.SG can talk VAGUE
 Woman: It can talk!?
 
 Bäbi: Diu fan   Modo   hur  ma      ze to
 Baby: You APPOS mother hear 1SG.DAT to SUG mother
 Baby: Mother, listen to me!
 
       Ich is duin Anak
       I   be your son/daughter.
       I am your son.
 
       Un  ich wil  nich 'Konol' heis      nä  höma,
       And I   want not  'Konor' be.called NEG EMPHAT
       And I don't want to be called 'Konor',
 
       omdat   de         ze  tawal  is ja
       because DEF.NOM.SG too normal be ja
       because that's too common.
 
 Quän:  De         do    is ne Drik  he.     De         Bäbi kuja he.
 Woman: DEF.NOM.SG there be a  trick UNCERT  DEF.NOM.SG baby talk UNCERT
 Woman  This is a trick, right?  The baby talks!?
 
 Doto:   Ich wirt gätz de         Nalsur         snä dur.
 Doctor: I   will now  DEF.NOM.SG umbilical.cord cut through.
 Doctor: I will now cut the umbilical cord.
 
 Bäbi: Ich hat  na           Gäral   se  Maut  hat.
 Baby: I   have INDEF.DAT.SG general REL death have.
 Baby: I had a general's death.
 
       Un  ich hat  ne           hau  Nam  ja,
       And I   have INDEF.NOM.SG good name POS,
       And I have a good name,
 
       nämich heis      ich 'Pädrus'.
       namely be.called I   'Petrus'
       that is, I'm called 'Petrus'.
 
       Un  ich hat  ne           Durs   ja,
       And I   have INDEF.NOM.SG thirst POS
       And I am thirsty,
 
       ma  ich wil  kein Nai  nä  höma
       but I   want no   milk NEG EMPHAT
       but I don't want any milk.
 
 Doto:   Pädrus, diu zape  nich säo nä  to
 Doctor: Petrus, you quirm not  so  NEG IMPER
 Doctor: Petrus, don't squirm like that!
 
 Bäbi: Di         lätz ach   Mat   hat  ich ne           Woka  drik
 Baby: DEF.NOM.PL last eight month have I   indef.nom.sg vodka drink.
 Baby: The last eight months I drank vodka.
 
 Man:  Diu  häl  dur     to
 Man:  Thou hold through IMPER
 Man:  Persevere!
 
 Ana    näs  Dach sir   di         Sir-Mätz:
 on.the next day  write DEF.NOM.PL write-person:
 The next day, the writers wrote:
 
 'Ne           kuja s'  Bäbi höma!   Ne           da         Got se  Sänk ja!'
 'INDEF.NOM.SG talk REL baby EMPHAT  INDEF.NOM.SG DEF.DAT.SG god REL gift POS!'
 A talking baby! A gift of God indeed!

==Da Mätz se Basa -- Smooth English==

 It looks and talks!?
 
 Husband: Persevere!
 
 Doctor:  Push!  Madam, push!
          Madam, I can see the baby's head already!
          You have almost done it!
 
 Man:     Persevere!
 
 Baby:    Well!  I can see this place, right!?
 
 Doctor:  Damnit!
 
 Woman:   What is it?
 
 Doctor:  Don't get disturbed!
          Push again, madam, push again!
 
 Man:     Persevere!
 
 Baby:    I want to wear something!
          I often wear precious clothes!
 
 Woman:   It can talk!?
 
 Baby:    Mother, listen to me!
          I am your son.
          And I don't want to be called 'Konor',
          because that's too common.
 
 Woman    This is a trick, right?  The baby talks!?
 
 Doctor:  I will now cut the umbilical cord.
 
 Baby:    I had a general's death.
          And I have a good name,
          that is, I'm called 'Petrus'.
          And I am thirsty,
          but I don't want any milk.
 
 Doctor:  Petrus, don't squirm like that!
 
 Baby:    The last eight months I drank vodka.
 
 Man:     Persevere!
 
 The next day, the writers wrote:
 A talking baby! A gift of God indeed!

==Grammar==
   - Da Mätz se Basa is an a posteriori language derived from Modern
     High German.
     Some influence from Dutch, Afrikaans, Chinese, Bahasa Indonesia and
     several other languages can be found, mainly in the lexicon, but
     sometimes also in the grammar.
 
   - The language is mostly isolating, with a few frequent words being
     fosilised fused forms, and with a few bound morphemes.  Further,
     compound nouns and verbs exist. They are listen in the lexicon.
 
   - Case:   nominative, dative.
   - Number: singular, plural.
   - Definiteness: definite, indefinite
 
   - Case, number and definiteness are all marked on the article.
 
   - Adjectives, relative clauses and possessives precede the
     phrase they modify.
 
   - Articles precede nouns (and their modifiers) and are optional in
     front of relative clauses, and possessive pronouns, and is
     forbidden before determiners (&quot;some&quot;, &quot;no&quot;, etc.).
 
     If left out in front of relative clauses, definiteness, case and
     number information is lost for that phrase, and must be inferred.
     (In ancient times, the relative particle would then be inflected,
     but this feature was lost is earlier times.)
 
   - For prepositions that can be followed by both nominative and dative
     case, nom. denotes a direction, dat. a location.
 
   - Articles and 3rd person pronouns are indistinguishable.  These
     word is glossed with DEF or INDEF.
 
   - Preposition + 3rd person pronoun/article fused into one word if
     adjacent, even if they belong to different phrases.
     This is a phonological fusion.
 
   - In a verb phrase, auxiliaries precede the main verb.  The first
     verb in such a phrase, the head verb, is shifted to first
     or second position when the word order changes.
 
   - There are three word orders:
 
         V-Last Order (this is the basic order):
             SOV: in certain subordinate clauses
 
         V1-Order:
             The first verb of the verb phrase is shifted to the front:
 
             In questions, suggestives, and in certain subordinate
             clauses triggered by some conjunctions.
 
         V2-Order:
             Starting from V1-order, the subject or an adverb is
             shifted to the front:
 
             Normal propositional order: the fronted constituent
             is the topic.  By default, this is the subject, so you
             get SVO order here.
 
     In the lexicon, conjunctions will show which order is selected.
 
   - The very end of a clause is often marked with a complement
     for truth value (&quot;ja&quot;, &quot;nä&quot;, &quot;ima&quot;) and/or for speech act
     (&quot;höma&quot;, &quot;to&quot;, &quot;he&quot;).  &quot;ja&quot; (positive truth value) and
     &quot;höma&quot; (propositional speech act) are optional -- if they
     are present, they are emphatic.
 
   - 'se': modification.
     In the construction:
          A 'se' B
     Here, A is a general modification of B.  This is used for
     relative clauses, possessives, and composition.  A bit like
     Chinese 'de' or Japanese 'no'.  In the neighbourhood of
     vowels, the word reduces to  s' .
 
     In possessives formed with 'se', the first part (A), a noun
     phrase, will be in dative case.  An optional determiner may
     precede the whole construction.
 
   - 'fan': apposition.
     In the construction:
          A 'fan' B
     A is the same as B.  In English, the translation could be
     simply &quot;A B&quot; (e.g. &quot;Doctor Smith&quot;) or &quot;A of B&quot; (e.g.
     &quot;city of New York&quot;).  Both A and B are in the the same case.
 
   - All nouns are capitalised.
 
   - Note that due to the speech act and truth value complements,
     the use of exclamation and question marks is very much reduced
     in this language.
 

==Vocab==

 Ä          - n.          - marriage
 ä          - adj.        - matrimonial
 ach        - num.        - eight
 an         - prep.+dat.  - on, at (place); on, at (time)
            - prep.+nom.  - to, onto (place)
            - aux.        - see &quot;dräk an&quot;
 ana        - fus.        - &quot;an&quot; + &quot;da&quot;; &quot;an&quot; + &quot;na&quot;
 Anak       - n.          - child: son; daughter
 Bäbi       - n.          - baby
 bäna       - adv.        - almost
 bang       - adj.        - anxious, fearful
 Chofadem   - interj.     - Damnit!
 da         - det.        - def.dat.sg.
 Dach       - n.          - day
 de         - det.        - def.nom.sg.
 de do      - comp.det.   - def.nom.sg distant: that
 di         - det.        - def.nom.pl.
 diu        - pron.       - 2.sg.nom. informal
 do         - adv.        - there; after det. indicates distance, see &quot;de do&quot;
 Doto       - n.          - doctor
 drach      - v.          - carry; wear
 dräk       - v.          - to pull
 dräk an    - comp.v.     - to don
 drik       - v.          - to drink
 drük       - v.          - to push, to press
 duin       - poss.pron.  - 2.sg. informal
 dur        - adv.        - through
            - aux.        - see &quot;snä dur&quot;
            - aux.        - see &quot;häl dur&quot;
 Durs       - n.          - thirst
 fan        - part.       - apposition particle (see grammar)
 Gäral      - n.          - (military) general (or s.o. of similar rank)
 gätz       - adv.        - now
 Got        - n.          - God
 gui        - adj.        - expensive; precious
 häl        - v.          - to hold
 häl dur    - comp.v.     - to keep up, to persevere; to withstand
 hat        - v.          - to have; in a compound verb, marks past tense
 hau        - adj.        - good
 he         - compl.+V1   - question marker
            - compl.+V2   - uncertainty marker or still a question marker
                            (when an interrogative pronoun is in the clause)
 heis       - v.          - to be called
 hir        - adv.        - here
 höma       - compl.      - proposition marker
 hur        - v.          - to hear
 hur ze     - comp.v.     - to listen
 ich        - pron.       - 1.sg.nom.
 ima        - compl.      - vague proposition marker
 is         - v.          - to be
 ja         - compl.      - positive complement
 kan        - v.          - to be able to
 kein       - det.        - nom.sg.: no; no-one
 Konol      - n.prop.     - &quot;Konor&quot;
 Kop        - n.          - head
 kuja       - v.          - to talk
 kuk        - v.          - to look
 lätz       - adj.        - last
 ma         - conj.       - but
 Man        - n.          - man
 Mat        - n.          - month
 Mätz       - n.          - person
 Mätz       - suff.       - forms subject noun: the person who ...
 Maut       - n.          - death
 Modo       - n.          - mother
 muin       - poss.pron.  - 1.sg.
 na         - det.        - indef.dat.sg.
 nä         - compl.      - negative complement
 Nai        - n.          - milk
 Nalsur     - n.          - umbilical cord
 Nam        - n.          - name
 nämich     - adv.        - that is..., namely
 näs        - adj.        - next
 ne         - det.        - indef.nom.sg.
 nich       - adv.        - not
 noma       - adv.        - again
 of         - adv.        - often
 ol         - adv.        - already
 omdat      - conj.+Vlast - because
 Pädrus     - n.prop.     - &quot;Petrus&quot;
 Quän       - n.          - woman
 s'         - part.       - = &quot;se&quot; (adjacent to vowels)
 sä         - v.          - to see
 saf        - v.          - to manage; to accomplish
 Sänk       - n.          - present, gift
 säo        - adv.        - so, this way
            - interj.     - well!, aha!
 se         - part.       - modification particle (see grammar)
 sir        - v.          - to write
 snä        - v.          - to cut
 snä dur    - comp.v.     - to cut through, to transect
 tawal      - adj.        - common, ordinary, normal
 to         - compl.+V1   - imperative marker
 ü          - pron.       - 2.sg.nom. formal
 un         - conj.       - and
 Urt        - n.          - place, location
 wat        - int.pron.   - what
 wil        - v.          - to want
 wirt       - v.          - auxiliary to form future tense
 Woka       - n.          - vodka
 wot        - v.          - to become
 zape       - v.          - to squirm
 ze         - adv.        - too; too much
            - v.          - see &quot;hur ze&quot;
 Zuich      - n.          - stuff; clothing
 

==Abbreviations==
 
 1.           - first person
 2.           - second person
 adj.         - adjective
 adv.         - adverb
 aux.         - auxiliary verb
 comp.        - compound
 compl.       - complement: a word at the end of clauses to determine
                the speech act or the truth value
 compl.+V1    - complement that requires V1 word order.  Note that some
                complements may mean different things with different
                word orders.
 compl.+V2    - complement that requires V2 word order
 conj.        - conjunction.  Word order in this clause is either V1 or V2,
                depending on type of clause and on complement.
 conj.+Vlast  - conjunction that requires Vlast word order: this is a
                subordinate clause that cannot have speech act complements.
                (But it may contain truth value complements.)
 dat.         - dative case
 def.         - definite
 det.         - determiner or article
 fus.         - fused word: the original words are given
 indef.       - indefinite
 int.pron.    - interrogation pronoun
 interj.      - interjection
 n.           - noun
 n.prop.      - proper noun
 nom.         - nominative case
 num.         - numeral
 part.        - particle: see the grammar for these words
 pl.          - plural
 poss.pron.   - possessive pronoun
 prep.        - preposition: the required case will be given.  Note that
                some prepositions may be followed by different cases and
                mean different things.
 pron.        - pronoun
 sg.          - singular
 suff.        - suffix: second part of a compound
 v.           - verb.  Note that some verbs only occur in compound verbs
                and may have other functions when used alone.

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Da Mätz Se Basa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Minza</title>
    <id>1967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:58:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Details for the [[Minza]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

==Minza text and interlinear translation==

 IPLIMU AI IŠONU?!
 I-PLIM-U AI I-ŠON-U?!
 3s.ERG-observe-PF and 3s.ERG-talk-PF?!
 He observes and talks?!
 
 Xažla: Mimo!
 Xažla: Mim-o!
 man-ABS: persist-IMP!
 Man: Persist!
 
 Čaghyl: Taugho xöy, seira nataughi öyxe!
 Čaghyl: Taugh-o xöy, seir-a na-taugh-i öyx-(l)e!
 doctor-ABS: push-IMP madam-ABS, must-IPF 2s.ERG-push-SUB you-ERG!
 Doctor: Push, madam, you need to push!
 
 Šöy łe, kazmi kaini ymigi lan rašat!
 Šöy łe, ka-zmi kaini y-mig-i lan raša-(a)t!
 now (polite), 1s.ABS-can already 1s.ERG-see-SUB head-ABS baby-GEN!
 Now, I can already see the baby's head!
 
 Teka omba öyxu sinatemu aka nymat.
 Tek-a omba öyx-(m)u sina-(e)te-mu aka nym-at.
 3s.ABS-sit-IPF almost you-LOC past-your-LOC whole-ABS event-GEN.
 You almost have the whole of the event in your past.
 
 Xažla: Mimo!
 Xažla: Mim-o!
 man-ABS: persist-IMP!
 Man: Persist!
 
 Raša: Šöy ze, kazmi ymigi tan'ga, đa riteka jexu.
 Raša: Šöy ze, ka-zmi y-mig-i tan'ga, đa ri-tek-a jex-(m)u.
 baby-ABS: now then, 1s.ABS-can 1s.ERG-see-SUB place-ABS, that 1p.ABS-sit-IPF this-LOC.
 Baby: Well, now I can see the place where we are.
 
 Xažla: Igá!
 Xažla: Igá!
 man-ABS: what.the...!
 Man: What the...!
 
 Kövu: Kala čui?
 Kövu: Kal-a čui?
 woman-ABS: 3s.ABS-happen-IFP what-ABS?
 Woman: What's happening?
 
 Čaghyl: Tego łe naziri.
 Čaghyl: Teg-o łe na-zir-i.
 doctor-ABS: avoid-IMP (polite) 2s.ERG-fear-SUB.
 Doctor: Please don't be afraid.
 
 Seira nataughi xöy, seira nataughi!
 Seir-a na-taugh-i xöy, seir-a na-taugh-i!
 must-IPF 2s.ERG-push-SUB madam, must-IPF 2s.ERG-push-SUB!
 You must push, madam, you must push!
 
 Xažla: Mimo!
 Xažla: Mim-o!
 man-ABS: persist-IMP!
 Man: Persist!
 
 Raša: Ymagha šöy kö čilaskat.
 Raša: Y-magh-a šöy kö čil-as-(a)ka-(a)t.
 baby-ABS: 1s.ERG-want-IPF now something-ABS wear-ACT-my-GEN.
 Baby: Now I want something to wear.

 Wei! Yđevu čilas fynarit beži kame!
 Wei! Y-đev-u čil-as fyna-ri-(a)t bež-i kam-(l)e!
 hey! 1s.ERG-accustomed.to-PF wear-ACT-ABS clothes-PL-GEN expensive-GEN I-ERG!
 Hey! I am accustomed to wearing expensive clothes!
 
 Kövu: Zmi išoni va!
 Kövu: Zmi i-šon-i va!
 woman-ABS: 3s.ABS-can 3s.ERG-talk-SUB he-ABS!
 Woman: He can talk!
 
 Raša: Duro tö, i viraka. Kari raša öyxat.
 Raša: Dur-o tö, i vira-(a)ka. Ka-ri raša öyx-at.
 baby-ABS: listen-IMP (emphatic), VOC mother-my-ABS. 1s.ABS-be child-ABS you-GEN.
 Baby: Now listen, my mother. I am your child.
 
 Ła ymagha de ynšadi šy Konušat, šöy ze de, ži vyönu ghovi nöki nyn.
 Ła y-magh-a de y-n-šad-i šy Konuš-at, šöy ze de, ži vyön-u ghov-i nök-i nyn.
 but 1s.ERG-want-IPF not 1s.ERG-REFL-call-SUB as Konuš-GEN, now well not, since 3s.ABS-ordinary-PF too-ABS much-ABS that-ABS.
 But I don't want to be called Konush, well not now, since that is much too ordinary.
 
 Kövu: Ri nevek đa yglibu wöli ghovi kame ža. Fie đa šona rašale?
 Kövu: Ri nevek đa y-glib-u wöli ghovi kam-(l)e ža. Fie đa šon-a raša-le?
 woman-ABS: 3s.ABS-be reason-ABS that 1s.ERG-drink-PF alcohol-ABS too.much-ABS I-ERG isn't.it? namely that 3s.ERG-talk-IPF baby-ERG?
 Woman: It's because I drank too much [alcohol], isn't it? That the baby is talking?
 
 Čaghyl: Yreka šöy zörin nalanavat.
 Čaghyl: Y-rek-a šöy zörin nalan-ava-(a)t.
 doctor-ABS: 1s.ERG-cut-IPF now cord-ABS navel-his-GEN.
 Doctor: I am now cutting his umbilical cord.
 
 Raša: Vyö xörykakamu, katuonžananu, našara.
 Raša: Vyö xör-yk-aka-mu, ka-tuon-žan-an-u, na-šar-a.
 baby-ABS: before death-my-LOC, 1s.ABS-general-be-PF, 2s.ERG-know-IFP.
 Baby: Before my death, I was a general, you know.
 
 Epi kamu loga teski, fie ynšadu šy Petrosat.
 Epi kam-(m)u loga tesk-i, fie y-n-šad-u šy Petros-at.
 also I-LOC name-ABS fine-ABS, namely 1s.ERG-REFL-call-PF as Peter-GEN.
 I also had a fine name; I called myself Peter.
 
 Ai ymaghi yglibi, i peš, ła ymaghu de yglibi kura öli kame!
 Ai y-magh-i y-glib-i, i peš, ła y-magh-u de y-glib-i kura öl-i kam-(l)e!
 and 1s.ERG-want-SUB 1s.ERG-drink-SUB, VOC fiend-ABS, but 1s.ERG-want-PF not 1s.ERG-drink-SUB milk-ABS any-ABS I-ERG!
 And I want to drink, you fiend, but I don't want any milk!
 
 Xažla: I Petros, xisčo kaini möghas šy rylat, i öyx!
 Xažla: I Petros, xisč-o kaini mögh-as šy ryl-at, i öyx!
 man-ABS: VOC Peter-ABS, stop-IMP already squirm-ACT-ABS like worm-GEN, VOC you!
 Man: Peter, stop squirming like a worm already, you!
 
 Raša: Đo ličimu paže vige, ygliba de lašeunat....
 Raša: Đo lič-(r)i-mu paž-e vig-e, y-glib-a de laš-euna-(a)t....
 baby-ABS: during month-PL-LOC eight-LOC last-LOC, 1s.ERG-drink-IFP not fire-water-GEN....
 Baby: For the last eight months, I was not drinking any vodka [lit. &quot;firewater&quot;]....
 
 Xažla: Mimo!
 Xažla: Mim-o!
 man-ABS: persist-IMP!
 Man: Persist!
 
 Lišu zy jagu nauke lišyle: &quot;MOZU ŠONYLI! MOREVANU LUGHI VA!&quot;
 Liš-u zy jag-(m)u nauk-e liš-yl-e: &quot;MOZU ŠON-YL-I! MOREV-AN-U LUGH-I VA!
 3s.ABS-write-PF the.following day-LOC next-LOC writer-ERG: &quot;baby-ABS talk-ing-ABS! 3s.ABS-gift-is-PF holy-ABS he-ABS!&quot;
 A writer wrote the next day: &quot;Talking baby! He is a holy gift!&quot;

==Grammatical notes==

[http://www.io.com/~hmiller/lang/Minza/index.html Minza web site]

Minza is a relatively new language, intended as a &quot;bridge&quot; between the human world and the fictional worlds of Azir. Much of the Minza vocabulary is borrowed from other languages: Lindiga, Tirelat, Jarda, Kisuna, Zharranh, Kirezagi, and so on. The grammar is mainly based on Lindiga, although other recent languages such as Yasaro have contributed.

Basic word order is VOS, with the subject at the end of the sentence. Minza is an ergative language; the subject of a transitive clause is expressed with the ergative suffix -(l)e, while the object of a transitive clause is like the subject of an intransitive clause, in the absolutive case, without a case suffix added. In general, modifying words or phrases in Minza follow the words they modify: adverbs follow verbs, adjectives follow nouns, and so on.

Minza is an agglutinative language, without any major alteration of roots or affixes when combined, although many suffixes have alternative forms depending on whether they are appended to a vowel or a consonant. It shouldn't be too hard to separate the roots from the affixes, but in case you get stuck or want to skip this step, I've included a morpheme breakdown at the end of the message.

===Nouns===

Minza has six cases for nouns: absolutive, genitive, ergative, dative, locative, and instrumental. These cases are formed by adding a suffix to the noun root. This suffix can take one of two forms depending on whether the root ends in a consonant or a vowel. Consonant-ending roots take suffixes beginning with a vowel, and vice versa. This is a general characteristic of suffixes in Minza; suffixes in the vocabulary are notated with an optional letter in parentheses: -(l)e for the ergative suffix, or -(r)i for the plural suffix.

There is also a vocative form, which is marked with the particle &quot;i&quot;, although this is considered to be a preposition that governs the absolutive case. The vocative particle marks the person the speaker is talking to.

The locative case can represent possession as well as location: the example from the Minza web page is &quot;kyrlu miezu&quot; (&quot;the mouse's tail&quot;), which literally means &quot;(the) tail at (the) mouse&quot;. If the locative noun comes first, the resulting verbless sentence can be translated with &quot;have&quot; in English (&quot;miezu kyrlu&quot; = &quot;the mouse has a tail&quot;, literally &quot;at the mouse (is) a tail&quot;).

Minza has &quot;transitive nouns&quot;, which are nouns that take an optional &quot;argument&quot; (in the genitive case). Inherently possessed nouns, such as family relations and body parts, belong to this category. Another use of the genitive case which occurs in this text is the partitive usage, which refers to a quantity out of the total; this is found after verbs.

Nouns can also have possessive suffixes added to them; &quot;my mother&quot; for instance would be &quot;viraka&quot;, with the suffix -(a)ka (my) added after the root for &quot;mother&quot; (vira). Another use for possessive suffixes is to specify the subject of a verbal noun (a noun derived from a verb root). The case suffix (if any) comes after other suffixes.

The suffix -(a)ni, which converts a noun into a verb, is one way of expressing the verb &quot;to be&quot;. The difference between -(a)ni and the copula (ri) is similar to the difference between the definite and indefinite articles in English: &quot;I am *the* walrus&quot; uses the copula, while &quot;I am *a* jelly doughnut&quot; uses the suffix -(a)ni. The copula equates two things, while the noun-to-verb suffix defines one thing as belonging to a class.

Noun suffixes
 -(a)ka    my
 -(a)ni    to be.
 -(a)t     of (genitive case).
 -(a)va    his, her, its
 -(e)te    your (s.)
 -(l)e     (ergative).
 -(m)u     in, at (locative).
 -(r)i     (plural)

===Adjectives===

Adjectives only have four case suffixes: absolutive, genitive, and ergative cases all take the ending -i. The only other adjective case suffix in this text is -e, which marks the locative case. Adjectives typically follow nouns or other adjectives. Additionally, any adjective root can be used as a main verb. Note that numbers are regular adjectives in Minza, and follow the noun like other adjectives!

Adjective suffixes
 -e    in, at (locative).
 -i    (absolutive, genitive, or ergative).

===Verbs===

The dictionary form of a verb ends in -i; verbs are inflected for person and number of both the subject and the object by adding prefixes, and for aspect by adding suffixes. The third person singular absolutive lacks a prefix. When the subject and object refer to the same thing, a reflexive prefix -n- is added after the subject prefix. There are also numerous derivational suffixes for converting verbs to nouns and adjectives, but the only ones necessary for this text are -as (which forms a noun describing the activity of doing something), -yl (the ergative verbal noun, like English -er), and -yli (the ergative participle, like English -ing).

There are two main aspects in Minza: perfective (-u) and imperfective (-a). The difference is that perfective generally refers to activities in the past or future, seen from outside, or events not specific to time; imperfective refers to ongoing, repeated, or habitual activities at any time. The subjunctive form is used in conjunction with auxiliary verbs, or as a more generic form to soften the effect of words like &quot;maghi&quot; (&quot;ymaghi&quot; could be translated &quot;I would like&quot;, as opposed to &quot;ymagha&quot; which is &quot;I want&quot; or &quot;I am hoping for&quot;). In many cases the subjunctive form is used in situations where other languages would use an infinitive.

Certain auxiliary verbs (smi, &quot;can / is able&quot;, for instance), as well as the copula (ri), are not inflected for aspect, although they do take personal prefixes. In these cases, the -i is not a marker of the subjunctive form, but simply a part of the verb root. The copula is unlike most Minza verbs in that it takes two absolutive arguments.

The auxiliary + main verb construction is frequent in Minza: in many cases, the subject of the auxiliary is shared with the main verb, although the two subjects might not be in the same case. &quot;I want to go&quot; would be translated &quot;I want (imperfective) I go (subjunctive)&quot;, for instance. Some auxiliaries, on the other hand (such as &quot;seiri&quot;) are used without a subject prefix; &quot;seira&quot; might be translated &quot;it is necessary&quot;. Adverbs and other phrases can come between the auxiliary and the main verb, but the subject and other noun phrases go after the main verb.

Although the verb is usually the first element of a sentence, any single phrase can be moved before the verb for variety or emphasis. Generally, though, the noun phrases are left after the verb.

Verb prefixes
 ka-    I/me (1s abs.)
 i-     he, she, it (3s erg.)
 n-     (reflexive)
 na-    you (2s erg.)
 ri-    we/us (1p abs.)
 y-     I (1s erg.)

Verb suffixes
 -a     (imperfective)
 -as    (activity of doing).
 -i     (subjunctive)
 -o     (imperative)
 -u     (perfective)
 -yl    (ergative verbal noun; one who does).
 -yli   (ergative participle).

===Adverbs===

Usually an adverb will come directly after a verb, either a main verb or an auxiliary verb. Many adverbs can also follow adjectives (which in many respects are similar to verbs). Adverbs may be placed before the verb for emphasis or stylistic variation.

===Prepositions===

Prepositions precede nouns, and govern a particular case of the noun. For example, nouns used with the preposition &quot;vyö&quot; (before) are always marked with the locative case suffix. Certain verbs take arguments that require a particular preposition.

===Enclitics and other particles===

Minza has a number of &quot;little words&quot; that pop up in various places. Some of them (such as &quot;łe&quot;, which adds politeness, or &quot;tö&quot; which emphasizes a phrase) are enclitics, which are always placed after the first word in a phrase. There are also clause-initial and clause-final particles; the final particle &quot;ža&quot; acts rather like the French expression &quot;n'est-ce pas?&quot; except that it is pronounced with the inflection of a statement rather than a question. Interjections can be used by themselves.


==Vocabulary==

 adv    adverb (follows verb or auxiliary verb)
 aux    auxiliary verb
 conj   conjunction
 enc    enclitic particle (attached after the first word of a phrase)
 int    interjection
 n0     intransitive noun
 n1     transitive noun (inherently possessed, with its object following in the genitive case)
 p.n.   proper name
 pron   pronoun
 v1     intransitive verb
 v2     transitive verb

 ai       conj and.
 aka      n1 whole, entirety.
 beži     a0 expensive, costly.
 čaghyl   n0 doctor, healer.
 čili     v2 to wear (clothing).
 čui      pron who, what, which?
 de       adv not.
 duri     v2 to listen to.
 đa       conj that, which.
 đevi     v2 to be familiar with, accustomed to.
 đo       prep +LOC during, over (time).
 epi      adv also, too.
 fie      conj namely (used more frequently in Minza than in English).
 fyna     n0 cloth, garment.
 glibi    vt to drink.
 ghovi    adj excessive, too (much).
 i        prep +ABS (vocative)
 igá      int what the ... ?!; what in the world is that?
 jag      n0 date, day, period of planetary rotation
 jex      pron this (the one over here).
 kaini    adv already, yet.
 kali     vi to occur, happen, come to pass.
 kam      pron I, me.
 Konuš    pn Konush (name).
 kö       pron something.
 kövu     n0 woman (adult female human).
 kura     n0 milk.
 lan      n1 head (anat.)
 lašeuna* n0 a clear distilled alcoholic beverage.
 lič      n0 month.
 liši     vt to write.
 loga     n1 name, label.
 lughi    adj holy, sacred.
 ła       conj but (in contrast), on the other hand.
 łe       enc (marker of polite speech)
 maghi    v2 to hope, wish for, desire, want.
 migi     v2 to see.
 mimi     v1 to remain, endure, persist.
 morev    n0 gift, present.
 mozu     n0 baby, infant.
 möghi    v1 to squirm, wriggle.
 nalan    n1 navel.
 nauki    adj following, next.
 nevek    n1 a cause of (an event), reason for.
 nöki     adj much, a lot, many.
 nym      n0 event, occasion.
 nyn      pron that (the one over there).
 omba     adv almost.
 öli      adj any quantity of.
 öyx      pron you (sing.).
 paži     adj eight.
 peš      n0 fiend, monster.
 Petros   pn Peter
 plimi    v2 to be attentive, observant, watchful of; to pay attention.
 raša     n1 child, offspring.
 reki     vt to cut, to slice.
 ri       v1 to be (copula).
 ryl      n0 worm.
 seiri    aux must, have to, need to.
 sina     n0 the past (time).
 šadi*    v2 to call, name.
 šari     v2 to be reasonably certain of; know (facts).
 šoni     v2 to speak, say, talk.
 šöy      adv now.
 šy*      prep +GEN in the manner of; like, as.
 tan'ga   n0 place, location.
 taughi   v2 to push, to press.
 tegi     v2 to avoid.
 teki*    v1 to sit, be (located).
 teski    adj fine, excellent (of superior quality).
 tö       enc (emphatic)
 tuonžan* n0 admiral; general (military rank).
 va       pron he, she, it.
 vigi     adj previous, preceding, last.
 vira     n1 mother.
 vyö      prep +LOC before (in time)
 vyöni    adj ordinary, plain.
 wei      int hey!
 wöli     n0 alcoholic beverage.
 xažla    n0 man (adult male human).
 xisči    v2 to quit, stop, cease.
 xöryk    n1 death.
 xöy      pron Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.; sir, madam
 ze       enc well, anyway, now then, ...
 ziri     v2 to fear, be afraid of.
 zmi      aux can (capable of).
 zörin    n1 string, cord, wire.
 zy       pron the following:
 ža       adv isn't it?
 ži       conj because, since.

* Vocabulary notes

The derivation of &quot;lašeuna&quot; is: laš &quot;fire&quot; + euna &quot;water&quot; (i.e., a clear liquid)

&quot;šadi&quot; (to name) has two core arguments: the namer (ergative) and the one being named (absolutive); the name is an oblique argument, preceded by the preposition &quot;šy&quot;.

&quot;teki&quot; has a number of idiomatic uses; in this text, &quot;teki&quot; along with a pronoun in the locative case might best be translated as &quot;have&quot;.

The derivation of &quot;tuonžan&quot; is tuon &quot;overall, general&quot; + žan &quot;military officer&quot;.

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Minza]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taalen Phonology</title>
    <id>1968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40513</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-05T03:24:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dauyn</username>
        <id>80</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Mutations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Phonology=
==Phonemic Inventory==


===Consonants===
The Taalen phonemic inventory contains 21 consonants. There are bilabial, alveolar, and velar stops, occurring in aspirated and non-aspirated pairs, as well as the single glottal stop. Of these six, the three non-aspirated stops, '''p t k''', are realized as voiced stops in free variation. 


The language contains the voiced, and unvoiced, bilabial, alveolar, and velar nasal sonorants as well, '''m n ŋ m̥ n̥ ŋ̥'''. Of these, '''n''' may appear as a syllabic resonant, '''n̩'''. When subject to the Aspirate mutation, the nasals usually realize as their voiceless counterparts. 


The single alveolar tap '''ɾ''' may also be realized as the alveolar approximant '''ɹ''' in some dialects. 


There are four unvoiced fricatives: the alveolar '''s''', the post-alveolar '''ʃ''', the glottal '''h''', and the lateral '''ɬ'''. Of these, the glottal fricative '''h''' appears as '''ç''' near the front vowels '''i''' and '''e''' (or their lax counterparts), and often as '''x''' when final. The occasionally occurring palatized alveolar fricative '''sʲ''' is usually realized as the post-alveolar fricative '''ʃ'''. 


The approximant inventory consists of a voiced bilabial or labio-velar '''w''', a voiced palatal '''j''', and the alveolar lateral approximant '''l'''. The lateral approximant may also appear as a syllabic resonant '''l̩''', and when pre-aspirated, becomes the voiceless lateral fricative. 


Finally, Taalen contains 3 unvoiced affricates, the laminodental '''tθ''', the alveolar '''ts''', and the lateral '''tɬ'''. 


The full phonemic consonant inventory can be summarized in the table below:

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; border=1
! || Bilabial || Dental || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal 
|- align=&quot;center&quot; 
| '''Stop''' || '''pʰ p''' || || || '''tʰ t''' || || '''kʰ k''' || '''ʔ'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Nasal''' || '''m m̥''' || || || '''n n̥''' || || || '''ŋ ŋ̥''' ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Tap''' || || || || '''ɾ''' || || || ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Fricative''' || || || || '''s''' || '''ʃ''' || ||  '''h'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Lat. Fric.''' || || || || '''ɬ''' || || || ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Approximant''' || '''w''' || || || || '''j''' || ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Lat. App.''' || || || || '''l''' || || || ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Affricate''' || || '''tθ''' || '''ts''' || || || || ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Lat. Aff.''' || || || || '''tɬ''' || || || ||
|}

There are morphological and composition process that can change the phonetic realization of the consonantal phonemes; these are discussed in the Transformations section.

===Vowels===
Taalen makes use of a simple 6-vowel system:

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; border=1
! || '''Front''' || || '''Central''' || || '''Back'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''High''' || '''i''' || || || || '''u''' 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Mid''' || || '''e''' || || '''o''' ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Low-mid''' || || || '''ʌ'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Low''' || || || '''a''' || ||
|}

The Low-mid unrounded vowel '''ʌ''' is usually nasalized, as in Cherokee.


A single resonant may also be syllabic: '''n̩''' as in English ''button''.


Vowel length is not phonemic, though stressed vowels tend to be held longer, and unstressed vowels tend to be weakened.


Before clusters (i.e. pre-aspirated or pre-nasalized consonants, consonants followed by a glide + vowel, glottal stop + consonant), high and mid vowels tend to realize as their lax counterparts:

'''i''' &gt; '''ɪ''',   '''e''' &gt; '''ɛ''',   '''u''' &gt; '''ʊ''',   '''o''' &gt; '''ɔ'''


===Diphthongs===
There are eight diphthongs, all falling: '''aj''', '''ej''', '''oj''', '''ʌj''', '''aw''', '''ew''', '''ow''', and '''ʌw'''. The diphthongs in '''ʌ''' maintain the phoneme's nasalization throughout.


==Phonotactics==
Syllables generally begin with any single consonant or any consonant followed by a glide. The latter are uncommon, and subject to the following rules:

• a glide cannot follow another glide or a glottal stop in the same syllable: *'''jwa''' and *'''ʔja''' are both impossible.

• '''s''' and '''ʃ''' cannot be followed by '''j'''. In composition, they both become '''ʃ'''.


Only initial syllables can have null onsets, i.e. begin with a vowel. Vowels may not remain in hiatus;  they will become a diphthong, the initial high vowel will be fortified to a glide, or a glottal stop will be inserted. 


Syllabic nuclei consist of a single vowel, a diphthong, or the rare syllabic resonant '''n̩''' (which is always preceded by '''ʔ'''). 


In the coda of initial or internal syllables, only a nasal, '''h''', '''l''', '''s''', or '''ʔ''' may appear. These phonemes interact with the consonants of following syllables in complex ways, in effect limiting medial clusters; these phonological changes are discussed below. 


In word final syllables, the consonants '''ʃ''' and '''ɬ''' may also appear.


The syllable of Taalen may thus appear as CV, CVC, VC, or V, where V is any possible nucleus.

==Prosody==
===Stress===
Taalen words are regularly stressed on the penultimate syllable. Suffixes may cause the stress to shift.


===Weight===
Taalen prosodics divide syllables into rising, falling, and balanced. Rising syllables are open and do not contain a diphthong, while balanced syllables are open and do contain a diphthong. Falling syllables are closed syllables.

A syllable is considered light if it is open and does not contain a diphthong. All other syllables are considered heavy.

• '''pʰi''' is rising &lt;br&gt;
• '''tew''' is balanced &lt;br&gt;
• '''kel''' is falling &lt;br&gt;

The the syllables of the name '''so.wʌ.ɾan.das''' are rising, rising, falling, and falling respectively, for example.


==Mutations==
Taalen is rich in transformation, a common result of any polysynthetic typology. There are five primary types of mutation that affect consonants: aspirate, nasal, lateral, sibilant, and glottal. Two other common mutations affect vowels and diphthongs: diphthongization, which includes the change of consonants into vowels, and simplification, which concerns diphthongs becoming simple vowels in specific environments. The first five transformations are named according to the class of phoneme which trigger them, and are distinct from the usual terms. That is, the aspirate transformation is not similar or related to aspiration. Where there is another term widely used in linguistic works, it will be noted, but even these other terms are rarely precise descriptions. It is for this reason that the native Taalen terms are used instead.


These processes are phonological in nature, though there are morphemes that exist only as manifestations of these mutations. Because of the nature of some morphemes, it can be difficult to see this, as the surface realization of a particular marker might only be a subtle transformation.


These mutations, unlike the Celtic types or Sanskrit's sandhi, apply only within a single word. A word ending in '''s''' preceding a word starting with another consonant will not cause the Sibilant mutation to apply.


The mutations are discussed using standard Taalen [[Taalen_Writing#Romanization|romanization]]. If the triggering phoneme does not appear in the result (i.e. after the &quot;&gt;&quot;), it disappears after causing its changes. Compensatory lengthening is often a by-product of the mutations; these are marked with '''+''', and the process itself is discussed under Diphthongization. 

===Aspirate===
Also called pre-aspiration, the Aspirate mutation is generally the result of contact with a syllable final '''h'''. It causes the following changes:

- Aspirated stops, glides, the glottal fricative, and the alveolar and lateral affricates show no change: '''p t k w y h ts tl''' &gt; '''hp ht hk hw hy h hts htl'''&lt;br&gt;
- Non-aspirated stops become aspirated: '''b d g''' &gt; '''hp ht hk'''&lt;br&gt;
- Nasals become pre-aspirated or voiceless, depending on dialect: '''m n ñ''' &gt; '''hm hn hñ'''&lt;br&gt;
- The glottal stop is lost: ''' ' ''' &gt; '''h'''&lt;br&gt;
- Laterals become the lateral fricative: '''l lh''' &gt; '''lh'''&lt;br&gt;
- The tap become an aspirated alveolar stop: '''r''' &gt; '''ht'''&lt;br&gt;
- Sibilants become an alveolar affricate: '''s sh''' &gt; '''hts'''&lt;br&gt;
- The laminodental affricate becomes the aspirated alveolar stop: '''th''' &gt; '''ht'''&lt;br&gt;

When a morpheme ends in one consonant, and is followed by '''h''' in a subsequent morpheme, the Aspirate mutation applies, in a way somewhat similar to '''h'''-metathesis. Certain word initial morphemes also cause this mutation, though the '''h''' that triggers the mutation never appears with occlusives (i.e. '''b th''' &gt; '''p t''', not '''hp ht'''), only with resonants ('''hm hn hñ hw hy''').

===Nasal===
The Nasal mutation, sometimes called pre-nasalization, is the result of consonant contact with a nasal. The nasal generally assimilates homorganically.

- Aspirated stop are deaspirated (and/or voiced): '''p t k''' &gt; '''mb nd ñg'''&lt;br&gt;
- Unaspirated stops become nasals: '''b d g''' &gt; '''m n ñ'''&lt;br&gt;
- Glides are unaffected: '''w y''' &gt; '''ñw ny'''&lt;br&gt;
- The glottal stop is lost: ''' ' ''' &gt; '''n''' &lt;br&gt;
- Liquids and the alveolar tap become the lateral affricate: '''l lh r''' &gt; '''+tl''' &lt;br&gt;
- Sibilants become the alveolar affricate: '''s sh''' &gt; '''+ts''' &lt;br&gt;
- The glottal fricative becomes a voiceless nasal: '''h''' &gt; '''hn''' &lt;br&gt;
- Nasals and affricates result in compensatory lengthening alone: see Diphthongization&lt;br&gt;

Certain morphemes cause this mutation initially and disappear. As with the Aspirate mutation, the nasal itself only appears initially with resonants. 

===Lateral===
The Lateral mutation occurs with contact with the laterals '''l lh''' and the alveolar tap '''r'''. It is the most likely mutation to cause no effect other than compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding the sonorant.

- Aspirated stops are deaspirated: '''p t k''' &gt; '''+b +d+ +g'''&lt;br&gt;
- Unaspirated stops , nasals, and affricates show no affect: '''b d g m n ñ ts tl th''' &gt; '''+b +d +g +m +n +ñ +ts +tl +th'''&lt;br&gt;
- Glides create clusters with the lateral approximant: '''w y''' &gt; '''lw ly'''&lt;br&gt;
- The glottal stop, the tap, and the glottal fricative become the lateral affricate: ''' ' r h''' &gt; '''tl'''&lt;br&gt;
- Liquids become the lateral approximant: '''l lh''' &gt; '''+l'''&lt;br&gt;
- Sibilants become the alveolar affricate: '''s sh''' &gt; '''ts'''&lt;br&gt;

===Sibilant===
Contact with the sibilants '''s''' and '''sh''' causes the Sibilant mutation, as one might expect. It is very similar to the Aspirate mutation, and in some dialects, has disaapeared entirely in favor of the Aspirate.

- All non-glottal stops become pre-aspirated aspirates: '''p t k b d g''' &gt; '''hp ht hk hp ht hk'''&lt;br&gt;
- Nasals are pre-aspirated or devoiced: '''m n ñ''' &gt; '''hm hn hñ'''&lt;br&gt;
- The labiovelar glide is pre-aspirated, while the palatal becomes the postalveolar fricative: '''w y''' &gt; '''hw sh'''&lt;br&gt;
- The glottal stop becomes the alveolar affricate: ''' ' ''' &gt; '''ts'''&lt;br&gt;
- Liquids become the lateral fricative: '''l lh''' &gt; '''lh'''&lt;br&gt;
- The tap becomes a pre-aspirated aspirated alveolar stop : '''r''' &gt; '''ht'''&lt;br&gt;
- Sibilants and the glottal fricative all become the postalveolar fricative: '''s sh h''' &gt; '''sh'''&lt;br&gt;
- Alveolar and lateral affricates are pre-aspirated: '''ts tl''' &gt; '''hts htl'''&lt;br&gt;
- The laminodental affricate becomes the aspirated alveolar stop: '''th''' &gt; '''ht'''&lt;br&gt;

Affricates and stops lose the '''h''' when occurring initially as the result of a sibilant morpheme.

===Glottal===


===Lengthening &amp; Diphthongization===
The most common and complex mutation, vocalization is the primary means by which medial clusters are simplified in Taalen. In addition to voiced consonants becoming vowels, unvoiced consonants usually cause other changes. Some vowels arise simply as a result of compensatory lengthening, which is not technically vocalization, but has been classed as such by the Elder grammarians. In a similar vein, some consonants do not vocalize, but aspirate or otherwise mutate eiether themselves of consecutive consonants or vowels, and these are classed as vocalization mutations as well.

The diphthong-rich vocabulary of Taalen owes much of it's existence to this mutation historically. Many of the non-voiced phonemes caused compensatory lengthening (noted as ''Long'' in the summary below), prior to the breaking of long vowels into diphthongs. Here is a characteristic example:

''rag-'' 'to carry' 

with

''-de'' a resultative suffix

becomes

''raede'' /ɾəɪ.dɛ/ : stative verb 'to be borne, carried'


===Simplification===


===Summary of Consonant Mutations===
{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; border=1
!| '''Phoneme''' || '''Aspirate''' || '''Nasal''' || '''Lateral''' || '''Sibilant''' || '''Glottal'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| p t k || hp ht hk || mb nd ñg || +b +d+ +g || hp ht hk ||  
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| b d g || hp ht hk || m n ñ || +b +d+ +g || hp ht hk || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| m n ñ || hm hn hñ || +m +n +ñ || +m +n +ñ || hm hn hñ ||  
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| w || hw || ñw || lw || hw || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| y || hy || ny || ly || sh || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| ' || h || n || tl || ts ||
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| l lh || lh || +tl || +l || lh || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| r || ht || +tl || tl || ht || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| s sh || hts || +ts || ts || sh || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| h || h || hn || tl || sh || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| ts || hts || +ts || +ts || hts || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| tl || htl || +tl || +tl || hts ||  
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| th || ht || +th || +th || ht ||
|}

=Links=
[[Taalen|Taalen Ethnography]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Taalen_Writing|Taalen Writing]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Taalen_Morphology|Taalen Morphology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Toma Heylm</title>
    <id>1969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Details for the [[Toma Heylm]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

==The text==

akot edra ey anyelis tamya.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;anya, file!  lo sokril simelal!  eff tisanot kipayu nes oleye efim.  lo delye silkot oriya syin simelalu.&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff tisanyik dampeyu edra&quot;.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;aa?&quot;.

syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure?&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi kakrot lek.  lo sokril filet.  file!&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok sipoyu, lir syim delye mi marelis&quot;.

syin anya seta tamot &quot;sem seta tomyok!&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;haya efim, lo delye datil lek tef operu yiv &quot;Cunux&quot;, tal sem ey sureli&quot;.

syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure dava keryik?  eff seta sipil fhasayu tamamelis&quot;.

syin kusot seta tomil &quot;eff kardot kastet hiya biliyu&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;tarya eff delye elyik dodeyi, eff delye kupra, lir Petra delye haldyik operu efim.  eff sokryok bolgeyu lir syin sipetu, rel eff delye sipyok lek rumiyu&quot;.

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi tulyik lek yiv kuyon la yumela&quot;.

syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok topayu mini fhasa seta fharot dolva okostel.&quot;

syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.

elyi seta peyrai yumola kareli &quot;syin kipa seta tomil 'edra seta todat rigeli'&quot;.

==Interlinear==

   akot edra ey  anyelis tamya.
   N.f  ADJ  COP ADJ.f   ADV

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f    3.p MOD  MOD V.pl      

   syin kusot seta tomil &quot;anya, file!  lo  sokril simelal!  eff tisanot kipayu 
   ART  N.f   MOD  V.f    N.f   V.imp  2.s V.f    V.inf     1.s V.f     N.f.ACC
   
   nes  oleye    efim.    lo  delye silkot oriya syin simelalu.&quot;
   PREP INST.N.? 1.s.GEN  2.s MOD   V.f    ADV   ART  V.inf.ACC

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f    3.p MOD  MOD V.pl     

   syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff tisanyik dampeyu edra&quot;.
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    1.s V.m      N.m.ACC ADJ 

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;aa?&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f   INTERJ

   syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure?&quot;.
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    N.m  

   syin kusot seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi  kakrot lek.  lo sokril filet.  file!&quot;
   ART  N.f   MOD  V.f    2.s MOD  MOD V.f    ADV   2.s V.f   V.inf   V.imp

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f    2.p MOD  MOD V.pl     

   syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok sipoyu, lir syim delye mi marelis&quot;.
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    1.s V.m     N.f.ACC CONJ ART MOD  MOD ADJ.f   

   syin anya seta tamot &quot;sem seta tomyok!&quot;.
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    3.s.m MOD V.m    

   syin kipa seta tomil &quot;haya efim,   lo  delye datil lek tef     operu   yiv 
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    N.f  1.s.GEN 2.s MOD   V.f   ADV 1.s.DAT N.m.ACC PREP 
   
   &quot;Cunux&quot;, tal  sem   ey  sureli&quot;.
   name     CONJ 3.s.m COP ADJ.m  

   syin anya seta tomil &quot;ure dava keryik?  eff seta sipil fhasayu tamamelis&quot;.
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    N.m MOD  V.m      1.s MOD  V.f   N.f.ACC ADJ.f    

   syin kusot seta tomil &quot;eff kardot kastet hiya biliyu&quot;.
   ART  N.f   MOD  V.f    1.s V.f    V.inf  ADV  N..m.ACC

   syin kipa seta tomil &quot;tarya eff delye elyik dodeyi, eff delye kupra, lir Petra
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    ADV   1.s MOD   V.m   ADJ.m   1.s MOD   N.m    CONJ name
   
   delye haldyik operu   efim.   eff sokryok bolgeyu lir syin sipetu,   rel  eff
   MOD   V.m     N.m.ACC 1.s.GEN 1.s V.m     N.m.ACC CONJ ART V.inf.ACC CONJ 1.s
   
   delye sipyok lek rumiyu&quot;.
   MOD   V.m    ADV N.m.ACC

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lo delye mi tulyik lek yiv  kuyon la   yumela&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f    2.s MOD  MOD V.m   ADV PREP N.f   PREP LOC.N.f 

   syin kipa seta tomil &quot;eff sokryok minu    topa fhasayi seta fharot dolva 
   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    1.s V.m     REL.ACC N.f  N.f.GEN MOD  V.f    NUM   
   
   okostel.&quot;
   INST.N.f

   syin rigyana seta tomil &quot;lhi delye sa testdre!&quot;.
   ART  N.f     MOD  V.f    3.p MOD  MOD V.pl     

   elyi seta peyrai yumola  kareli &quot;syin kipa seta tomil 'edra seta todat 
   3.p  MOD  V.pl   LOC.N.m ADJ.m   ART  N.f  MOD  V.f    ADJ  MOD  N.m   
   
   rigeli'&quot;.
   ADJ.m  

==Vocabulary==

   aa?	an exclamation of surprise
   akot	n. story (f)
   anya	n. woman (f)
   anyeli	adj. marvelous
   bili	n. umbilical cord (m)
   bolge	n. monster, demon (m)
   Cunux	a foreign name
   dampe	n. world (m)
   datet	v. to give
   dava	imperfective modal
   delye	irrealis/future modal
   dodeyi	adj. dead
   dolva	numeral eight
   edra	adj. this
   eff	pron. 1st person sing. nom.
   efim	pron. 1st person sing. gen.
   elal	v. to become
   elyi	pron. 3rd person pl. nom.
   ey		copula (v. to be)
   fharal	v. to ripen, to ferment
   fhasa	n. wine (f)
   filet	v. to push
   haldal	v. to honor
   haya	n. mother (f)
   hiya	adv. now
   kakral	v. to fear
   kardal	v. to be able
   kareli	adj. next, following
   kastet	v. to cut
   keral	v. to happen, take place
   kipa	n. baby (f)
   kostel	n. month (f)
   kupra	n. military general (m)
   kusot	n. midwife (f)
   kuyon	n. fish (f)
   la		prep. on; takes locative
   lek	adv. not
   leye	n. eye (m)
   lhi	pron. 2nd person pl. nom.
   lir	conj. and
   lo		pron. 2nd person sing. nom.
   mareli	adj. sturdy, well-made
   mela	n. dock (f)
   mi		delye mi: should
   min	relative particle; see grammar notes
   mola	n. day (m)
   nes	prep. with; takes instrumental
   oriya	adv. soon
   oper	n. name (m)
   Petra	Peter
   peyet	v. to write
   rel	conj. but
   rigeli	adj. sacred
   rigyana	n. priestess, wisewoman (f)
   rumi	n. milk (m)
   sa		delye sa: optative mood
   sem	pron. 3rd person sing. nom. (m)
   seta	past-tense modal
   silkal	v. to complete
   simelal	v. to give birth
   sipo	n. blanket (f)
   sipet	v. to drink
   sokret	v. to need
   sureli	adj. ordinary, common
   syim	pron. 3rd person sing. nom. (f)
   syin	definite article
   tal	conj. for, because
   tamal	v. to shout, to scream words
   tamameli	adj. too much
   tamya	adv. much, very
   tarya	adv. when
   tef	pron. 1st person sing. dative
   testyal	v. to hope.  Plural form testdre.
   tisanal	v. to see
   todat	n. gift (m)
   tomet	v. to say, to speak
   topa	n. cup (f)
   tulal	v. to flop about
   ure	n. what (m)
   yiv	prep. like

==Grammar Notes==

I hope I didn't leave any words or affixes out!  If I did they may be in
the glossary linked from [http://www.quandary.org/~langs/toma/grammar/ Grammar of Toma Heylm].

Grammar notes (longer version with charts at the above URL):

   Word order is SVO.  

   Articles, number and prepositions precede nouns, and adjectives follow them.  
   Nouns have gender, but it is not marked on the nouns; it is marked on the 
   adjectives that modify them and the verbs for which they are the subject.

   Nouns inflect for case, of which there are seven (nominative, accusative,
   genitive, dative, instrumental, locative, causative).  Inflection is by a 
   mix of prefixes and suffixes according to the following chart:
   
           Nominative     [none]     shadow - edior world - dampe
           Accusative     -u, -yu        edioru        dampeyu
            Genitive      -i, -yi        ediori        dampeyi
             Dative       a-, ay-       ayedior        adampe
          Instrumental    o-, oy-       oyedior        odampe
            Locative     uy-, yu-       uyedior        yudampe
           Causative     hi-, iy-       iyedior        hidampe

   Pronouns inflect irregularly for case and are given in their inflected
   forms in the vocabulary. 

   Adjectives follow the noun and agree with it in gender (if singular)
   or number (if plural).  In the singular, no suffix indicates a male 
   noun, and -s indicates a female noun.  -d indicates a plural noun.   

   Adjectives can modify a noun or be the object of the copula.

   Verbs come in two flavors, -et and -al.  In this dialect, there is an
   imperative form created by dropping the final consonant.  Verbs decline 
   for gender and/or number as follows (chart best viewed in non-proportional 
   font):
   
                             Verbs in -al     Verbs in -et
   
      infinitive           to see - tisanal  to go - dimitet
      imperative           tisana!           dimite!
      male                 tisanyik          dimityok
      female               tisanot           dimitil
      plural               tisandre          dimitrai

   Modals precede verbs, and adverbs follow them.  Verbs conjugate for gender
   or number of the subject (gender if singular, number if plural).  Tense,
   mood, and aspect are indicated by the modals.  Verbs in the infinitive
   can follow the conjugated verb to modify it.

   The modal verb system is based on the three-part Creole system:
   
     * seta indicates past tense.
     * delye indicates irrealis mode, and has its own auxiliary particles
       to indicate certain moods; it is used for future events, probable,
       potential, wished-for, hypothetical, conditional, and
       &quot;coulda/shoulda/woulda&quot; constructions.
     * dava indicates imperfective aspect, including progressive,
       iterative, and habitual aspects.
   
   The modals always appear in the order &quot;seta delye dava&quot;.  No modals
   indicates non-past indicative, aka the simple present.  All three 
   modals would indicate &quot;would have been doing&quot;, or &quot;was about to be
   doing&quot;, or &quot;intended to be doing&quot;...

   The copula, ey, disappears in the presence of modals.  Therefore, 
   modals without a verb after them should be considered a form of the
   copula.  Since the copula is considered naturally imperfective, dava 
   is not used with it.

   Adverbs usually end in &quot;ya&quot;.  Some adverbs have comparative and 
   superlative forms, which are listed in the vocabulary where appropriate.

   Verb phrases can be nominalized by putting the definite article 
   &quot;syin&quot; before the verb, which then takes noun case marking.  The 
   former object of the verb takes genitive case.

   When quoting speech, the speech verb will agree in gender with the noun 
   used as the subject.  If that is different from the speaker's natural 
   gender, then any &quot;I-sentences&quot; within the quoted speech will be at variance 
   with the artificial gender of the speech verb.
   
   For example, if quoting a female farmer, one would write:
   
      Syin pason seta tomyok, &quot;Eff delye tandot dereval tam herimu&quot;.
      ART  N.m   MOD  V.m      1s  MOD   V.f    V.inf   PL  N-ACC
      The  farmer did say(male), &quot;I will make(female) to bloom the flowers&quot;.

   The particle &quot;sil&quot; begins nominal clauses such as &quot;that the flowers are red&quot;.

   Relative clauses are a different matter.  Toma Heylm has internally 
   headed relative clauses.  This is very different from the way which 
   English does things.  For example:
   
      I see the woman
      eff    tisanot syin anya-yu
      I(NOM) see(f)  the  woman-ACC
   
      The woman gives a book to the man
      syin anya       datil   mind-u   syin ay-alam
      the  woman(NOM) give(f) book-ACC the  DAT-man
   
      I see the woman who gives a book to the man
      eff    tisanot [min-u   syin anya       datil   mind-u   syin ay-alam]
      I(NOM) see(f)  [REL_ACC the  woman(NOM) give(f) book-ACC the  DAT-man]
   
      I see the man to whom the woman gives a book
      eff    tisanot [syin anya       datil   mind-u   min-u   syin ay-alam]
      I(NOM) see(f)  [the  woman(NOM) give(f) book-ACC REL-ACC the  DAT-man]
   
      I see the book which the woman gives to the man
      eff    tisanot [syin anya       datil   min-u   mind-u   syin ay-alam]
      I(NOM) see(f)  [the  woman(NOM) give(f) REL_ACC book-ACC the  DAT-man]
   
      The woman who gives the book to the man sees me
      [min syin anya       datil   mind-u   syin ay-alam] tisanot lifa
      [REL the  woman(NOM) give(f) book-ACC the  DAT-man] see(f)  me(ACC)
   
      The man to whom the woman gives a book sees me
      [syin anya       datil   mind-u   min syin ay-alam] tisanyik lifa
      [the  woman(ACC) give(f) book-ACC REL the  DAT-man] see(m)   me(ACC)
   
      The book which the woman gives to the man is about me
      [syin anya       datil   min mind-u   syin ay-alam] sayok       lifa
      [the  woman(NOM) give(f) REL book-ACC the  DAT-man] be.about(m) me(ACC)
   
      I give the book the woman saw to the man
      eff    datil   [syin anya       seta tisanot min-u   syin mind-u]   syin ay-alam
      I(NOM) give(f) [the  woman(NOM) did  see(f)  REL-ACC the  book-ACC] the  DAT-man
   
      I give the book to the man the woman saw
      eff    datil   syin mindu    [syin anya       seta tisanot a-min   syin alam-u]
      I(NOM) give(f) the  book-ACC [the  woman(NOM) did  see(f)  DAT-REL the  man-ACC]
   
   The relativizer min comes directly before the internal head noun of the 
   relative clause.  It gets the case marking that the head noun would have
   had in the OUTER sentence; the head noun retains the case marking that it 
   gets in the INNER sentence.  (Backwards of the way Russian does it.)

Charts of verb conjugations, noun declensions, and the pronoun matrix can 
be seen at [http://www.quandary.org/~langs/toma/grammar/ Grammar of Toma Heylm].

==Smooth Translation==

This story is very marvelous.

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Woman, push!  You need to give birth!  I see the baby with my eyes.  You will soon complete the birth.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Huh?&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife said &quot;You should not fear.  You need to push.  Push!&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a blanket, and it should be well-made.&quot;

The woman shouted, &quot;He spoke!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;My mother, you will not give me a name like 'Cunux', because it is ordinary.&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What is happening?  I have drunk too much wine.&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Now I am able to cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;When I should die [lit: become dead], I would be a military general, and Peter will honor my name.  I need a monster and a drink, but I won't drink milk.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on the dock.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a cup of wine that has fermented eight months.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

They wrote the next day, &quot;The baby said 'This was a sacred gift'.&quot;

Back to [[Conlang Relay 12]]

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Toma Heylm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Wenedyk</title>
    <id>1970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Details for the [[Wenedyk]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

=== IŁ ŚPIECZE I PARŁA?! ===

; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Miedziek:   Brzosar, kieru donie, w donia brzosarszy! Kieru, kieru, ża posu widziar kapu nieparłarzu. Awie donia tot przeście ża po sie.
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Nieparłarz: No no, kódże, jo posu widziar łok wądź nu ździem.
; Miedziek:   A dzabeł!
; Fiemnia:    Kód pasie?
; Miedziek:   W donia szy nie trzebdar. Fali brzosar, kieru donie, brzosar fali!
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!
; Nieparłarz: Jo włu alkód awieścier, no. Ej, su syt a protar karze szmacie!
; Fiemnia:    Ił pocie parłar.
; Nieparłarz: Uszkiełtaż tu, macierz. Jo su twej nat. Maż nie włu apiołar sie &quot;Konórz&quot;, no nie no, nąk łu jest mółt trów rodnarz.
; Fiemnia:    Łu jest prostokód jo trów mółt biewszy, wiartać? Szy ił nieparłarz parła?
; Miedziek:   Stawiecz partalaru li kroda węblikała.
; Nieparłarz: Przej mroci świe fy generał, szczycie. Maż protu bon nomię, nonialemięć, &quot;Piotr&quot; sie apiołu. I biar mi sie włu, kura, maż nułu łacy nie włu!
; Miedziek:   Piotrze, parsta ża śrepiętar komód wrzem, tu!
; Nieparłarz: Par wółćmie ocu miesiu nie biewa akwiały...
; Maszkieł:   Parświara!

Postru dzei skrzywie skrzyptórz: ''&quot;NIEPARŁARZ PARŁĘĆ! ŁU DON DZIEWIN!&quot;''

=== HE LOOKS AND TALKS?! ===

; Man:    Keep up!
; Doctor: Press, madam, you must press! Now look here, I can see the baby's head already. Soon you will have everything behind you.
; Man:    Keep up!
; Baby:   Well, hey, I can see the place where we are.
; Doctor: Oh hell!
; Woman:  What happened?
; Doctor: Please don't worry. You need to press, madam, you must press!
; Man:    Keep up!
; Baby:   I want to put on something, okay? Hey, I'm used to wearing expensive stuff!
; Woman:  He can talk.
; Baby:   Listen up, mother. I am your child. But I don't want to be called &quot;Konórz&quot;, oh no, because that is way too ordinary.
; Woman:  It is because I drank too much, right? Is this baby talking?
; Doctor: Now I will cut through his umbical chord.
; Baby:   Before my death I was a general, you know. And I carry a good name, namely, my name is &quot;Piotr&quot;. And I would like a drink, dammit, but I don't want any milk!
; Doctor: Piotr, stop squirming like a worm, you!
; Baby:   I haven't had any vodka for eight months...
; Man:    Keep up!

The next day, the writer writes: ''&quot;A TALKING BABY! A GIFT FROM GOD!&quot;''

=== Glossary ===

'''a''' (prep.) to, unto, on, at
&lt;br&gt;'''akwiała''' (f.) vodka
&lt;br&gt;'''alkód''' (pron.indef.) something
&lt;br&gt;'''apiołar''' (v.) to name, to call
&lt;br&gt;'''awiar''' (v.) to have
&lt;br&gt;'''awieścier''' (v.) to don, to dress, to clothe
&lt;br&gt;'''biar''' (v.) to drink
&lt;br&gt;'''bon''' (adj.) good
&lt;br&gt;'''brzosar''' (v.) to press, to push
&lt;br&gt;'''don''' (n.) gift, present
&lt;br&gt;'''donia''' (f.) lady, Mrs., you (polite form, to a woman)
&lt;br&gt;'''dzabeł''' (m.) devil
&lt;br&gt;'''dzej''' (m.) day
&lt;br&gt;'''dziewin''' (adj.) divine, godly
&lt;br&gt;'''ej''' (intj.) hey!
&lt;br&gt;'''fali''' (v.impers.) it is necessary
&lt;br&gt;'''fiemnia''' (f.) woman
&lt;br&gt;'''fy''': perf.1/3.sg. of '''szer'''
&lt;br&gt;'''generał''' (m.) (military) general
&lt;br&gt;'''i''' (conj.) and
&lt;br&gt;'''ił''' (pron.dem.) this, that
&lt;br&gt;'''ił''' (pron.pers.) he
&lt;br&gt;'''jest''': pres.3.sg. of '''szer'''
&lt;br&gt;'''jo''' (pron.pers.) I
&lt;br&gt;'''kapu''' (n.) head
&lt;br&gt;'''kar''' (adj.) dear, expensive
&lt;br&gt;'''kieru''' (v.) please (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''komód''' (adv.) how, as, if, like
&lt;br&gt;'''Konórz''' (m.) Konórz (name)
&lt;br&gt;'''kód''' (pron.int.) what
&lt;br&gt;'''kódże''' (intj.) whatever, anything (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''kroda''' (f.) string
&lt;br&gt;'''kura''' (f.) care (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''li''': dat.sg. of '''ił''' (2)
&lt;br&gt;'''łac''' (n.) milk
&lt;br&gt;'''łok''' (m.) place, location
&lt;br&gt;'''łu''' (pron.pers.) it
&lt;br&gt;'''macierz''' (f.) mother
&lt;br&gt;'''maszkieł''' (m.) man
&lt;br&gt;'''maż''' (conj.) but, and
&lt;br&gt;'''mi''': dat.sg. of '''jo'''
&lt;br&gt;'''miedziek''' (m.) doctor, physician
&lt;br&gt;'''mieś''' (f.) month
&lt;br&gt;'''mółt''' (adj./adv.) many, much, very
&lt;br&gt;'''mroć''' (f.) death
&lt;br&gt;'''nat''' (m.) child
&lt;br&gt;'''nąk''' (conj.) because
&lt;br&gt;'''nie''' (adv.) not
&lt;br&gt;'''nie''' (intj.) no
&lt;br&gt;'''nieparłarz''' (m.) baby
&lt;br&gt;'''no''' (intj.) now, well, so
&lt;br&gt;'''nomię''' (n.) name
&lt;br&gt;'''nonialemięć''' (adv.) namely, that is, i.e.
&lt;br&gt;'''nu''' (pron.pers.) we
&lt;br&gt;'''nuł''' (adj.) no, not a single
&lt;br&gt;'''ocu''' (num.) eight
&lt;br&gt;'''par''' (prep.) through
&lt;br&gt;'''parłar''' (v.) to talk, to speak
&lt;br&gt;'''parstar''' (v.) to stop
&lt;br&gt;'''parświarar''' (v.) to persevere, to endure, to keep up
&lt;br&gt;'''partalar''' (v.) to cut through
&lt;br&gt;'''pasar''' (v.) to happen
&lt;br&gt;'''Piotr''' (m.) Peter (name)
&lt;br&gt;'''po''' (prep.) behind, after
&lt;br&gt;'''pocier''' (v.) can, to be able
&lt;br&gt;'''posu''': pres.1.sg. of '''pocier'''
&lt;br&gt;'''pościór''', gen. '''postru''' (adj.) next, following
&lt;br&gt;'''prostokód''' (conj.) because
&lt;br&gt;'''protar''' (v.) to wear, to carry
&lt;br&gt;'''przej''' (prep.) before, in front of
&lt;br&gt;'''przeście''' (adv.) almost
&lt;br&gt;'''rodnarz''' (adj.) normal, ordinary
&lt;br&gt;'''sie''' (pron.refl.) oneself
&lt;br&gt;'''skrzyptórz''' (m.) writer
&lt;br&gt;'''skrzywier''' (v.) to write
&lt;br&gt;'''stawiecz''' (adv.) now
&lt;br&gt;'''su''': pres.1.sg. of '''szer'''
&lt;br&gt;'''swej''' (pron.poss.) one's own
&lt;br&gt;'''syt a''' (adj.) used to, accustomed to
&lt;br&gt;'''szczer''' ('''szczycie''') (v.) to know
&lt;br&gt;'''szer''' (v.) to be
&lt;br&gt;'''szmata''' (f.) rag (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''szy''' (conj.) whether, if; particle introducing a question
&lt;br&gt;'''śpieczer''' (v.) to look, to watch
&lt;br&gt;'''śrepiętar''' (v.) to squirm
&lt;br&gt;'''świe''': f.gen.sg. of '''swej'''
&lt;br&gt;'''tot''' (adj.) each, every
&lt;br&gt;'''tot''' (pron.int.) everything
&lt;br&gt;'''trów''' (adv.) too, too much
&lt;br&gt;'''trzebdar''' (v.) to fear, to be afraid
&lt;br&gt;'''tu''' (pron.pers.) you, thou
&lt;br&gt;'''twej''' (pron.poss.) your, thy
&lt;br&gt;'''uszkiełtar''' (v.) to listen
&lt;br&gt;'''w''' (particle) (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''wądź''' (adv.) where
&lt;br&gt;'''węblikał''' (adj.) navel, umbilical
&lt;br&gt;'''wiartać''' (f.) truth
&lt;br&gt;'''widziar''' (v.) to see
&lt;br&gt;'''wlar''' (v.) to want (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''włu''': pres.1/3.sg. of '''wlar'''
&lt;br&gt;'''wółcim, -ćma''' (adj.) last
&lt;br&gt;'''wrzem''' (m.) worm
&lt;br&gt;'''ździar''' (v.) to sit
&lt;br&gt;'''-ż''' (SEE NOTES)
&lt;br&gt;'''ża''' (adv.) already

=== Grammar ===

Wenedyk is a Slavo-Romance language that basically deals with the question what Polish would have looked like if it had been a Romance language. As a result, phonology, grammar and syntax are largely based on Polish. Wenedyk exists within the alternative timeline of Ill Bethisad, where it is spoken in the Republic of the Two Crowns.

Word order is mostly free, but SVO by default. 

Nouns, pronouns and adjectives can have three cases (direct case, genitive, dative), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), and two numbers (singular, plural). There are no articles. Adjectives agree with the noun in number, gender and case. They can be placed both before and after it. 

The Verb moods and tenses are: present, imperfect, perfect, future I, future II, imperative, and subjunctive. All appear in this relay text. Future I (imperfective future) indicates an action or state that will take place in the future.  
Future II (perfective future) focuses on the result of an action that will be completed in the future; depending on the context, it can be translated as a future tense, a perfect tense or a present tense in English. The subjunctive mood can be used in many ways, also as optative and conditional. 

In this text, you will encounter the following forms and endings. |'| indicates palatalisation of the preceding consonant (r'e &gt; rze, t'e &gt; cie, etc.).

* Verb endings:
*: -a: imperative 2.sg.
*: -a, -'e: pres.3.sg.
*: -cie: pres.2.pl.
*: -'e: perf.1.sg. (of a-stems)
*: -ęć: present active participle
*: -m: pres.1.pl.
*: -r: infinitive
*: -rszy: subj.1/3.sg. (*)
*: -ru: futII.1.sg.
*: -u: pres.1.sg.
*: -wa: impf.1/3.sg.
*: -wie: futI.3.sg.
*: -wszy: perf.1/3.sg. (of stems other than a-stems)

* Noun endings:
*: -a: f.dir.sg.
*: -'e: f.dat.sg.
*: -'e: f.dir.pl.
*: -'e: m.voc.sg	
*: -i/-y: gen.sg.
*: -u: m/n.gen.sg.
*: -'u: m/n.gen.pl.

* Adjective endings:
*: -a: f.dir.sg.
*: -'e: f.dir.pl.
*: -u: m.gen.sg.

=== Notes ===

* '''Kieru''' means &quot;please&quot; and is extremelyy often used in polite speech. The combination '''kieru doni''' (to a man) and '''kieru donie''' (to a woman) can usually mean &quot;sir&quot; or &quot;madam&quot; respectively, and can often be left untranslated.
* '''Kódże''': difficult to translaate, mostly used as an emphatic interjection along the lines of &quot;well well&quot;, &quot;okay&quot;, &quot;anyway&quot;, &quot;whatever&quot;, etc. Often used to express indifference.
* '''Kura''' literally means &quot;care&quot;, and nothhing else. It is used as a curse only because it sounds similar to the word '''kurwa''' &quot;whore&quot;. Depending on the speaker's level of civilisation, both are used very frequently in Wenedyk. 
* '''Szmata''' literally means &quot;rag&quot;, but in  equally less civilised speech the plural form is often used for &quot;clothes&quot;.
* In combination with the subjunctive moood, '''w''' fulfills the function of an optative particle. This construction is also used as a polite imperative.
* The third person singular of '''wlar''', '''wwłu''', can be used in conjunction with the reflexive pronoun '''sie''', in which case it become an impersonal verb with a weaker meaning than &quot;want&quot;, something along the lines of &quot;would like&quot;. The subject is in the dative case.
* '''-ż''', '''-że''', '''ż''', '''-༨e''': particle that acts like an intensifier.
* It is important to realise that the subbjunctive ending '''-rszy-''' is constructed from the infinitive and forms of the verb '''szer'''. In certain environments these two constituents can be separated from each other.

=== Abbreviations ===

adj. - adjective  &lt;br /&gt;
adv. - adverb &lt;br /&gt;
conj. - conjunction &lt;br /&gt;
dat. - dative case &lt;br /&gt;
dir. - direct case &lt;br /&gt;
f. - feminine &lt;br /&gt;
futI. - future I &lt;br /&gt;
futII. - future II &lt;br /&gt;
gen. - genitive case &lt;br /&gt;
impf. - imperfective tense &lt;br /&gt;
intj. - interjection &lt;br /&gt;
m. - masculine  &lt;br /&gt;
n. - neuter  &lt;br /&gt;
num. - numeral &lt;br /&gt;
perf. - perfect tense &lt;br /&gt;
pl. - plural  &lt;br /&gt;
prep. - preposition  &lt;br /&gt;
pres. - present tense &lt;br /&gt;
pron.dem. - demonstrative pronoun  &lt;br /&gt;
pron.indef. - indefinite pronoun &lt;br /&gt;
pron.int. - interrogative pronoun &lt;br /&gt;
pron.pers. - personal pronoun  &lt;br /&gt;
pron.poss. - possessive pronoun &lt;br /&gt;
pron.refl. - reflexive pronoun &lt;br /&gt;
sg. - singular  &lt;br /&gt;
subj. - subjunctive mood &lt;br /&gt;
v. - verb  &lt;br /&gt;
v.impers. - impersonal verb &lt;br /&gt;
voc. - vocative case &lt;br /&gt;
1, 2, 3 - 1st, 2nd, 3rd person

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Wenedyk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Calénnawn</title>
    <id>1971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Details for the [[Calénnawn]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

==The Text==

Zévo órmulxo óhucsìnu-qi.

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Réfno, áymo-qoy!1 Stu astóri-benco!1 Épanaleya so sten uráronur iw lúdi. Sónnti orgre astórivra.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Épanaleya zévo rofíltu.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e qúmpatme itt &quot;Ay!2&quot;

O réfni$e qúmpatme itt &quot;Qo?3&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu hi búhu-qoy. Áymo-benco!1 Áymo-qoy!1&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Ílmon losówp-benco pélo byu ðálbo-qoy.&quot;

O réfni$e gárpu be qúmpatme itt &quot;Fa$e qúmpatme!2&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Iw re-ganúno, hi lúxci-qoy s-nalástuxo sum e pélo 'Cúnucs' pso-zóro fa ópalc.&quot;

O réfni$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Qo séffiðes?1 El or nalétuvra f-óttu móri.&quot;

O tawvágu$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Émafo qod-gáwna s-heðérro.&quot;

O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;El orgla áduxavran fáygann égla úceyl sno Pétergla dópi iw nalástuxo. Épalemo se hínnod s-nalétuxo pey sófa égla hi nalétu f-ttizáfe.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu hi túggat-dal glaz sínu bórmo zizawpósse níñciv.&quot;


O sten$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Épalemo sen úrmed fh tar óttu pélo or sotáwvra$ úggu-úmper xo el.&quot;

O re-gíxe$e bánxa be qúmpatme itt &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;

$e zelétt dull o gréra awn itt &quot;O sten bánxa be qúmpatme itt 'Ze$e úyfin lúxcixo.'&quot;

==Interlinear==

   Zévo órmulxo óhucsìnu-qi.
   This tale    marvel-like-very.

   O       re-gíxe$e       bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu       múla-qoy!1&quot;
   ART.NOM FEM-priest-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;2SG.DEONT hope-IMP&quot;

   O       tawvágu$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Réfno,     áymo-qoy!1 
   ART.NOM midwife-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;Woman-VOC, push-IMP! 
   
   Stu       astóri-benco!1
   2SG.DEONT give_birth-need!

   Épanaleya so      sten uráronur iw lúdi.    Sónnti    orgre 
   1SG-see   ART.ACC baby with     my eyes-PL. 2SG.EPIST PERF.IMM_FUT 
   
   astórivra.
   give_birth.PERF.

   O       re-gíxe$e       bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu       múla-qoy!1&quot;
   ART.NOM FEM-priest-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;2SG.DEONT hope-IMP&quot;

   O       sten$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Épanaleya zévo rofíltu.&quot;
   ART.NOM baby-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;1SG-see   this world.&quot;

   O       re-gíxe$e       qúmpatme itt   &quot;Ay!2&quot;
   ART.NOM FEM-priest-PAST said     QUOTE &quot;Huh?&quot;

   O       réfni$se   qúmpatme itt   &quot;Qo?3&quot;
   ART.NOM woman-PAST said     QUOTE &quot;What?&quot;

   O       tawvágu$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu       hi  búhu-qoy. 
   ART.NOM midwife-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;2SG.DEONT not fear-IMP. 
   
   Áymo-benco!1 Áymo-qoy!1&quot;
   Push-need!   Push-IMP!&quot;

   O       re-gíxe$e       bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu múla-qoy!1&quot;
   ART.NOM FEM-priest-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;2SG.DEONT hope-IMP&quot;

   O       sten$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Ílmon     losówp-benco pélo byu 
   ART.NOM baby-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;1SG.DEONT have-blanket-need and 
   
   ðálbo-qoy.&quot;
   3SG.DEONT thick-SBJNC.&quot;

   O       réfni$e    gárpu   be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Fa$e     qúmpatme!2&quot;
   ART.NOM woman-PAST shouted and said     QUOTE &quot;3SG-PAST spoke!&quot;

   O       sten$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Iw re-ganúno,
   ART.NOM baby-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;My FEM-parent,
   
   hi  lúxci-qoy s-nalástuxo  sum e       pélo  'Cúnucs' pso-zóro 
   not give-IMP  ART.ACC-name to  1SG.NOM CNJNC 'Cunucs' because-of-fact_that 
   
   fa  ópalc.&quot;
   3SG ordinary.&quot;

   O       réfni$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Qo   séffiðes?1   El  or 
   ART.NOM woman-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;What happen-CONT? 1SG PERF 
   
   nalétuvra  f-óttu   móri.&quot;
   drink-PERF ART.MASS.ACC-wine too_much.&quot;

   O       tawvágu$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Émafo   qod-gáwna 
   ART.NOM midwife-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;1SG-now cut-can 
   
   s-heðérro.&quot;
   ART.ACC-umbilical_cord.&quot;

   O       sten$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;El  orgla    áduxavran fáygann 
   ART.NOM baby-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;1SG PERF-FUT die&lt;PERF&gt; when 
   
   égla    úceyl            sno Pétergla  dópi  iw nalástuxo. Épalemo 
   1SG-FUT military_general and Peter-FUT honor my name.      1SG-need 
   
   se            hínnod  s-nalétuxo        pey sófa égla    hi  nalétu 
   ART.INDEF.ACC monster ART.DEF.ACC-drink and but  1SG-FUT not drink 
   
   f-ttizáfe.&quot;
   ART.MASS.ACC-milk.&quot;

   O       re-gíxe$e       bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu       hi  túggat-dal 
   ART.NOM FEM-priest-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;2SG.DEONT not flop-should 
   
   glaz  sínu                 bórmo zizawpósse níñciv.&quot;
   about like [ART.INDEF.NOM] fish  on         dock.&quot;

   O       sten$e    bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Épalemo  sen           úrmed
   ART.NOM baby-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;1SG-need ART.INDEF.ACC cup 
   
   fh           tar óttu pélo  or   sotáwvra$   úggu-úmper   xo  el.&quot;
   ART.MASS.ACC of  wine CNJNC PERF ripen&lt;PERF&gt; month-during ten two.&quot;

   O   re-gíxe$e       bánxa be  qúmpatme itt   &quot;Stu       múla-qoy!1&quot;
   The FEM-priest-PAST spoke and said     QUOTE &quot;You.DEONT hope-IMP&quot;

   $e   zelétt dull o       gréra awn itt   &quot;O       sten bánxa be  qúmpatme 
   PAST write  on   ART.NOM next  day QUOTE &quot;ART.NOM baby spoke and said 
   
   itt   'Ze$e      úyfin  lúxcixo.'&quot;
   QUOTE 'This-PAST sacred gift.'&quot;

===Abbreviations used===

 1SG    first person singular
 2SG    second person singular
 3SG    third person singular
 ACC    accusative
 ART    article
 CNJNC  conjunction
 CONT   continuitive aspect
 DEONT  deontic
 EPIST  epistemic
 FEM    female
 FUT    future tense
 IMP    imperative
 MASS   mass, uncountable
 NOM    nominative
 PAST   past tense
 PERF   perfective aspect
 PRES   present tense
 QUOTE  particle introducing quote
 SBJNC  subjunctive
 VOC    vocative

==Vocabulary==

 áduxan    verb      to die
 astóri    verb      to give birth
 awn       noun      day
 ay        interj.   (exclamation indicating surprize)
 áymo      verb      to push
 bánxa     verb      to speak (to someone)
 be        conj      and (see note (11))
 -benco    suffix    need to (see note (5))
 bórmo     noun      fish
 búhu      verb      to fear
 byu       pron      he/she/it (3SG, nominative, deontic)
 Cúnucs    name      (foreign name)
 -dal      suffix    should
 din       verb      to have beneficial effect for
 dínnur    prep      for, in behalf of, having a beneficial effect for
 dópi      verb      to honor
 drámor    prep      with
 dull      prep      on (time)
 ðálbo     adj       thick
 e-        proclitic I (1SG, nominative, epistemic)
 e(l)      pron      I (1SG, nominative, epistemic)
 el        numeral   two (see note (20))
 en        pron      me (1SG, accusative)
 -(e)s     suffix    (continuitive aspect)
 f-        proclitic the, a (accusative, uncountable)
 fa        pron      he/she/it (3SG, nominative, epistemic)
 fáygann   conj      when (see note (15))
 fésni     verb      to eat
 fh /f@/   art       the, a (accusative, uncountable)
 ganúni    noun      parent
 gárpu     verb      to scream, to yell
 gáwna     verb      to be able
 gíxe      noun      priest
 gla       adv       (or enclitic, see note (10): tense: future)
 glaz      adv       around, about
 gre       adv       (or enclitic, see note (10): tense: immediate future)
 gréra     adj       next (in time)
 h  /@/    art       the, a (nominative, uncountable)
 heðérro   noun      umbilical cord
 hi        adv       not
 hínnod    noun      monster
 hn /@n/   art       the, a (nominative, uncountable)
 ílmon     pron      I (1SG, nominative, deontic)
 itt       prep      (introduces quotation)
 iw        poss.pron my
 lo-       prefix    to have (see note (8))
 lúda      noun      eye (see note (7))
 lúxci     verb      to give sth.
 máfo      adv       now (or enclitic, see note (10): tense: present)
 móri      numeral   too much (mass numeral) (see note (13))
 múla      verb      to hope
 nalástuxo noun      name
 nalétu    verb      to drink sth.
 níñciv    noun      dock
 -nur      suffix    (gerund as preposition, see note (6))
 o         art       the (nominative, definite, countable)
 óhuc      noun      marvel
 ópalc     adj       ordinary, common
 or        adv       (&quot;or .. -vra&quot;: perfective aspect) (see note (14))
 órmul     verb      to tell, narrate (see note (17))
 óttu      noun      wine
 palémo    verb      to need sth.
 panaléya  verb      to see
 pélo      conj      and (see note (9))
 Péter     name      (proper name)
 pey       conj      and, also (see note (16))
 pso       prep      because of
 -qi       suffix    very
 qo        pron      what
 qod       verb      to cut
 qoy       verb      to do (as enclitic: imperative or subjunctive, see note (3))
 qúmpatme  verb      to say sth.
 re-       prefix    female
 réfni     noun      woman (see note (4))
 rofíltu   noun      world
 s-        proclitic the (accusative, definite, countable)
 se(n)     art       a (indefinite, accusative, countable)
 séffið    verb      to happen, to occur
 sínu      prep      like
 -sìnu     suffix    -like (converts noun to adj)
 so        art       the (accusative, definite, countable)
 sófa      conj      but
 sónnti    pron      you (2SG, nominative, epistemic)
 sotáw$    verb      to ripen
 sówp      noun      blanket
 sten      noun      baby
 stu       pron      you (2SG, nominative, deontic)
 sum       prep      (when used with lúxci:) to
 $e        adv       (often used as enclitic, see note (10): tense: past)
 tar       prep      (amount: see note (19))
 tawvágu   noun      midwife
 ttizáfe   noun      milk
 túggat    verb      to flop
 úceyl     noun      military general
 úggu      noun      month
 -úmper    prep      during (enclitic)
 uráro     verb      to use
 Úrða      noun      Earth
 úrmed     noun      cup, beaker
 úyfin     adj       sacred, holy
 -vra      suffix    (&quot;or .. -vra&quot;: perfective aspect) (see note (14))
 xo        numeral   ten (see note (20))
 -xo       suffix    (converts verb to noun, see note (17))
 zawpósse  prep      on, on top of
 ze        pron      this (3SG)
 zévo      adj       this
 zelétt    verb      to write
 zi-       prefix    (see note (18))
 zóro      conj      the fact that (see note (12)) 

==Interpunction==

 !1        used for commands etc.
 !2        used for exclamations belonging to an emotional reaction
 ?1        informing question
 ?3        question intended to verify the speaker's own knowledge

==Pronunciation of the sounds occurring in proper names==

 |p|       /p/
 |e|       /e/
 |t|       /t/
 |r|       /R\/
 |c|       /k/
 |u|       /u/
 |n|       /n/
 |s|       /s/ 

==Grammar==

===Introduction===

Calénnawn is a pro-drop language with SVO word order.  Pronouns may
be elided.  Adjectives precede the nouns, but can also occur standalone
(e.g. the big [one]). In compound words, the first part is the modifying
part. Absence of an article in the nominative indicates indefiniteness.
All prepositions govern the nominative. There is no copula &quot;to be&quot;: the
noun or adjective may be used as predicate directly.

===Grammar notes===

    The dollar sign is an alternative spelling for s-caron for non-UTF-8
    environments. These represent the same letter (/S/).

    Acute and grave accents denote primary and (in compounds) secondary
    stress, respectively. The letters a, á and à are not fundamentally
    different, since the stress can shift when words are combined into
    compound words.

    The imperative and subjunctive are both formed by suffixing the
    verb with &quot;-qoy&quot;. The imperative then requires the subject to
    be epistemic, the subjunctive requires a deontic subject:
    Sónnti panaléya-qoy!        See!
    Stu panaléya-qoy.           May you see.

    The vocative singular is formed by adding an &quot;-o&quot; suffix, replacing
    any final vowel:
    Tawvágo!                    Midwife!

    The expression &quot;need to &lt;verb&gt;&quot; is expressed by the suffix &quot;-benco&quot;
    on the verb and forces a deontic subject:
    Stu bánxa-benco.            You need to speak.

    &quot;-nur&quot; forms the gerund of a verb.
    
    If the verb is transitive, the gerund can be followed by its direct
    object; however, the gerund is then considered a preposition,
    therefore its object takes the nominative.
    
    If the gerund is used standalone, then it functions as an adverb.
    
    Examples:
    
    Sónnti din en.              You have_a_beneficial_effect_on me.
    Sónnti bánxa dínnur e.      You speak for(benefactive) me.
    Sónnti bánxa dínnur.        You speak, having_a_benificial_effect.

    The plural forms are formed by replacing the last vowel in a word
    with |i|:
    lúda - lúdi                 eye - eyes
    sten - stin                 baby - babies

    The prefix &quot;lo-&quot; is used to create verbs expressing arbitrary rela-
    tions (&quot;to have&quot;). The formed verb is transitive, and its object
    can be used to specify who or what fulfills the indicated role.
    Sónnti loóttu.              You have_got_wine.
    Sónnti lorofíltu Úrða.      I have_for_world Earth.
                                (i.e. Earth is my world).

    &quot;pélo&quot; is a conjunction that indicates that the object of the
    first sentence is identical to the subject of the second sentence.

    Tense is indicated by the particles &quot;$e&quot; (past), &quot;máfo&quot; (present),
    &quot;gla&quot; (future), or &quot;gre&quot; (immediate future), which are
    often used as an enclitic on the subject or on the particle &quot;or&quot;.
    They are never used on the verb.

    &quot;be&quot; is a conjunction that indicates that the subject of the first
    sentence is identical to the subject of the second sentence.
    Sometimes this constitutes a fixed expression, e.g.:
    X bánxa Y be qúmpatme Z      X says Z to Y

    &quot;zóro&quot; is a conjunction that is always compounded with a
    preposition.  It indicates that the prepositional object of the
    first sentence is identical to the _fact_ described by the second
    sentence.

    Numerals are placed after the noun they modify.

    The perfective aspect suffix &quot;-vra&quot; is used as an infix if the
    verb ends in a consonant:
    El or qovrad.              I have cut.

    The conjunction &quot;fáygann&quot; is translated as follows:
    X fáygann Y.               when X, Y.

    The conjunction &quot;pey&quot;, in the meaning &quot;and&quot;, follows the two noun
    phrases (postfix notation):
    hn óttu h ttizáfe pey       wine and milk

    &quot;-xo&quot; creates nouns which can function as object of the verb:
    órmul - órmulxo            to narrate - a narration

    &quot;zi&quot; indicates that the next prepositional phrase is not attached
    to the entire sentence, but to the previous noun phrase instead:
    Éfesni fh bórmo zidrámor h baranúya.     I eat fish with bread.
    Éfesni fh bórmo drámor Bóbo.             I eat fish with Bobo.

    &quot;tar&quot; indicates an amount/quantity. Its position may be &quot;crossed
    over&quot; with the article of the following noun phrase:
    úrmed h tar ttizáfe        a cup of milk
    As direct object, both noun phrases are put in the accusative.

    Counting in Calénnawn is base-6.
    xo el              twelve
    élxo               twenty

==Smooth translation==

This is a very marvelous story.

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;Woman, push! You need to give birth! I see the baby with
my eyes. You will soon complete giving birth.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Huh?&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;You should not fear. You need to push. Push!&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a blanket and it should be thick.&quot;

The woman shouted, &quot;He spoke!&quot;

The baby said, &quot;My mother, do not give me a name like 'Cunux' because
that one is ordinary.&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What is happening? I drank too much wine.&quot;

The midwife said, &quot;I can now cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;When I will die, I will be a military general and Peter
will honor my name. I need a monster and the drink, but I will not drink
milk.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on a dock.&quot;

The baby said, &quot;I need a cup of wine that has ripened for eight months.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;May you hope!&quot;

They wrote on the next day, &quot;The baby said, 'This was a sacred gift.'&quot;

==Back to Conlang Relay 12==

Back to [[Conlang Relay 12]]

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Calénnawn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Kēlen</title>
    <id>1972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6348</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:59:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Details for the [[Kēlen]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

==Text==

tema j&amp;#257;o &amp;#275; mo sar&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a &amp;#275; mo sas&amp;#257;ra;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temme ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien l&amp;#257;mac&amp;#275;na &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; h&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; c&amp;#275;ja
anele m&amp;#299;sa s&amp;#333;lle mo ler&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a; &amp;#241;i antam&amp;#333;l ant&amp;#333;rren anni&amp;#254;en;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien c&amp;#275;ja anele jas&amp;#333;&amp;#254;a &amp;#254;&amp;#333; mo ler&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien an j&amp;#257;o ja-k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temme ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien pa ri&amp;#275;n anm&amp;#299;ra w&amp;#275;; h&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;arra jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;; l&amp;#257;mac&amp;#275;na &amp;#241;arra
jac&amp;#275;tti k&amp;#257;;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa j&amp;#299;&amp;lambda;&amp;#299;ke; &amp;#275; l&amp;#257;, luha&amp;#241;en pa li&amp;#275;n j&amp;#299;&amp;lambda;&amp;#299;ke
jaw&amp;#257;len;

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien c&amp;#275;ja &amp;#241;amma ans&amp;#333;ri l&amp;#257;!

temme ke m&amp;#299;sa ien l&amp;#257;-m&amp;#257;lmara. la li&amp;#275;n m&amp;#299;s-&amp;#275;ri; c&amp;#275;xeja rehirnele jaw&amp;#275;ra k&amp;#333;nux
w&amp;#257; t&amp;#333; la jaw&amp;#275;ra ja&amp;#331;&amp;#331;&amp;#299;ra n&amp;#257;pie;

temirne ke mac&amp;#275;na ien an j&amp;#257;o to anh&amp;#275;&amp;#331;&amp;#331;i n&amp;#257;pie; tamma ke m&amp;#299;sa ja-k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;?

temirne ke m&amp;#257;ltanen ien c&amp;#275;ja analla anp&amp;#275;ra mo sas&amp;#275;rja jap&amp;#363;sa;

temirne ant&amp;#275;li ke m&amp;#299;sa ien il anni&amp;#254;en &amp;#241;i li&amp;#275;n jan&amp;#333;&amp;#241;a il la li&amp;#275;n mac&amp;#333;n&amp;#333;n
mat&amp;#333;ntanen; &amp;#275; pa li&amp;#275;n jaw&amp;#275;ra anc&amp;#257;la n&amp;#257; &amp;#275; tele jaw&amp;#275;ra p&amp;#299;ter; &amp;#299; sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa
jah&amp;#275;&amp;#241;a l&amp;#257;-map&amp;#299;&amp;#241;&amp;#241;ennon ew w&amp;#257; sele ank&amp;#299;&amp;#241;a pa ank&amp;#257;&amp;lambda;i honahan.

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien l&amp;#257;-p&amp;#299;ter wa ri&amp;#275;n ma&amp;#241;iw&amp;#275;&amp;lambda;a &amp;#241;e jap&amp;#299;la;

temirne ke m&amp;#299;sa ien w&amp;#257; sele anham&amp;#257;ri il jas&amp;#275;ll&amp;#363;i &amp;#257;nor;

temme ke m&amp;#257;rja ien &amp;#241;ere&amp;#241; mak&amp;#275;spen c&amp;#299;;

il jal&amp;#333;na antielen il tamma j&amp;#299;lke ke manahan ien pa m&amp;#299;sa ans&amp;#333;ri l&amp;#257;; la jal&amp;#299;la
jak&amp;#275;ra l&amp;#257;;

==Orthography==

&amp;#257; should be a-macron &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#275; should be e-macron &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#299; should be i-macron &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#333; should be o-macron &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#363; should be u-macron &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#241; should be n-tilde &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#254; should be thorn &lt;br&gt;
&amp;lambda; should be lj or lambda &lt;br&gt;
&amp;#331;&amp;#331; should be nng or double-eng

==Vocabulary==

 -alla (PN) 1p.sg.agent/source;
 -amma (PN) 3p.sg.agent/source;
 an (REL) the present progressive form of LA;
 an- (REL) the present progressive form of SE;
 anni&amp;#254;en (POST.MOD) before in time; (MOD) soon;
 antielen (POST.MOD) after in time;
 -a&amp;#331;&amp;#331;&amp;#299;r- (N.BASE) common, plain, ordinary;
 -arra (PN) 2p.sg.agent/source;
 -&amp;#257;lmar- (N.BASE) my mother;
 -&amp;#257;ltanen- (N.BASE) healer, doctor, midwife;
 &amp;#257;nor (POST.MOD) 10 base 8, eight;
 -&amp;#257;rj- (N.BASE) grandmother, female ancestor, female in charge, older woman;
 -c&amp;#257;l- (N.BASE) value;
 c&amp;#275;ja (MOD) can, be able;
 -c&amp;#275;n- (N.BASE) woman;
 -c&amp;#275;tt- (N.BASE) push;
 c&amp;#275;xeja (MOD) hopefully;
 c&amp;#299; (MOOD) commissive mood marker, polite imperative mood marker;
 -c&amp;#333;n&amp;#333;n- (N.BASE) soldier;
 -ele (PN) 1p.sg.experiencer/goal/patient;
 -ema (PN) 3p.sg.experiencer/goal/patient;
 -emirne (PN) 3p.sg.agent/source+2p.paucal experiencer/goal/patient;
 -emme (PN) 3p.sg.agent/source+3p.sg.experiencer/goal/patient;
 -ere&amp;#241; (PN) 2p.sg.reflexive;
 &amp;#275;...&amp;#275; (CONJ) and;
 &amp;#275; l&amp;#257; (INTERJECTION) hey!;
 -&amp;#275;ri (PN) 2p.sg.possessive;
 -ham&amp;#257;r- (N.BASE) whiskey/aquavit;
 h&amp;#275;ja (MOD) obligatory, should, ought;
 -h&amp;#275;&amp;#241;- (N.BASE) drink;
 -h&amp;#275;&amp;#331;&amp;#331;- (N.BASE) beer/mead;
 honahan (PN) any manner, any quantity;
 ien (CASE) quotative;
 il...il (CONJ) then, when...then, when, during;
 &amp;#299;...ew (CONJ) and...but;
 -&amp;#299;lk- (N.BASE) writing;
 -&amp;#299;&amp;lambda;&amp;#299;k- (N.BASE) clothing;
 -irnele (PN) 2p.paucal agent/source+1p.sg.experiencer/goal/patient;
 -&amp;#299;s- (N.BASE) baby;
 ja (PN) 3p.inanimate;
 ja-k&amp;#275;&amp;#241; (MOOD) inflected interrogative mood marker: what;
 j&amp;#257;o (PN) 3p abstract, generic demonstrative pronoun;
 k&amp;#257; (MOOD) imperative mood marker;
 -k&amp;#257;&amp;lambda;- (N.BASE) milk;
 ke (CASE) marks an agent or animate source;
 k&amp;#275;&amp;#241; (MOOD) interrogative mood marker;
 -k&amp;#275;r- (N.BASE) holy;
 -k&amp;#275;spen- (N.BASE) keeping on, steadfast, persistent;
 -k&amp;#299;&amp;#241;- (N.BASE) wish, want;
 -k&amp;#333;nux- (N.BASE) not a K&amp;#275;len word;
 la (REL) generic tense of LA;
 l&amp;#257; (MOOD) emphatic or exclamatory mood marker;
 l&amp;#257;- (CASE) vocative;
 li&amp;#275;n (PN) 1p.sg.;
 -l&amp;#299;l- (N.BASE) gift;
 -l&amp;#333;n- (N.BASE) day, as defined from sunrise to sunrise;
 luha&amp;#241;en (MOD) habitually;
 manahan (PN) anyone, anybody;
 -m&amp;#299;r- (N.BASE) fear;
 mo (CASE) marks a beneficiary or experiencer or goal;
 n&amp;#257; (POST.MOD) many, much, more;
 n&amp;#257;pie (POST.MOD) too many, too much, excessive;
 -n&amp;#333;&amp;#241;- (N.BASE) dead;
 &amp;#241;e (CONJ) like, as, same as;
 &amp;#241;(i)- (REL) NI;
 -&amp;#241;iw&amp;#275;&amp;lambda;- (N.BASE) turning, wiggling, wagging;
 -&amp;#333;ll- (N.BASE) head;
 pa (REL) PA;
 -p&amp;#275;r- (N.BASE) cut;
 -p&amp;#299;l- (N.BASE) worm;
 -p&amp;#299;&amp;#241;&amp;#241;ennon- (N.BASE) monster
 -p&amp;#299;ter- (N.BASE) not a K&amp;#275;len word;
 -p&amp;#363;s- (N.BASE) cord, string;
 reh- (REL) obligatory (future) of SE;
 ri&amp;#275;n (PN) 2p.sg.;
 -r&amp;#333;&amp;#241;- (N.BASE) eye(s);
 -s&amp;#257;r- (N.BASE) ear(s);
 s(e)- (REL) generic tense of SE;
 -s&amp;#275;ll&amp;#363;- (N.BASE) period of 32 days;
 -s&amp;#275;rj- (N.BASE) navel, bellybutton;
 -s&amp;#333;r- (N.BASE) word;
 -s&amp;#333;&amp;#254;- (N.BASE) place;
 -tam&amp;#333;l- (N.BASE) birth;
 t(e)- (REL) past tense of SE;
 -t&amp;#275;l- (N.BASE) fact;
 to (CASE) marks a source or an inanimate or non-volitional agent;
 t&amp;#333; (CONJ) because, for;
 -t&amp;#333;ntanen- (N.BASE) master (rank);
 -t&amp;#333;rren- (N.BASE) finished;
 &amp;#254;&amp;#333; (PN) this, this here, here;
 wa (REL) negative of LA;
 w&amp;#257; (MOD) negative, no, not, none;
 -w&amp;#257;len- (N.BASE) fine, excellent, high quality;
 w&amp;#275; (MOOD) prohibitive mood marker;
 -w&amp;#275;r- (N.BASE) name;

==Grammar==

===Nouns (N.BASE)===

Nouns are cited as noun bases. They come in three classes: inanimate, animate,
and obligatorily possessed. Inanimate nouns inflect as follows (the N stands
for the base):
       j(a)-N-a/e/0 inanimate singular
       j(a)-N-i inanimate plural
       an-N-i inanimate collective, set of X
       an-N-a/e/0 state of being X, act/event of X
animate nouns:
       m(a)-N-a/e/0 animate singular
       m(a)-N-i animate collective or plural
obligatorily possessed nouns (like body parts):
       l(e)-N-a/e/0 possessed by 1p entity
       r(i)-N-a/e/0 possessed by 2p entity
       s(a)-N-a/e/0 possessed by 3p entity
Uninflected noun bases are interpreted as proper names.

===Pronouns (PN)===

Pronouns can stand alone or be suffixed to nouns and relationals.

===Modifiers (MOD &amp; POST.MOD)===

Modifiers can either modify a clause, in which case they can come anywhere in
the sentence, but are usually positioned on either end of the clause of phrase.
Postpostional modifiers modify the noun or pronoun that they follow.

===Conjunctions (CONJ)===

Conjunctions generally precede the phrases or clauses that they connect. Some
conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions, meaning that they precede all of
the phrases or clauses that they connect.

===Relationals (REL)===

These are the K&amp;#275;len equivalent of verbs. There are only 4 of them, though 2 of them inflect for tense. The 4 relationals are LA, SE, NI, and PA.

   LA takes a single object: something that exists in a state or a location.
   NI takes a single object: something that has undergone a change of state or
       location.
   SE takes a single object: something that has a source and/or a goal.
   PA takes two objects: a whole and its part.

===Case (CASE)===

Case markers precede their objects.

===Mood (MOOD)===

Mood markers come at the end of the sentence. One of them, k&amp;#275;&amp;#241;, can be
inflected. The commissive marker, c&amp;#299;, can act like an imperative when used
with a second person reference. When used with a first person reference, it
commits the speaker to whatever was said.

===Word Order===

A K&amp;#275;len sentence consists minimally of a relational and its core argument, or REL NP. To this can be added case phrases, modifiers, and mood:
 (MOD) REL NP (POST.MOD) (CASE) (MOD) (MOOD).

Nouns in apposition, if inflected identically, refer to the same entity. If
inflected differently, they refer to different entities, with usually the
whole or the more important noun coming first, followed by the part or the
less important noun.

==Smooth Translation==

This was seen (by someone) and heard.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the healer (to the woman): Woman, make pushes. You must make pushes. I can see the baby's head. The birth becomes over soon.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the baby (to all present): I can see this place.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): Huh?

Said the woman (to all present): What is it?

Said the healer (to the woman): Don't have fear. You must make pushes.
Woman, you must push.

Said the grandmother (to the woman): make yourself steadfast.

Said the baby (to all present): I wish for clothes. Hey, usually I have expensive clothes.

Said the woman (to all present): He can make words!

Said the baby (to the woman): My mother. I am your baby. Hopefully you (the clan) will not give me the name Konush because it is a too common name.

Said the woman (to all present): This is from too much beer. What did the baby (say)?

Said the healer (to all present): I can cut the navel cord (now).

Said the baby (to all present) the facts: Before I became dead, I was a high-ranking soldier.  I had a valuable name and the name was Piter.  And, I want a drink, you monster, but I don't want any milk.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): Piter, don't be a wiggler like a worm.

Said the baby (to all present): I haven't had whiskey in 8 'months'.

Said the grandmother (to the baby): make yourself steadfast.

The next day, someone wrote: The baby has words! It's a holy gift!

==Back to Conlang Relay 12==

Back to [[Conlang Relay 12]]

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Kēlen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Klingon</title>
    <id>1973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:58:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Conlang Relay 12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page contains details on the [[Klingon]] portion of [[Conlang Relay 12]].

==Text==

===yIbej! jatlh vay'!===

; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghojmoq : yIyuvtaH, chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; ghojmoq : ghu nach vIleghlaH, chaj. tlhoS Data'pu'. yIyuvqa', chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghojmoq : narghbejpu' nach.
; ghu :     toH. Daqvam vIlegh not 'e' vIQub.
; ghojmoq : ghuy'cha'!
; be'nal :  qaS nuq?
; ghojmoq : yIqImHa'! yIyuvqa', chaj, yIyuvtaH!
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!
; ghu :     jIHvaD Sut yItuQmoH! roD Sut Doj wItuQ.
; be'nal :  jatlhtaH 'Iv?
; ghu :     HI'Ij, SoS. puqloDlI' jIH. pong &quot;qonnor&quot; vIpar. 'Iq pongvam lughajbogh ghot'e'.
; be'nal :  wItojlu'law'. chay' jatlh loDHom?
; ghojmoq : DaH SoS ghu je rarbogh tlhegh'e' vIpe'ta'.
; ghu :     Heghpu'bogh SuvwI' vISov. &quot;petroS&quot; 'oH pongDaj'e'. QaQ pongvam. jIHvaD &quot;petroS&quot; yIpong!
; ghu :     jI'oj, 'ach rolIjDaq jItlhutlhQo'.
; ghojmoq : yIvIHQo', petroS.
; ghu :     Hut wen, 'Iw HIq vItlhutlh.
; loDnal :  Qapla'! yIyoH!

jaj veb, ghItlh ja'wI', jatlh: &quot;boghpu' jatlhlaHbogh ghu! Suto'vo'qor Del.&quot;

==Smooth translation==

===Look! Someone is talking!===

; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Nurse :   Push, dear, push!
; Nurse :   I can see the baby's head, dear. You have nearly accomplished it. Push again, dear, push!
; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Nurse :   The head has definitely appeared.
; Baby :    Well. I never thought I would see this place.
; Nurse :   *@$%!
; Wife :    What's happening?
; Nurse :   Pay no attention! Push again, dear, push!
; Husband : Success! Be brave!
; Baby :    Put clothes on me! I used to wear impressive clothing.
; Wife :    Who's talking?
; Baby :    Listen to me, mother! I'm your son. I dislike the name &quot;Kon'nor&quot;. There are too many people who have that name.
; Wife :    Somebody seems to be tricking us. How does the boy speak?
; Nurse :   I have now successfully cut through the cord which connects the mother and the child.
; Baby :    I know a dead warrior; his name was &quot;Pet'rosh&quot;. That name is good. Call me &quot;Pet'rosh&quot;!
; Baby :    I am thirsty, but I refuse to drink at your torso.
; Nurse :   Don't move, Pet'rosh.
; Baby :    Nine months ago, I drank bloodwine.
; Husband : Success! Be brave!

The next day, a reporter wrote, saying: &quot;A baby that could speak was born! It
described Sto-vo-kor.&quot;

==Lexicon==

===Suffixes=== 

; -'e'  : ''(nsuff)'' topic. Also marks the head noun in relative clauses and in &quot;to be&quot; constructions.
; -Daj  : ''(nsuff)'' his/her/its (3rd singular possessive)
; -Daq  : ''(nsuff)'' locative: in/at/on/by
; -Qo'  : ''(vsuff)'' with imperatives: &quot;don't (verb)&quot;; otherwise: &quot;(subject) refuses to (verb)&quot;
; -bej  : ''(vsuff)'' certainly, undoubtedly
; -bogh : ''(vsuff)'' relative clause marker
; -lI'  : ''(nsuff)'' thy (2nd singular possessive, animate possession)
; -lIj  : ''(nsuff)'' thy (2nd singular possessive, inanimate possession)
; -laH  : ''(vsuff)'' be able to, can
; -law' : ''(vsuff)'' apparently; it seems that ...
; -lu'  : ''(vsuff)'' indefinite subject/pseudo-passive. See grammar sketch.
; -pu'  : ''(vsuff)'' marks perfective aspect
; -qa'  : ''(vsuff)'' &quot;again&quot;. Using this suffix implies that an action had been taking place, then it stopped, and then it began again.
; -ta'  : ''(vsuff)'' marks perfective aspect; implies that the result of the verb was on purpose or that the activity was deliberately undertaken, the implication being that someone set out to do something and in fact did it. (The difference between '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-pu'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' and '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-ta'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' is not necessarily reflected in an English translation.)
; -taH  : ''(vsuff)'' marks continuous aspect; indicates that an action is ongoing.
; -vaD  : ''(nsuff)'' for, for the benefit of, on behalf of; used for indirect objects.
; -vam  : ''(nsuff)'' this (demonstrative; indicates something near or that has been a recent topic of conversation)

===Prefixes===

; Da- : subject = thou, object = him/her/it/them
; HI- : (imperative) subject = thou/you, object = me
; jI- : subject = I, no object
; lu- : subject = they, object = him/her/it
; vI- : subject = I, object = him/her/it/them
; wI- : subject = we, object = him/her/it
; yI- : (imperative) subject = thou/you, object = him/her/it or no object
; (zero) : subject = him/her/it, object = him/her/it/them or no object; subject = they, object = them or no object

===Words===

; be'nal : ''n.'' wife
; bej : ''v.'' watch
; bogh : ''v.'' be born
; chaj : ''n.'' dear (term of affection used between two women who are very close friends)
; chay' : ''adv.'' how?
; DaH : ''adv.'' now
; Daq : ''n.'' location
; Del : ''v.'' describe
; Doj : ''adj.'' impressive
; ghaj : ''v.'' to have, possess
; ghItlh : ''v.'' to write
; ghojmoq : ''n.'' nurse
; ghot : ''n.'' person
; ghu : ''n.'' baby
; ghuy'cha' : ''interj.'' *@$% (used, for example, after hearing something unsettling)
; Hegh : ''v.'' die
; HIq : (see '''&lt;nowiki&gt;'Iw HIq&lt;/nowiki&gt;''')
; Hut : ''num.'' nine
; ja'wI' : ''n.'' reporter
; jaj : ''n.'' day
; jatlh : ''v.'' speak, say
; je : ''conj.'' and (*follows* the terms to be joined)
; jIH : ''pron.'' I; ''v.'' I am
; legh : ''v.'' see
; loDHom : ''n.'' boy
; loDnal : ''n.'' husband
; nach : ''n.'' head
; nargh : ''v.'' escape; appear
; not : ''adv.'' never
; nuq : ''pron.'' what?
; par : ''v.'' dislike
; pe' : ''v.'' cut
; petroS : ''proper n.'' A name, Petrosh
; pong : ''n.'' name; ''v.'' name (DO = name, IO = named thing)
; puqloD : ''n.'' son
; Qapla' : ''interj.'' Success! (also used as a farewell or as encouragement)
; QaQ : ''adj.'' good
; qaS : ''v.'' happen, occur
; qImHa' : ''v.'' disregard, pay no attention (to)
; qonnor : ''proper n.'' A name, Kon'nor
; Qub : ''v.'' think
; rar : ''v.'' connect
; ro : ''n.'' torso, trunk (of the body), chest
; roD : ''adv.'' usually, customarily, habitually
; SoS : ''n.'' mother
; Sov : ''v.'' know
; Sut : ''n.'' clothing
; Suto'vo'qor : ''proper n.'' Sto-vo-kor; Klingon afterlife for the honoured dead, where all true warriors go after they die to fight an eternal battle. The closest Klingon equivalent to heaven.
; SuvwI' : ''n.'' warrior
; ta' : ''v.'' accomplish
; tlhegh : ''n.'' rope, line
; tlhoS : ''adv.'' almost, nearly
; tlhutlh : ''v.'' drink
; toH : ''interj.'' So! Well!
; toj : ''v.'' trick, deceive
; tuQ : ''v.'' wear (clothing)
; tuQmoH : ''v.'' put on (clothing) (DO = clothing; IO = person clothed)
; vay' : ''pron.'' someone, something
; veb : ''adj.'' next, following (in a series or sequence)
; vIH : ''v.'' move, be in motion
; wen : ''n.'' months ago
; yoH : ''v.'' be brave
; yuv : ''v.'' push
; 'Ij : ''v.'' listen (to)
; 'Iq : ''v.'' be too many, be too much
; 'Iv : ''pron.'' who?
; 'Iw HIq : ''n.'' bloodwine (an alcoholic drink typically drunk by warriors)
; 'ach : ''conj.'' but
; 'e' : ''pron.'' that (refers to a preceding sentence which is the object of this verb's sentence; see grammar)
; 'oH : ''pron.'' it; ''v.'' it is
; 'oj : ''v.'' be thirsty

==Grammar sketch==

* Klingon has an OVS sentence structure. Adverbs and temporal/locative/ indirect object phrases come at the very beginning of a clause.
* Verbs have a prefix which indicates subject and object as well as mood (indicative vs imperative). A special case is the null prefix, which indicates a third-person subject and either no object or a third-person object (except for the combination 3pl subject/3sg object, which has the prefix '''lu-'''). For example, '''legh''' ''see'' could mean &quot;he sees her&quot;, &quot;they see&quot;, or &quot;she sees them&quot;, among other things.
* Verbs can take a number of suffixes, which fall into certain classes.  Specifics are not important here, except for the fact that suffixes must occur in a certain order, depending on the class of each suffix; this order may or may not correspond to the &quot;natural&quot; order that the translations would take in English (e.g. '''poSnISmoH''' ''need to open'' from '''poS''' ''be open'' + '''-moH''' ''causative'' + '''-nIS''' ''need'', but with suffix order '''-nISmoH''' not '''-moHnIS''').
* Verbs are optionally marked for aspect (continuous or perfective) but are not marked for tense. An unmarked verb may have a past, present, or future interpretation, which must be determined from context. Even a verb with a perfective suffix need not refer to a past event.
* Relative clauses use the marker -bogh on the verb in the subordinate cluase.  If it is not clear whether the head of the subordinate clause is the subject or the object of that clause, the head may be made explicit by attaching the topic marker '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' to the head.
* Nouns can also takes suffixes, which also come in classes. The ones used in this text should be fairly self-explanatory.
* Two nouns next to one another modify one another in the order modifier-modified, e.g. '''qun paq''' ''history book'' from '''qun''' ''history'' + '''paq''' ''book'', or '''qeylIS betleH''' ''Kahless's bat'leth'', from '''qeylIS''' ''Kahless (proper name)'' + '''betleH''' ''bat'leth (type of weapon)''.
* Pronouns can function like nouns (I, thou, he, etc.) or as verbs (I am, thou art, he is, etc.). A special case is the &quot;to be&quot; sentence for a third-person subject, which consists of object + 3rd person pronoun + subject noun with topic marker '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' (e.g. '''&lt;nowiki&gt;Qel ghaH loDvam'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''this man is/was a doctor'', from '''Qel''' ''doctor'', '''ghaH''' ''he (is)'', '''&lt;nowiki&gt;loDvam'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''this man (top.)''.
* Reported speech always uses the verb '''jatlh''' ''speak, talk, say'', possibly in connection with a different verb of speech such as '''ghItlh''' ''write'' or '''jang''' ''reply''. For example, &quot;He replied, 'I will not kill him'&quot; would be '''jang, jatlh: «vIHoHQo'»''' -- literally: &quot;He replied; he said, 'I will not kill him'&quot;.
* Sentences can take previous sentences as objects; in this case, the previous sentence is replaced with the special pronoun '''&lt;nowiki&gt;'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''. Any adverbials etc.  precede this object, as they do other objects. For example, '''paq DalaDpu' wej 'e' vIHar''' ''I do not yet believe that you have read the book'' ('''paq''' ''book'', '''&lt;nowiki&gt;DalaDpu'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''you have read it (perf.)'', '''wej''' ''not yet'', '''&lt;nowiki&gt;'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''that (refers back to previous sentence as an object)'', '''vIHar''' ''I believe it''). NB do not confuse the pronoun '''&lt;nowiki&gt;'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' with the noun suffix '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' (topic marker). (The first always stands alone; the second is always attached to a word.)
* It may be easiest first to identify the main verb in each clause; anything before it is adverbs, temporal/locative/indirect object phrases, or the object of the verb; anything after it is the subject. If the subject or the object is a relative clause, next identify whether the subordinate verb has anything before or after it, indicating the object and/or subject of the subordinate clause. If the second sentence uses the sentence-as-object pronoun '''&lt;nowiki&gt;'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''', try to determine where the first sentence ends (e.g. by looking for adverbials etc. which must come at the beginning of a sentence).
* Verbs with '''&lt;nowiki&gt;-lu'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' indicate an unknown or unspecified subject. In such cases, the prefixes take on a different meaning; with subject and object trading places. For example, '''Da-''' (which usually means &quot;you - him/her/it/them&quot;) means &quot;someone/something - you&quot;, e.g. '''&lt;nowiki&gt;Daleghlu'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''someone sees you''. Such verbs can sometimes be translated as passives; in the example, &quot;You are seen&quot;.

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Klingon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Zyvlusda</title>
    <id>1974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6351</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T21:07:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rough translation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">These are the details of the [[Zyvlusda]] text of [[Conlang Relay 12]], as received by [[User:Pne|Philip Newton]] (so no smooth translation by the author, among other things). [[User:Pne|I]]'ve decided to add a rough translation, though -- the working translation I made for myself.

==Text==

===Gutpodin Guta Vuta: Fulvuta Zyvgezer===

; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Gutsaleb :  Busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Pankesid :  Raralar!
; Gutsaleb :  Gutpodin move, o relpodin. Ukakip kepazu.  Busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Pankesid :  Raralar!!
; Gutsaleb :  Dinep suke serobe.
; Gutpodin :  Vuvufuv, ak anam bina unt ak fule a akgezer.
; Gutsaleb :  Raralar!!!
; Pankesid :  Fifivif?
; Gutsaleb :  Sosozos, busi, o relpodin, busi!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.
; Gutpodin :  Dispodin izekpuvir keni disevi kenmi i ak? Sudira ak teba lasuba kafkenmi a esvatra.
; Pankesid :  Zekpodin vute?
; Gutpodin :  Liliril, o fozfe, ak suke lebgefvu e ul.  Ak anam asograkef lasa makid e &quot;Vymtutie&quot;.  Ilas inam maki ak i ulgibin. Alagas rilisa.
; Pankesid :  Akgibin suke diseve dipba. Lebta azekrakif puve akgibin?
; Gutsaleb :  Akvatra suke kepaze esvatra e unt ak dibo gutboreg.  
; Gutpodin :  Ak sura tinra e makid e Rekio. Ulgibin suke lasube makid. Maki ak &quot;Rekio&quot;.
; Pankesid :  Nenemen!
; Gutpodin :  Ak suke ferdarole, teas ak unam - mumunum - babferu.
; Gutsaleb :  Dozi logtenbei, sosozos, Rekio.
; Gutpodin :  A zobzoa tuske ak fera bufferyb.
; Pankesid :  Nenemen!
; Gutpodin :  Nenemen!
; Lebkesid :  Suku bobaru, o pezdagli.

Kafmonit e dopuze lekmonit a lapugu lekzi mone, &quot;Gutpodin Guta Vuta: Fulvuta Zyvgezer.&quot;

==Rough translation (by Philip)==

===A baby was born talking: it described heaven===

; Husband : It'll be all right, honey.
; Midwife : Push, dear, push!
; Wife : Arghh!
; Midwife : The baby is crowning, dear. It's nearly over. Push, dear, push!
; Husband : It'll be all right, honey.
; Wife : Arghh!!
; Midwife : The head is outside.
; Baby : Wow, I didn't think that I would see this place.
; Midwife : Arghh!!!
; Wife : Huh?
; Midwife : Um, push, dear, push!
; Husband : It'll be all right, honey.
; Baby : Someone should put some clothes on me! All of us had fine robes in the past.
; Wife : Who is talking?
; Baby : Hi, mother, I'm your son. I didn't like the name &quot;Connor&quot;. Please do not name me that. It was too trendy.
; Wife : This is some kind of trick. Male how does this?
; Midwife : Now I am after cutting the umbilical cord.
; Baby : I knew an angel with the name &quot;Peter&quot;. That's a good name. Name me &quot;Peter&quot;.
; Wife : Aaaaaah!
; Baby : I am thirsty, but I will not - no, no, no - drink at the breast.
; Midwife : Stay still, um, Peter.
; Baby : Nine months ago I drank wine.
; Wife : Aaaaaah!
; Baby : Aaaaaah!
; Husband : It'll be all right, honey.

The headline of an important newspaper the next day writes, &quot;A baby was born talking: it described heaven.&quot;

==Grammatical Sketch==

; CVCV : verb
; VCVC : verb modifier
; CVCVC, CVCCV : noun
; CVCVCV : adjective (noun/pronoun modifier)
; VCVCVC : adjective modifier
; CVCVCVC : interjection
; CVCVV, CVCCVCVV : name
; VC : pronoun 
; CVVC : conjunction
; VCC : particle
; V : case marker

Most words can take CVC- prefixes (typically truncations of CVCVC roots).


===Verbal suffixes===
; -a, : past tense
; -e, : present tense
; -i, : imperative mood
; -o, : infinitive
; -u, : future tense

Adjectives take tense markers.


===Word Order===

SVO, with agentive and patientive cases indicated solely by word order (AVP)

Modifiers precede the words they modify.

===Case Prepositions===
; a : ''prep.'', locative, temporal
; e : ''prep.'', of, with
; o : ''prep.'', vocative
; i : ''prep.'', indirect object


==Lexicon==

; ak : first-person pronoun
; akgezer : [&lt; ak+gezer.] this place, here
; akgibin : [&lt; ak+gibin.] this one
; akvatra : [&lt; ak+vatra.] this time, now
; azekrakef : [&lt; zeket+rakef.] how (present tense)
; babab : breast, mammary gland
; bined : thought
; bobar : acceptableness
; boreg : rope, cord
; bufferyb : [&lt; bufla+feryb.] wine
; bufla : grape
; bus : to push
; dagli : liquid
; darol : requirement
; dib : cut
; dinep : head
; dipba : trick
; disev : something
; dispodin : [&lt; disev+podin.] someone
; dopuz : importance
; doz : remain, stay
; es : fifth-person pronoun
; esvatra : [&lt; es+vatra.] past
; ferdarol : [&lt; feryb+darol.] thirsty
; feryb : a drink
; fifivif : huh?
; fozfe : mother
; fulel : sight
; fulvuter : [&lt; fulel+vuter.] description
; gefvu : offspring
; gezer : place
; gibin : thing, object
; gutboreg : [&lt; gutus+boreg.] umbilical cord
; gutpodin : [&lt; gutus+podin.] baby
; gutsaleb : [&lt; gutus+saleb.] midwife
; gutus : birth
; if : third-person pronoun
; kafkenmi : [&lt; kafmi+kenmi.] robe
; kafmi : top, superior position
; kafmonit : [&lt; kafmi+monit.] headline
; kakip : near completeness
; kenmi : garment
; kepaz : completion, finishedness, definiteness
; kesid : spouse
; lagas : excessiveness
; lapug : next
; lasub : goodness, favorableness
; lebkesid : [&lt; lebta+kesid.] husband
; lebta : male
; lekmonit : [&lt; lekzi+monit.] newspaper
; lekzi : day
; liliril : hi, hello
; logak : motion
; logtenbe : [&lt; logak+tenbe.] stillness, motionlessness
; lusda : language
; makid : name
; monit : writing, document
; mov : to crown, to reach the stage of labor where the fetal scalp is first visible
; mumunum : no, no, no!
; namuz : negation
; nenemen : aaaaaah!
; ol : fourth-person pronoun
; pankesid : [&lt; panun+kesid.] wife
; panun : female
; pezdagli : [&lt; pezez+dagli.] honey
; pezez : bee
; podin : person
; puvir : to do
; rakef : manner
; raralar : arghh!
; rekna : stone, rock
; relgi : affectionate
; relpodin : [&lt; relgi+podin.] dear
; rilis : fashionableness, trendiness
; saleb : professional
; serob : outside
; sogna : any
; sosozos : um
; sudir : total
; suk : to be
; surbi : knowledge
; teas : but
; teblu : possession
; tenbe : absence
; tinra : angel
; tuske : month
; tutol : lover
; ul : second-person pronoun
; ulgibin : [&lt; ul+gibin.] that one
; unt : particle encapsulating a clause as an argument of a verb
; vatra : time
; vuter : to talk
; vuvufuv : wow
; vymil : dog, canine
; Vymtutie : [&lt; vymil+tutol.] Connor
; zeket : interrogative relation pronoun
; zekpodin : [&lt; zeket+podin.] who
; zekpuvir : [&lt; zeket+puvir.] would
; zibga : spirit, soul, breath
; zobzo : nine
; zyvan : inspiration
; zyvgezer : [&lt; zyvan+gezer.] heaven
; Zyvlusda : [&lt; zyvan+lusda.] Zyvlusda, the Inspired Language

[[Category:Conlang Relay 12|Zyvlusda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relay 12: Da Mätz Se Basa -- Full Information</title>
    <id>1975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:52:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Relay 12: Da Mätz Se Basa -- Full Information moved to Conlang Relay 12/Da Mätz Se Basa: Uniform format - make all detail pages be subpages of the relay page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Conlang Relay 12/Da Mätz Se Basa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relay 12: Minza -- Full Information</title>
    <id>1976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:52:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Relay 12: Minza -- Full Information moved to Conlang Relay 12/Minza: Uniform format - make all detail pages be subpages of the relay page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Conlang Relay 12/Minza]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relay 12: Kēlen -- Full Information</title>
    <id>1977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Relay 12: Kēlen -- Full Information moved to Conlang Relay 12/Kēlen: Uniform format - make all detail pages be subpages of the relay page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Conlang Relay 12/Kēlen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relay 12: Toma Heylm -- Full Information</title>
    <id>1978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:53:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Relay 12: Toma Heylm -- Full Information moved to Conlang Relay 12/Toma Heylm: Uniform format - make all detail pages be subpages of the relay page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Conlang Relay 12/Toma Heylm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relay 12: Calénnawn -- Full Information</title>
    <id>1979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:53:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pne</username>
        <id>17</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Relay 12: Calénnawn -- Full Information moved to Conlang Relay 12/Calénnawn: Uniform format - make all detail pages be subpages of the relay page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Conlang Relay 12/Calénnawn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Conlang Relay 12</title>
    <id>1980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16151</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:15:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category relates to [[Conlang Relay 12]], started by Jeffrey Henning.

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Ababcock</title>
    <id>1981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T23:37:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ababcock</username>
        <id>91</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi, this is Amanda Babcock Furrow, conlangs at http://www.quandary.org/~langs/.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Darynese</title>
    <id>1982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T04:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Darynese=

Smooth translation is currently missing.

==Smooth Darynese==
 Dorunyaera! Nyaram, ilaetraenyaera!
 
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Saerai: Saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Saerai: Yaetai! Emilonaime mati dorusetas raikae. Yaemi deles se daibe!
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Emilo: A! Teoro dorunyaetas raokae!
 Saerai: rarurileyiza!
 Mizaebaiai: Latrimaelnaor?
 Saerai: Pasaeranyaepara! Aesem saenyanyaera! Yaetai! saenyanyaera!
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!
 Emilo: Raokae taekonyaera! Yaope tazembo ranneos teonzanyae raokae.
 Mizaebaiai: Taeyinnaor ilaetraese?
 Emilo: Eyilai. Raokaekul laemtraenyaera. Daibenaimao ineyilao zaitrinyae
 raokae. 'Konor' tusreonyaepa raokae. Taenae menyae yaemi.
 Mizaebaiai: Nanenaor? Ilaetraese emilo!
 Saerai: Emilseyai sem datae raikae.
 Emilo: Nenkenaimeo naer leobysunyae raokae. Yilae aon leobysunyae raokae.
 'Petros' zaitrinyae raokaenaimae aon.
 Emilo: Aotaelao menyae raokae. Subenyai, ilaoba zelnelonyaepa raokae.
 Saerai: Petros! Ebenyaepara!
 Emilo: Ner trais binyin keoru, saisinsu zelnelonyae raokae.
 Mizaebaiao: Marinyaera!

 Ereo mokeorul donyose donyoao -- 'Ilaetraerilo emilo! Taomaenaime kaodi!'

==Glossary==
 A - exclamation, like 'well' or 'so' in English
 aesem - again
 ai - to do
 aon - name
 aotael - thirsty
 binyin - one half
 daibe - you (adult feminine)
 datae - to cut, to slice
 deles - almost, nearly
 donyo - write
 donyoao - writer (adult masculine)
 doru - see, watch
 ebe - fidget, squrim
 emilo - baby (juvenile masculine)
 emilseyai - umbilical cord
 er - next
 eyilai - mother
 ilaetrae - speak, talk
 ilaoba - milk
 ineyilao - son (adult masculine)
 kaodi - gift
 keoru - unit of time, about 44 days
 laemtrae - listen
 latrimael - (any abstract idea)
 leobysu - exist, have, possess
 mari - to perservere
 mati - head
 me -- describe, be [used to connect an adjective to a noun]
 mizaebaiai - wife
 mizaebaiao - husband
 mokeorul - day
 naer - death
 nane - malicious lie or trick
 nenke - military leader, general
 ner - previous
 nyaram - and (used to join clauses/sentences)
 pasaera - to darken in mood (lit. to become ill)
 raikae - I (adult feminine)
 raneos -- much, a lot, often
 raokae - I (adult masculine)
 rarurileyiza -  damn it [lit. scorched soil. Impolite]
 saenya - push
 saerai - literally priest, but used to indicate members of hte medical
 professions as well.
 saisinsu - a Darynese drink made form a mix of fermented fruit juices and
 teas. Highly intoxicating to pretty much all known species of intelligent
 life.
 se - (irregular) positive polite form of 'ai'
 sem - now
 subenyai - however, but
 taeko - to dress
 taen - common, popular
 taeyin -- (neuter) person
 taomae - most prominent god in the major Darynese religion.
 tazembo - clothing
 teo - place
 teonza - to wear
 trais - five
 tusreo -- wish, want, desire
 yaemi - it (concept, idea or anything abstract)
 yaetai - ma'am
 yaop - rich, expensive
 yil - good
 zaitri - be (used to connect nouns A=B)
 zelnelo - drink
 
 -ae - concept/idea
 -ao - adult masculine
 -e - thing/object
 -eo - place/time/event
 -kul - indirect object
 -naim - indicates possessive
 -nyaepa - authoritative negative tense
 -nyaepara - negative imperative
 -nyaera - imperative tense
 -nyaetas - authoritative positive-uncertain tense
 -naor - query pronoun
 -o - juvenille masculine
 -ril - forms particle or adjective from verb
 -ro - this (demonstrative pronoun -- used for something close to the speaker)
 -se - polite positive tense
 -setas - polite positive-uncertain tense

==Grammar== 
 The overall syntax of Darynse is OVS. The verbs are conjugated based on
 politeness level and evidentiality. There are four levels of politeness in
 Darynse. 'Casual' is used for two equals in an informal setting. It is
 usually only used among family or close friends. 'Polite' is the standard
 tense for two equals. 'Authoritative' is used when the speaker is in
 charge of the listener -- most often with teachers, bosses, and adult
 relatives speaking to students/employees/children. Using it all the time
 makes you look rather egotistical.
 
 As for the evidentiality, Darynese verbs can be conjugated based on
 whether they are positive (the speaker knows this to be true), negative
 (the speaker knows this to be false) or positive or negative hearsay (the
 speaker
 is uncertain of the truth of the statement, but thinks it is either true
 or false).
 
 The Darynese verb ai (to do) is irregular.
 
 Adding /-ra/ to the end of the verb changes the meaning. For an
 authoritative verb, it turns the sentence into a command. The suffix -ril
 is used to turn a verb into a participle.
 
 Adjectives and adverbs proceed the word they modify, and change ending to
 match th gender of the noun. Darynese has ten genders. The ones used in
 the above paragraph are listed in the suffix part of the glossary. Adverbs
 are left in the root forms. Note that these rules are also used on
 participles.
 An indirect object is indicated by the suffix /-kul/.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kharos S'fik</title>
    <id>1983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8938</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-10T21:39:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== About ==
Traditional Kharos S'fik was created 1/2006 by Pascal A. Kramm. It is the predecessor of  Modern [[Charos S'fik]].

It is used in [http://www.conlang.info/relay/relay13.html Conlang Relay 13].

As the Relay is over now, look below for the Relay text.

== Culture ==
The speakers of Kharos S'fik, the Hoka, are living majorly on Hokkaido (Japan's northern-most island), but a good amount of them also live on Honshû (the Japanese main island), and there mostly in the Kantô region. A small amount is still living on the Russian island Sakhalin north of Hokkaido.&lt;br&gt;
Their name stems back from the late 16th century, when they first made contact with westerners (most likely Portuguese) who named them &quot;Hocaidoes&quot;. They eventually adapted the name for themselves, but shortened it to &quot;Hoka&quot;.

== Origin ==
When analyzing their language, and also judging from their original Phoenician-derived script, it seems most likely that the Hoka were originally tribes coming from today's Germany and Scandinavia, as you can still find Germanic-sounding words in their vocabulary. From their original habitat, they moved more and more eastwards, crossing all of Russia on the way (which had quite an impact on their language), always looking for a good place to stay. They eventually set over to Sakhalin, and from there to Hokkaido, where they finally started settling down, while some moved on to Honshû and settled mostly in the Kantô region. Their language became strongly influenced by Japanese over time.&lt;br&gt;
With the Modernisation, triggered by the Meiji Restauration of 1868, the language evolved into Modern [[Charos S'fik]].

== Grammar ==
Sentences have '''SOV''' order. All words consist of '''sound units''' which are usually made up of '''CV''' (consonant-vowel) pairs, though vowel-only or consonant-only units are also possible.&lt;br&gt;
Final consonants are tacked onto the preceding unit. Every unit takes the same time to pronounce.&lt;br&gt;
The stress lies on the first consonant-only unit or otherwise on the last unit.

== Script ==
Traditional Kharos S'fik has three scripts, two of which are still used today.&lt;br&gt;
The transcriptions into the roman script for all three scripts were devised by a German merchant around the 1870s to faciliate trade, after Japan had ended its period of isolation with the Meiji Revolution in 1868 and opened itself to trade with foreigners again.

===Fenix script===
[[image:Fenix-script.png|left|thumb|150px|Fenix Script]] The Fenix script is the original and oldest script. Like many other scripts (including our roman script), it probably developed from the phoenician script.&lt;br&gt;
Its use today is limited to formal occassions, for headlines, or to express special emphasis (where the roman script would use bold or italic text).
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

===Khaful script===
[[image:Khaful-scipt.png|left|thumb|150px|Khaful Script]] The Khaful script appeared some time after the Fenix script. It uses the same vowels and vowel marks, but completely different chars for all consonants.&lt;br&gt;
It was apparently only used for a short time period alongside with the Fenix script and disappeared again soon.&lt;br&gt;
It is not used at all anymore today.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

===Tifet HW script===
[[image:Tifet-script.png|left|thumb|150px|Tifet HW Script]] When Buddhist scriptures arrived, people were very fond of the Tibetan handwriting the scriptures were composed in. Compared to the Fenix script, it seemed much more practical as letters were connected, and thus it could be written more fluently.&lt;br&gt;
Aesthetical considerations probably further helped it to eventually replace the Fenix script as the everyday purpose script.&lt;br&gt;
Today, this is still the main script used for most occassions in which Traditional Kharos S'fik is used, with few exceptions where the Fenix script is still used.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

== Phonology ==
This table presents the alphabet (khakra) in its proper order.
{|border=1
! Sound ||  Ipa  || Initial || Medial || Final || Unit by itself
|-
| a || a,ʌ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ä || æ || O || O || O || O
|-
| i || i,ɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| u || u,ʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| au || aʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| e || e,ɛ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ei || aɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| o || o,ɔ || O || O || O || O
|-
| eu || oɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| k || k || - || O || O || -
|-
| kh || ç || O || -/- || -/- || -/-
|-
| kh || x || -/- || O || O || -
|-
| kr || kʁ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ch || ç || O || O || O || O
|-
| cj || ʝ || O || O || - || -
|-
| nj || ɲ || O || O || - || -
|-
| t || t || O || O || O || -
|-
| d || d || O || O || - || -
|-
| n || n || O || O || O || -
|-
| p || p || - || O || O || -
|-
| f || f || O || O || O || O
|-
| w || v || O || O || - || -
|-
| m || m || O || O || O || -
|-
| ts || ts || O || O || O || -
|-
| j || j || O || O || - || -
|-
| r || ʁ || O || O || - || -
|-
| l || l || O || O || O || -
|-
| (q) || kw || O || O || - || -
|-
| x || ks || O || O || O || -
|-
| sh || ʃ || O || O || O || O
|-
| s || s || O || O || O || O
|-
| h || h || O || O || - || -
|}
* kr is regarded as a single consonant
* Modern Tifet uses 'ku' instead of 'q'


== Human Rights ==
[[image:Fenix-hr1.png|left|thumb|150px|Human Rights (Art. 1) in Fenix HW script]][[image:Khaful-hr1.png|left|thumb|150px|Human Rights (Art. 1) in Khaful script]][[image:Tifet-hr1.png|left|thumb|150px|Human Rights (Art. 1) in Tifet HW script]] F'seuwash Dekrarats af Uman F'rawi, Atikhal 1.
S'fet uman f'ri ta kha tanakh okh ch'tosh ikren okh f'rawi ha. Etin rikhuts okh krefis kha aus'tat okh s'jäl khom f'rat s'kal letsit.

'''Original text:'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1.&lt;br&gt;
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;


== Babel text ==
'''Note:'''
* An apostrophe (') after a consonant signifies that the consonant has to be pronounced long (consonant-only unit).
* The midpoint (·) is used in order to indicate unit boundaries. Treat it like a glottal stop.

'''Bereshit''' (Book of Genesis) ''Chapter 11, 1-9''
* '''1''' Tep khanats mira en s'parakh sam khotop de ta ha.
* '''2''' Osot e in futesh ch'mas, umanen Shinara ni falakh ta tarof okh dä nifik ta ch'mas.
* '''3''' Etin s'jäl ni ta tal: &quot;Jo f'rokhot! Fokin tikhel jo ch'mas okh taxan etin jo s'cjikrat!&quot; Etin tikhel f'samen ishi okh tajäl f'samen morat ta nits.
* '''4''' Tokrat etin ta tal: &quot;Jo f'rokhot! S'tat toran de newo e fokin fa jo s'dani, s'da fokin khanats jorat s'fa nei s'ka kha s'farak.&quot;
* '''5''' Awa HaShem ch'ta ta f'rokhot fa s'tat okh toran fidet som ch'toen in ta s'dani.
* '''6''' HaShem ta tal: &quot;Fal khom en ch'toen de en s'parakh etin khon tata fechin ch'mas, nada etin khikak ch'mas nei wo·s'mos etin fa s'ka ilu.
* '''7''' Jo f'rokhot! Fokin ch'ta jo iti okh s'parakh af etin jo s'mu·s'jen, s'da etin s'jäl nei s'ka f'seh.&quot;
* '''8''' S' HaShem etin khanats jorat s'fa ta s'farak, okh etin s'tat ta f'rek s'dani.
* '''9''' Dakha s'tat Fafel ta kha nam, khara HaShem dä s'parakh af khanats mira s'mu·s'jen; dä khal, HaShem etin khanats jorat s'fa ta s'farak.


'''Literal:''' (word-by-word)
* '''1''' now whole world one language same word with *past* have.
* '''2''' east towards *continuous* travel make, human-*plural* Shinar in flat *past* find and there settlement *past* make.
* '''3''' they self to *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! We brick *cohortive* make and much they *cohortive* burn!&quot; they brick instead-of stone and tar instead-of mortar *past* use.
* '''4''' then they *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! city tower with sky towards we for *cohortive* build, so-that we over whole earth not *future* *passive* scatter.&quot;
* '''5''' but HaShem down *past* come for city and tower see that man-*plural* *continuous* *past* build.
* '''6''' HaShem *past* say: &quot;if as one people with one language they this *perfect* begin do, nothing they plan do not-possible they for *future* be.
* '''7''' *cohortive* come! we down *cohortive* go and language of they *cohortive* confuse, so-that they self not *future* understand.&quot;
* '''8''' so HaShem they whole world over *past* scatter, and they city *past* stop build.
* '''9''' therefore city Babel *past* passive* name, because HaShem there language of whole world confuse; there from, HaShem they whole earth over *past* scatter.


'''Translation:'''
* '''1''' Now the whole world had one language with the same words.
* '''2''' Journeying eastwards, men found a plain in Shinar and settled there.
* '''3''' They said to one another: &quot;Come! Let's make brick and burn it thorougly!&quot; They used bricks instead of stone and tar instead of mortar.
* '''4''' Then they said: &quot;Come! Let's build a city for us with a tower up to the sky, to make a name for us, so that we are not scattered over the whole earth.&quot;
* '''5''' But HaShem came down to see the city and the tower men were building.
* '''6''' HaShem said: &quot;If as one people with one language they have begun doing this, nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
* '''7''' Come! Let's go down and confuse their language, so that they will not understand each other.&quot;
* '''8''' So HaShem scattered them over the whole earth, and they stopped building the city.
* '''9''' Therefore the city was named Babel, because there HaShem confused the language of the whole world; from there HaShem scattered them over the whole earth.


== Relay 13 ==
''Shol'en khonta waluk khimosh af moros tokh''

En asa af des daf mesats khonta af kha'af f'rek u tsena dekia fidet.

Dä metsot khala doh khako e niwa foa ilu okh futol kras'ni otokh neko s'kulat af han u ilu. Tia khorosh hehko dekia medan metsot et ch'ta farof s'tarakh. Medan khon han al tamea fanik ha khara han s'koro kha'af s'ka f'rokhot shil. Dä neko cjama ch'mas. En tokh han ashi s'poa u krasat awa dä tarop kholot khasat okh s' han s'jäl r'kasak af khako metsot u hik. Näa han feqem tata ch'mas, kha'af f'rokhot.

S'lut cjoran af neko fis intares ta ilu.


'''Translation:'''&lt;br&gt;
''Steps against bad feelings of the frost time''

One morning of the twelfth month on the other side of the bus stop, (this) scene can be seen.

There, a boy clearly on the way to the school is in front of a garden and a fat red male cate is on his shoulder. The animal can balance (itself) well while the boy tries to shake it down. During this he has more and more panic because he knows that the bus will come soon. There the cat creates disturbance. One time he puts a paw on the fence, but it seems (to be) too cold, so it pulls itself back on the school boy's backpack. As it has made (itself) comfortable, the bus comes.

Finally, the cat's day was surely interesting.


== Lexicon ==
&lt;code&gt;
{|
! Kharos S'fik || Ipa || English
|-
! A
|-
| af || [ʌf] || of
|-
| af'to || [af'to] || car
|-
| atikhal || [atixʌl] || article
|-
| al tamea || [ʌl tameʌ] || more and more
|-
| asa || [asʌ] || morning
|-
| ashi || [aʃɪ] || paw
|-
| au·s'tat || [aʊ'sːtat] || equip; equipment
|-
| awa || [avʌ] || but
|-
! CH
|-
| chak || [çʌk] || hundred
|-
| ches || [çɛs] || six
|-
| ch'mas || [çːmas] || to make, to do
|-
| ch'ta || [çːta] || down, downwards
|-
| ch'to || [çːto] || man, person
|-
| ch'tosh || [çːtoʃ] || same
|-
! CJ
|-
| cjama || [ʝamʌ] || disturbance
|-
| cjoran || [ʝoʁʌn] || day
|-
! D
|-
| dä || [dæ] || there
|-
| daf || [dʌf] || two
|-
| dakha || [daxʌ] || therefore
|-
| de || [de] || with
|-
| dekia || [dekiʌ] || can; ability, skill
|-
| dekrarats || [dekʁaʁʌts] || declaration
|-
| des || [dɛs] || ten
|-
| doh || [doː] || way, street, path
|-
! E
|-
| e || [e] || to, towards
|-
| -en || [ɛn] || plural suffix (infrequently used)
|-
| en || [ɛn] || one
|-
| et || [ɛt] || it
|-
| etin || [ɛt'in] || they (mixed gender)
|-
! F
|-
| fa || [fa] || for
|-
| fal || [fʌl] || if
|-
| falakh || [falʌx] || flat; a plain
|-
| fanik || [fanɪk] || panic
|-
| farof || [faʁɔf] || try
|-
| fea || [feʌ] || four
|-
| fechin || [feçɪn] || begin; beginning
|-
| feqem || [fekwɛm] || comfort; comfortable
|-
| fidet || [fidɛt] || see; view, sight (what is visible)
|-
| fif || [fɪf] || five
|-
| fis || [fɪs] || sure, surely
|-
| foa || [foʌ] || in front of; before
|-
| fok || [fɔk] || I
|-
| fokin || [fokɪn] || we
|-
| f'rat || [fːʁat] || brother
|-
| f'rawi || [fːʁavi] || right (as in &quot;human rights&quot;)
|-
| f'ri || [fːʁi] || free; freedom
|-
| f'rek || [fːʁek] || stop
|-
| f'rokhot || [fːʁoxot] || come
|-
| f'samen || [fːsamen] || instead (of)
|-
| f'seh || [fːseː] || understand; understanding
|-
| f'seuwash || [fːsoɪvaʃ] || universal
|-
| futesh || [futeʃ] || journey
|-
| futol || [futɔl] || fat
|-
! H
|-
| ha || [hʌ] || have (possession of material+immaterial things)
|-
| hakh || [hʌx] || eight
|-
| han || [hʌn] || he (also used for animals)
|-
| hehko || [heːkɔ] || balance
|-
| hik || [hɪk] || pull
|-
! I
|-
| ikren || [ikʁɛn] || dignity
|-
| ilu || [ilʊ] || to be; being
|-
| in || [ɪn] || continuous action particle
|-
| intares || [intaʁɛs] || interesting
|-
| ishi || [iʃɪ] || stone
|-
| iti || [itɪ] || go
|-
! J
|-
| jo || [jo] || cohortive particle
|-
| jorat || [joʁʌt] || earth
|-
! KH
|-
| kha || [ça] || passive particle
|-
| khako || [çakɔ] || school
|-
| khakra || [çakʁʌ] || alphabet (derived from the first two consonants)
|-
| khal || [çʌl] || from
|-
| khala || [çalʌ] || clear; clearly
|-
| khanats || [çanʌts] || whole
|-
| khara || [çaʁʌ] || because (of)
|-
| kharos || [çaʁɔs] || great; big
|-
| khasat || [çasʌt] || seem, look like
|-
| khikak || [çikʌk] || plan
|-
| khimosh || [çimɔʃ] || feeling
|-
| khiu || [çiʊ] || nine
|-
| kholot || [çolɔt] || cold; coldness
|-
| khom || [çɔm] || as
|-
| khomput || [çompʊt] || computer; compute, calculate
|-
| khon || [çɔn] || this
|-
| khonta || [çontʌ] || against; ~ af: other side of
|-
| khorosh || [çoʁɔʃ] || good; well
|-
| khotop || [çotɔp] || word
|-
! KR
|-
| krasat || [kʁasʌt] || put, place
|-
| kras'ni || [kʁasːni] || red
|-
| krefis || [kʁefɪs] || conscience
|-
! L
|-
| letsit || [letsɪt] || treat
|-
! M
|-
| medan || [medʌn] || while; during
|-
| mesats || [mesʌts] || month
|-
| mets || [mɛts] || half
|-
| metsot || [metsɔt] || boy (contracted from &quot;mets otokh&quot;)
|-
| mira || [miʁʌ] || world
|-
| morat || [moʁʌt] || mortar
|-
| moros || [morɔs] || frost
|-
! N
|-
| näa || [næʌ] || when, as
|-
| nada || [nadʌ] || nothing
|-
| nam || [nam] || name
|-
| neko || [nekɔ] || cat (gender neutral)
|-
| newo || [nevɔ] || sky
|-
| nei || [naɪ] || not
|-
| ni || [ni] || in
|-
| nifik || [nifɪk] || settlement
|-
| nits || [nɪts] || use
|-
| niwa || [nivʌ] || garden
|-
! O
|-
| okh || [ɔx] || and
|-
| osot || [osɔt] || east
|-
| otokh || [otɔx] || man; male
|-
! R
|-
| rikhuts || [ʁixʊts] || reason (as in &quot;reasonable&quot;)
|-
| r'kasak || [ʁːkasak] || backpack
|-
! S
|-
| sam || [sʌm] || same
|-
| s'cjikrat || [sːʝikʁat] || burn; fire
|-
| s'da || [sːda] || so that
|-
| s'dani || [sːdani] || build; building
|-
| sem || [sɛm] || seven
|-
| s'fa || [sːfa] || over
|-
| s'farak || [sːfaʁak] || spread, scatter
|-
| s'fet || [sːfet] || all
|-
| s'fik || [sːfik] || development; reserach; processing (phot.)
|-
| shil || [ʃɪl] || know; knowledge
|-
| shol || [ʃɔl] || measure, step
|-
| s'jäl || [sːjæl] || self, oneself, one another
|-
| s'ka || [sːka] || future particle
|-
| s'kal || [sːkal] || should, ought to
|-
| s'koro || [sːkoʁo] || soon
|-
| s'kulat || [sːkulat] || shoulder
|-
| s'lut || [sːlut] || final, finally
|-
| s'mu·s'jen || [sːmu'sːjen] || confuse; confusion
|-
| som || [sɔm] || that, that which
|-
| s'parakh || [sːpaʁax] || language
|-
| s'poa || [sːpoa] || fence
|-
| s'tarakh || [sːtaʁax] || shake
|-
| s'tat || [sːtat] || city, town
|-
! T
|-
| ta || [ta] || past particle
|-
| tajäl || [tajæl] || tar
|-
| tal || [tʌl] || say
|-
| tanakh || [tanʌx] || birth; (creation)
|-
| tari || [taʁɪ] || three
|-
| tarof || [taʁɔf] || find
|-
| tarop || [taʁɔp] || too much, too ...
|-
| tata || [tatʌ] || perferct particle
|-
| taxan || [taksʌn] || much, many, a lot
|-
| tep || [tɛp] || now
|-
| tia || [tiʌ] || animal
|-
| tikhel || [tixɛl] || brick
|-
| tokh || [tɔx] || time
|-
| tokrat || [tokʁʌt] || then
|-
| tsena || [tsenʌ] || scene
|-
! U
|-
| u || [u] || on
|-
| uman || [umʌn] || man, human
|-
! W
|-
| waluk || [valʊk] || evil; bad
|-
| wo·s'mos || [vo'sːmos] || possible
|}&lt;/code&gt;


== Numbers ==
  1 en
  2 daf
  3 tari
  4 fea
  5 fif
  6 ches
  7 sem
  8 hach
  9 khiu
 10 des
 11 des en
 12 des dua
 13 des tari
 14 des fea
 ...
 20 dua des
 30 tari des
 42 fea des dua
 ...
 99 kiu des kiu

 100 chak
 1,000 sen
 10,000 des sen
 100,000 chak sen

 1,000,000 mijon
 10,000,000 des mijon
 100,000,000 chak mijon

As they originally didn't have separate numbers for 8 and 9, they adopted those from Japanese into their language.&lt;br&gt;
Same goes for the words for 100, 1,000 and 10,000.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kharos Sfik</title>
    <id>1984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:55:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IJzeren Jan</username>
        <id>36</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kharos S'fik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kerno</title>
    <id>1985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29125</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T19:59:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;blue&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Kerno
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
| Dûnein, [http://www.ib.frath.net/w/Kemr Kemr], Cornouaille, [http://www.ib.frath.net/w/France France], [http://www.ib.frath.net/w/NAL-SLC NAL], [http://www.ib.frath.net/w/Australasia Australasia]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Region:
| Southern Kemr
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| several millions worldwide
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Language families and languages|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[Language families and languages|classification]]:
|[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[Italic languages|Italic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Romance languages|Romance]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Western Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Britanno-Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Kerno'''
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;purple&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Discoverer:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Elemtilas|Padraic Brown]] | [[User Talk:Elemtilas|Elemtilas]] 
|}

== Introduction ==
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kerno is one of several Western Britanno-Romance languages that exist in [http://www.bethisad.com Ill Bethisad]. Kerno was born of the proliferation of Vulgar Latin and British Romance in the aftermath of the evacuation of Roman troops during the 5th century. Three principal dialect centres coalesced: the &lt;i&gt;Eastern&lt;/i&gt; at Londinium, the &lt;i&gt;Northern&lt;/i&gt; at Castra Legionis (Castreleon) and the &lt;i&gt;Western&lt;/i&gt; at Esca Dumnonum (Ysca). Between 700 and 1350 AD, Kerno flourished as a literary language, and much prose, poetry and scholarly material was produced. The Arthurian legendarium was also expressed in Kerno. After the late XIV century, [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html Brithenig] became ascendant and by turns became the official language of government, business and society in general. Between 1425 and 1875 practically nothing of note was written in Kerno; but the last quarter of the XIX century saw a cultural renaissance in Kemr. It was this movement that spurned the resurgence of Kerno as a literary language and paved the way for the dismantling of the Brithenig only policies that had become enshrined in law and tradition. In the first decade of the XXJ century, one finds that Kerno is moribund in its own homeland. Much blame has been placed on the Language Boards who were charged with choosing a standard form of the language and devising a standard orthography. They failed in their challenge, leaving the province's schools a shambles and causing about 75% of the population to become L1 Paesan (Brithenig) speakers. The language is flourishing in all the lands it has colonised.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kerno's immediate relatives include [[Brehonecq]] (the form spoken in France) and Duro, spoken in the southeastern quarter of Dûnein. Near kin include [[Paesan]] (a dialect of Brithenig) and [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/introduction.html Brithenig] itself.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Dûnein is a rather cosmopolitan province, and especially its capital city, Ysca. Other languages spoken in the province are Castilian, Francien, Angli, Cantonese and Gaulhosc. Kerno is planned for use in Relay 13.

== Phonology ==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;full&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|Sounds
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Consonants&lt;br&gt;
b, as in ball: /b/&lt;br&gt;
bh, as in veil: /v/&lt;br&gt;
c, before e or i as in cell or church: /s/, /tʃ/, /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;
c, before a, o or u as in call: /k/&lt;br&gt;
ch, as in loch: /x/&lt;br&gt;
ci, as in ship: /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;
ck, as in clock: /k/&lt;br&gt;
coeu and cou, as in quick: /kw/&lt;br&gt;
d, as in day: /d/&lt;br&gt;
dd and dh, as in them: /D/&lt;br&gt;
f, as in fish: /f/&lt;br&gt;
g, as in go: /g/&lt;br&gt;
geo, as in lozenge: /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;
gh, like ch but voiced: /ɣ/&lt;br&gt;
goeu and gou, as in Gwent: /gw/&lt;br&gt;
h, like high: /h/&lt;br&gt;
j, as in jump: /dʒ/&lt;br&gt;
jeo, as in azure: /ʒ/&lt;br&gt;
k, as in call: /k/&lt;br&gt;
kh, as in loch: /x/&lt;br&gt;
l, as in look: /l/&lt;br&gt;
ll, often as in look: /l/; sometimes h and l together: /hl/&lt;br&gt;
m, as in milk: /m/&lt;br&gt;
mh, as in veil: /v/&lt;br&gt;
n and nh, as in new: /n/&lt;br&gt;
p, as in pick: /p/&lt;br&gt;
ph, as in flip: /f/&lt;br&gt;
r, can be rolled or back in the throat: /r/, /ʁ/&lt;br&gt;
rh, like h and r together: /hr/&lt;br&gt;
s, as in sit: /s/&lt;br&gt;
si, as in ship: /ʃ/&lt;br&gt;
t, as in tell: /t/&lt;br&gt;
th and ti, as in thorn: /θ/&lt;br&gt;
v, as in van or wall: /v/, /w/&lt;br&gt;
w, as in wall: /w/&lt;br&gt;
x, as in loch, shape or rex: /x/, /ʃ/, /ks/&lt;br&gt;
y, as in yet: /j/&lt;br&gt;
z, as in zing or breathe: /z/, /ð/&lt;br&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Vowels&lt;br&gt;
a, as in father or cut: /a/, /ə/&lt;br&gt;
e, as in pay or pen: /e/, /ɛ/&lt;br&gt;
i, as in sleep or kin: /i/, /ɪ/&lt;br&gt;
o, as in broken or pot: /o/, /ɔ/&lt;br&gt;
u, as in food or mud: /u/, /ʌ/&lt;br&gt;
y, as in sleep: /i/&lt;br&gt;
ao, as in coo: /u/&lt;br&gt;
ay, as in eye: /aɪ/&lt;br&gt;
aw, as in cow: /aw/&lt;br&gt;
ea, “eh” followed by “uh”: /eʌ/&lt;br&gt;
ei, as in say: /eɪ/&lt;br&gt;
eo, “eh” followed by “eu”: /eø/&lt;br&gt;
ey, as in pay: /eɪ/&lt;br&gt;
eu, as in French “heure”: /ø/&lt;br&gt;
eou, as in “eh” plus “eu”: /eø/&lt;br&gt;
ew, “eh” followed by “oo”: /eu/&lt;br&gt;
io, as in yoke: /jo/&lt;br&gt;
iw, as in yew: /ju/&lt;br&gt;
oa, “eu” plus “oh” plus “ah”: /oa/&lt;br&gt;
oi, as in boy: /oj/&lt;br&gt;
ou, as in owe: /ow/&lt;br&gt;
oy, as in boy: /oj/&lt;br&gt;
ui, as in hay: /e/&lt;br&gt;
|}

== Grammar Notes ==
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Kerno is VSO in nature; still exhibits word initial mutations; has articles definite and indefinite; nouns of masc., fem. and epicene genders; no adj-noun agreement; two nominal cases, nominative and oblique with vestigial dative, possessive and instrumental; base-20 number system; full supply of personal, reflexive, demonstrative and possessive pronouns; object pronouns are usually found conjoined to preverbs (preverbs are kind of like nominal prepositions); three verbal conjugations with a variety of simple and compound tenses, the latter of which can become rather complicated; there are a large number of irregular nouns and verbs. The copula is often omitted, and sometimes the personal pronoun when the antecedant is not (or should not be) in question.

== Sample Text ==
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The Tower of Babel myth is a very common sample text, and can be found in the texts page linked to below. Here, I'll offer a little snippet from &lt;i&gt;Lla Sul&lt;/i&gt;, one of Kemr's preeminent news papers, from 14 July, 1898:

&lt;b&gt;dol' omèn il sezlonds le llongfrangeièn: Pernauigasot c' om perry vor, et durant ke domonis.se az al isel, rompus sa la sew llonga. Gouiuefas y pluzeor ans; et-z-eliverasot-el la Armada Reyal. Dondrhuasot-li il capetans: ''Quhit wye daes ye hae twae kirkes, mon?'' Savus il capetans, Albaneck, ionte a nemez y Chomrow, mays y chapeuw y zew per li yen omèn ast po en var! Doponus il wortó a-z-el yen et deckis: ''C' aquel, moniem a nemez y Zi la Sulis.'' ''An at yin thonder?'' rhuasot il capetans. ''Ay, c' aquels. Ieo n' moniem pass nonck a nemez y Zi la Sulis!''&lt;/b&gt;

The Story of the Shipwrecked Man: A man was sailing upon the sea and as he approached an island, his boat wrecked. He lived several years and at last was recued by the Royal Navy. The captain asked him: &quot;Why do you have two chapels here?&quot; The captain, a Scot, knew that the Comro were ardent church goers, but two chapels for one man is too much! He pointed out one of them and said: &quot;That's where I go to church of a Sunday.&quot; &quot;And the other?&quot; asked the captain. &quot;Ah, that one. I don't never go there of a Sunday!&quot;

To get a feel for what the Kerno speaker is actually reading:

At the man, the story of the shipwreck: Sailed this man upon the sea, and while that he came on to the island, broke she his ship. Lived several years; and rescued-him the Royal Navy. To him asked the captain: &quot;Quit wye daes ye hae twae kirkes, mon?&quot; Knew the captain, a Scot, goers to church the Comro, but chapels two for the one man is at the beyond! He put-to the finger at the one and said: &quot;That thonder, go I to church the Sunday.&quot; &quot;An at yin thonder?&quot; asked the captain. &quot;Ay. That thonder. I don't never go to church (there) at all the Sunday!&quot;

== Links ==
See this [http://www.bethisad.com/kerno_grammar_paradigms.htm article] for a good synopsis of Kerno grammar. All the chief paradigms are here along with some detailed paragraphs on the history and inner workings of the language.

See this [http://www.bethisad.com/kerno_texts.htm page] for a wide variety of text samples.

See this [http://www.bethisad.com/kerno.htm page] for links to the forgoing as well as to the lexicon pages.

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Ill Bethisad]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entrelenga</title>
    <id>1986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29101</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T17:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Escrita==
===Alfabeto===
Entrelengua a vente una letras regolaras:&lt;br /&gt;
Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ii, Jj, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Zz

====Restricións====
La letra &quot;Q&quot; sol se escrie en las combinacións &quot;que&quot; i &quot;qui&quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
No se usa &quot;J&quot; ante de &quot;E&quot; o &quot;I&quot;. Se escrie &quot;ge&quot; i &quot;gi&quot;.
No se usa &quot;Z&quot; ante de &quot;E&quot; o &quot;I&quot;. Se escrie &quot;ce&quot; i &quot;ci&quot;.

====Otras Letras====
Ademai, a cinz letras que se usan sol en parolas internacionalas:&lt;br /&gt;
Hh, Kk, Ww, Xx, Yy

===Acento Grafico===
L'acento agú se usa en las parolas ositonas (acentás en l'ultima silaba) que an final Vn?s? (vogala seguia o no de &quot;n&quot;, &quot;s&quot; o &quot;ns&quot;):&lt;br /&gt;
cidá, paés, parlará&lt;br /&gt;

Tambén se usa l'acento agú co fonción diferenciala:&lt;br /&gt;
lá (averbo de logo), la (artigol)&lt;br /&gt;

L'acento grave se usa nel infinitivo i nel participo pasao dels verbos de la terza coniugación:&lt;br /&gt;
comprènder, confùs, fàemo, dìez&lt;br/ &gt;

Ma:&lt;br /&gt;
restringerá, veeremo, leerean

==Fonologia==
===Vogalas===
a: [a] como &quot;a&quot; en &quot;casa&quot; espagnol o [ə] como &quot;a&quot; en &quot;about&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
e: [e] como &quot;e&quot; en &quot;leche&quot; espagnol o [ɛ] como &quot;e&quot; en &quot;bet&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
i: [i] como &quot;i&quot; en &quot;hijo&quot; espagnol&lt;br /&gt;
o: [o] como &quot;o&quot; en &quot;poco&quot; espagnol o [ɔ] como &quot;o&quot; en &quot;bonne&quot; francés&lt;br /&gt;
u: [u] como &quot;u&quot; en &quot;sur&quot; espagnol o [y] como &quot;u&quot; en &quot;sur&quot; francés&lt;br /&gt;

===Consonas===
b: [b] como &quot;b&quot; en &quot;boat&quot; anglés; [v] como en &quot;vote&quot; anglés o [β] como &quot;b&quot; en &quot;bany&quot; catalán&lt;br /&gt;
c (eceto &quot;ce&quot; i &quot;ci&quot;): [k] como &quot;c&quot; en &quot;scanner&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
ce, ci: se prononza como &quot;z&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
d: [d] como &quot;d&quot; en &quot;day&quot; anglés o [ð] como &quot;th&quot; en &quot;though&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
f: [f] como &quot;f&quot; en &quot;for&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
g (eceto &quot;ge&quot; i &quot;gi&quot;): [g] como &quot;g&quot; en &quot;got&quot; anglés o [ɰ] como &quot;g&quot; en &quot;lago&quot; espagnol&lt;br /&gt;
ge, gi: se prononza como &quot;j&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
gue, gui: [g] como &quot;g&quot; o [gw] como &quot;gu&quot; en &quot;language&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
j: [ʒ] como &quot;j&quot; en &quot;jour&quot; francés; [ʤ] como &quot;j&quot; en &quot;jam&quot; anglés o [x] como &quot;j&quot; en &quot;jarro&quot; espagnol&lt;br /&gt;
l: [l] como &quot;l&quot; en &quot;load&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
m: [m] como &quot;m&quot; en &quot;man&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
n: [n] como &quot;n&quot; en &quot;not&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
gn: [ɲ] como &quot;ñ&quot; en &quot;año&quot; espagnol o [nj] como &quot;ni&quot; en &quot;junio&quot; espagnol&lt;br /&gt;
p: [p] como &quot;p&quot; en &quot;sports&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
que, qui: [k] como &quot;c&quot; o [kw] como &quot;qu&quot; en &quot;questo&quot; italián&lt;br /&gt;
r: [ɾ] como &quot;r&quot; en &quot;cara&quot; espagnol; [r] como &quot;r&quot; en &quot;ratón&quot; espagnol o [ʁ] como &quot;r&quot; en &quot;rue&quot; francés&lt;br /&gt;
rr: se prononza como &quot;r&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
s: [s] como &quot;s&quot; en &quot;seven&quot; anglés o [z] como &quot;z&quot; en &quot;frozen&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
sce, sci: se prononza como &quot;sz&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
sz: [sʦ] como &quot;sts&quot; en &quot;guests&quot; anglés;  [sʧ] como &quot;sch&quot; en &quot;mischief&quot; anglés; [zʣ] como &quot;zd-z&quot; en &quot;used zone&quot; anglés o [ʃ] como &quot;sh&quot; en &quot;show&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
t: [t] como &quot;t&quot; en &quot;still&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
v: se prononza como &quot;b&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
z: [ʦ] como &quot;z&quot; en &quot;zio&quot; italián; [θ] como &quot;th&quot; en &quot;think&quot; anglés; [ʧ] como &quot;ch&quot; en &quot;chico&quot; espagnol o [ʣ] como &quot;ds&quot;  en &quot;woods&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;

====Semivogalas====
i: [j] como &quot;y&quot; en &quot;yet&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;
u: [w] como &quot;w&quot; en &quot;what&quot; anglés&lt;br /&gt;

==Sostantivos==
===Cas===
Los sostantivos no declinan en cas.

===Gener===
A doi geners: mascolín i femenín.&lt;br /&gt;
Lo betumen, lo cas, lo cel, lo cemento, lo cumen, lo fil, lo fogo, lo ladril, l'omen, l'oriente, lo paés, lo povol, lo segnor, lo serviz, lo pe, l'artista.&lt;br /&gt;
La cidá, la ianura, la lengua, la parola, la pedra, la terra, la torre, la fe, l'artista.

===Numer===
A doi numers: plural i singolar. Los sostantivos co final -j, -s o -z an plural en -os si son mascolíns o en -as si son femeníns. Todos los otros sostantivos an plural en -s.&lt;br /&gt;
Los fils, los omens, los povols.&lt;br /&gt;
los casos, los paesos, los servizos.&lt;br /&gt;
las cidás, las lenguas, las torres.

==Pronomens==
===Personals===
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Nominativo'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;'''Acusativo'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Dativo'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Preposicional'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;16%&quot;&gt;'''Reflesivo'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Genitivo'''
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;eo
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;me
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;me
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;me
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;me
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;meo, mea
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;tu
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;te
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;te
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;te
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;te
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;tuo, tua
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;el
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;lo
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;le
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;el
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;se
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;suo, sua
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ea
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;la
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;le
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ea
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;se
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;suo, sua
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;noi
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ne
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ne
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;noi
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ne
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;nostro, nostra
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;voi
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ve
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ve
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;voi
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ve
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;vostro, vostra
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;els
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;los
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;les
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;els
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;se
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;lor, lora
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;eas
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;las
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;les
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;eas
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;se
      &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;lor, lora
      &lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Artigols==
===Definís===
lo ladril, la cidá&lt;br /&gt;
l'amí, l'amia&lt;br /&gt;
los ladrils, las cidás&lt;br /&gt;
los amís, las amias

===Indefinís===
&lt;p&gt;un povol, una terra&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;un omen, un'atriza&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;uns povols, unas terras&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;uns omens, unas atrizas&lt;/p&gt;

===Contracións===
a + lo(s) = al(s)&lt;br /&gt;
co + lo(s) = col(s)&lt;br /&gt;
de + lo(s) = del(s)&lt;br /&gt;
en + lo(s) = nel(s)&lt;br /&gt;
pe + lo(s) = pel(s)&lt;br /&gt;

==Verbos==
===Prima Coniugación===
parlar (arrivar, cesar, comenzar, dispersar, encontrar, nomenar)

====Modo Indicativo====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Imperfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Mai Ca Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Futur'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ao parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveo parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlarao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;as parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveas parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlarás&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parla&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlava&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;a parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avea parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlará&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;emo parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveamo parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlaremo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avez parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveaz parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlaraz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;an parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avean parlao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlarán&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Otros Modos====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Pasao'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Condicional'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo Negativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;


&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parle&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlareo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parles&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlareas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parla&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no parles&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parle&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlava&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlarea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlemo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlareamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlemo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no parlemo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlareaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no parlaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlen&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlavan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parlarean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Formas Nomenalas====
Infinitivo: parlar&lt;br /&gt;
Participo I: parlando&lt;br /&gt;
Participo II: parlao/parlá

===Segonda Coniugación===
bever (conoscer, creer, saver, voler, aparer, tener)

====Modo Indicativo====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Imperfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Mai Ca Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Futur'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ao bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveo bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beves&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;as bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveas bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverás&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beve&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;a bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avea bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverá&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevemo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;emo bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveamo bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveremo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avez bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveaz bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveraz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beven&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;an bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avean bevú&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverán&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Otros Modos====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Pasao'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Condicional'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo Negativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;


&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beva&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevereo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevereas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beve&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no bevas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beva&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevereamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no bevamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beveaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevereaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no bevaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;bevean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;beverean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Formas Nomenalas====
Infinitivo: bever&lt;br /&gt;
Participo I: bevendo&lt;br /&gt;
Participo II: bevú/bevua

===Terza Coniugación===
fàer (còcer, comprènder, confùnder, costrùer, descènder, dìer, propòner, restrìnger, vèer)

====Modo Indicativo====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Imperfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Mai Ca Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Futur'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;fao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ao fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveo fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;as fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveas fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerás&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;fae&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;a fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avea fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerá&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faemo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;emo fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveamo fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeremo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avez fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveaz fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeraz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faen&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;an fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avean fato&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerán&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Otros Modos====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Pasao'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Condicional'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo Negativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;


&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faa&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faereo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faereas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;fae&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no faas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faa&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faereamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no faamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faeaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faereaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faez&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no faaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;faerean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Formas Nomenalas====
Infinitivo: fàer&lt;br /&gt;
Participo I: faendo&lt;br /&gt;
Participo II: fato/fata, coto/cota, comprèns/comprensa, confùs/confusa, costruto/costruta, descèns/descensa, dito/dita, proposto/proposta, restrito/restrita, visto/vista

===Carta Coniugación===
partir (establir, venir, servir, esir)&lt;br /&gt;

====Modo Indicativo====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Imperfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Pasao Mai Ca Perfeto'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Futur'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parto&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ao partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveo partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirao&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partis&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partias&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;as partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveas partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirás&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parti&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partia&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;a partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avea partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirá&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partimo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;emo partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveamo partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiremo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avez partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;aveaz partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiraz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partin&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partian&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;an partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;avean partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirán&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Otros Modos====
&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Presente'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Sojontivo Pasao'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Condicional'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Imperativo Negativo'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;


&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;eo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parta&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partí&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partireo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;tu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partias&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partireas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parti&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no partas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;el, ea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;parta&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partia&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirea&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;noi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partireamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no partamo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;voi&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partireaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partiz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;no partaz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;els, eas&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partan&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partian&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;partirean&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Formas Nomenalas====
Infinitivo: partir&lt;br /&gt;
Participo I: partindo&lt;br /&gt;
Participo II: partí/partia

===aver (sol las formas irregolaras)===
====Modo Indicativo====
Presente&lt;br /&gt;
eo ao, tu as, el a, noi emo, voi avez, els an

====Modo Sojontivo====
Presente&lt;br /&gt;
eo aia, tu aias, el aia, noi aiamo, voi aiaz, els aian&lt;br /&gt;

===eser (sol las formas irregolaras)===
====Modo Indicativo====
Presente&lt;br /&gt;
eo so, tu es, el e, noi somo, voi soz, els son&lt;br /&gt;

Pasao Imperfeto&lt;br /&gt;
eo ero, tu eras, el era, noi eramo, voi eraz, els eran&lt;br /&gt;

Futur&lt;br /&gt;
eo serao, tu serás, el será, noi seremo, voi seraz, els serán&lt;br /&gt;

====Modo Sojontivo====
Presente&lt;br /&gt;
eo sea, tu seas, el sea, noi seamo, voi seaz, els sean

====Modo Condicional====
eo sereo, tu sereas, el serea, noi sereamo, voi sereaz, els serean

====Formas Nomenalas====
eser, sendo, estao

==Numers==
===Numers Cardenals===
cer, un, doi, trei, quatro, cinz, sei, sete, oto, nove&lt;br /&gt;
dez, onz, doz, trez, quatorz, quinz, dez sei, dez sete, dez oto, dez nove&lt;br /&gt;
vente, trenta, caranta, cinquanta, sesanta, setanta, otanta, novanta&lt;br /&gt;
cento, doicento, treicento, quatrocento, cinzcento/cincento, seicento, setecento, otocento, novecento&lt;br /&gt;
mil

===Numers Ordenals===
primo, segondo, terz, quarto, quinto, sesto, setemo, otavo, nono&lt;br /&gt;
decemo, oncemo, docemo, trecemo, quatorcemo, quincemo, dez sesto, dez setemo, dez otavo, dez nono&lt;br /&gt;
ventemo, vente primo, vente segondo, trentemo, quarantemo...&lt;br /&gt;
centesimo, milesimo&lt;br /&gt;

==La Torre de Babel==

1. Atonz toda la terra avea una sola lengua i las memas parolas.
2. Quando an partí del oriente, an encontrao una ianura nel paés de Senar i lá se an establí.
3. I an dito los uns als otros: &quot;veniz, faamo ladrils i cozamo-los co fogo.&quot; I los ladrils les an serví de pedra i lo betumen de cemento&quot;.
4. Poi an dito: &quot;veniz, costruamo-ne una cidá i una torre, lo cumen de la qual arrive al cel, i faamo-ne famosos, afinde que no ne dispersemo sor toda la terra&quot;.
5. Ma lo Segnor a descèns afinde vèer la cidá i la torre que los fils dels omens costruean.
6. I lo Segnor a dito: &quot;Els son un sol povol i parlan una sola lengua;
esto e ce an comenzao fàer; aora nul no los restringerá de fàer todo ce se proponan.
7. Atonz descendamo i confundamo lora lengua, afinde que no comprendan mai la lengua los uns dels otros&quot;.
8. I lo Segnor los a dispersao de lá sor toda la terra; i an cesao de costrùer la cidá.
9. Pe esto esta cidá se a nomenao Babel, pe que lá lo Segnor a confùs la lengua de toda la terra, i de lá lo Segnor los a dispersao sor toda la terra.

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Ipsius linguae]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang Relay 12/Tæĺf</title>
    <id>1987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T12:18:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Firespeaker</username>
        <id>93</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>genesis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Smooth English from Calénnawn ==
This is a very marvelous narration.

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;Woman, push!  You need to give birth!  I see the baby using my eyes.  You are about to give birth.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I see this world.&quot;

The priestess said, &quot;Oy!&quot;

The woman said, &quot;What?&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;Do not fear.  You need to push!  Push!&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I need a blanket, and may it be thick.&quot;

The woman screamed and said, &quot;S/he/it spoke!&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;My mother, do not give unto me the name 'Cúnucs' because it is common/ordinary.&quot;

The woman spoke and said, &quot;What is happening?  I have drunk too much wine.&quot;

The midwife spoke and said, &quot;I am able to cut the umbilical cord.&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;When I die, I will have been a military general and Peter will honour my name.  I need a monster and I need to drink, but I will not drink the milk.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;You should not flop about like a fish on a dock.&quot;

The baby spoke and said, &quot;I need a cup of wine aged 12 months.&quot;

The priestess spoke and said, &quot;Hope!&quot;

It was written the next day, &quot;The baby speaks and says, 'This is a sacred gift.'&quot;

== Tæĺf with Interlinear ==
Het - her ðeþrek færl.
This - very marvel.postBF2 story.


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
priest-woman &quot;hope.postBF-IMP-2nd.PL!&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Þændət, fiśsaŋajás!
birth.postBF-[]-doer-assist.postBF &quot;Woman, push.postBF-IMP-2nd.sg!

Hasyɬjáp áwrərzydáftōjás kəmzyjáwnō!&quot; keft 
2nd.sg-GEN futGER-giving.birth.preBF-2nd.sg necessary!&quot; QUOT1

bindejtsājáð, &quot;Ho blejo sylmōjəlajo mij
exclaim.postBF-past-3rd.sg, &quot;I own-1st.sg eye-PL-1st.sg INST 

myśsoh þá riśtsājo.  Hasyɬjáp
baby.postBF ACC see.postBF-past-1st.sg.  2nd.sg-GEN 

áwrərzydáftōjás soɣr kəklybám
futGER-giving.birth.preBF-2nd.sg soon passPart-come.preBF 

kīláð,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
stay.postBF-3rd.sg,&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
priest-woman &quot;hope.postBF-IMP-2nd.PL!&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Mæśsəh &quot;Het byjðos þá rijo,&quot; keft 
baby &quot;This world.postBF ACC see.postBF-1st.sg,&quot; QUOT1

fiŕĺtsājáð.
say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Hojś!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
priest-woman &quot;Oy!&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


&quot;Nō?&quot; keft þændət fiŕĺtsājáð.
&quot;What?&quot; QUOT1 woman say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Tirblāsaŋajás,&quot; keft,
birth.postBF-[]-doer-assist.postBF &quot;fear.postBF-NEG-IMP-2nd.sg&quot; QUOT1

&quot;hasyɬjáp áwrəfsyhám kəmzyjáwnō!  
&quot;2nd.sg-GEN futGER-push.preBF-2nd.sg necessary!

Fishysaŋajás!&quot; keft bleŋk giŋ́ftsājáð.
Push.postBF-IMP-2nd.sg!&quot; QUOT1 again command.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
priest-woman &quot;hope.postBF-IMP-2nd.PL!&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


&quot;Həwyðeā læfs kəmzyjáwnō,&quot; keft mæśsəh,
&quot;1st.sg.postBF-DAT blanket necessary,&quot; QUOT1 baby,

&quot;Tiĺĺsaŋajáð&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
&quot;be.thick.postBF-IMP-3rd&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Þændət &quot;Bitnytsājáð!&quot; keft giśtsājáð.
woman &quot;speak.postBF-past-3rd.sg&quot; QUOT1 scream.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Mæśsəh &quot;Mymo,&quot; keft laśkrygám,
baby &quot;mother.postBF-1st.sg,&quot; QUOT1 pastPart-addressed.preBF,

&quot;Həwyðeā 'Kūnuxs' kesm sym þá
&quot;1st.sg.postBF-DAT 'Cúnucs' QUOT2 name.postBF ACC

dińtylāsaŋajás, háð - naxl,&quot; keft 
give.postBF-NEG-IMP-2nd.sg, it - ordinary,&quot; QUOT1

fiŕĺtsājáð.
say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Þændət &quot;Nō liryś kīláð?  Ho tefr kuhkaɬ
woman &quot;what presPart-go.preBF stay.postBF-3rd.sg?  I too much

Þyrros þá fiśttsājo&quot; keft
wine.postBF ACC drink.postBF-past-1st.sg&quot; QUOT1

fiŕĺtsājáð.
say.postBF-past-1st.sg.


Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;hojā mæśs-y-kymbō
birth.postBF-[]-doer-assist.postBF &quot;1st.sg-GEN life-[]-rope.postBF

þá liryssydámo momgyn&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
ACC presGER-cut.preBF-1st.sg possible&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-1st.sg.


mæśsəh &quot;mykkō biŕk tēməŕk áwrədrykám
baby &quot;army.postBF in-DIST ER-lead.postBF futPart-become.preBF

dińto, áwrərnylámo beā, 'Kristśin' kesm
give.postBF-1st.sg, futGER-die.preBF.1st.sg LOC, Christian QUOT2

mylnō biŕk zywrō tēməþkylám sym
religion.postBF in-DIST gate.postBF ER-keep.preBF name.postBF-1st.sg

þá áwrəssyláfsō dińtáð,&quot; keft
ACC futPart-honour.preBF give.postBF-3rd.sg,&quot; QUOT1

mitnytsājáð, &quot;həwyðeā kæĺk, áwrəfjytám
declare.postBF-past-3rd.sg, &quot;1st.sg.postBF-DAT monster, futGER-drink.preBF

kəmzyjáwnō, jelyj dyɣgop þá áwrəfjytám
necessary, but milk.postBF ACC futPart-drink.preBF

dińtlajo&quot;
give.postBF-NEG-1st.sg&quot;


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;hasyɬjáp hylðō yðeā hymjok ðek
priest-woman &quot;your cougar.postBF DAT hamster.postBF like

liryɣgyfámás kəlamzyjānā&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
presGER-command.preBF-2nd.sg unnecessary&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg


Mæśsəh &quot;həwyðeā rep jyl kətjydám
baby &quot;1st.sg.postBF-DAT one year.postBF passPart-age.preBF 

þyrros sytkonáð kəmzyjáwnō&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
wine.postBF cup.postBF-3rd.sg necessary,&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-3rd.sg


Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.
priest-woman &quot;hope.postBF-IMP-2nd.PL!&quot; QUOT1 say.postBF-past-3rd.sg.


Áwrəklybám kyn brer &quot;mæśsəh 'het - kajprykám dæńt'
futPart-come.preBF day.postBF LOC &quot;baby 'this - causPart-bless gift'

keft firláð&quot; keft kəfðyrám kiśtsājáð.
QUOT1 say.postBF-3rd.sg&quot; QUOT1 passPart-write.preBF put.postBF-past-3rd.sg

== Notes passed to next participant ==
&lt;pre&gt;
General Info
------------

Tæĺf can be classified so:
- SOV
- adjectives precede nouns
- postpositional

Tæĺf uses consonant stems as the basis for vocabulary building.  Because of this, word formation paradigms call for consonants A, B, C, etc.  For example, in the [particularly long, for sake of example] stem SFRNZ, consonant A is S, and consonant E is Z.

In the lexicon, most noun/verb/adjective citations are given as the stem with the citation form in ()s; other forms can be derived/identified in the next section on important forms.

See final comments.


Important Forms
---------------

See note 4 (before 4a); applies generally to verbs as well.

Verbal participles/gerunds:
- liry + preBF    present part/ger
- laj + preBF     past part/ger
- áwrə + preBF    future part/ger
- kə(/ke) + preBF passive or perfective part/ger
- kaj + preBF     causative part/ger

Verbal forms:
- citation form:
  - AáwB (AáfB)
  - AāBaCá
  - AāBaCáDī
  - AāBaCáDiE
- pre-bound form:
  - -AB
  - -AByCám / -AByCáp
  - -AByCá(w/f)Dō
  - -AByCá(w/f)DoE
- post-bound form:
  - A(ī/i)B-
  - AiBC-
  - AiBC(ē/e)D-
  - AiBCeDE-

Noun forms:
- citation form:
  - AæB(C(əD))
- pre-bound form:
  - -ABo(C(əD))
- post-bound form:
  - AyB-
  - AyBCō-
  - AyBC(ō/o)D-
- post-bound form 2 (denominal adjectives):
  - AeB(C(eD))
  - sometimes: AeBCe or AaBC

Final-bound pronouns:
-o    -áwŋ
-ás   -áfþ
-áð   -áwn


Notes
-----

(1) - indicates a missing copula, although a copula would normally not come in the position - is found.  Normal word order in Tæĺf would be X Y COP, but when there's no copula, the order is X - Y.

(2) Because of the history of Tæĺf, many potentially confusing allophonic variations of consonants may exist:
- The following are quite common: l/ĺ/ɬ(/f), g/ɣ/k, k/x, (v/)b/p/w/f, r/ŕ, n/ń, j/ś, m/ḿ, n/ŋ́/g, and a few others that are much less common
(2a) In addition, some other things should be taken into account:
- roots ending in h often won't show their h in certain forms, since h drops at the end of syllables after fricatives
- there are some vowel variations too, most of which shouldn't be too opaque, some of which may be typos.

(3) Quotatives are used for any material that's typically quoted.  In Tæĺf, there are two common quotatives:
- keft is used for things which are said.  Think of &quot;person 'X' keft verb&quot; as &quot;person, having said 'X', verb&quot;.  There are many other ways of dealing with this in English, depending on the verb; also, as long as keft comes immediately after the quoted material, the rest of the sentence's syntax is pretty loose.
- kesm is used for names.  &quot;'X' kesm thing&quot; can be thought of as &quot;thing called 'X'&quot;, or, English-permitting, &quot;'X' thing&quot;.

(4) The post-bound form (postBF) of the noun is used to show that something slightly less salient than the noun follows it:
- for oblique case, after which case markers / postpositions follow
- postBF nouns can precede other nouns (which can change in form depending on the resulting noun phrase's use): e.g., music.postBF disc = music disc, disc of music.
(4a) Also, compound nouns don't have to use the post-bound form, and instead simply the citation form.  Alternatively, the 2nd noun can be in preBF.  In these instances, the filler vowel 'y' is often inserted between the nouns so that the phonology comes out okay.
(4b) Some compounds may not be semantically obvious, even in context; if there seems to be ambiguity, contact me and I will provide compounds as if they are pieces of the lexicon previously not included.

(5) Distributive prepositions can be thought of as mini relative clauses: þyndot beāk hæńf (temple.postBF at-DIST woman) = the woman at the temple, the woman who is at the temple


Final Comments - Contact me!
----------------------------

   As with any relay, if any questions come up, please contact me.  I realise the syntax may be difficult for people unfamiliar with SOV languages; again, all questions are welcome, especially if something Just Doesn't Make Sense--everything should come out fairly simple and should make sense at least outside the context of everything else (you know how relays can be...), except perhaps the last sentence, which shouldn't be terrible, but is slightly complicated.
   If my server were up (it will be in about a week, but that does you little good now), I'd direct you to more complete info on Tæĺf, though I think I've sent everything that'll be necessary to tackle the relay.  If you need any futher information, however, contact me.
   If there are unicode issues, contact me.  I can easily provide pdf files which will present things as they're supposed to look.
&lt;/pre&gt;

== Vocab ==
&lt;pre&gt;
-			indicates missing copula (see note 1)
-k			distributiviser/relativiser, for postpositions (see note 5)
áwrə + verb.preBF		future gerund or participle
áwrə + verb.preBF + (j +) pronoun   future gerund
beā			locative, at
bir			in
BJÐS (bæjðəs)		world
bleŋk			again
ble + j + pronoun	[pronoun]'s own (e.g., 'blejás' = 'your own')
brer			temporal locative, during, at the time of
DGGW (dæɣgəp)		milk
ðek			like, as (postposition)
DNT (dæńt)		gift
DNT (dānatá)		give
DRK (dāraká)		become
ÐÞRK (ðæþrək)		amazing thing, marvel
ÐKL (ðākalá)		keep
FÐR (fæðr)		writing implement (pen, pencil, quill)
FÐR (fāðará)		write
FJT (fājatá)		drink (verb)
FRL (færl)		story
FRL (fāralá)		say (archaic: recount)
FSH (fāsahá)		push
FSH (fāsahá)		push (see note 2a)
futGerund + pronoun + [necessary]   [it is necessary that] subject verb[s], subject['s] verb[ing is necessary], subject [needs to] verb, subject [should] verb
futGerund + pronoun + [possible]   [it is possible that] subject verb[s], subject['s] verb[ing is possible], subject [is able to / can] verb
futGerund + [come]		verb tense: immediate future
futParticiple + [give]	verb tense: future
GŊF (gæŋ́f)		command (noun)
GŊF (gāgafá)		command (verb)
ŊJ (gawś)			scream, cry out, shriek
háð			s/he/it (3rd.sg.nom)
háfþ			you (2nd.pl.nom)
hás			you (2nd.sg.nom)
háwŋ			we (1st.pl.nom)
háwn			they (3rd.pl.nom)
həwyðeā			me (1st.sg.dat)
hasyɬjáp			your (2nd.sg.gen)
her			very
het			this
HLÐ (hæĺþ)		cougar
HMJK (hæmjək)		hamster; any small rodent (e.g., mouse, gerbil; most squirrels and rats would be considered large rodents)
ho			I (1st.sg.nom)
hojā			my (1st.sg.gen)
hojś!			exclamation of surprise: &quot;oy!&quot;, &quot;ay!&quot;, &quot;omg!&quot;
jelyj			but
JH (jáf)			go (see note 2a)
JL (jæɬ)			year
kə (/ke) + verb.preBF	passive participle
kəlamzyjānā		unnecessary
kəmzyjáwnō		necessary
kaj + verb.preBF		causative gerund or participle
kaj + verb.preBF + (j +) pronoun   causative gerund
keft			QUOT1 (see note 3)
kesm			QUOT2 (see note 3)
KJ (káfś)			put
KL (kawl)			stay
KLK (kæĺk)		wolf; scary or dangerous animal, monster
KLV (kālabá)		come
KMV (kæḿp)		rope, string
KN (kæn)			sun; day
KRŊ (kāragá)		address, hail
kuhkaɬ			much
laj + verb.preBF		past gerund or participle
laj + verb.preBF + (j +) pronoun   past gerund
liry + verb.preBF		present gerund or participle
liry + verb.preBF + (j +) pronoun   present gerund
LVS (læfs)		blanket, cover, covering (sometimes: rug, carpet)
LVS (lābasá)		cover (verb)
mij			instrumental
MJS (mæśs)		life
MJSH (mæśsəh)		baby (see note 2a)
MKK (mæxk)		any sort of armed force: army, military, police, etc
MLN (mæln)		belief, faith, religion 
MM (mæm)			mother
momgyn			possible
MTN (mætn)		declaration
MTN (mātaná)		declare
nō			what, which
NKL (naxl)		ordinary, plain, normal
noun.citeF-[y-]noun.citeF	compound noun phrase (see note 4a)
noun.citeF-[y-]noun.preBF	compound noun phrase (see note 4a)
noun.postBF		oblique (followed by cases/postpositions)
noun.postBF + (j +) pronoun   possessed/ive form
noun.postBF + (j +) əla (+ j + pronoun)   plural
noun.postBF noun		distributive (see note 4)
noun.postBF-[y-]noun.citeF	compound noun phrase (see note 4a)
passParticiple + [put]	finite form of passive voice
passParticiple + [stay]	verb tense: [such a situation definitely exists]
presParticiple + [stay]	verb tense: [such a situation exists]
rep			one
RG (ráfk)			lead (verb)
RJ (ráfś)			see
RNL (rānalá)		die
RZDT (ræzdət)		birth (noun)
RZDT (rāzadátī)		give birth (verb)
SFRNZ (sāfaránis)		hope; pray non-secularly
SLM (sæɬm)		eye
SM (sæm)			name (noun)
soɣr			soon
SSLS (sæsləs)		honour (noun)
SSLS (sāsalásī)		honour (verb)
STKN (sætkən)		mug, cup, glass, goblet; any container with a wide, open top which liquid is poured into and drunk from (e.g., not a flask)
tēmə + noun.postBF	doer, agent; more generally, person whose job deals with noun
tefr			too
TJD (tæśt)		age, oldness (noun)
TJD (tājadá)		age (verb)
TJD (teśt,tejde)		aged, old (adj)
TLL (tæĺĺ)		thickness
TLL (tālalá)		to be thick
TLL (teɬle)		thick
TRV (tæŕf)		fear (noun)
TRV (tārabá)		fear (verb)
tsáŋ			because of, since, for
þá			accusative
ÞNDT (þændət)		woman, any female creature
ÞRFN (þæŕfən)		priest, any religious leader
ÞRRS (þærrəs)		alcoholic beverage, spirits: usually cider, but also applies to wine, beer, ale, vodka, etc. (of these, only cider and various wines are native to Tæĺf speakers)
verb.citeF		infinitival form
verb.postBF (+ j) + pronoun   finite form, usually present tense
verb.postBF + (y + ) lā(/laj)   negative
verb.postBF + (y +) tsā + j + pronoun   past tense
verb.postBF + saŋa + j + pronoun   imperative
VNTJ (bānatájī)		exclaim, sound/peal (of a horn/bell)
VRK (bāraká)		bless, make holy/divine; make non-secularly divine/special  
VRTZ (bāratázī)		help, assist
VTN (bātaná)		speak, talk
yðeā			dative, to
ZSD (zāsadá)		cut, slice; split, divide
ZVR (zæwr)		gate, opening
&lt;/pre&gt;

== The Text in Tæĺf ==
Het - her ðeþrek færl.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Þændət, rizdetsaŋajás!

Hasyɬjáp áwrərzydáftōjás kəmzyjáwnō!&quot; keft bindejtsājáð, &quot;Ho blejo sylmōjəlajo mij myśsoh þá riśtsājo.  Hasyɬjáp áwrərzydáftōjás soɣr kəklybám kīláð,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;Het byjðos þá rijo,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Hojś!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

&quot;Nō?&quot; keft þændət fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;Tirblāsaŋajás,&quot; keft, &quot;hasyɬjáp áwrəfsyhám kəmzyjáwnō!  Fishysaŋajás!&quot; keft bleŋk giŋ́ftsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

&quot;Həwyðeā læfs kəmzyjáwnō,&quot; keft mæśsəh, &quot;Tiĺĺsaŋajáð&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þændət &quot;Bitnytsājáð!&quot; keft giśtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;Mymo,&quot; keft laśkrygám, &quot;Həwyðeā 'Kūnuxs' kesm sym þá dińtylāsaŋajás, háð - naxl,&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þændət &quot;Nō liryś kīláð?  Ho tefr kuhkaɬ þyrros þá fiśttsājo&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Ryzdot-y-tēməwrytáwzō &quot;hojā mæśs-y-kymbō þá liryssydámo momgyn&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;mykkō biŕk tēməŕk áwrədrykám dińto, áwrərnylámo beā, 'Kristśin' kesm mylnō biŕk zywrō tēməþkylám sym þá áwrəssyláfsō dińtáð,&quot; keft mitnytsājáð, &quot;həwyðeā kæĺk, áwrəfjytám kəmzyjáwnō, jelyj dyɣgop þá áwrəfjytám dińtlajo.&quot;

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;hasyɬjáp hylðō yðeā hymjok ðek liryɣgyfámás kəlamzyjānā&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Mæśsəh &quot;həðəjáp rep jyl kətjydám þyrros sytkonáð kəmzyjáwnō&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Þæŕfən-þændət &quot;Sifreńssaŋajáfþ!&quot; keft fiŕĺtsājáð.

Áwrəklybám kyn brer &quot;mæśsəh 'het - kajprykám dæńt' keft firláð&quot; keft kəfðyrám kiśtsājáð.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ipsius linguae</title>
    <id>1988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6431</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>whee</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
Category for texts describing conlangs (and concultures) written in the conlang itself.  

[[Category:Texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Texts</title>
    <id>1989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:30:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
Category for texts written in conlangs, or for translation into conlangs.

[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Germanic conlangs</title>
    <id>1990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46015</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T23:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>under Germanic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for conlangs derived from Proto-Germanic or from attested Germanic languages.

[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dcueaa</title>
    <id>1991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:46:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonMoore</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dcueaa moved to Dcuea: Another orthography change...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dcuea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vemiesiire</title>
    <id>1992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T07:12:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erika00177</username>
        <id>103</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;h3&gt;History&lt;/h3&gt;
'''Vemiesiire''' is a [[constructed language]] and proposed [[International Auxiliary Language]] created over the course of the past ten years.  Erika Heidewald, the language's creator, is an amateur Indiana linguist whose knowledge of Spanish, Italian, French, German, and Chinese led her to create a language using the advantages to each language, and eliminating unnecessary linguistic hardships.  Vemiesiire means &quot;the people's language,&quot; coming from the Vemiesiire words &quot;vemieye,&quot; meaning person, and &quot;siire,&quot; meaning language.  Vemiesiire has a distinct alphabet but can easily be written with an alphabet similar to that of [[Spanish]].  The language was created to fulfill three main goals: aesthetic beauty, easy learning, and logical structure. Vemiesiire is interesting in that it is one of the only [[constructed languages]] actively being expanded and promoted currently. 
&lt;h3&gt;The Sound&lt;/h3&gt;
Vemiesiire uses the basic alphabet of [[English]], with the added letters ñ, forming the [[Spanish]] &quot;enye&quot; sound, and &quot;sch,&quot; similar to the English sh sound.  The most frequent sounds are the most pleasing to the ear, and harsh letters such as g, pronounced as in the English word &quot;get,&quot; denote negative words.  I is pronounced like the English &quot;ee,&quot; c as &quot;ch,&quot; and q as &quot;qu,&quot; as in &quot;question,&quot; except for when at the end of a word.
&lt;h3&gt;Grammar&lt;/h3&gt;
[[Grammar]] is very simple in Vemiesiire.  Any word can be made into an adjective by adding the prefix -ja, the j sound being similar to that of [[French]].  Nouns and verbs are often the same word, adding the suffices -el to mean &quot;a place where it is done&quot; and -it to mean &quot;one who does this.&quot;  Unlike some constructed languages such as [[Esperanto]], Vemiesiire has no noun gender.  Vemiesiire distinguishes no difference between adjectives and adverbs, but simply describing both as &quot;taresjaa savaca,&quot; or &quot;descriptors.&quot;  The word &quot;you&quot; is &quot;zie&quot; or &quot;ziea&quot; for multiple parties.  Similar to English, there is no pronoun of respect such as the &quot;Usted&quot; of Spanish, the &quot;Sie&quot; of German, or the &quot;lei&quot; of Italian.  Verb conjugation is simple and retains the same form for all pronouns (I, you, he, she, we, they).  Pronouns don't change based on the subject of the sentence, similar to &quot;you&quot; in the English language.  
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;&quot;
! Pronoun
! English Equivalent
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! dela  
| {{IPA|I, me}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! zie 
| {{IPA|you}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! kanai 
| {{IPA|he, him}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! kenai 
| {{IPA|she, her (not poss.)}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! zi 
| {{IPA|it}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! kaerne 
| {{IPA|we, us}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''zedei'''
| {{IPA|they, them}}
|}

Because of the flexible sentence structure and simple verb conjugations, Vemiesiire takes little effort to learn, only practice.  

Vemiesiire is relatively new and at this point has few speakers. It is, however, steadily gaining popularity, especially near its place of origin, America's midwest.


== Sample ==

The following is a Vemiesiire translation of the first nine lines of the book of [[Genesis]], traditionally used to compare languages.

1. Setia ko misirianci zentilia jehnana qena vox siire, setia qena vox vecir.

2. Setia zi venana na tal veu zedei iqeana xenasiey ko Eieh, komina zedei zita'ana l ischire soluste ko angye qena Schinar, setia zedei mystikeana exete.

3. Setia zedei siirteana na vana oarno, Zijai na, lekaere zel rhéet, setia hasecce zedei amas.  Setia zedei zelana rhéet na sélleh, setia stikhiet zedei zelana nea schayen.  

4. Setia zedei siirteana, Zijai na, lekaere farraj l solvian setia l sespa, derina'elat xaíze ohme zao na Mistijare, setia ohme kaerne zel l zihie, lien-se kaerne jehn schivehr gitclen yeko ko vera qena ko misirianci zentilia.

5. Setia ko Díoz venana iau na eneuvre ko solvian setia ko sespa, oziy ko vanaia qena enaia farrajana.

6. Setia ko Díoz siirteana, Xaielaene, ko vemieyea jehn vox, setia zedei kiis zel vox siire, setia kesiko zedei xizar na rie, setia oqeni vayán khie jehn zohpeja xenasiey zedei, oziy zedei sisé índiiana na rie.

7. Zijai na, lekaere zijai iau, setia exete sehuw zedeir siire, komina zedei ohme lem añia vana oarno'elat vecir.

8. Ove, ko Díoz xambeana ko vemieyea gitclen xenasiey exete yeko ko vera qena kiis ko zentilia, setia zedei zohpeana na farraj ko solvian.

9. Ove, ziña zihie jehn Babel, oá ko Díoz exete sehuwana ko siire setia xenasiey exete ko Díoz xambeana zedei gitclen ko vera qena kiis ko zentilia.


== Links ==
[http://www.geocities.com/erika0100/vemiesiire.html]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ný AngloSaxon Speling</title>
    <id>1993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T12:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ný AngloSaxon Speling moved to New AngloSaxon Spelling: The old URL was messy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Gaaziketti</title>
    <id>1997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48430</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-15T12:58:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fofofo5</username>
        <id>1324</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Gaaziketti]] is a conlang developed by [[User:Fofofo]] (=[[User:Fofofo5]]) and superseded by its descendant [[Taaluketti]].

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Auxlangs</title>
    <id>1998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T05:27:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Auxlang]]s, or auxiliary languages.

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Conlanging culture</title>
    <id>1999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T05:28:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Meta topics about conlangers and conlanging groups.


[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Henaudute</title>
    <id>2000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T05:30:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Pages concerning [[Henaudute]], a conlang by [[User:Muke]]. 
[[Category:Dele languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Public domain</title>
    <id>2001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T05:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Source materials that are in the public domain.

[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Trivia</title>
    <id>2002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T05:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">

[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hystudian</title>
    <id>2003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29121</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T19:55:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Hystudian Conlang and conculture were created by Daniel Jewell. 

==Overview==
==Real World History==
==History==
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Canjo</title>
    <id>2004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:54:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canjo</username>
        <id>112</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Eylastal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eylastal</title>
    <id>2005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-10T22:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canjo</username>
        <id>112</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eylastal''' is my language; it's both an artistic and personal constructed language. It is an inflected fusional language with two grammatical genders and 

It is based on no other language, but it is nonetheless mostly conventional.

==Phonology==
===Vowels===
{| border=1
!Vowel||[[IPA]]
|-
|a||{{IPA|[a, ə]}}
|-
|e||{{IPA|[&amp;#x025B;]}}
|-
|ê||{{IPA|[eɪ, e]}}
|-
|i||[i]
|-
|o||{{IPA|[&amp;#x0254;]}}
|-
|ô||{{IPA|[oʊ]}}
|-
|u||[u]
|}

* At the end of a word, r can also serve as a vowel.
* When two vowels are juxtaposed, o = ô and e = ê. Hence ear [eɪ.ar]
* er = [er], not [ɜr]

===Diphthongs===
{| border=1
!Diphthong||[[IPA]]
|-
|ay||{{IPA|[aɨ]}}
|-
|oy||{{IPA|[ɔɪ]}}
|-
|uy||[uɪ]
|-
|aw||{{IPA|[aʊ]}}
|-
|ew||{{IPA|[eʊ]}}
|}

===Consonants===
{| border=1
!Consonant||[[IPA]]
|-
|b||[b]
|-
|c||[k]
|-
|ch||[{{IPA|ʧ}}]
|-
|d||[d]
|-
|dh||[&amp;eth;]
|-
|f||[f]
|-
|g||[g]
|-
|h||[h]
|-
|k||[x]
|-
|l||[l]
|-
|m||[m]
|-
|n||[n]
|-
|ng||[&amp;#x014B;]
|-
|p||[p]
|-
|r||[r]
|-
|s||[s]
|-
|sh||{{IPA|[&amp;#x0283;]}}
|-
|t||[t]
|-
|th||[&amp;theta;]
|-
|v||[v]
|-
|w||[w]
|-
|x||[ks]
|-
|y||[j]
|-
|z||[z]
|}

At the end of a word, o is pronounced as ô and e as ê.


===Stress===
Stress falls on the first syllable unless there is an accented vowel:
* a -&gt; á
* e -&gt; é
* ê -&gt; è
* o -&gt; ò
* ô -&gt; ó
* u -&gt; ú

which, naturally, takes the stress. Also, any diphthong automatically takes the stress, including the &quot;diphthongs&quot; ar, er, ir, or, and ur, unless there is an accent mark, which always overrides it; however, stress cannot fall on the last syllable unless there is an accent written. Thus, &quot;sathay&quot; is pronounced ['saθaɪ] whereas &quot;satháy&quot; is pronounced [saθ'aɪ].  


===Syllable rules===
Where C represents any consonant above and V any vowel, generally:

Word-initially, a syllable may take the form CCVC;
Medially, a syllable may take the form CVC;
Word-finally, a syllable may take the form CVC.

This boils down to a word structure of CCVCCVCCVCCVC, at most. In other words, you can never have more than two consonants next to each other, including liquids. 

Some exceptions: 
* After a diphthong, only one consonant is allowed (in effect, the y or w at the end of the diphthong counts as a consonant even though it really isn't one).

* If the last consonant is a spirant [s] or [z], the final syllable can take the form CVCs.

* When the last consonant is r functioning as a vowel, the cluster can end in CCVCr or even theoretically CCVCsr. For example, &quot;tiryatr&quot; (to the kingdom), &quot;èmatr&quot; (to the animal), &quot;cutsr&quot; (to the cube).
 

When a voiced consonant comes in contact with an unvoiced consonant, the whole consonant cluster becomes voiced. Thus,
satha (white) + varósa (clothed) = sadhvarósa (white-clothed)
vekti (verb, to think) + ya (3rd person sing. pres. ind.) = vekta

Two plosives can never be juxtaposed. When there is a consonant cluster of the form PP (where P is a plosive), it will become FP, where F is the fricative equivalent according to the following rule:

* p -&gt; f
* b -&gt; v
* t -&gt; th
* d -&gt; dh
* ch -&gt; sh
* c -&gt; k
* g -&gt; g

The resultant is then voiced if necessary; since there is no voiced equivalent of k, it simply disappears.

The following clusters will change as follows, where P is any plosive, V any vowel, and F any fricative, N any nasal and P(n) that nasal's plosive equivalent:

* PvV -&gt; PwV
* PgV -&gt; PyV
* kyV -&gt; shV
* hyV -&gt; cyV
* NN  -&gt; P(n)N

This transformations are performed before applying the two-consonant rule to reduce clusters. Hence, nelki (to hate) + ya (3rd person singular present) = nelsha

==Grammar==
===Nouns===
Eylastali nouns have the following properties:
* Two genders: masculine and feminine;
* Two numbers: singular and plural. Gender is lost in the plural.
* Six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, and vocative;
* Two &quot;aspects&quot;: definite and indefinite;
* Two &quot;verities&quot;: positive and negative.

I can't figure out how to do a fancy table so bear with me here:

For the prototypical masculine noun I here use &quot;neldas&quot; (the nose), for the prototypical feminine &quot;etwês&quot; (the star).

Not all nouns are regular; many nouns end simply in a consonant rather than the -a or -e gender ending. These words must simply be memorized along with their gender (normally denoted by the nominative pronoun they take, &quot;ga&quot; (masculine) or &quot;e&quot; (feminine)).

====Regular masculine paradigm====
* Nominative positive: nelda (a nose), neldas (the nose)
* Nominative negative: nelday (not a nose), neldays (not the nose)

* Accusative positive: neldo (a nose), neldos (the nose)
* Accusative negative: neldoy (not a nose), neldoys (not the nose)

* Genitive positive: nelden (a/the nose's)
* Genitive negative: neldedmá (not a/the nose's)

* Dative positive: neldar (to a/the nose)
* Dative negative: neldamá (not to the nose)

* Locative positive: neldov (at the nose)
* Locative negative: neldoyv (not at the nose)

* Vocative positive: neldat (O nose!)
* Vocative negative: neldayt (O non-nose!)

====Regular feminine paradigm====
* Nominative positive: etwe (a star), etwês (the star)
* Nominative negative: etweya (not a star), etwêsmá (not the star)

* Accusative positive: etwo (a star), etwôs (the star)
* Accusative negative: etwoy (not a star), etwôsmá (not the star)

* Genitive positive: etwin (a/the star's)
* Genitive negative: etwidmá (not a/the star's)

* Dative positive: etwiz (to a/the star)
* Dative negative: etwemá (not to the star)

* Locative positive: etwon (at the star)
* Locative negative: etwoyn (not at the star)

* Vocative positive: etwêt (O star!)
* Vocative negative: etwêtmá (O non-star!)

====Regular plural paradigm====
* Nominative positive: etwi (stars), etwis (the stars)
* Nominative negative: etwiya (not stars), etwismá (not the stars)

* Accusative positive: etwu (stars), etwus (the stars)
* Accusative negative: etwuy (not stars), etwusmá (not the stars)

* Genitive positive: etwanir (a/the stars')
* Genitive negative: etwadmá (not a/the stars')

* Dative positive: etwalir (to a/the stars)
* Dative negative: etwalmá (not to the stars)

* Locative positive: etwanon (among the stars)
* Locative negative: etwanoyn (not among the stars)

* Vocative positive: etwit (O stars!)
* Vocative negative: etwitmá (O non-stars!)

===Pronouns===
I'm going to sleep now

==A finished text in Eylastal==
Chalaylas Urov swa Driov

Aharo cwi aványir adzelir                   
swa sewlir sadhalir kay egmov so,           
cyat nwa voydhósa laylim ivlir te           
ti ecyo aynon sunanon efró.                
A sadhar so ek Uren tartebla,               
ol èov tiryo Dria egmo sco,                
agáhte Uras agadríabla,                     
ga nelsho glarion ta tiryatôs.             

Ga onlo Uras genwon Driathon,               
e naryo norov opyês egmien,                 
swa onlu fehi engei ton so,                 
shta edzu asi kay mot áveken;             
cha'y naru prôvilúlis evrulon,              
swa genulnon athoron Driathen,              
swa'y obnu Fortesmo, ga bliov sa,           
cha'y gyaru Driar fi mot zahus men.       

Niy aysho adzel Rahas Uzar ko               
swa tasco &quot;Urat lei nari sha,               
ti trefi bladhi gyatsu athelon,             
è semza ga, ta nelki, cetson sa?          
Heth twari bladhim athriôs nwa fo           
am adri engi adzelis selát;                 
te bladhu amon fo el roy swa cwar           
swa shtendi vekti; nol anari sha.&quot;        

Agáhte sfetyo Uras adzelar,
&quot;Shtalá cyatari sha tor athron men?&quot;
Swa tar côcharya Rahas, &quot;Tiryaví
sca sha aványa Driacétsien!&quot;          
Cha tasco Uras, &quot;asi tirim shwi,
shtalá nwa cetson si ef aprien?&quot;
Niy cyuriécyo Rahas sadhazar,
rwa tasco &quot;Charismá to malpien!       

Sha karaví athoriz niyov ha,
swa ihu prôvilúlus tólki fa,
rwa harbi sfia ta swa metri ta,
ti semza cetson scaya tira sa;                 
cha adzelbúloy ceri sfia noy,
cay Urat ti achari adzel sha,
swa asi scoy ek tarim ivlir sco,
sha voydhi say' numeya vanyêsmá.&quot;      

Ga shwendo Rahas Uren swa niylá,
ga aysho Driar genwon cetson lo,
swa taryo sfeto &quot;Driel driathon,
heth twas ga hagya Urel cura fo                 
amétra heth swa prôvilúla sa,
swa trefya gyatsu harba tiryatôs.&quot;
&quot;Sa zweri mo!&quot; tas Dria pelion,
shta peliécyo 'haryo ágano.             

Ol evrulon tiz shwendo Uras ko,
kay feflu sheflis nubnon shtecanon
swa'y eliu ayni etwis tôvaltá;
ga hokto Uras saknon bednanon.         
Rwa haryo hesyu, beldatúus vef,
scay pomdu garis evron calanon,
swa te byo Uras froyo shtahte lo,
cul desfr samu kay ol eyanon.          
             
Sadhari naru samu kay amtá,
sarlúlis so, swa elitsus bu kay,
kay eliálu monyu capsius
cha evriul swa omris eliáy.            
&quot;Sarlúlit cay!&quot; tas Uras pelion,
&quot;Vwex naro sfia engi vodhi say'!&quot;
Cha tar côcharyo mona &quot;Asi soy;
ca aydhu amel sta swa driôráy.&quot;                  

Niy thesis corvu Uzar swa niylá,
kay aniarlu tar el enlias:                        
ga Mawgras, Ublas, Bednas swa selát,
ga Shakas, Hèas, Genas, Eshentas;      
cha Sarlas monya naryo nei si,
shtahtá ektaryo Genas swa ga tas                   
&quot;Ga trefya shawya Eriádnôs sca,
te hagya ga niy engov, Sarlias.&quot;       

Am icnon Uras vrner thoriz ko
ton genulir èn prôvilulanir,
swa óra onli kulis anfu kay
ti thokti sádharis kay niyalir         
atólku aga driacetsôs shu.
&quot;Hex adzelcélit&quot; hesyis galanir
è iku thoktis ko; ga 'ceryo lo
tarósus Rahen &quot;Bulôsmá ibnir!&quot;         

Niy nol a golga so ek enlôsáy,
ga Golgas tartel engir golgalir
--shta ahi ayshu engi tartelis--
sadhara mona drien vewzanir            
kay 'numon enanon ol egmov ko;
ga anwaharyo engir sadhalir
è sfetu kay swa fevlu Uzar fo,
swa ga akarso Golgas evrulir.          

Ton apro noron numon Ragnas so,        
ga gulmo ehaharyus golgen mo.
&quot;Cay Ragnel bwi haróso pelya heth!&quot;
tas Golgas ishu holwiz Ragnen ko,      
swa chio, &quot;Cektu niyi bubis na
ek seku chagu genwo diulôs
el vecthelis, ta tólka Uras fa,
ga insa bladhanu, ga neli so!&quot;         

Ol genul samyo Uras icnon so
kay obnu ta en lugal adzelnir
en helcanu, ga atra bulo ash,
swa tasco &quot;Urel tólkanu imlir,         
cay pelyêt, ga mektáfya Drio sca!&quot;
E ánwe froy ko Uzar vektalir. 
Ga Fèmas banranu tar tasco lo,
&quot;E nerya tirês heth ha sèmbilir.&quot;     

Ton sèmbion e anfo tirês ko            
tsi ímar Urov corva ek firáy,
swa tasco &quot;Adzelcélat, vanya sha,
shtalá bir sha ek gala sefyeráy?&quot;  
Cyahtá aceryo ga azeryo tir
miánwiôs, e Uros mihaláy, 
swa aysho tiriz roy arnúilir,
swa cyuriblo cyataryo &quot;Culiáyt!  

Shtalá shwi emlim eth, ti mawgi ha!
nwa adzelúle vweti hihu na,
ti hescu himu nalinir kay fa,                   
swa swari sha cyatari atri sha  
ni bulo adzelnir, e narye soy;
ga aysha monya glawdas teya sa.&quot;                
Swa árso Uras adzelroy ton lo			
aceryo tirês scaya Rahias.   

È samyo Uras imov tiron so,
kay huytu evrulir kay vecis ko.
Niy naru calis insuiya si,
swa ishu vecis diuliz tov lo   
è blias siralir atyár ga ko:
swa'y hexu drio tartelio sco
swa sfetu driar ehaharius
swa agatiru huytiya búbnaro.    

Casamyo Dria cetsin lurah lo                       
'k misúmya rahroy badwar arnunon;                  
swa tasco, &quot;Tiryat men, e narya glad:
ga vlatya galu 'f monon plistanon                 
è pomdu amen egmov: cha selát,                     
Ni gladen glawden bwanro Ayvathon;
swa niy mektáfya agadriablus.
Alyár abánris tiren driathon!&quot;        

Athoron sèmbon tirin sfetu kay
ek cyuribla, kay roybli arnunon,
e tasco Elês, &quot;Tya, lo zeri sha
tor galnon nol, kay engov genulnon,   
kay saru nelyov drio athelôs? 
È aru laya, voydhu froyanon.&quot;
Ca Uras, ga vivékto sreto lo,
ga tas, &quot;Bu amen enlus edhanon!&quot;       

&quot;Ek mawgi sha!&quot; e taryo shuylon sco,             
swa tiz côcharyo Uras, &quot;Asi mo,
ga Rahas aga himu sa, tya èn,
trefúla tar nol ayvathon nwa so        
swa cweri ta, ti èn isewa sa,
miroybla sa, swa monyo egmar ko
tsi onla royon royamawgranon
swa seku amen ftetu adzelo.                       

Selát vex kay ek genulnon ta scoy
ek bulya adzel himu noy: èn sa,
ash kay aceru scoy, rwa harbu èn,
swa chagu amen luya Drios fa.            
Swa twari chio luya shta asi sa,
kay hescuví sfiiya Driar sca,
kay shtendi vewzis tay swa nelei.
Niy twari eltá fteti Rahos fa.&quot;      

E tasco Elês, &quot;Èna sreta sa;
visúnov èn lupòmdu 'men alyár.&quot;
È beldu kay tso sèmbin, a suna so,
swa'y pelyahúlwu prôvilulis tar,          
ti atra bulo vanyan Rahen sco.
Ektesyanir tay Uren Eshentar
lutréfu kay ekcapso Rahen fo,
ga goga hovlin hewliz adzelar.          

Visúnov veldon gyarin pomdu kay
ek banris vuyblir prôvilúlanir;
swa bu kay gogo capso flason ko,                       
swa'y meldu gladu gyaru feknalir.        
Swa felwe fenwin Rahen ko atyár,                       
ga bulnu vuyôs agnir sadhanir
dra ash mot vektius, kay samyu nol
ek saru adwir diulgenwalir.                            

Niylá lupòmdo ágabanras ha
cha sfetyo icnon froyin adzelar
ga tólka agnus harbon afi ga.
Kay deftu veci drilulnir alyár           
tsi banralir aványan Prôvilyen
cha Ragnas, ga atólko banros tar,
ga fwasyo glado taryo ráhroyon                           
amétra ta ti shwenda banriar.            

Alyár abánris, cha eís anyár
ga aysho Rahas edhanir nol lo
chahúlwo ga caroyen malpien
anélko swa aráho Uzar sco,              
&quot;Niy búbit bwuli hivu sefya noy!
Swa ni ekcapsas vyacha mawga so;
ek deftôm adzelcharnu bulôsáy!
Niy sarex adzelo chanáliôs!&quot;             

Ga shwendo ko cha ayshu royis lo,
kay omru veldo fwasyir dhèlanir,
swa siris rayi óra banranon,
ta vlatyo benda hosen hovlanir           
paroyan gogan capsen lófanon.
Swa tas drilúlis sfeto hemanir
&quot;Ek ngawge froy, bu kay ni galis nol
caroyôs Rahen icnon gyaralir!&quot;            

Niy shwendu kay, ti seku, caliz ko,
swa'y samu nol sfiiya driar mo,
kay gyaru adri adru hosanon
swa'y banranúis Ragnalúlus sco,    
ga Fèmas aga Ragnar gliadnon.
Pagládnon anwakaru thekti ko
tsi povalir gogen driadiulin;
rwa Uras swa sarlúlis oltá so.       

Kay diulon lugénwin haru ta,
ti harbahúlwo noron veldanon,
cha monyi hesyatsúi kay nol so
shta úo pómbi genis sèmbanon.        
Aceru elitsúnon vewzu lo,
kay vewzis ralen kalon driulon;
kay clèvi naru dhemzu vanyalir
swa'y ftetu fo sarlúlus gyaranon.    

Monúa anfo Uras èn alyár
swa shawyo súo tiro vewzo sco,
ga onlan icyan gladen meldion;
rwa ga izvésyo Uras glados ko,       
swa gyaron kay anyár, swa glar atyár;
cha tov asámyo Urov gladlays so,
ga vektanir swa royin cwarin èn
mot Rahen; feho ga chagósa fo.      

Cha hetlo aysho nelyen gara lo,
swa gliad samyo vewzov glaribla,
swa saryo Uras ta swa tasco, &quot;Sha!
ek nei, ti ek evrulinon sa!&quot;
Swa tar côchásco Sarlas, &quot;Asi soy,
ca nwari ivnon anwo, Uriat;
sesyósoy nwanfi niyov enlinon.&quot;
Swa ecyo sadhvarósov elias.

Amtá kay sèmbiz cetsin Drien ko,
swa tóval poviz ko tsi iliz tay.
E Enês Etwanir nol tartebla,
shta raryu etwis kulanon caláy,
swa opyon semzo tira Dria so
ek engatir cha culon tiriays.
Swa byo ga onlo lesto shnaro nol
swa dimu arnuu ek misatháy.

Ga tasco veclir ímov cetsien:
&quot;Hex adzelcélit, tirnu egmiar!
Mizeri sfia scaya amen cèn
ek tirnis aprov monyar Fortesmar?       
Niy sèmbon narya enga nalias
en sèmbon calov bliov; nwa ta tar.
Cay Sarlat, tirat egmar agmanir,
swa Urat galir vuyiz, nwesyiar!&quot;

Ga tasco Sarlas, &quot;Tira nelyar sha,
sha cèar shethar soy swa nesyadmá!&quot;
Swa kay izvésyu vecis gladius,
swa tasco Uras, &quot;Tiryat ulta sa.
Sha driya tira semzaví nol soy
cyat nisyen men, ta celu Nalis fa;
swa tirya vewle tiryat niy anát
ca venrays nayan tiraveken sca.&quot;

Ga tasco Dria, &quot;Vekti sfia scay'
abúlya hivu nali adzelis,
dra cèa lèru kay tor ivu nay'?
Kay vyehu icnon engi aydhiis
en monov plistov arnunir, kay ha,
swa engi pelyis imir, sòrênis,
swa aftaliri, agaveki, hwi
swa afta ehu icnon sewsliis.

Tya èn, selát, ga Rahas omr ko
swa sfetyo omr sretus ivir sco.&quot;
Swa tasco Uras, &quot;Chio tasco omr
ga cula sta; a tiradmá heth fo.&quot;
Rwa sfetyo sfeto Dria cetsion,
&quot;Ga bulya nelyo metri nesyio;
shta afi adra metratira sha,
swa voydhi ason genwanon efró!&quot;

Swa hulwo Dria vózon galedmá,
Acènu tartalu lugénwalir
swa vewzis tay, kay diulon èn stu,
kay eylu tartus edhielanir
'hu balyo iclir Rahas sunefró;
swa ahi lemzu genis pòvanir
swa apru pulti hihu engov lo.
Kay haru froyon vecis hesyalir.

Niy cyuriécyo Uras; alyár ga ko
swa samyo Drion gladen ili so,
cha hèvyo Dria venros Uzar sco
swa temzo tóval sèmbo galo lo;
ga hacyo flaylon tira cetsion
è èn ahèvyo Sarlas enlo sco
swa myatyo ta lusèmbin huyto ko
swa'y calshu genwi pòvis ómov fo.

Ga Uras beldalir è kay erèn,
cha sto kay anfu èn lugenwanon;
rwa vyehu kay palémzir pòvalir
swa'y ktahu sfinon lemzon genwanon
swa ulto tóval genwus cultanir
swa tóval pòviz, samu ehwanon
swa saru chagôs prôvilúlien.
Ênúe chage noron sunanon.

Tya èn! Drilúlis prôvilulus so,
swa ehu trefu ayno athelo
swa tiryo Uras vewlon sunanon,
swa Sarlas evruliz anát ga ko.
Cha aydho Dria sto diulion
sewzósa genanir, cha tirya sto
ta banranuus; diul bednar ko
swa pómbo 'l egmov semza cetson so.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kotava</title>
    <id>2006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46396</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T22:22:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">http://www.kotava.org

[[Category:Auxlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Slevan texts</title>
    <id>2007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46879</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:21:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Patr nostrý ==

:Patr nostrý ky jej ja czalev
:szej sútvóc tú núm;
:szej odvínta tva koróltátj.  Szej vóc tva volútátj
:kumód ja czelu kók ja tjera.
:Nostrý panj kótjéný duna nób oj.
:I dimétj nostrý débty,
:kumód nu dimetjem diturev nostrv.
:I njej jadykaj nu ja tjatocínj;
:maj libjera nu ze malu.

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 15:45, 10 February 2006 (PST)
[[Category:Slevan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:SLVL</title>
    <id>2008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Slvanjek</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:GMPtable</title>
    <id>2011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T09:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>class=&quot;gridtable&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
|-
! width=&quot;12%&quot; | {{{1}}}
!width=&quot;33%&quot;| Condition 
!width=&quot;12%&quot;| Result 
!width=&quot;44%&quot;| Example(s)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Small</title>
    <id>2012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-02T20:33:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed definition to class=&quot;small&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;small&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Big</title>
    <id>2014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T13:37:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;big&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Template:Graytable</title>
    <id>2015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:50:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
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    <title>Template:Greytable</title>
    <id>2016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>6636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:40:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template:Greytable moved to Template:Graytable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Template:Graytable]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jörg's ideas about Nostratic</title>
    <id>2017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27032</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-25T16:28:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a page where [[User:WeepingElf|I]] present my half-baked ideas about the hypothetical [[Nostratic]] language family.  Read at your own risk ;-)

This page used to contain more material, but I have deleted it because it no longer reflects my current thinking about Nostratic.

I really don't know what to think of Nostratic.  I am far from being a firm believer in it, but there are things such as similar pronoun roots, verb conjugations, etc., which look as if there was more to it than mere chance.  There is this sense of familiarity one gets (or at least, I get it) from reading a grammar of Finnish or Turkish, as opposed to, say, a grammar of Mandarin or Lakota.  I mean, it looks all so ''familiar'' from an Indo-European standpoint.

However, most of what has been published in books or on the web on this matter so far failed to convince me (including my own stuff - I am ''not'' really convinced that what I write here is right).

I think system comparison - the application of the comparative method to phonological and morphological inventories rather than lists of lexemes - is the most useful approach to such long distance relationships.  At the time depths involved (more than 10,000 years), the degree of lexical replacement is so high and the sound changes are so many that few if any lexical cognates can be found.

I reject the method of mass lexical comparison used by some long-range comparatists.  This method registers only ''similarities'' but not ''cognates''.  It is at best a heuristic for finding relationship ''candidates'' which then must be explored using the comparative method, at worst a snake oil technique by which everything and nothing can be 'proven'.

I also reject glottochronology.  The basic assumption of it - that the rate of change is uniform across time and languages - has turned out to be false (as the mere existence of more conservative and more innovative languages - e.g. Icelandic vs. English - demonstrates).  It is also not meant to establish new relationships but to assign time depths to ''established'' relationships (because what is counted are not 'similarities' but ''cognates'') - and fails at even that.

The question whether all those languages are related or not remains open.  While I think that the languages sometimes referred to as [[Eurasiatic]] - [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Uralo-Siberian languages|Uralo-Siberian]] and [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] - are too similar to each other to be unrelated (and Kartvelian might be distantly related to them, too), the relationship of this '[[Mitian]]' group to Afro-Asiatc or Dravidian seems doubtful to me.  The question of the homeland becomes very difficult, and the languages are not particularly similar.  Nevertheless, such hypotheses are a possible source of inspiration for conlangs.

[[Category:Protolanguages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mitian</title>
    <id>2018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22915</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-07T19:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mitian''' is a hypothetic language family proposed by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]], consisting of [[Europic]], [[Uralo-Siberian languages|Uralo-Siberian]], Altaic and Kartvelian.
Possible further members are Sumerian and Etruscan-Lemnian, but these languages are only poorly known and much is still controversial about them.  Mitian is thus a subfamily of [[Nostratic]].
The name is derived from the characteristic shapes of the 1st and 2nd person pronouns which are '''mi''' and '''ti''' or similar.
(The most likely Proto-Mitian forms are '''*'mi''' and '''*twi''', based on evidence from Indo-European, which has '''*h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;me''' and '''*twe'''.)

==Classification==

Within Mitian, Europic, Uralo-Siberian and Altaic seem to form a closer group, for which many long-range comparatists use the term [[Eurasiatic]], while Kartvelian appears to form an early divergent branch.

* Mitian
:* Kartvelian
:* [[Eurasiatic]]
::* [[Europic]]
:::* Indo-European
:::* West Europic
::* Uralo-Siberian
:::* Uralic-Yukaghir
::::* Uralic
::::* Yukaghir
:::* Beringian
::::* Chuktoko-Kamchatkan
::::* Eskimo-Aleut
::* Altaic
:::* Turkic
:::* Mongolic
:::* Tungusic</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Europic</title>
    <id>2019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39234</id>
      <timestamp>2008-10-30T14:22:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Europic''' is a hypothetical language family proposed by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It consists of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and various smaller language groups of Europe which are all extinct and lost in history (in the real world; in the world of the [[League of Lost Languages]], some of them are still alive).  Together, these other languages form the ''West Europic'' group.  There may have been another branch besides Indo-European and West Europic, ''East Europic'', which exerted a substratum influence on Indo-Iranian (causing the collapse of the PIE vowel system into the 3-vowel system characteristic of this branch).

Proto-Europic was spoken around the year 7000 BC on the northern shore of the Euxine Lake (a freshwater lake in the area of, but somewhat smaller than, the Black Sea).  Among these people perhaps were the first blond and blue-eyed human beings in history.  The Proto-Europic homeland was destroyed around 6700 BC when the sea level rose enough to breach through the Bosporus and the area was inundated in the catastrophc flooding which formed the Black Sea as we know it.  Refugees took the language north, where it evolved into Indo-European, and west, where it evolved into the various West Europic languages (Hesperic, Thalassan, etc.) .  The speakers of West Europic were the first Neolithic farmers in central Europe, the bearers of the Linear Pottery culture.  Many rivers in central and western Europe bear West Europic names until today.

The Tyrrhenian languages (Etruscan, Rhaetic and Lemnian) are possibly a branch of Europic, but this is uncertain.

==Classification==

* Europic
** ?Tyrrhenian (Etruscan, Rhaetic, Lemnian)
** [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
** West Europic
*** ?[[Thalassan]] (conlang by [[User:RHaden|Rob Haden]])
*** [[Hesperic]]
**** unknown language of the &quot;[[Old European languages|Old European hydronymy]]&quot;
**** [[Albic]] (conlang family by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]])
** ?East Europic

==Proto-Europic Phonology==

The main feature that distinguishes Europic from the other branches of [[Eurasiatic]] is its vowel system, which included only three vowels: '''*a''', '''*i''' and '''*u''', of which '''*a''' was much more frequent than the others.  This system is the result of a sound change, the ''Great Vowel Collapse'' (GVC), a merger of all Proto-Eurasiatic vowels ''except'' '''*i''' and '''*u''' into '''*a'''.  Before the GVC, pre-Proto-Europic underwent another change in the vowel system: ''Resonant-Conditioned Lowering'' (RCL).  Under this rule, high vowels followed by resonants were lowered.  The lowered vowels then fell victim to the GVC.  This explains the apparent lack of *CeiR- and *CeuR- roots in PIE.

This three-vowel system is attested in the Old European hydronymy and can be reconstructed for pre-ablaut Indo-European.  In PIE, '''*a''' became '''*e'''/'''*o'''/Ø, '''*i''' became '''*ei'''/'''*oi'''/'''*i''' and '''*u''' became '''*eu'''/'''*ou'''/'''*u'''.  In West Europic, the Proto-Europic vowel system was preserved, as evidenced by the Old European river names.  It apparently also remained intact in East Europic long enough to influence the Eastern (Indo-Iranian) subbranch of Indo-European in which PIE '''*a''', '''*e''' and '''*o''' all merged into '''*a''' - it appears as if Eastern IE had undergone the GVC ''twice''.

The consonant inventory of Proto-Europic is essentially that of Proto-Indo-European as it is posited by the adherents of the glottalic theory, i.e. the (traditional) PIE voiced stops evolved from glottalized (ejective) stops.

==See also==

* [[Nostratic]]
* [[Mitian]]
* [[Eurasiatic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Old European languages</title>
    <id>2020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41678</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-08T06:06:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Lacac4tacr|Lacac4tacr]] ([[User talk:Lacac4tacr|Talk]]) to last version by [[User:WeepingElf|WeepingElf]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Old European''' is a designation for the (mostly unknown) languages that were spoken in Europe prior to the spread of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family which dominates the continent today.  In this sense, Basque and the Caucasian languages are Old European languages (however, the languages spoken today are certainly not identical with the languages that were spoken before the spread of Indo-European - they certainly changed a lot over time).  The term '''Old European''', however, is often used more narrowly with reference to the unknown languages of the first Neolithic farmers in central Europe, who appear to have immigrated from the east around the year 5500 BC.  Their original homeland probably no longer exists: it is drowned beneath the Black Sea, and was where now is the Bay of Odessa.  (Before about 5500 BC, the Black Sea was a freshwater lake - the ''Euxine Lake'' - with a level much lower than the present day sea level.  Then the rising sea burst through the Bosporus and flooded the Black Sea basin within a few years to almost the present day level.)

These Old European languages are not attested in writing (but see [[WIkipedia:Old European Script|Old European script]] for a set of undeciphered signs that were used in the easternmost parts of the Old European area, which may or may not have been a writing system, but are at any rate undeciphered).  The only access to it we have are place names and especially river names that are found all over central and western Europe, and possibly loanwords in the Indo-European languages now spoken there.  The area across which these Old European river names occur largely coincides with the area where remnants of the central European Neolithic (the so-called Linear Pottery culture) and its daughter cultures can be found.  There is an especially good correlation between the areas of the Old European hydronymy and the [[Wikipedia:Beaker culture|Beaker culture]].

==Hypotheses about the relationships of Old European==

There are several hypotheses concerning the relationships of Old European to other, attested languages.

The German linguist Hans Krahe ascribed the Old European hydronymy to an Indo-European language that, according to him, was the common ancestor of Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic and possibly Slavic.  

However, there are two problems with this hypothesis.  First, these languages are not characterized by any shared innovation and do not seem to form a valid node in the Indo-European family tree; second, the Old European river names, while seemingly having Indo-European etymologies, do not reflect the characteristic sound changes of the languages in which they are found and are thus more likely to be borrowed rather than inherited.  For example, the Old European river names show a predominant /a/-vocalism which looks quite un-Indo-European, while the vowels /e/ and /o/ which are frequent in Indo-European appear to have been absent.

Another German linguist, Wolfgang Paul Schmid, addressed the first problem by assuming that Krahe's Old European was Proto-Indo-European itself, which he localized in central Europe.  This is widely rejected today, and it doesn't solve the second problem.

The second problem was addressed by Theo Vennemann (again, a German linguist) who proposed that Old European was not an Indo-European language at all, but related to Basque.  According to Vennemann, 'Vasconic' languages were spoken all across continental Europe west of a line that approximately runs from Riga to northern Dalmatia.  (East of that line, Uralic was spoken in the north and Indo-European in the south; in the British Isles, Vennemann assumes, an Afro-Asiatic language was spoken.)  However, Vennemann's Vasconic etymologies are very weak, and the distribution of the Old European river names shows a gap in Gascony, where Basque was spoken in antiquity.  Another problem is that the Old European hydronymy is also well-attested in the British Isles, where Vennemann assumes an entirely different language (of the Afro-Asiatic family) to have been spoken.  (This conflict, however, is not entirely irreconcilable if one assumes two subsequent substrata.)

[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] assumes that the language in question, [[Hesperic]], was related to, but distinct from, Indo-European.  The /a/-centred vocalism of the unknown language preserves a state that existed in Proto-Indo-European before the rise of ablaut.  Together, Hesperic and Indo-European form the [[Europic]] language family.

==Old European conlangs==

* [[Albic]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]
* [[Thalassan]] by [[User:RHaden|Rob Haden]]

[[Category:Natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Uralo-Siberian languages</title>
    <id>2021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47612</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T13:40:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Sources */ cat:from WP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Uralo-Siberian''' is a hypothetical [[language family]]
consisting of the following language families:

* Uralic
* Yukaghir
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Eskimo-Aleut

==History==

Structural similarities between Uralic and Eskimo-Aleut languages
were observed early.  In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wöldike
compared Greenlandic to Hungarian.  In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered
Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, and presented
a list of lexical correspondences.  (Rask also considered
Uralic and Altaic to be related to each other.)  In 1959,
Knut Bergsland published the paper ''The Eskimo-Uralic Hypothesis'',
in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of
grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences.
In 1962, Morris Swadesh proposed a relationship between the
Eskimo-Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families.
In 1998, Michael Fortescue put all the strings together in his
book, ''Language Relations across Bering Strait''.

==Evidence==

===Phonology===

The consonant inventories of the reconstructed protolanguages of the
four Uralo-Siberian families are very similar to each other.  A common
feature is that there are only voiceless and no voiced stops, while
there is a set of voiced (but no voiceless) non-sibilant fricatives
with the same places of articulation (labial, dental, palatal and
velar; in Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Eskimo-Aleut, also uvular).
There are also nasals in the same places of articulation.  In addition,
there are three sibilants, and liquids and semivowels.

===Morphology===

Apparently shared elements of Uralo-Siberian morphology include
the following:

{|
| '''*-t''' || plural
|-
| '''*-k''' || dual
|-
| '''*m-''' || 1st person
|-
| '''*t-''' || 2nd person
|-
| '''*ka''' || interrogative pronoun
|-
| '''*-n''' || genitive case
|}

===Lexicon===

Fortescue (1998) lists 95 lexical correspondence sets
with reflexes in at least three of the four language families,
and even more shared by two of the languages.  Examples are
'''*ap(p)a''' 'grandfather', '''*kað'a''' 'mountain' and
many others.

==Sources==

*Knut Bergsland (1959) The Eskimo-Uralic hypothesis. ''Journal de la Societé Finno-Ougrienne'', 61, 1-29.
*Michael Fortescue (1998) ''Language Relations across Bering Strait''. ISBN 0-304-70330-3.

''This article is a copy of the [[Wikipedia:Uralo-Siberian languages|Wikipedia]] article.''

[[Category:Imported from Wikipedia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurasiatic</title>
    <id>2022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47541</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T11:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eurasiatic''' is a hypothetic language family.

The name 'Eurasiatic' was first proposed by Joseph Greenberg for a family consisting of:

* Indo-European
* Etruscan
* Uralic
* Altaic
* Korean
* Japanese
* Ainu
* Nivkh (Gilyak)
* Yukaghir
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Eskimo-Aleut

Greenberg's work, however, is dismissed by many linguists due to his method of mass lexical comparison which only registers similarities but not regular correspondences.

Many adherents of the [[Nostratic]] hypothesis use the term 'Eurasiatic' for a branch of Nostratic that includes Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic, but not necessarily all the other languages listed by Greenberg.

==See also==

* [[Nostratic]]
* [[Mitian]]
* [[Wikipedia: Eurasiatic languages]]

[[Category:Protolanguages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Bukkia</title>
    <id>2023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48151</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T17:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[User:Bukkia/sandbox]]&lt;br&gt;
[[User:Bukkia/sandboxII]]&lt;br&gt;
[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIII]]&lt;br&gt;
[[User:Bukkia/sandboxIV]]&lt;br&gt;
[[User:Bukkia/sandboxV]]
[[User:Bukkia/sandboxVI]]

Existing pages:

*[[Nytal]]
*[[Nytal biblical texts]]
*[[Nytal-English dictionary]]
*[[Lišěč]]
*[[States of the World (Nytal)]]
*[[States of Europe (Nytal)]]
*[[Swadesh list for Nytal]]
*[[States of Asia (Nytal)]]
*[[Itëłan]]
*[[Lánc]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Bukkia/sandbox</title>
    <id>2024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21183</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-13T12:00:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Aspect */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}
'''Slevian''' is a costructed language, created to be related to the Slavic languages' family.

Differently from most Slavic languages, but similar to Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, it lost all the original cases, and developed a definite and an indefinite article (but set before its substantive). Differently from Bulgarian and Macedonian it has a semplified verbal system.

It is written with the '''''Latin Alphabet''''', but can be adapted to the '''Cyrillic''' one.

==Phonology==

===Vowels===

Slevian has a reduced vocalic system, with only six vowels:

{| cellspacing=&quot;0px&quot; cellpadding=0 style=&quot;text-align:left; background:transparent;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:70px; text-align:right;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Central'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-back'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Back'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close'''
| style=&quot;height:210px;&quot; colspan=5 rowspan=7 | &lt;div style=&quot;position:relative;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:right; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;&quot; |

&lt;!-- CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:5%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|i}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:45%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
{{IPA|ɨ}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:83%; width:3em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|u}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;

&lt;!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS --&gt;

&lt;!-- MID VOWELS --&gt;


&lt;!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:31%; width:2.66em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ɛ}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ɔ}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS --&gt;


&lt;!-- OPEN VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:44%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
{{IPA|a}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | 
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Near-open'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open'''
|}

===Consonants===

{| {{prettytable}}
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | 
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Bilabial
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Labio-&lt;br/&gt;dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Post-&lt;br/&gt;alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Palatal
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Velar
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Plosive
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}&lt;/center&gt;
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Nasal
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|m}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɱ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|n}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɲ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Vibrant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|r}}&lt;/center&gt; 

| 
| 
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Fricative
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}&lt;/center&gt;
| 
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʃ}} {{IPA|ʒ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Affricate
| 
|
|
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʦ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʧ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Approximant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|j}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɰ}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral approximant
| 
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|l}}&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|}

===Alphabet===

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;IPA consonant&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|p}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''p'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|b}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''b'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|t}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''t'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|d}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''d'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|k}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''k'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|g}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''g'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|m}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''m'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|n}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''n'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʦ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''c'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʧ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''č'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʒ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ž'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|f}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''f'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|v}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''v'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|s}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''s'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|z}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''z'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʃ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''š'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|r}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''r'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|j}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''j'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɰ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''u'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|l}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''l'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}


'''Š, ž, č, s, z, l, j''' are called ''soft consonants'' and they tend to modify the use of the morphological endings.


{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;IPA vowel&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|i}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''i'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɨ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''y'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|u}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''u'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɛ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''e'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|a}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''a'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɔ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''o'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

==Morphology==

Slevian has a semplified morphology, in contrast with other Slavic languages. 

===Substantives===

Substantives have three ''genres'' (''masculine'', ''feminine'' and ''neuter'') and two ''numbers'' (''singular'' and '''plural'')

====Number====

Substantives form their plural by modifying their endings oder by adding a new one:

* If they end with ''normal consonants'', they add '''''-y'''''
* If they end with '''-š, -ž, -č, -s, -z, -l, -j''' (called ''soft consonants''): they add '''''-i'''''
* If they end with '''-a''', '''-e''', '''-u''': they drop these vowels and add '''''-y'''''
* If '''-a''', '''-e''', '''-u''', are preceded by a ''soft consonant'', they add '''''-i''''' instead of '''-y'''.
* If they end with '''-o''': they drop it and add '''''-a'''''
* If they end with '''-ja''', '''-je''': they drop them and add '''''-ji'''''

====Gender====

Slevian substantives can be '''''masculine''''', '''''feminine''''' or '''''neuter'''''.

* If the substantive ends with a '''consonant''', it is '''masculine'''
* If it ends with '''-a''', it is '''feminine'''
* If it ends with '''-o''', it is '''neuter'''
* If it ends with '''-e''', it can be '''feminine''' or '''neuter''':
:* ''Normal consonant'' + ''-e'', it is '''neuter'''
:* ''Soft consonant'' + ''-e'', it is '''feminine'''

The plural substantives '''have no genre'''.

===Articles===

Slevian developed a system of articles, differently from the other Slavic languages, and similar to Bulgarian and Macedonian, but it places its articles ''before'' the substantives, as in English and contrary to the two Slavic languages:

====Indefinite Articles====


{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|||Articles
|-
|Masculine||Jedin
|-
|Feminine||Jedna
|-
|Neuter||Jedno
|-
|Plural||Jedny
|}

The plural form is used as the English adjectives '''some''', '''any'''.

====Definite Articles====
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|||Articles
|-
|Masculine||Ton
|-
|Feminine||Ta
|-
|Neuter||To
|-
|Plural||Ti
|}

Slevian has not an independent form for '''this''' and '''that''': they are built by adding an adverbial particle to the articles:

* '''''To-''''' + Articles = ''this''
* '''''Tam-''''' + Articles = ''that''

''Examples'':

* Mjesto = ''city'', neuter
: Jedno mjesto = ''a city''
: To mjesto = ''the city''
: Toto mjesto = ''this city''
: Tamto mjesto = ''that city

===Adjectives===

Adjectives do agree with their substantives in '''genre''' and '''number'''. They are placed ''before'' their substantives as in English. The base form is masculine which generally ends with '''''-y''''' or '''''-i''''', but some adjectives (most of all ''passive participles'') can end with another consonant. To agree, they modify their endings:

* If the root ends with ''normal consonants'', the masculine form is '''''-y'''''
* If the root ends with ''soft consonants'', the masculine form is '''''-i'''''
* To form the feminine, just drop the masculine ending and add '''''-a'''''
* To form the neuter, just drop the masculine ending and add '''''-o'''''
* To form the plural, just drop the masculine ending and add '''''-e'''''

''Examples'':

* Ton krasny mir = ''the beautiful world'', masculine
* Ta krasna noče = ''the beautiful night'', feminine
* To krasno mjesto = ''the beautiful city'', neuter
* Ti krasne mjesta = ''the beautiful cities'', plural (no genre recognized)
====Comparative====

To form the comparative degree, drop the masculine ending and add:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|||Ending
|-
|Masculine||'''-eji'''
|-
|Feminine||'''-eja'''
|-
|Neuter||'''-ejo'''
|-
|Plural||'''-eje'''
|}

The comparison is made by the particle '''čim'''.

''Example'':

* Mojo mjesto je krasnejo čim tvojo: ''My city is more beautiful than yours''

====Superlative====

To form the superlative, place before the declined adjective the particle '''''samej'''''

''Example'':

* Tota je ta samej interesna kniga mežo toti ktere počital jeso: ''This is the most interesting book among the ones I read''

===Pronouns===

====Personal pronouns====

Slevian retains an '''accusative/object form''' for the personal pronouns, similar to the difference between the English ''I / me'':

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Person||Nominative&lt;br&gt;Subject||Accusative&lt;br&gt;Object
|-
|1st sing.||&lt;center&gt;ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;mine&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2nd sing.||&lt;center&gt;ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;tibe&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd. masc.||&lt;center&gt;on&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jego&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd fem.||&lt;center&gt;ona&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jeji&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd neu.||&lt;center&gt;to&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;to&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1st plu.||&lt;center&gt;my&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;nas&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2nd plu.||&lt;center&gt;vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;vas&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd fem.||&lt;center&gt;oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ich&lt;/center&gt;
|}

As the verbs already show their person with conjugation, the nominative/subject personal pronouns are not very used.

====Possessive pronoun/adjectives====

Slevian use the same forms for possessive adjectives and pronouns (contrary to English ''my / mine''). They agree with their substantives according to genre and number as adjectives.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Person||Masculine||Feminine||Neuter||Plural
|-
|1st sing.||&lt;center&gt;moj&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;moja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;mojo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;moje&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2nd sing.||&lt;center&gt;tvoj&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;tvoja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;tvojo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;tvoje&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd. masc.||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|&lt;center&gt;jevo&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd fem.||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|&lt;center&gt;jejo&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd neu.||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|&lt;center&gt;togo&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1st plu.||&lt;center&gt;naš&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;naša&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;našo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;naše&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2nd plu.||&lt;center&gt;vaš&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;vaša&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;vašo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;vaše&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3rd fem.||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|&lt;center&gt;jejich&lt;/center&gt;
|}

If the '''''subject''''' coincide with the '''''owner''''', for the 3rd persons you have to use '''svoj''':

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Person||Masculine||Feminine||Neuter||Plural
|-
|refl.||&lt;center&gt;svoj&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;svoja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;svojo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;svoje&lt;/center&gt;
|}

''Examples'':

* On jede se svoja mašina: ''He goes with his own car''
* On jede s jevo mašina: ''He goes with his (of another man) car''

You can use '''svoj''' also with the other person:

* Ja jedu se svoja mašina: ''I go with my own car''
* Ja jedu s moja mašina: ''I go with my own car''

Both sentences are correct.

====Interrogative pronouns====

* '''Čto''': ''what?''

For the pronoun ''who'' there are a subject/nominative form and a separated object/accusative form:

* '''Kto''': ''who?'' (subject/nominative)
* '''Kogo''': ''who(m)'' (object/accusative, it is used with prepositions)

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Gender||Which?
|-
|Masculine||&lt;center&gt;kaky&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Feminine||&lt;center&gt;kaka&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Neuter||&lt;center&gt;kako&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Plural||&lt;center&gt;kake&lt;/center&gt;
|}

The word for ''Where'' has two forms, according if there is a static situation or a motion:

* '''Gde''': ''where?'' (state)
* '''Kud''': ''where?'' (motion)

Examples:

* Čto maš?: ''What do you have?''
* Kto ješ?: ''Who are you?''
* Kogo ješ povidel?: ''Who did you see?''
* S kogo ješ pogovoril?: ''Whom did you talk with?''
* Kaka kniga ona je počitala?: ''Which book did she read?''
* Gde ješ?: ''Where are you?''
* Kud jdeš?: ''Where are you going?''

====Relative pronoun====

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Gender||That/Which
|-
|Masculine||&lt;center&gt;ktery&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Feminine||&lt;center&gt;ktera&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Neuter||&lt;center&gt;ktero&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Plural||&lt;center&gt;ktere&lt;/center&gt;
|}

''Example'':

* Tamta je kniga ktera jeso počital: ''This is the book ('''that''') I read''

===Prepositions===
Since Slevian does not use any case, it makes use of a lot of prepositions. Main prepositions are:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Preposition||English counterpart
|-
|&lt;center&gt;u&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''of'', genitive&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;e&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''to'', dative&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;s&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''with'' strumental&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;v&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''in'', state/motion&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;na&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''on'' state/motion&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;od&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''from''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;k&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''towards'', motions to someone&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;prid&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''by'', with passive voice&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;pre&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''in front of''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;dla&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''for'', benefactive&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;nad&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''over'', without contact&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;pod&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''under''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;mežo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''between'', ''among''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;po&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;it has many functions&lt;/center&gt;
|}

Two prepositions can change when used:
*'''s''': an ''-e'' is added before a word beginning with ''s-'' or ''z-''
*'''v''': an ''-e'' is added before a word beginning with ''v-'' or ''f-''

===Numbers===
====Cardinal====
The first 10 numbers are irregular:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Number||Name of the number
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Jedin&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;2&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Dva&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;3&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Tri&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;4&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Četyri&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;5&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Pjat&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;6&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Šest&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;7&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Sem&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;8&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Osem&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;9&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Devet&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;10&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Deset&lt;/center&gt;
|}

Numbers from 11 to 19 are constructed regularly ''unit''+'''''na'''''+''deset'', except for 11:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Number||Name of the number
|-
|&lt;center&gt;11&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Oden'''nadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;12&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Dvanadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;13&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Trinadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;14&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Četyrinadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;15&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Pjatnadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;...&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;...&lt;/center&gt;
|}

Numbers 20, 30, 40, etc are costructed regularly, more than 100 are irregular:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Number||Name of the number
|-
|&lt;center&gt;20&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Dvadeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;30&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Trideset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;40&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Četyrideset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;50&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Pjatdeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;60&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Šestdeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;70&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Semdeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;80&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Osemdeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;90&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Devetdeset&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;100&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Sto&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Tisiče&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000.000&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Miljon&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000.000.0000&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Miljard&lt;/center&gt;
|}

Until ''Sto'', cardinal numbers behave like invariable adjectives, i.e they do not change. ''Sto'', ''Tisiče'', ''Miljon'' and ''Miljard'' behave like nouns and they have a plural form.

Composed numbers are formed with the linker ''i'', and, between the penultimate and the last name of the number:

* 32: ''Trideset i dva''
* 345: ''Tri sta četyrideset i pjat''
* 2007: ''Dva tisiči i sem''
* 1.976.845.203: ''Jedin miljard devet sta semdeset šest miljony osem sta četyrideset pjat tisiči dva sta i tri''

====Ordinal====
Ordinal numbers are mostly regularly formed, except for some forms. Usually they form from the cardinal form + the adjectival endings. ''1st'', ''2nd'', ''3rd'', ''4th'' and ''8th'' are irregular, and the numbers which behave like nouns are irregularly formed:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Number||Name of the number
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1st&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Pervy, perva, pervo, perve'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;2nd&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Duvy'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;3rd&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Trety'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;4th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Četyrny'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;5th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Pjaty&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;6th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Šesty&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;7th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Semy&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;8th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Osmy'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;9th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Devety&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;10th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Desety&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;11th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Odennadesety&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;20th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Dvadesety&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;100th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Stoty'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Tisičny'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000.000th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Miljonty'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1.000.000.000th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''Miljardny'''&lt;/center&gt;
|}

In composed numbers only the last noun of the numbers take the ordinal form:

* 32nd: ''Trideset i '''duvy, -a, -o, -e'''''
* 345th: ''Tri sta četyrideset i '''pjaty'''''
* 2008th: ''Dva tisiči i '''osmy'''''
* 1.976.845.203rd: ''Jedin miljard devet sta semdeset šest miljony osem sta četyrideset pjat tisiči dva sta i '''trety'''''

===Verbs===

Slevian verbs do conjugate according to ''tense, aspect, person, number'' and in the past tense with ''genre'' of the subject.

====Aspect====
The '''''Aspect''''' reflects the completeness/incompleteness of the action the verb expresses.

* The '''''Imperfective''' aspect'' denotes an action which has not come to an end, or an action which happens/happened/will happen many times

* The '''''Perfective''' aspect'' denotes an action which has completely come to an end, an action which is complete, or an action which happened/will happen only once

A verb can be ''perfective'' or ''imperfective'', never both ones. Typically the verb has a counter-part and both they appear in pair, the '''Aspectual pair''', two verbs with different aspect, but the same meaning. The aspectual pair usually appears as &quot;''imperfective verb-perfective verb''

* ''čitat-počitat'': to read
* ''pisat-napisat'': to write

Examples:

* Ja jeso čital tamta kniga: ''I was reading that book'' (and in that moment I did not finish it)
* Ja jeso počital tamta kniga: ''I read that book'' (and I finished it)

* Ja budu pisat jedno pismo: ''I will be writing a letter'' (and I don't know if I'll finish it)
* Ja napišu jedno pismo: ''I'll write a letter'' (and I will surely finish it)

Perfective verbs are usually derived from its imperfective companions by mean of prefixes. Regular verbs add '''''po-''''' to form their perfective counter-parts, irregular verbs use irregular prefixes. 

Since a present action cannot be completed, perfective verbs '''do not have a present tense''' in conjugation. Their present form is used as ''future''.

====Tense====
Slevian verbs have only three tenses: ''past'', ''present'' and ''future''.

* '''Present tense''' is a simple form, which is conjugated according to number and person with its subject. Only imperfective verbs have a present tense form since present actions cannot be perfective.

: Ja pišu, ''I write''

* '''Future tense''' is a composed form for imperfective verbs and a simple form for perfective verbs. The perfective form has the same features as imperfective present forms and it's conjugated according to number and person. The future imperfective form is a compound; it's formed with the future form of the verb '''byt''', to be, and the infinitive form of the imperfective verb.

: Ja napišu, ''I will write''
: Ja budu pisat, ''I will be writing''

* '''Past tense''' is always a composed form for both imperfective verbs and perfective ones. It's formed with the present forms of the verb '''byt''', to be, and the ''past participle'' of the verb, declined according to genre and number of its subject.

: Ja jeso pisal, ''I was writing''
: Ona je pisala, ''She was writing''
: My jesom napisaly, ''We wrote''

====Participles====
Slevian has two kinds of participles, '''past participle''' and '''passive participle''':

* The '''Past participle''' is formed by dropping '''-t''' from the infinitive form and adding '''''-l'''''. It's used only in the construction of the past tense. It is declined according to the genre:

: On je napisal, ''He wrote''
: Ona je napisala, ''She wrote''
: Ono je napisalo, ''It wrote''
: Ony jeson napisaly, ''They wrote''

* The '''Passive participle''' is used in construction of the ''passive voice'' and as an adjective with substantive. It has many rules for its own construction.

: Tamta kniga je byla počitana prid jego, ''That book was read by him''

====Voice====
Slevian has a passive voice, but it does not use it very much. Its constructions is: conjugated verb '''byt''' + declinated ''passive particle''. It can be imperfective or perfective and it follows the rules for aspect and tenses, even if '''byt''' is conjugated according with tense and passive participle take perfective prefixes.

: Tamta kniga je čitana prid to deto, ''That book is read by the child''
: Tamta kniga je byla počitana prid ta žena, ''That book was read by the woman''
: Tamta kniga budu byt počitana prid ton muž, ''That book will be read by the man''

====Byt====
The verb '''byt''', ''to be'', has an irregular conjugation:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Person||Present||Past||Future
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Jeso&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Byl,-a,-o jeson&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budu&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Ješ&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Byl,-a,-o ješ&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budeš&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Je&lt;/center&gt;  ||&lt;center&gt;Byl,-a,-o je&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Bude&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Jesom&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Byly jesom&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budeme&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Jeste&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Byly jeste&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budete&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Jeson&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Byly jeson&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budut&lt;/center&gt;
|}

====Mit====
The verb '''Mit''', ''to have'', has an irregular conjugation:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Person||Present||Past||Future
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Mam&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Mel,-a,-o jeson&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budu mit&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Maš&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Mel,-a,-o ješ&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budeš mit&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Ma&lt;/center&gt;  ||&lt;center&gt;Mel,-a,-o je&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Bude mit&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Mame&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Mely jesom&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budeme mit&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Mate&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Mely jeste&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budete mit&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Majot&lt;/center&gt; ||&lt;center&gt;Mely jeson&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Budut mit&lt;/center&gt;
|}

====Conjugation====

Slevian verbs are conjugated according to the ending of their infinitive forms. There are four conjugations:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Conjugations||Infinitival endings
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1st&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-at'''&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;2nd&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-et, -it'''&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;3rd&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ovat'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;4th&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;irregular&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=====1st conjugation=====

The first conjugation include all verbs which end with '''''-at''''' in their infinitive form. To conjugate these verbs, drop the infinitival ending and add the following endings:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Persons and moods||Endings
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ajo&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-aš&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-a&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-am&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ate&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ajot&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Past participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-al (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Passive participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-an (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=====2nd conjugation=====

The second conjugation include all verbs which end with '''''-et''''' and '''''-it''''' in their infinitive form; even if infinitival endings are different, the conjugation features are the same. To conjugate these verbs, drop the infinitival ending and add the following endings:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Persons and moods||Endings
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ijo&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-iš&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-i&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-im&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ite&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ijot&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Past participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-il/el (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Passive participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-en (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=====3st conjugation=====

The third conjugation include all verbs which end with '''''-ovat''''' in their infinitive form. To conjugate these verbs, drop the whole infinitival ending and add the following endings:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Persons and moods||Endings
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ujo&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-uješ&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-uje&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ujem&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ujete&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ujot&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Past participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-oval (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Passive participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ovan (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=====4th conjugation=====

The fourth conjugation include all irregular verbs. These verbs have an irregular stem, but all they add the same personal endings:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Persons and moods||Endings
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-u&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-eš&lt;/center&gt; 
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-e&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-em&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ete&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-ut&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Past participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-(C/V)l (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Passive participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;-(V)n/-(C)en (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=====Examples=====

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!|Persons and moods||1st conjugation||2nd conjugation||2nd conjugation||3rd conjugation||4rd conjugation
|-
|||&lt;center&gt;''kupat''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''ljubit''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''slišet''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''jimenovat''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''pisat''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ja&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupajo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubijo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišijo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenujo&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pišu&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Ty&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupaš&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubiš&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišiš&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenuješ&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pišeš&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;On&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupa&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubi&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;sliši&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenuje&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;piše&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;My&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupam&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubim&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišim&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenujem&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pišem&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Vy&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupate&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubite&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišite&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenujete&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pišete&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Oni&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupajot&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubijot&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišijot&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenujot&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pišut&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Past participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupal (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljubil (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišel (-a, -o, -y)||&lt;center&gt;jimenoval (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;pisal (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;Passive participle&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;kupan (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;ljuben (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;slišen (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;jimenovan (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;||
&lt;center&gt;pisan (-a, -o, -y)&lt;/center&gt;
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nytal</title>
    <id>2025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31289</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-13T20:15:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Word order */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nytal''' is a constructed fantasy language, born to be isolated and not related to any linguistic family in the world.

==Phonology and Pronounce==

===Basical pronounce===

* '''''a''''' = like '''a''' in ''father''

* '''''b''''' = as in English

* '''''c''''' = always like '''ch''' in ''church''

* '''''d''''' = as in English

* '''''e''''' = like '''e''' in ''men'' (close-mid front unrounded vowel)

* '''''f''''' = as in English

* '''''g''''' = always like '''g''' in ''get''

* '''''h''''' = like '''ch''' of Scottish ''loch''

* '''''i''''' = always like '''ee''' in ''meet''

* '''''j''''' = always like '''y''' in ''you''

* '''''k''''' = as in English

* '''''l''''' = always like '''l''' in ''lane''

* '''''lj''''' = as in Spanish '''ll''' or Italian '''gl'''

* '''''m''''' = as in English

* '''''n''''' = as in English

* '''''nj''''' = as in Spanish '''ñ'''

* '''''o''''' = like '''o''' in ''rock'' (open-mid back rounded vowel)

* '''''p''''' = as in English

* '''''q''''' = a ''labialized voiceless velar plosive'' [{{IPA|kʷ}}], similar to sound of Italian letters ''qu''.

* '''''r''''' = rolled Italian/Spanish-like '''r'''

* '''''s''''' = as in English, but can only be '''unvoiced'''

* '''''š''''' = like '''sh''' in ''shop''

* '''''t''''' = as in English

* '''''u''''' = like '''u''' in ''put''

* '''''v''''' = as in English

* '''''x''''' = as in English

* '''''y''''' = this is the most difficult vowel to pronounce, because it appears rarely in romance or germanic languages. Instead, it is present in English, it is the '''schwa'''. A romance or germanic speaker can pronounce it by saying the '''ee''' of ''meet'' (or '''i''' in &quot;ilusiòn&quot; for Spanish, &quot;illusion&quot; for French and German) but lowering the tongue in the middle of the oral cavity and obtaining a sound middle-way between ''close e'' and ''ee''.

* '''''z''''' = as in English, but it can be only ''unvoiced''

* '''''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''''' = this grapheme represents a phoneme which is unknown to the most European languages: the '''''glottal stop'''''. It is present in the Danish language which uses it very often for distinguishing words but does not give it an alphabetic sign. Semitic languages use it more and more largerly, in fact it is considered as a single consonant. It is not easy to pronounce it, in English we can find some examples in the stop we make when we pronounce ''Bat'man''. The real glottal stop is a fast movement open/closed of the vocal cords, but for the speakers who do not know how to pronounce it we advise to pronounce it as a little stop during pronunciation.

===Phonology in IPA===

====Consonants====

This is the consonant system in the IPA consonant table:

{| {{prettytable}}
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | 
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Bilabial
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Labio-&lt;br/&gt;dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Post-&lt;br/&gt;alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Palatal
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Velar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Glottal
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Plosive
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}&lt;/center&gt;
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ʔ}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Nasal
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|m}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[{{IPA|ɱ}}] &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|n}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɲ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[{{IPA|ŋ}}] &lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Vibrant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|r}}&lt;/center&gt; 

| 
| 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Fricative
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|s}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʃ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|x}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Affricate
| 
|
|
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʦ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʧ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Approximant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|j}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɰ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral approximant
| 
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|l}}&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ʎ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|  
|}

*&lt;small&gt;1: Allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before labiodental consonants&lt;/small&gt;
*&lt;small&gt;2: Allophone of {{IPA|[n]}} before velar consonant&lt;/small&gt;

====Vowels====

This is the vowel system in IPA vowel table:

{| cellspacing=&quot;0px&quot; cellpadding=0 style=&quot;text-align:left; background:transparent;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:70px; text-align:right;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Central'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-back'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Back'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close'''
| style=&quot;height:210px;&quot; colspan=5 rowspan=7 | &lt;div style=&quot;position:relative;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:right; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;&quot; |

&lt;!-- CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:5%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|i(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:83%; width:3em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|u(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;

&lt;!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:17%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|e(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:23%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:57%; width:1em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ə(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:83%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;

&lt;!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ɔ(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS --&gt;

&lt;!-- OPEN VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:44%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|a(:)}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | 
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open'''
|}

Nytal owns both short and long vowels, but they are not distinctive in words. '''Fyr''' (''fire'') is usually pronounced /{{IPA|fə:r}}/, but it does not change its meaning if pronounced /{{IPA|fər}}/.

Anyway long vowels tends to move the ''stress'' above themselves.

==Morphology==

Nytal is an '''''isolating language'''''. It means that its particles (''substantives'', ''pronouns'', ''adjectives'', ''verbs'', etc...) '''never flect''' according to their quality or function.

===Substantives===

Nytal substantives '''''never''''' flect for ''genre'', ''number'' or ''cases''.

They only can be accompanied by the ''pluralizing particle'' '''le''' which is placed ''before'' them

* ''city'': '''syr'''

* ''cities'': '''le syr'''

There are '''no articles at''' all, neither ''definite'' articles nor ''indefinite'' ones. 

===Adjectives===

Nytal adjectives '''''never''''' flect according to their substantive. They are placed always '''after''' their substantive.

* ''the big city'': '''syr haron'''

* ''the big cities'': '''le syr haron'''

====Adjectival comparison====

Nytal has two degrees of comparison: the ''comparative'' and the ''superlative'':

* '''Comparative'''. Adjectives build their comparative by placing the particle '''''ty''''' ''before'' the adjective. The second term is expressed by particle '''ud'''.

They do not usually use less-comparative.

* '''Superlative'''. Adjectives build their superlative by placing the particle '''''irje''''' ''before'' the adjective. The second term can be expressed with the preposition '''yd''' (''of'') or '''okled''' (''between'', ''among'') 
** ''she is the most beautiful woman of the entire city'': '''si ad’jo mec irje skon yd syr vsi'''

===Pronouns===

====Personal pronouns====

Nytal has only three forms for personal pronouns:


{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;Person&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Pronoun&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''First person''&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''ni'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Second person''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ok'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Third person''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''si'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

They '''''never''''' flect for ''genre'', ''number'' or ''cases''. They can only be accompanied by their pluralizing particle '''la''', which is placed ''after'' them.

* ''I love'': '''ni a'ljek'''

* ''we love'': '''ni la a'ljek'''

* ''I love you'': '''ni a'ljek ok'''

* ''you love me'': '''ok a'ljek ni'''

The role played by the pronoun is decided by the ''position'' in the sentence word order, not as in English where there are different form like ''I'' / ''me''.

If a personal pronoun is placed ''after a substantive'', it plays the role of a '''possessive adjective''':

* ''my husband'': '''sik ni'''

* ''their cities'': '''le syr si la'''

It exists also a proper reflexive possessive pronoun, '''''su''''', which is used when the subject and the owner are the same, for all persons.

* ''I love my wife'': '''ni a'ljek mec su'''

In third person, if it is used the proper third person pronouns, it means that the owner is not the subject itself:

* '''si a'ljek mec su''': ''He loves his own wife''

* '''si a'ljek mec si''': ''He loves his wife (of another man)''.

====Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives====

They can be used both as pronouns and adjectives.
{|
|-
!
!
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''This''&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''tjel'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''That'' (&lt;small&gt;near to the listener&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''afris'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''That'' (&lt;small&gt;far from both speakers&lt;/small&gt;)&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ski'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}
 
When they are used as pronouns they can take the pluralizing particle '''la''' after themselves, when they are used as adjectives they follow all adjectives' rules.

====Relative pronoun====

There is only one indeclinable relative pronoun '''ki'''.

* ''The cows you see belong to my husband'' (''the cows, which you see, are of my husband''): '''le desti, ki ok a'ljub, ad'jo yd sik ni'''

====Interrogative pronouns====

These are the interrogative pronouns; they are all indeclinable.
{|
|-
!
!
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''who''&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''ejik'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''what''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ejek'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''which''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''kjel'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''how much/many''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''tyka'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

===Adverbs===

Nytal adverbs, which are derived from an adjective, are distinguished by the particle '''klo''' which is placed just ''before'' the adjective. They can be found many isolated adjectives, used as adverbs anyway.

* ''finally'': '''klo blek'''

===Numbers===

====Cardinal====
Nytal number system is a 10 base one:

{|
|-
!
!
|-
|&lt;center&gt;1&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''is'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;2&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''do'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;3&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''vif'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;4&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ti'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;5&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''so'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;6&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''kha'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;7&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ejk'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;8&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''tihr'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;9&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''von'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;10&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''dineh'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

Numbers over 10 are constructed: 

* numbers x 10: add -'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;din'''.

* numbers x 100: add -'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;odhi'''

* numbers x 1000: add -'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;medih'''


composed numbers are formed with '''a''' (and). Examples:

* 25: '''do&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;din a so''' (''twenty and five'')

* 456: '''ti&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;odhi a so&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;din a kha''' (''four hundert and fifty and six'')

Each number has to be intended as an adjective but it can be placed before its substantive.

====Ordinal====

The ordinal numbers are formed by placing the particle ''tjux'' after all simple numbers:

* ''first'': '''is tjux'''

* ''fifteenth'': '''dineh a so tjux'''

and they follow all adjectives' rules.

* ''the fifth city'': '''syr so tjux'''

===Preposition===
{|
|-
!
!
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Of (genitive)''&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''yd'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''To (dative)''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''er'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''In (state)''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ju'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''In/to (motion)''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ka'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''From''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''de'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''About''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ob''''' &lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''With''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''vis'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Without''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''karim'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Until''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''tljuk'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Near''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''ojks'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Between/among''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''okled'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

===Verbs===

Nytal verbs do not decline as Indo-European verbs do according to number and tenses.

They only take some particles which indicate the temporal position of the action.

{|
|-
!
!
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Infinitive''&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;'''''-''''' (''zero'')&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Present''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''a&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-/ad&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Past''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''be&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-/bed&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Future''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''fi&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-/fid&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Conditional''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''bif&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;-'''''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''Imperative''&lt;/center&gt;|| &lt;center&gt;'''''-''''' (''zero'')&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

* -[d] is added only before a vowel or a semivowel.

As in English, Nytal verbs ''always require'' the presence of a '''subjects''', substantives and personal or demonstrative pronouns.

To negate a verb you have to place the particle '''''ta''''' just ''before'' the verb.

* ''I love you'': '''ni a'ljek ok'''

* ''I do not love you'': '''ni ta a'ljek ok'''

From the verb we can obtain an ''adjective'' with a ''passive meaning'' which corresponds to our ''past participle'', by placing ''-&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;lo'' after the verb

* ''to see'': '''ljub'''

* ''seen'': '''ljub'lo'''

This is a special form because Nytal verbs '''''do not have a passive form'''''.

Each verb has to be intended as ''transitive'' and ''intransitive'' if possible: With an object it must be translated it with the transitive form, without any object it must be considered as an intransitive verb.

In English it is the same in the sentences: ''The boy broke the window'' (transitive) / ''The window broke'' (intransitive)

* ''the man broke the window'': '''sik be'krijg eknje'''

*''the window broke'': '''eknje be'krijg'''

====Infinitival form====
Nytal verbs have an infinitival form, that is what can be found in dictionaries. This form, however, can act as substantive, as an adjective, etc.

Within a sentence we won't find an infinitival form, because it can be something other! Thus, with modal verbs as ''mbit'' (to can), ''blinj'' (to must, to have to), and others, Nytal uses another construction, typical of languages which do not have an infinitival form for their verbs, like Bulgarian or Romanian languages:

Instead of constructions as ''I want to see'', the sentence is built in this way: ''I want that I see''. It would be as if in English we said: ''I want me to see''. 

Thus in Nytal the sentence is:

* '''Ni ad'ehohi li ni a'ljub''', I [PRES]want that I [PRES]see

The second verb agrees with the modal verb according to this rule:

* The verb gets the present adfix if the action is ''contemporaneous'' to the first one.
* The verb gets the past adfix if the action is ''prior'' the first one.
* The verb gets the future adfix if the action is ''subsequent'' to the first one.

* '''Ok la bed'ehohi li ok la ad'jole''', You[PLUR] [PAST]want that you[PLUR] [PRES]eat, ''you wanted to eat''.

===Derivational morphology===

Since all words in Nytal language could, in theory, play the rule of ''substantive'', ''adjective'', (pronoun) and ''verb'', the derivational morphology was almost nonexistent. Some traces of a derivational morphology existed, a very few processes of derivations:

- the couple &quot;''prefix'' '''me-''' + word + ''suffix'' '''-(j)er'''&quot;, added to a verb, create a new word with the leading meaning of &quot;''one who makes the action''&quot;, equivalent to the English suffix ''-er''. The new word could be used as adjective or as verb too.

* '''skit''', ''to write'' → '''''meskitjer''''', ''writer''

* '''xenoj''', ''to take care'' → '''''mexenojer''''', ''caretaker''

* '''finans''', ''debt, to be in debt'' → '''''mefinanser''''', ''debtor''

This prefix and this suffix were maybe born as independent particles, because of the isolating nature of the language, and only after the continuos usage they were felt as an added prefix and suffix.

==Syntax==

===Word order===

Nytal is a strictly '''''SVO''''' language, i.e. its components in the independent sentences are placed '''Subject''' - '''Verb''' - '''Object'''.

This word order is respected in every kind of sentences, dependent and independent; only by this the words can play their exact role in the sentences, because no word has cases or changes according to its function as in Indo-European languages does:

* '''ni a'ljek si''': ''I love her'' but if the pronouns' position changes, the sense of the sentences changes: '''si a'ljek ni''': ''She loves me''.

There are only a few cases where the word order can change:

- In the relative sentence we can find an '''''OSV''''' order, because the relative pronoun is the ''object'', ''accusative'':

* ''the man which you see'': '''sik ki ok a'ljub'''

- In direct questions we can find an '''''OSV''''' order, because the interrogative pronoun is the ''object'', ''accusative'':

* ''Which city did you visit?'': '''kjel syr ok be'ljeuben?'''

====Positions of all words inside the sentences====

All the words inside the Nytal sentences are disposed in order to accord to strict word order rules and it also deals with particles, like pronouns, possessive pronouns, adjectives, ecc.. In this table there is an easy explanation of all rules:


{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
!Adverb!!Complements!!style=&quot;background-color:orange;&quot;|Subject!!Adjective!!Possessive!!style=&quot;background-color:lime;&quot;|Verb!!Adverb!!style=&quot;background-color:magenta&quot;|Object!!Adjectives!!Possessive!!Complements
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Nu||vis ni||style=&quot;background-color:#FFD482;&quot; |babu||fols||ni||style=&quot;background-color:#83FF82;&quot;|a'sakar||klo blek||style=&quot;background-color:#FF82FF;&quot;|mesityeker||aln||ni la||fre kuku vsi
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|''Now''||''with me''||style=&quot;background-color:#FFD482;&quot; |''father''||''good''||''my''||style=&quot;background-color:#83FF82;&quot;|''buys''||''finally''||style=&quot;background-color:#FF82FF;&quot;|''car''||''new''||''our''||''for family-all''
|}


The tablets with colors refer to the most important parts of the sentence: ''Subject''-''Verb''-''Object'', the minimal constituents of a sentence (even if an intransitive verb ''does not own any object''). The other parts are optional, but they have to follow these space rules.

===Usage of words===

Nytal words can have more than an unique function:

A ''substantive'' can be easily used as an ''adjective'' or a ''verb'':

* ''love'': '''ljek''' → ''to love'' → ''relative to the love''
** ''I love my wife, it's a great love'': '''ni a'ljek mec su, tjel ad'jo ljek haron'''

* ''to see'': '''ljub''' → ''seeing, vision''

* ''beautiful'': '''skon''' → ''beauty'' → ''to get beautiful'' → ''to make beautiful''
** ''I am beautiful'': '''ni ad'jo skon'''
** ''I got beautiful'': '''ni be'skon'''
** ''She will make her own house beautiful'': '''si fi'skon toj su'''

* ''man, husband'': '''sik''' → ''human, masculine, male''

* ''to stop, to finish'': '''blek''' → ''end, termination'' → ''final''

So many words have different functions, which can be recognized because of their accompaining particles.

==Lexycon==

* '''[[Nytal biblical texts]]'''
* '''[[Nytal-English dictionary]]'''
* '''[[States of the World (Nytal)|States of the World]]'''
* '''[[Specific Nytal lexycon|Everyday lexycon]]

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Nytal| ]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nytal biblical texts</title>
    <id>2026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46276</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-22T13:42:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bleys klinij'lo, The lost sheep */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Here there are some collected texts from the '''Holy Bible''', translated into Nytal.

Each text is presented in tre versions: the Nytal one, the transcription word by word, and the translation into English.

==Torin yd Babel, the tower of Babel==

Bajus vsi bed’oraj skal smi a le vorin smi 

Nhi si la be’nori de Trons, le sik be’bjela ka fenne ju bajus yd Šinear a si la be’blek 

Si la be’pih okled su la «Nori, nut le ahlup kjeki’lo vis fyr!» Si la be’ljos le ahlup ju mjest yd le štani a štani fjesi’lo ju mjest yd štani krijg’lo. 

Net si la be’pih «Nori, sindak syr a torin hokje tljuk ojl, ni la a’ljsenf su, ahoj ni la ta fi’klinj sip bajus vsi» 

Po be‘šli ka veljer a be’ljub torin a syr ki le cilo yd le sik be’sindak 

Po be’pih «Ljub, si la ad’jo sikelt is a ad’oraj skal is; tjel ad’jo bolsenj yd rbijt si la; nu si la a’mbit li si la a'nut vsi ki si la ad‘ehoi» 

«Šli ka veljer a mejx skal si la ahoj ta behd sok ad’uden skal yd ijls!» 

A Po be’mejx si la sip bajus vsi a si la be’blek sindak yd syr. 

Fri tjel Po bed’ole er syr noym yd Babel, ahoj kien Po be'mejx skal yd bajus vsi a de kjonej Si be’mejx si la sip bajus vsi. 

* Trascription:

''World all [PAST]speak language same and [PLUR]word same''

''When he[PLUR] [PAST]come from East, [PLUR]man [PAST]arrive to plane in land of Shinear and he[PLUR] [PAST]stop''

''He[PLUR] [PAST]say among [REFLEX. PARTICLE][PLUR]  «Come[IMPER], make[IMPER] [PLUR]brick cook[PAST PARTICIPLE] with fire!» He[PLUR] [PAST]use [PLUR]brick in place of [PLUR]stone and stone melt[PAST PARTICIPLE](bitumen) in place of stone break[PAST PARTICIPLE](lime)''

''Then he[PLUR] [PAST]say «Come[IMPER], build[IMPER] city and tower high until sky, I[PLUR] [PRES]make famous [REFLEXIVE PARTICLE], because I[PLUR] not [FUT]lose over world all»''

''Lord [PAST]go to low down and [PAST]see tower and city that [PLUR]son of [PLUR]man [PAST]build''

''Lord [PAST]say «See[IMPER], he[PLUR] [PRES]be population one(only) and [PRES]speak language one(only); this [PRES]be beginning of work-he[PLUR]; now he[PLUR] [PRES]can that he[PLUR] [PRES]do all that he[PLUR] [PRES]want»''

''«Go[IMPER] to low down and mix[IMPER] language-he[PLUR] because not some people [PRES]understand language of other»''

''And Lord [PAST]mix he[PLUR] over world all and he[PLUR] [PAST]stop construction of city.''

''Because of this Lord [PAST]give to city name of Babel, because there Lord [PAST]mix language of world all and from there He [PAST]mix he[PLUR] over world all.''

* Translation:

The entire world spoke the same language and the same words

While they came from the East, men arrived to a plane in the land of Shinear and they stop (their journey)

They said among themselves «Come, let's make some bricks cooked with the fire!» They used bricks instead of stones and bitumen instead of lime

Then they said «Come, let's build a high tower until the sky, we get famous, so that we will not disperse all over the world»

The Lord went down and saw the tower and the city, the sons of men were building'''

The Lord said «Watch, they are an unique population and speak an unique language; this is the beginning of their work: now they can do all that they want»

«Go down and mix their language, so that nobody understand the language of the other one»

And the Lord dispersed them all over the wold and they stop the construction of the city.

So the Lord gave the city the name of Babel, because there the Lord mixed the language of the entire world and from there He dispersed them all over the world.

==Babu ni la, Lord's prayer==

Babu ni la, ki ad’jo ju ojl

Ni la a’šijnt noym Ok

Nori sliknost Ok

Ni la a’nut ehoj Ok

Iknijt ju ojl, Iknijt sjep bajus vsi

Ole tyahri er ni la ejs ni la

A vlup er ni la le finans ni la

Iknijt gek ni la a’vlup er le mefinanser ni la

A ta nenijt ni la ka medoljem

U vrij ni la de olim

Amen


* Trascription:

''Father-I[PLUR], that [PRES]be in sky''

''I[PLUR] [PRES]make holy name-Thou''

''Come[IMPER] kingdom-Thou''

''I[PLUR] [PRES]make will-Thou''

''So in sky, so over world all''

''Give[IMPER] today to I[PLUR] bread-I[PLUR]''

''And forgive[IMPER] to I[PLUR] [PLUR]debt-I[PLUR]''

''So how I[PLUR] [PRES]forgive to [PLUR]debtor-I[PLUR]''

''And not take[IMPER] I[PLUR] to temptation''

''But make free[IMPER] I[PLUR] from evil''

''Amen''

* Traslation:

Our Father, who are in heaven

We hallow Your name

Your kingdom come

We make Your will

So in heaven, so all over the world

Give us today our bread

And forgive us our debts

As we forgive our debtors

And do not lead us to temptation

But deliver us from evil

Amen

==Ave Marija, Holy Mary==

Ave Marija, vald vis foljsent 

Po ad’jo vis ok 

Si a’folepih ok okled le mec 

A folepih’lo ad’jo ohlse yd beet ok, Jesu 

Šijnt Marija, miri yd Po 

Orjein fre ni la, le mekoljomjer 

Nu a ju xomeš yd ahlen ni la 

Amen

* Trascription:

''Ave Maria, full with grace''

''Lord [PRES]be with you''

''He [PRES]bless you among [PLUR]woman''

''And bless[PAST PARTICIPLE] [PRES]be fruit of womb-you, Jesus''

''Holy Maria, mother of God''

''Pray for I[PLUR], [PLUR]sinner''

''Now and in moment of death-I[PLUR]''

''Amen''

* Traslation:

Ave Maria, full of grace

The Lord is with you

He bless you among the women

And blessed is the fruit of your womb, Jesus

Holy Maria, mother of God

Pray for us sinners

Now and in time of our death

Amen

==Bleys klinj'lo, The lost sheep==

From the Gospel for Mathew, Cfr 18,12-14 

'''Bleys klinj’lo'''. Ejek ok la a’tikli ob tjel? Giv sik ad’ejen is’odhi le bleys a si a’klinj js okled le bleys vsi, si ta fi’relijk mbido von’din a von le bleys ijls a si fi’posik bleys klinj’lo? Giv si fi’mbijt li si a'zabyd si, si fid’jo optimij fri bleys skj a ta fri von’din a von le bleys ijls ki ta be’klinj. Iknijt Babu ok la ju ojl ta ad’ehohi li js okled le fili tjel a’klinj. 

* Transcription:
'''''Sheep lose[PAST PARTICIPLE]'''. What you[PLUR] [PRES]think about this? If man [PRES]have one hundred [PLUR]sheep and he [PRES]lose one among [PLUR]sheep all, he not [FUT]leave maybe ninety-and-nine [PLUR]sheep other and he [FUT]search sheep lose[PAST PARTICIPLE]? If he [FUT]can that he [PRES]find it, he [FUT]be happy for sheep that and not for ninety-and-nine [PLUR]sheep other that not lose[PAST]. So Father you[PLUR] in sky not [PRES]want that one among [PLUR]little this [PRES]lose.''

* Translation:
'''The lost sheep'''. What do you think about that? If a man has one hundred sheeps and lose one of them, maybe will he not leave the other ninety nine sheeps and will search for the lost sheep? If he finds it, he will be happy for that sheep and not for the other ninety nine ones that did not lose their way. So your Father in the sky do not want one among this little children to lose his own way.

==Eukaristija, Eucharist==

From the Gospel for Mathew, Cfr 26,26-29 

'''Eukaristija'''. Nu, nhi si la bed’jole, Jesu be’lole ejs, a riet si be’pih folepih, si be’krage ejs a bed’ole ski er le diskip su a be’pih «Lole a jole, tjel ad’jo bus ni». Rjet si be’lole ješon, a rjet si be’puhlen Po, si bed’ole ješon er si la a be’pih: «Ok la vsi kaj, ahoj tjel ad’jo flus ni yd zenoj, klerse’lo fre le sok sir, fre ulup yd le koljom. Ni a’pih er ok la, li de nu ni ta sop fi’kaj ohlse tjel yd bulšenk tljuk ahriyd ni fi’kaj si vis ok la ju sliknost yd Babu ni». 

* Transcription:

'''''Eucharist'''. Now, when he[PLUR] [PAST]eat, Jesus [PAST] bread, and after he [PAST]say benediction, he [PAST]split bread and [PAST]give to [PLUR]disciple- [REFLEXIVE PARTICLE] and [PAST]say «Take[IMPER] and eat[IMPER], this [PRES]be body-I». After he [PAST]take cup, and after he [PAST]thank Lord, he [PAST]give cup to he[PLUR] and [PAST]say: «You[PLUR] all drink[IMPER], because this [PRES]be blood-I of alliance, pour[PAST PARTICLE] for [PLUR]person much, for forgiveness of [PLUR]sin. I [PRES]say to you[PLUR], that from now I not more [FUT]drink fruit this of grapewine until day I [FUT]drink it with you[PLUR] in kingdom of Father-I».''

* Translation:

'''Eucharist'''. Now, when they were eating, Jesus took the bread, and after he had pronounced the benediction, he splitted the bread and gave to his disciples and said: «Take and eat, this is my body». After that, he took the cup, and after he thanked the Lord, he gave them the cup and say «You all drink, because this is my blood of the alliance, poured for many people, for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you, that from now I will drink this fruit of grapewine no more, until the day I will drink it with you in the kingdom of my Father»

==Folninj sliknost gek le cel, Greeting the kingdom like children==

From the Gospel for Luke, 18,15-17 

'''Folninj sliknost gek le cel'''. Si la be’kan er si le cel, ahoj si be’stakit si la; u le diskip be’ljub a be’bjelimse si la. Tjelcaj Jesu be’kale le diskip o be’pih: «Ta šunfec li le cel a’nori er nu, ahoj sliknost yd Po ad’jo yd afris le sok ki ad’jo gek si la. Ju loj nu a’pih er ok la: ejik ta fi’stakit sliknost yd Po gek cel, si ta fid’jušli kjonej» 

* Transcription:

'''''Greet kingdom like [PLUR]child'''. He[PLUR] [PAST]take to he [PLUR]child, so that he [PAST]caress he[PLUR]; but [PLUR]disciple [PAST]see and [PAST]rebuke he[PLUR]. Then Jesus [PAST]call [PLUR]disciple and [PAST]say « Not [IMPER]impede that [PLUR]child [PRES]come to I, because kingdom of God [PRES]be of that [PLUR]person which [PRES]be like he[PLUR]. In truth I [PRES]say to you[PLUR]: who not [FUT]greet kingdom of God like child, he not [FUT]enter there »'' 

* Translation:

'''Greeting the kingdom like children'''. They took him the children, so that he could caress them; but the disciples saw and rebuked them. Then Jesus called the disciples and said «Do not impede the children to come to me, because the kingdom of God belongs to whom is like them. In truth I tell you: who will not greet the kingdom of God like a child, he will not enter there»

==Sonud yd ojl a bajus, Creation of heaven and earth==

From the Genesis, 1,1-13, 

Ju bolsenj Po be’sonud ojl a bajus. Bajus ta bed’ejen naht a bed’jo karinsek a klur be’sdjelat glokeš a ka yd Po bed’otjez sip mej. Po be’pih: «Ons jo!». A ons bed’jo. Po be’ljub li ons bed’jo xade fols a bed’umjet ons de klur a be’noym ons ahriyd a klur klidir. A njosi bed’jo a kredi bed’jo: ahriyd is tjux. Po be’pih: «Ahejl jo acevje le mej ahoj si ad’umjet le mej de le mej» Po be’sonud ahejl a bed’umjet mej, kj ad’jo vjalje ahejl, de mej, kj ad’jo sip ahejl. A iknijt si be’kojle. Po be’noym si ojl. A njosi bed’jo a kredi bed’jo: ahriyd do tjux. Po be’pih: «Mej ki ad’jo vjalje ojl, falolen ju is mjest a comjo bakald». A iknijt si be’kojle. Po be’noym bakald bajus a mej falolen’lo soh. A Po be’ljub li si bed’jo xade fols. A Po be’pih: «Bajus fuxi le škrafsi, le grasi ki a’fuxi dox a le cirill fre le ohlse, ki fi’fuxi le ohlse vis dox sip bajus». A iknijt si be’kojle: bajus be’fuxi le škrafsi, le grasi ki a’fuxi dox, a le cirill kj a’fuxi le ohlse vis dox. Po be’ljub li si bed’jo xade fols. A njosi bed’jo a kredi bed’jo: ahriyd vif tjux. 

* Transcription:

''In beginning God [PAST]create heaven and earth. Earth not [PAST]have form and [PAST]be desert and darkness [PAST]cover depth and spirit of God [PAST]fly over water. God [PAST]say: «Light [IMPER]be». And light [PAST]be. God [PAST]see that light [PAST]be thing good and [PAST]separate light from darkness and [PAST]nominate light day and darkness night. And evening [PAST]be and morning [PAST]be: day first. God [PAST]say: «Sky [IMPER]be in-the-middle-of [PLUR]water so that it [PRES]separate [PLUR]water from [PLUR]water» God [PAST]create sky and [PAST]separate water, that [PRES]be under sky, from water, that [PRES]be over sky. And so it [PAST]happen. God [PAST]nominate it heaven. And evening [PAST]be and morning [PAST]be: day second. God [PAST]say: «Water that [PRES]be under sky, [IMPER]come-together in only place and [IMPER]appear dry-land». And so it [PAST]happen. God [PAST]nominate dry-land earth and water reunite[PAST PARTICIPLE] sea. And God [PAST]see that it [PAST]be thing good. And God [PAST]say: «Earth [IMPER]produce [PLUR]offshoot, [PLUR]grass that [PRES]produce seed and [PLUR]tree for [PLUR]fruit, that [FUT]produce [PLUR]fruit with seed over earth». And so it [PAST]happen: earth [PAST]produce [PLUR]offshoot, [PLUR]grass that [PRES]produce seed, and [PLUR]tree, that [PRES]produce [PLUR]fruit with seed. God [PAST]see that it [PAST]be thing good. And evening [PAST]be and morning [PAST]be: day third.''

* Translation:

In the beginning God created heaven and earth. Earth had no form and was desert and darkness covered the depth and the spirit of God flew over the water. God said: «Be the light». And the light was. God saw that light was a good thing and separated light from darkness and called the light “day” and the darkness “night”. And it was evening and it was morning: first day. God said «Be the sky in the middle of the waters so that it can separate waters form waters». God created the sky and separate the water, that are under the sky, from water that are over the sky. And so it happened. God called it “heaven”. And it was evening and it was morning: second day. God said: «The water, that are under the sky, must come together in an only place and appear the dry land». And so it happened. God called the dry land “earth” and the reunited water “sea”. And God saw it was a good thing. And God said «The Earth will produce offshoots, grasses which can produce seed, and fruit trees, which will produce fruits with seed over the earth». And so it happened: the earth produced offshoots, grasses which produce seed, and trees that produce fruits with seed. God saw it was a good thing. And it was evening and it was morning: third day.

==Sonud yd mec, Creation of woman==

From the Genesis 2,15-25 

Have Po be’lole sik a be’lank si ka ordhat yd Eden, ahoj si be’pisat a be’xenoj si. Have Po be’škapige er sik «Ok fi’mbit li ad'jole le ohlse yd le cirill vsi yd ordhat, u ok ta a’blinj  li ad'jole le ohlse yd cirill yd rinj, ahoj, giv ok fid’jole si la, ok klo laxes fid’ahlen».

Rjet Have Po be’pih «Sik ad’jo ejf, tjel ta ad’jo klo fols, ni ad’ehohi li ni a'nut goda fre si ki ad’adkhol si». Rjad Have Po be’nut de boješ le kosul sir batarige a le otisa vsi yd ojl a si be’nenijt ka sik, ahoj si be’lijub gek sik bif’noym si la: gek sik be’noym kosul evre, ski be’blinj li bed'jo noym si. Iknijt sik bed’ole noym er kosahjul vsi, er le otisa vsi yd ojl a er le kosul vsi betarige, u si ta be’zabyd goda ki bed’adhkol si. Rjad Have Po be’majsajr sik; si be’beklave is okled le oxabeta si a be’lank mleka. Have Po be’nut vis oxabeta, ki si be’beklave de sik, mec, a be’nenijt mec ka sik. Rjad sik be’pih:

«Nu si

ad’jo mleka yd mleka ni

a oxo de le oxo ni

si fi’noym “mec” 

ahoj Po be’beklave si de sik». 

Fri tjel sik fi’relijk babu su a miri su a fi’bojsitan vis mec su a si la do fid’jo is mleka. Nu si la vsi do bed’jo nakoš, sik a mec su, u si la ta be’palindros

* Transcription:

''Lord God [PAST]take man and [PAST]leave he in garden of Eden, so that he [PAST]cultivate and [PAST]look after it. Lord God [PAST]order to man «you [FUT]can that you [PRES]eat [PLUR]fruit of [PLUR]tree all of garden, but you not [PRES]must that you [PRES]eat [PLUR]fruit of tree of knowledge, because, if you [FUT]eat it[PLUR], you [AVV]certain [FUT]die»''

''After Lord God [PAST]say «Man [PRES]be alone, this not [PRES]be [AVV]good, I [PRES]want that I [PRES]do help for he that [PRES]resemble he». Then Lord God [PAST]make from soil [PLUR]animal much wild and [PLUR]bird all of sky and he [PAST]took to man, so that he [PAST]see how man [COND]nominate it[PLUR]: how man [PAST]nominate animal every, that [PAST]must that it [PRES]be name-he. So man [PAST]give name to livestock all, to [PLUR]bird all of sky and to [PLUR]animal all wild, but he not [PAST]find help that [PAST]resemble he. Then Lord God [PAST]send-to-sleep man; he [PAST]take-away one among [PLUR]rib-he and [PAST]put meat. Lord God [PAST]make with rib, that he [PAST]take-away from man, woman, and [PAST]take she to man. Then man [PAST]say:''

''«Now she''

''[PAST]be meat of meat-I''

''and bone of [PLUR]bone-I''

''she [FUT]nominate &quot;woman&quot;''

''because God [PAST]take-away from man».''

''For this man [FUT]leave father-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE] and mother-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE] and [FUT]unite with woman-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE] and he[PLUR] two [FUT]be one(only) meat. Now he[PLUR] all two [PAST]be naked, man and woman-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE], but he[PLUR] not [PAST]be-ashamed.''

* Translation:

The Lord God took man and left him in the garden of Eden, so that he should cultivate and look after it, the Lord God ordered to man «you can eat the fruits of all trees in the garden, but you must not eat the fruits of the tree of knowledge, because, if you eat them, you will certainly die»

After that the Lord God said «The man is alone, this is not well, I want to make an help for him which can resemble him» Then the Lord God shaped from soil many wild animals and all the birds of the sky and took them to the man, so that he could see how the man would have nominate them. How the man called every animal, that should be its own name. So the man gave name to all the livestock, to all the birds of sky and to all the wild animals, but he did not find an help which can resemble him. Then the Lord God send the man to sleep; he take away one among his own ribs and put meat instead. The Lord God shaped with the rib, which he had taken away from man, the woman, and took her to the man. Then the man say:

«Now she

is meat of my own meat

and bone of my own bones

her name is &quot;woman&quot;

because God take her away from man»

Because of this the man will leave his own father and mother and will unite himself with his own wife and they two will be one only meat. Now they all two were naked, the man and his own wife, but they were not ashamed.

==Koljom bolsenij, The original sin==

From the Genesis, 3,1-24

Cans bed’jo irje tarces okled le kosul betarige, ki Have Po be’nut. Si be’pih er mec: «Tjel ad’jo loj li Po be’pih “Ok la a’blinj li ok la ad'jole ta ohlse yd le cirill vsi yd ordhat”?» Mec be’coldha er cans «Ni la ad’ehohi li ni la ad'jole le ohlse vsj yd le cirill yd ordhat, u ob ohlse yd cirill ki a’fuse aceva ordhat Po be’pih: “Ok la ta a’blinj li ok la ad'jole a takat si, bjecastan ok la bif’ahlen». U cans be’pih er mec «Ok la ta bif’ahlen! Po a’rinj li, giv ok la ad’jole si, le of ok la bif’kroge a ok la bif’blivje tecej er Po, a bif’rinj fols a olim». Rjad mec be’ljub li cirill bed’jo fols, skon fre le of, a li si be'mbit li si be'salar renjel; si be’lole ohlse a bed'jole si, rjet si bed’ole si er sik su, ki bed’jo vis si, a si bed’jole ski. Iknijt le of si la be’kroge a si la be’ljub li si la bed’jo makoš; si la pacotav le kolos yd toscon a be’sdjelat. Rjet si la bed’edjo Have Po ki manšel ju ordhat vis aer yd arhiyd a sik vis mec su be’xoceti de Have Po, okled le cirill yd ordhat. U Have Po be’kale sik a be’pih er si «Hvo ok ad’jo?» Si be’coldha: «Ni bed’edjo many ok ju ordhat, ni be'šocali, ahoj ni ad’jo makoš a be’xoceti» A Po: «Gek ok a’rinj li ok ad’jo makoš? Ok mbido bed’jole le ohlse yd cirill ki ni be’škapige li ok ta bed’jole?» Sik be’coldha: «Mec, ki ok be’lank ojks ni, bed’ole er ni ohlse yd cirill a ni bed’jole si» Have Po be’pih er mec: «Ejek ok be’nut?» Mec coldha: «Cans be'putris ni a ni bed’jole si» 

Rjad Have Po be’pih er cans: 

:«Ahoj ok be’nut tjel, 

:ni ad’olipih ok sop okled kosahjul vsi 

:a sop okled le kosul betarige vsi; 

:ok fi’manšel vis beet ok 

:a fi’jole cuti 

:mec bed’jo osrešej ok, 

:glor ok 

:a glor si 

:si fi‘stašet khpit ok 

:a ok fi’cesurat valcutef si» 

:Si be’pih er mec: 
  

:«Ni fi’nut sir 

:le naf ok a le vating ok, 

:vis naf ok fi’saje le cilo su, 

:ok fi’šol ka sik su 

:u si fi’calut ok». 

:Si be’pih er sik: «Ahoj ok be’ljobist var yd mec su, a be’jole ohlse yd cirill, ob kj ni be’škapige “Ta jole”, ni ad’olipih bajus fri ok! 

:vis naf ok fi’lole axal 

:fre le ahriyd vsi yd šak ok. 

:Si fi’fuxi le lanzak a le tljakoviz fre ok 

:a ok fid’jole grasi yd forold 

:ok fid’jole ejs vis kolepson yd mol ok 

:tljuk ok fi'bešol ka bajus 

:ahoj de ski ni be’nut ok 

:ok ad’jo cuti a ok fid’jo cuti!» 

:Sik be’noym mec Eva, ahoj si bed’jo miri yd le sik vsi.

Have Po be’nut le otoxol fre sik a mec a si bed’otaxi si la. 

Have Po be’pih rjad:  «Ljub, sik be’blivje gek is okled ni la, fri rinj yd fols a olim. Nu si ta fi’pšoli ond su, ta fi’lole le ohlse yd cirill yd šak, ta fi’jole a ta fi’ šak fri kalos!» 

Have Po be’pataljex si de ordhat yd Eden, ahoj si be’pisat bajus, vis ki Po be’nut si. 

Si be’pataljex sik a be’lank ju trons de ordhat yd Eden le engel a fyr yd kartoc mesacatjenjer, ahoj si la be’xenoj veg ka cirill yd šak. 

* Transcription:

''Serpent [PAST]be most astute among [PLUR]animal wild, that Lord God [PAST]make. It [PAST]say to woman: «This [PRES]be real that God [PAST]say &quot;You[PLUR] [PRES]must that you[PLUR] [PRES]eat no fruit of [PLUR]tree all of garden&quot;?». Woman [PAST]answer to serpent: «I[PLUR] [PRES]can that I[PLUR] [PRES]eat [PLUR]fruit all of [PLUR]tree of garden, but about fruit of tree that [PRES]stay in-the-middle-of garden God [PAST]say &quot;You[PLUR] not [PRES]must that you[PRES] [PRES]eat and touch it, otherwise you[PLUR] [COND]die&quot;» But serpent [PAST]say to woman «You[PLUR] not [COND]die! God [PRES]know that, if you[PLUR] [PRES]eat it, [PLUR]eye-you[PLUR] [COND]open and you[PLUR] [COND]become equal to God, and [COND]know asset and evil». Then woman [PAST]see that tree [PAST]be good, beautiful for [PLUR]eye, and that she [PAST]can that she [PAST]aquire wisdom; she [PAST]take fruit and [PAST]eat it, after she [PAST]give it to man-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE], that [PASt]be with she, and he [PAST]eat that. So [PLUR]eye-he[PLUR] [PAST]open and he[PLUR] [PAST]see that he[PLUR] [PAST]be naked; he[PLUR] [PAST]weave [PLUR]leaf of fig and [PAST]cover. After he[PLUR] [PAST]hear Lord God that [PAST]walk in garden with wind of day and man with woman-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE] [PAST]hide from Lord God, among [PLUR]tree of garden. But Lord God [PAST]call man and [PAST]say to he: «Where you [PRES]be?» He [PAST]answer: «I [PAST]hear foot-you in garden, I [PAST]be-afraid, because I [PRES]be naked and [PAST]hide». And God: «How you [PRES]know that you [PRES]be naked? You maybe [PAST] eat [PLUR]fruit of tree that I [PRES]order that you not [PAST]eat?». Man [PAST]answer: «Woman, that you [PAST]place near I, [PAST]give to I fruit of tree and I [PAST]eat it». Lord God [PAST]say to woman «What you [PAST]do?» Woman [PAST]answer: «Serpent [PAST]deceive I and I [PAST]eat it».''

''The Lord God [PAST]say to serpent:''

:''«Because you [PAST]make this,''

:''I [PRES]curse you more among livestok all''

:''and more okled [PLUR]animal wild all''

:''you [FUT]walk with womb-you''

:''and [FUT]eat dust''

:''woman [FUT]be enemy-you''

:''progeny-you''

:''and progeny-she''

:''she [FUT]tread-on head-you''

:''and you [FUT]make-attempt-to heel-bone-she»''

:''He [PAST]say to woman:''


:''«I [FUT]make many''

:''[PLUR]pain-you and [PLUR]pregnancy-you''

:''with pain you [FUT]birth [PLUR]son-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE]''

:''you [FUT]go towards your man''

:''but he [FUT]dominate you».''

:''He [PAST]say to man: «Because you [PAST]listen-to voice of woman-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE], and [PAST]eat fruit of tree,''

:''about which I [PAST]order &quot;Not eat[IMPER]&quot;, I [PRES]curse earth because-of you!''

:''with pain you [FUT]take food''

:''for [PLUR]day all of life-you''

:''It [FUT]produce [PLUR]thorn and [PLUR]bramble for you''

:''and you [FUT]eat grass of field''

:''you [FUT]eat bread with sweat of face-you''

:''until you [FUT]come-back to earth''

:''because from that I [PAST]make you''

:''you [PRES]be dust and you [FUT]be dust!».''

:''Man [PAST]nominate woman Eva, because she [PAST]be mother of [PLUR]man all''

''Lord God [PAST]make [PLUR]tunic for man and woman and he [PAST]dress he[PLUR].''

''Lord God [PAST]say then: «Watch, man [PAST]become like one among I[PLUR], for knowledge of asset and evil. Now he not [FUT]lay hand-[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE], not [FUT]take [PLUR]fruit of tree of life, not [FUT]eat and not [FUT]live for ever.''

''Lord God [PAST]expel he from garden of Eden, because he [PAST]cultivate earth, with that God [PAST]make he.''

''He [PAST]expel man and [PAST]place in east from garden of Eden [PLUR]angel and fire of sword striking, because he[PLUR] [PAST]take-care-of way to tree of life.''

* Translation:

The serpent was the most astute among the wild animals, which the Lord God created. It told the woman: «Is it real that God said &quot;You can eat no fruit from all trees of the garden&quot;?». The woman answered to the serpent: «We can eat all fruits of the tree of the garden, but about the fruits of the tree which is in the middle of the garden God said &quot;You must not must eat and touch it, otherwise you would die&quot;» But the serpent told the woman: «You would not die! God knows that, if you eat it, your eyes would open and you will become equal as God, and would know the asset and the evil». Then the woman saw that the tree was good, beautiful for the eyes, and that she could aquire the wisdom; she took the fruit and ate it, afterwards she gave it to her man, who was with her, and he ate it. So their eyes opened and they saw they were naked; they weaved leaves of fig and covered themselves. Afterwards they heard the Lord God walking in the garden with the wind of the afternoon and the man with his woman hide from the Lord God among the trees of the garden. But the Lord God called the man and told him: «Where are you?» He answered: «I hear your steps in the garden, I was afraid, because I am naked and I hid». And God: «How do you know you are naked? Did you maybe eat the fruits of the tree which I ordered that you did not eat?». The man answered: «The woman, who you placed near me, gave me the fruit of the tree and I ate it». The Lord God told the woman «What did you do?» The woman answered: «The serpent deceived me and I ate it».

The Lord God told the serpent:

:«Since you did this,

:I curse you among all livestok

:and among all wild animals

:you will walk on your womb

:and will eat dust

:the woman will be your enemy

:your progeny

:and her progeny

:she will tread on your head

:and you will make attempt to her heel-bone»

:He told the woman:


:«I will multiplicate

:your pains and your pregnancies

:with pain you will birth your children

:you will tend to go towards your man

:but he will dominate you».

:He told the man: «Since you listened to the voice of your woman, and ate the fruit of the tree,

:about which I ordered you &quot;Do not eat&quot;, I curse the earth because of you!

:with pain you will take the food

:for all days of your life

:It will produce thorns and brambles for you

:and you will eat the grass of the fields

:you will eat the bread with the sweat of your face

:until you will come back to the earth

:because with that I shaped you

:you are dust and you will be dust!».

:The man called the woman Eva, because she was the mother of all men

The Lord God made tunics for the man and the woman and he dressed them.

The Lord God then said: «Watch, the man became like one of us, for his knowledge of the asset and the evil. Now he will not lay his own hand, will not take the fruits of the tree of life, will not eat and will not live for ever.

The Lord God expelled him from the garden of Eden, so that he cultivated the earth, which God shaped him with

He expelled the man and placed east from the garden of Eden the angels and the fire of strikings word, so that they could take care of way to the tree of life.

==Legend==
In the trascription, to translate the meaningless particles, that have only grammatical functions, some abbreviations between brackets. Here is explained their function:

For verbs:

* ''[PRES]'': marks the particle for the '''present tense'''
* ''[PAST]'': marks the particle for the '''past tense'''
* ''[FUT]'': marks the particle for the '''future tense'''
* ''[COND]'': marks the particle for the '''conditional mood'''
* ''[IMPER]'': marks the particle for the '''imperative tense'''
* ''[PAST PARTICIPLE]'': marks the particle for the '''past participle'''

For substantives and pronouns

* ''[PLUR]'': marks the particle for the '''plural number'''
* ''[REFLEXIVE PARTICLE]'': marks the particle for the '''reflexive pronoun or adjective'''

If a pronouns is written linked to a substantive before itself, it plays the role of a possessive adjective:

''work-he[PLUR]'': '''their work'''

[[Category:Nytal]]
[[Category:Texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nytal-English dictionary</title>
    <id>2027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43892</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-06T17:34:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* M */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}This is a little ''Nytal-English'' dictionary with the main words of the Nytal lexycon.

==A==
'''a'''; /{{IPA|a:}}/ 1, ''conj'', and

'''aceva'''; /{{IPA|aʧeva}}/ 1, ''adv'', always; 2, ''adj'', continuos; '''''fri aceva''''' for ever

'''aer'''; /{{IPA|aer}}/ 1, ''n'', wind; 2, ''adj'', windy

'''ahal'''; /{{IPA|a:xal}}/ 1, ''n'', river; 2, ''adj'', fluvial

'''ahlen'''; /{{IPA|axlen}}/ 1, ''vb'', to die; 2, ''n'', death

'''aln'''; /{{IPA|a:ln}}/ 1, ''adj'', new; 2, ''n'', new, news; 3, ''vb'', get new, to renew; 4, ''vb'', to make new, to renew

'''ara'''; /{{IPA|a:ra}}/ 1, ''n'', moon; 2, ''adj'', moon, lunar

'''arma'''; /{{IPA|arma}}/ 1, ''n'', soldier; 2, ''adj'', military

'''axal'''; /{{IPA|aksal}}/ 1, ''n'', food; 2, ''vb'', to feed

==B==
'''babu'''; /{{IPA|ba:bu}}/ 1, ''n'', father, dad, daddy; 2, ''adj'', paternal

'''bajus'''; /{{IPA|bajus}}/ 1, ''n'', earth, world; 2, ''adj'', earth

'''bjela'''; /{{IPA|bjela}}/ 1, ''vb'', to arrive; 2, ''n'', arrival

'''bin'''; /{{IPA|bin}}/ 1, ''n'', fish; 2, ''adj'', fish; 3, vb, to fish, to net

'''blinj'''; /{{IPA|bli:ɲ}}/ 1, ''vb'', to must, to have to; 2, ''n'', must

'''blivje'''; /{{IPA|blivje}}/ 1, ''vb'', to become

'''bojsitan'''; /{{IPA|bɔjsita:n}}/ 1, ''vb'', to unit; 2, ''n'', union; 3, ''adj'', relative to the union

'''bus'''; /{{IPA|bu:s}}/ 1, ''n'', body; 2, ''adj'', body

==C==
'''caj'''; /{{IPA|ʧaj}}/, 1, ''n'', time; 2, ''n'', tense; 3, ''adj'', temporal, time

'''cans'''; /{{IPA|ʧa:ns}}/, 1, ''n'', serpent

'''cilo'''; /{{IPA|ʧilɔ}}/ 1, ''n'', son, daughter; 2, '''''le cilo''''', ''n'', children; 3, ''adj'', infantile

'''co'''; /{{IPA|ʧɔ:}}/ 1, ''vb'', to be born; 2, ''n'', birth

'''coldha'''; /{{IPA|ʧɔldxa}}/ 1, ''n'', answer; 2, ''vb'', to answer; 3, ''vb'', to give an answer

'''comjo'''; /{{IPA|ʧɔmjɔ}}/ 1, ''vb'', to appear; 2, ''n'', appearance

'''cuti'''; /{{IPA|ʧuti}}/ 1, ''n'', dust; 2, ''adj'', dusty

==D==
'''danek'''; /{{IPA|da:nek}}/ 1, ''vb'', to believe; 2, ''n'', belief

'''dremis'''; /{{IPA|dremis}}/ 1, ''n'', shoulder

'''dile'''; /{{IPA|di:le}}/ 1, ''n'', goose

'''dosejn'''; /{{IPA|dɔsejn}}/ 1, ''n'', boy

==E==
'''edjo'''; /{{IPA|edjɔ}}/ 1, ''vb'', to hear

'''ehohi'''; /{{IPA|exɔxi}}/ 1, ''vb'', to want; 2, ''n'', will; 3, ''adj'', volitive

'''eknje'''; /{{IPA|ekɲe}}/ 1, ''n'', window

'''ejen'''; /{{IPA|ejen}}/ 1, ''vb'', to have, to onw

'''ejs'''; /{{IPA|ejs}}/ 1, ''n'', bread

'''engel'''; /{{IPA|engel}}/ 1, ''n'', angel; 2, ''adj'', angelic

'''estijl'''; /{{IPA|estijl}}/ 1, ''n'', summer; 2, ''adj'', summer

'''evre'''; /{{IPA|evre}}/ 1, ''adj'', ''pr'', every

==F== 
'''fiensit'''; /{{IPA|fje:nsit}}/ 1, ''n'', west; 2, ''adj'', west, western

'''fili'''; /{{IPA|fili}}/ 1, ''adj'', little, small

'''floj'''; /{{IPA|flɔj}}/ 1, ''n'', war; 2, ''adj'', bellic, war; 3, ''vb'', to make war, to be in war

'''flus'''; /{{IPA|flu:s}}/ 1, ''n'', blood; 2, ''adj'', blood; 3, ''vb'', to bleed

'''fordag'''; /{{IPA|fɔrdag}}/ 1, ''adv'', tomorrow

'''fundienz'''; /{{IPA|fundjents}}/ 1, ''n'', tin; 2, ''adj'', tin

'''fuxi'''; /{{IPA|fuksi}}/ 1, ''vb'', to produce; 2, ''n'', production

'''fyr'''; /{{IPA|fə:r}}/ 1, ''n'', fire; 2, ''vb'', to be on fire; 3, ''vb'', to burn

==G==
'''gad'''; /{{IPA|gad}}/ 1, ''n'', year; 2, ''adj'' annual, year-

'''gek'''; /{{IPA|gek}}/ 1, ''adv'' ''conj'', how

'''gino'''; /{{IPA|ginɔ}}/ 1, ''n'', knee; 2, ''adj'', knee

'''gloky'''; /{{IPA|glɔkə}}/ 1, ''adj'', deep; 2, ''n'', depth

'''grasi'''; /{{IPA|grasi}}/ 1, ''n'', grass

==H==
'''haron'''; /{{IPA|xarɔn}}/ 1, ''adj'', big, great; 2, ''n'', bigness, greatness; 3, ''vb'', to get big, to get great 

'''hokje'''; /{{IPA|xɔkje}}/ 1, ''adj'', high; 2, ''n'', height

'''hojds'''; /{{IPA|xɔjds}}/ 1, ''n'', mount, mountain; 2, ''adj'', mountain

'''hon'''; /{{IPA|xɔn}}/ 1, ''n'', dog; 2, ''adj'', dog, canine

'''hvjor'''; /{{IPA|xvjɔr}}/ 1, ''adv'' ''conj'', where (''motion'')

'''hvo'''; /{{IPA|xvɔ:}}/ 1, ''adv'' ''conj'', where (''state'')

'''hy'''; /{{IPA|xə}}/ 1, ''conj'', or

==I==
'''isen'''; /{{IPA|isen}}/ 1, ''n'', iron; 2, ''adj'', iron

'''isar'''; /{{IPA|isar}}/ 1, ''vb'', to sleep; 2, ''n'', sleep

==J==
'''jiknijt'''; /{{IPA|ji:knijt}}/ 1, ''adv'' ''conj'', so

'''jo'''; /{{IPA|jɔ:}}/ 1, ''vb'', to be

'''jušli'''; /{{IPA|juʃli}}/ 1, ''vb'', to go in, to enter; 2, ''n'', enter, entry

==K==
'''ka'''; /{{IPA|ka:}}/ 1, ''n'', soul

'''kale'''; /{{IPA|kale}}/ 1, ''vb'', to call; 2, ''n'', call

'''kanj'''; {{IPA|/kaŋ/}} 1, ''vb'', to invite; 2, ''n'' invitation

'''kepr'''; /{{IPA|ke:pr}}/ 1, ''n'', copper; 2, ''adj'', copper

'''kilo'''; /{{IPA|kilɔ}}/ 1, ''n'', finger

'''khpit'''; /{{IPA|kxpit}}/ 1, ''n'', head; 2, ''n'', head, chief

'''klur'''; /{{IPA|klur}}/ 1, ''adj'', dark; 2, ''n'', darkness

'''kold'''; /{{IPA|kɔld}}/ 1, ''adj'', warm, hot; 2, ''n'', heat, warmth

'''koljom'''; /{{IPA|kɔljɔm}}/ 1, ''n'', sin; 2, ''vb'', to sin

'''kolon'''; /{{IPA|kɔlɔn}}/ 1, ''vb'', to hate; 2, ''n'', hate

'''kosud'''; /{{IPA|kɔsud}}/ 1, ''n'', animal; 2, ''adj'', animal

'''krijg'''; /{{IPA|kri:jg}}/ 1, ''vb'', to break; 2, ''n'', break

'''kuku'''; /{{IPA|kuku}}/ 1, ''n'', family; 2, ''adj'', family, familiar

==L==
'''la'''; /{{IPA|la}}/ ''pluralizing particle, it falls always after its pronoun''

'''ljek'''; /{{IPA|ljek}}/ 1, ''n'', love; 2, ''vb'', to love; 3, ''adj'', relative to love

'''le'''; /{{IPA|le}}/ ''pluralizing particle, it falls always before its substantive''

'''li'''; /{{IPA|li:}}/ 1, ''conj'', that

'''ljobist'''; /{{IPA|ljɔbist}}/ 1, ''vb'', to listen to; 2, ''n'', listening

'''ljos'''; /{{IPA|ljɔs}}/ 1, ''vb'', to use; 2, ''n'', usage

'''ljub'''; /{{IPA|ljub}}/ 1, ''v'', to see, to look at, to watch; 2, ''n'', vision; 3, ''adj'', visual, optical

'''ljump'''; /{{IPA|ljump}}/ 1, ''v'', to grow up; 2, ''n'', growing

'''lobi'''; /{{IPA|lɔbi}}/ 1, ''n'', cat

'''loj'''; /{{IPA|lɔj}}/ 1, ''adj'', real; 2, ''n'', reality

'''lys'''; /{{IPA|ləs}}/ 1, ''n'', sun; 2, ''adj'', sun, solar

==M==
'''many'''; /{{IPA|manə}}/ 1, ''n'', foot

'''mec'''; /{{IPA|me:ʧ}}/ 1, ''n'', women; 2, ''adj'', feminine, female

'''mej'''; /{{IPA|mej}}/ 1, ''n'', water; 2, ''adj'', acquatic, water

'''mejx'''; /{{IPA|mejks}}/ 1, ''vb'', to confuse; 2, ''vb'', to mix; 3, ''n'', mixage, mixing; 4, ''n'', confusion; 5, ''n'', jam

'''merinsjer'''; /{{IPA|merinsje:r}}/ 1, ''n'', gouvernour

'''metitaxos'''; /{{IPA|metitaksos}}/ 1, ''n'', helmet, beaver

'''mijst'''; /{{IPA|mijst}}/ 1, ''n'', mouse

'''min'''; /{{IPA|mi:n}}/ 1, ''n'', mouth; 2, ''adj'', oral

'''miri'''; /{{IPA|miri}}/ 1, ''n'', mother; 2, ''adj'', maternal

'''mjest'''; /{{IPA|mjest}}/ 1, ''n'', place, location; 2, ''vb'', to place, to locate

'''mleka'''; /{{IPA|mleka}}/ 1, ''n'', meat; 2, ''adj'', meat

'''mol'''; /{{IPA|mɔl}}/ 1, ''n'', face; 2, ''adj'', facial

'''mullen'''; /{{IPA|mul:en}}/ 1, ''adv'', yesterday

==N==
'''naf'''; /{{IPA|na:f}}/ 1, ''n'', pain, ache; 2, ''vb'', to suffer, to ache

'''njosi'''; /{{IPA|njɔsi}}/ 1, ''n'', evening; 2, ''adj'', evening

'''norjein'''; /{{IPA|nɔrjein}}/ (contraction of '''''ni + orjein''''', ''I pray) 1, ''adv'', please

'''noym'''; /{{IPA|nɔəm}}/ 1, ''n'', name, noun; 2, ''adj'', nominal; 3, ''vb'', to nominate; 4, ''vb'', to be called, to have a name; '''''ni a'noym...''' My name is...

'''nori'''; /{{IPA|nɔri}}/ 1, ''vb'', to come

'''nu'''; /{{IPA|nu:}}/ 1, ''adv'', now

'''nut'''; /{{IPA|nut}}/ 1, ''vb'', to do, to make, to prepare; 2, ''n'', the act of making

==O==
'''of'''; /{{IPA|ɔ:f}}/ 1, ''n'', eye; 2, ''adj'', of the eyes, relative to the eyes

'''ojl'''; /{{IPA|ɔjl}}/ 1, ''n'', sky, heaven; 2, ''adj'', celestial, sky

'''ole'''; /{{IPA|ɔle}}/, 1, ''vb'', to give

'''ons'''; /{{IPA|ɔns}}/, 1, ''n'', light

'''optimij'''; /{{IPA|ɔptimi:j}}/ 1, ''adj'', happy; 2, ''n'', happiness; 2, ''vb'', to make happy; 4, ''vb'', to get happy

'''oraj'''; /{{IPA|ɔraj}}/ 1, ''vb'', to talk, to speak

'''orjein'''; /{{IPA|orjein}}/ 1, ''vb'', to pray; 2, ''n'', prayer

'''oskom'''; /{{IPA|ɔskɔm}}/ 1, ''n'', ship; 2, ''adj'', naval

'''osrešoj'''; /{{IPA|ɔsreʃɔj}}/, 1, ''n'', enemy, 2, ''adj'', enemy

'''oxo'''; /{{IPA|ɔksɔ}}/ 1, ''n'', bone; 2, ''adj'', bome

==P==
'''pih'''; /{{IPA|pix}}/ 1, ''vb'', to say, to tell

'''pisat'''; /{{IPA|pisat}}/ 1, ''vb'', to cultivate; 2, ''n'', cultivation, agricolture; 3, ''adj'', agricultural

'''Po'''; /{{IPA|pɔ:}}/ 1, ''n'', God; 2, ''n'', Lord; 3, ''adj'', divine

'''pohgor'''; /{{IPA|pɔxgɔ:r}}/ 1, ''n'', winter; 2, ''adj'', winter

'''poljedonis'''; /{{IPA|pɔljedɔni:s}}/ 1, ''n'', priest

==Q==

'''qarh'''; /{{IPA|kʷa:rx}}/ 1, ''adj'', easy; 2, ''n'', ease, facility

'''qolt'''; /{{IPA|kʷɔ:lt}}/ 1, ''n'' cape [GEO]

==R==
'''raši'''; /{{IPA|raʃi}}/ 1, ''n'', friend; 2, ''adj'', friendly

'''rbijt'''; /{{IPA|rbi:jt}}/ 1, ''vb'', to work; 2, ''n'', work; 3, ''adj'', working

'''riet'''; /{{IPA|rjet}}/ 1, ''adv'', afterwards, then

'''rinj'''; /{{IPA|riɲ}}/ 1, ''vb'', to know; 2, ''n'', knowing, knowledge

'''rjun'''; /{{IPA|rjun}}/ 1, ''prep'', after

==S==
'''sakar'''; /{{IPA|sakar}}/ 1, ''vb'', to buy, to purchase; 2, ''n'', purchase

'''sindak'''; /{{IPA|sindak}}/ 1, ''vb'', to build; 2, ''n'', construction

'''sijve'''; /{{IPA|sijve}}/ 1, ''vb'', to save; 2, ''n'', salvation, rescue

'''sikelt'''; /{{IPA|sikelt}}/ 1, ''n'', population; 2, ''adj'', people, popular; 3, ''adj'', popular, democratic (COMMUN)

'''sir'''; /{{IPA|si:r}}/ 1, ''adj'', much, many; 2, ''pron'', much, many, 3, ''adv'', very 

'''skal'''; /{{IPA|skal}}/ 1, ''n'', language

'''skit'''; /{{IPA|ski:t}}/ 1, ''vb'', to write; 2, ''n'', writing

'''skon'''; /{{IPA|skɔ:n}}/ 1, ''adj'', beautiful; 2, ''n'', beauty; 3, ''vb'', to get beautiful; 4, ''vb'', to make beautiful 

'''slik'''; /{{IPA|slik}}/, 1, ''n'', king

'''sliknost'''; /{{IPA|sliknost}}/, 1, ''n'', kingdom, reign

'''smi'''; /{{IPA|smi:}}/, 1, ''adj'', same

'''soh'''; /{{IPA|sɔ:x}}/ 1, ''n'', sea; 2, ''adj'', marine

'''sok'''; /{{IPA|sɔk}}/ 1, ''n'', person; 2, ''adj'', personal; '''''le sok''''' people

'''sonud'''; /{{IPA|sɔnud}}/ 1, ''v'', to create; 2, ''n'', creation

'''spind'''; /{{IPA|spind}}/ 1, ''n'', star; 2, ''adj'', star, stellar

'''suh'''; /{{IPA|su:x}}/ 1, ''n'', market; 

'''svjet'''; /{{IPA|svjet}}/ 1, ''vb'', to win; 2, ''n'', victory

'''syr'''; /{{IPA|sə:r}}/ 1, ''n'', city, town; 2, ''adj'', city, town, urban

==Š==
'''šijnt'''; /{{IPA|ʃi:nt}}/ 1, ''adj'', saint, holy; 2, ''n'', Saint, an holy person; 3, ''vb'', to get holy, to become saint; 4, ''n'', to make holy, to santificate

'''šli'''; /{{IPA|ʃli:}}/ 1, ''vb'', to go

'''šolit'''; /{{IPA|ʃɔlit}}/ 1, ''n'', south; 2, ''adj'', southern

'''štani'''; /{{IPA|ʃtani}}/ 1, ''n'', stone; 2, ''adj'', stone

==T==
'''tikli'''; /{{IPA|tikli}}/ 1, ''vb'', to think; 2, ''n'', thought, thinking

'''tiron'''; /{{IPA|tirɔn}}/ 1, ''n'', tower

'''toj'''; /{{IPA|tɔj}}/ 1, ''n'', house, home; 2, ''adj'', domestic, home 

'''tolk'''; /{{IPA|tɔlk}}/ 1, ''adj'', old; 2, ''vb'', to get old, to age, to grow old 3, ''n'', obsolescence

'''trimsbajun'''; /{{IPA|trimsbajun}}/ 1, ''n'', earthquake; 2, ''adj'', sismic

'''trons'''; /{{IPA|trɔns}}/ 1, ''n'', east; 2, ''adj'', east, eastern

'''tyahri'''; /{{IPA|təaxri}}/, 1, ''adv'', today; 2, ''adj'', today

==U== 
'''u''' /{{IPA|u:}}/ 1, ''conj'', but

'''udem'''; /{{IPA|udem}}/ 1, ''vb'', to understand; 2, ''n'', understanding, comprehension; 3, ''adj'', all-understanding

'''ulup'''; /{{IPA|ulup}}/ 1, ''vb'', to forgive; 2, ''n'', forgiveness, pardon

'''umjet'''; /{{IPA|umjet}}/ 1, ''vb'', to divide, to subdivide, to separate; 2, ''n'', division, separation, secession; 3, ''n'', section

==V==
'''vald'''; /{{IPA|vald}}/ 1, ''adj'', full

'''vand'''; /{{IPA|vand}}/ 1, ''n'', wall

'''var'''; /{{IPA|var}}/ 1, ''n'', voice; 2, ''adj'', vocal

'''veljer'''; /{{IPA|velje:r}}/ 1, ''adj'', low, small; 2, ''adv'', down

'''vorin'''; /{{IPA|vɔrin}}/ 1, ''n'', word; 2, ''adj'', word

'''vrij'''; /{{IPA|vri:j}}/ 1, ''adj'', free; 2, ''vb'', to get free, to be free, 3, ''vb'', to make free, to deliver, 4, ''n'', freedom, liberty

'''vruq'''; /{{IPA|vru:kʷ}}/ 1, ''n'', coast; 2 ''adj'', coastal

'''vsi'''; /{{IPA|vsi}}/ 1, ''adj'', all; 2, ''n'', all

==X==
'''xoj'''; /{{IPA|ksɔj}}/ 1, ''n'', metall; 2, ''adj'', metallic

==Y==
'''ylofik'''; /{{IPA|əlɔfik}}/ 1, ''n'', north; 2, ''adj'', northern

==Z==
'''zan'''; /{{IPA|ʦa:n}}/ 1, ''n'', tooth

[[Category:Nytal]]
[[Category:General lexica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lišěč</title>
    <id>2028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47745</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-25T15:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bukkia</username>
        <id>117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Babel text */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;| Lišĕč (Lišĕčna/Лишĕчна)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
| Poland, Ukraine
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Region:
| Galitia
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
| 85.000 speakers
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Language families and languages|Genetic]]&lt;br&gt;[[Language families and languages|classification]]:
|[[Language isolate]] or&lt;br&gt; ''Altaic family''&lt;br&gt;:''Uralic languages''&lt;br&gt;::''Lišĕč languages''&lt;br&gt;:::'''''Lišĕč'''''
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;|Extra information
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|Author: 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[User:Bukkia|Bukkia]]
|}

'''Lišĕč''' is a language, spoken in Galitia, on the border line between Poland and Ukraine. It’s an highly agglutinative language, and it‘s similar to ''Finnish'', ''Estonian'' and ''Hungarian'' languages, maybe related to the ''Uralic'' family, but it has many differences, that show the influence of ''Slavic'' and ''German'' languages. It is unknow if it is an isolated language with influences from both Uralic and Indo-European languages, or an Uralic language with a unknown substrate and influences from Indo-European languages.

It can be written both with '''''Latin Alphabet''''' and with '''''Cyrillic alphabet'''''.

==Phonology==

===Vowel harmony===
The '''vowel harmony''' is typical phenomenon of non-Indo-european languages in Europe.

The vowels of interchangeable endings change according to the last vowel in the last syllable of the word.

The interchangeable vowels in the endings are:

* '''''-e-''''': for a last '''front vowel''' in the world
* '''''-a-''''': for a last '''central vowel''' in the world
* '''''-o-''''': for a last '''back vowel''' in the world

Examples: The plural endings are: ''-nes, -nas, -nos'' / ''-нес, -нас, -нос''

Lin (''man'') → Linnes / Лин (''man'') → Линнес&lt;br&gt;
Tanõk (''sea'') → Tanõknos / Танõк (''sea'') → Танõкнос&lt;br&gt;
Sava (''river'') → Savanas / Сава (''river'') → Саванас&lt;br&gt;

===Vowels===

{| cellspacing=&quot;0px&quot; cellpadding=0 style=&quot;text-align:left; background:transparent;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;width:70px; text-align:right;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-front'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Central'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Near-back'''
| style=&quot;width:60px;&quot; | '''Back'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close'''
| style=&quot;height:210px;&quot; colspan=5 rowspan=7 | &lt;div style=&quot;position:relative;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:right; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:transparent;&quot; |

&lt;!-- CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:5%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|i&amp;nbsp;•&amp;nbsp;y}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:45%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;
{{IPA|ɨ}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:83%; width:3em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|u}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --&gt;

&lt;!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:17%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|e}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|o}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:23%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:57%; width:1em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ə}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:83%; width:2.66em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;

&lt;!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:31%; width:2.66em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ɛ&amp;nbsp;•&amp;nbsp;œ}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|ɔ}}&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:37%; width:1.33em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;
{{IPA|æ}}&lt;/div&gt;


&lt;!-- OPEN VOWELS --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;position:absolute; left:44%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
{{IPA|a}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | 
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Near-open'''
|-
| style=&quot;height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;&quot; | '''Open'''
|}

===Consonants===

{| {{prettytable}}
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | 
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Bilabial
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Labio-&lt;br/&gt;dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Post-&lt;br/&gt;alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Palatal
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Velar
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Plosive
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}&lt;/center&gt;
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;{{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Nasal
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|m}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɱ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|n}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɲ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Vibrant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|r}}&lt;/center&gt; 

| 
| 
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Fricative
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|θ}} {{IPA|ð}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʃ}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Affricate
| 
|
|
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʦ}} {{IPA|ʣ}}&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;{{IPA|ʧ}} {{IPA|ʤ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Approximant
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|j}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɰ}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral approximant
| 
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|l}}&lt;/center&gt; 
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ʎ}}&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|}

===Writing systems===

Lišěč can be written with both a modified version of Latin alfabet (called '''Latinka'''/'''Латинка''') and a modified version of Cirillic alfabet (сalled '''Kirilica'''/'''Кирилица''').

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;IPA consonant&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Cyrillic&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|p}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''p'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''п'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|b}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''b'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''б'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|t}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''t'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''т'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|d}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''d'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''д'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|k}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''k'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''к'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|g}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''g'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''г'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|m}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''m'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''м'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|n}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''n'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''н'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɲ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ň'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''њ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʦ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''c'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ц'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʣ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''z'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ѕ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʧ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''č'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ч'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʤ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ğ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ђ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|f}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''f'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ф'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|v}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''v'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''в'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|θ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ţ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ө'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ð}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''đ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ћ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|s}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''s'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''с'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|z}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ś'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''з'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʃ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''š'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ш'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|r}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''r'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''р'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|j}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''j'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''й'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɰ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''u'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''у'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|l}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''l'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''л'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ʎ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ł'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''љ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;IPA vowel&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Cyrillic&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|i}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''i'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''и'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|y}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ü'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ÿ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɨ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''y'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ы'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|u}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''u'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''у'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|e}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''e'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''е'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɛ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ĕ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ĕ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ə}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ë'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ё'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|œ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ö'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ö'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|æ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ä'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ä'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|a}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''a'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''а'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|ɔ}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''õ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''õ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;/{{IPA|o}}/&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''o'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''о'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

==Morphology==

Lišĕč has an agglutinative morphology, i.e, words are declined and take endings, but these ending have only one meaning, instead of the multiple meaning of a Indo-european desinence.

Exemple:

* Latin: '''Urbium''' (genitive plural ''of the cities''): root ''urb'' + desinence ''-ium'', the desinence have meaning of both plural and genitive case.
* Lišĕč: '''Gradanasal''' (genitive plural ''of the cities''): root ''grada'' + plural desinence ''-nas-'' + genitive desinence ''-al''

===Substantives===

Substantives have ''no genre'', but they decline according to ''number'' ('''''singular''''', '''''plural''''' and '''''collective''''') and ''cases'' ('''''29 cases'''''):

====Number====

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Number||Latin||Cyrillic
|-
|Singular||-||-
|-
|Plural||'''-nas/nes/nos'''||'''-нас/нес/нос'''
|-
|Collective||'''-ałij/ełij/ołij'''||'''-аљий/ељий/ољий'''
|-
|}

The '''''collective number''''' means a ''defined group'' of objects or beings, while '''''plural number''''' indicates an ''undefined number'' of objects or things (both functions are covered by plural in Indo-european languages):

The '''collective''' should be used:

* With ''cardinal numbers''
* Without numbers to indicate “''a group of''” or with ''uncountable nouns'' to indicate “''a little of''”, “''a bit of''”

====Case====

The '''case''' indicates the role the word plays in the sentence, without prepositions. Lišěč has '''''30 cases''''', many more of any Indo-european language, but a large number of cases is normal for Uralic languages.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Case||Latin||Cyrillic||Case function
|-
|''Nominative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''subject'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Genitive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-al/el/ol'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ал/ел/ол'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''possession'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Dative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-am/em/om'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ам/ем/ом'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''indirect object'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Accusative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-an/en/on'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ан/ен/он'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''direct object'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Partitive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-a/e/o'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-а/е/о'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''ripartition'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with the adjectives ''some'' ''any''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Essive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-as/es/os'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ас/ес/ос'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''existence'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with the word ''as''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Causal''||&lt;center&gt;'''-fal/fel/fol'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-фал/фел/фол'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''causes'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with prepositions ''because of'' ''for''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Originative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-dala/dele/dolo'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-дала/деле/доло'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''origin'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with prepositions ''from'' ''of''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Instrumental''||&lt;center&gt;'''-kam/kem/kom'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-кам/кем/ком'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''instrument'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with prepositions ''with'' ''by''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Comitative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-sam/sem/som'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-сам/сем/сом'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''company'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with preposition (''together'') ''with''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Agentive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-õlna/õlne/õlno'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-õлна/õлне/õлно'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''agent'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with the preposition ''by''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Finalitative-&lt;br&gt;benefactive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ossa/osse/osso'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-осса/оссе/оссо'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''finality''' and '''benefice'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with preposition ''for''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Abessive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-baś/beś/boś'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-баз/без/боз'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''absence'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with preposition ''without''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Temporal''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ňal/ňel/ňol'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-њал/њел/њол'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''time'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with prepositions ''at'' ''during''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Terminative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-õňa/õňe/õňo'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-õња/õње/õњо'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''end'''&lt;br&gt;It can be translated with preposition ''until''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Argomentative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-asta/esta/osta'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-аста/еста/оста'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;Case of '''argument'''&lt;br&gt;It can be traslated with preposition ''about''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Inessive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ka/ke/ko'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ка/ке/ко'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Elative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-kaňa/keňe/koňo'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-кања/кење/коњо'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Illative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-kaţun/keţun/koţun'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-каөун/кеөун/коөун'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Superessive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-sõda/sõde/sõdo'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-сõда/сõде/сõдо'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Delative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-šanë/šenë/šonë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-шанë/шенë/шонë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Sublative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-sõğa/sõğe/sõğo'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-сõђа/сõђе/сõђо'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Adessive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-đyna/đyne/đyno'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ћына/ћыне/ћыно'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Ablative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-daţë/deţë/doţë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-даөë/деөë/доөë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Allative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-adanë/edenë/odonë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-аданë/еденë/одонë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Interjective''||&lt;center&gt;'''-rağä/reğä/roğä'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-рађä/ређä/рођä'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Transitive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-rakä/rekä/rokä'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ракä/рекä/рокä'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Translative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-arykë/erykë/orykë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-арыкë/ерыкë/орыкë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''See table below''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

The last 12 cases in table above are '''''Locative cases'''''. The locative system of Lišĕč language is highly developed, with indication for '''interior''' (''inside''), '''surface''' (''on, above'') and '''adjacency''' (''near''), and with the four locative complements: ''statement in'', ''movement to'', ''movement from'' and ''movement across''.

So, for example, the ''sublative case'' means a movement ''towards above'', or a ''movement over a surface''.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Case System
|-
|||&lt;center&gt;''interior''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''surface''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;''adjacency''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''statement in''||&lt;center&gt;'''inessive'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''superessive'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''adessive'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''movement to''||&lt;center&gt;'''illative'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''sublative'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''allative'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''movement from''||&lt;center&gt;'''elative'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''delative'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''ablative'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''movement across''||&lt;center&gt;'''interjective'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''transitive'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''translative'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

===Adjectives===

Adjectives act like substantives, they take the same endings of '''case''' and '''number'''. Adjectives in attributive function are placed always '''''before''''' their substantives. Only ''past participles'' (which are adjectives) can be placed ''after'' the substantive.

There is '''''no article''''' at all.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs derived from adjectives are built by adding to adjectives’ base form the adverbial ending: '''-õkša/õkše/õkšo''','''-õкша/õкше/õкшо'''

====Locative adverbs====

Lišĕč locative adverbs have a particular feature, which makes them different from the other languages‘ adverbs: '''''they decline'''''. They take the same ''locative endings'' of substantives, to indicate what kind of movement or statement they express, according to the locative system, explained in the table above. For example:

'''Sinaan/Синаан''' has the unspecified meaning of ''there'', but its role can be specified by adding the locative endings:

With the '''''elative''''' ending, '''Sinaankaňa/Синаанкања''', it specifies its meaning in ''from there inside''

With the '''''adessive''''' ending, '''Sinaanđyna/Синаанћына''', it specifies its meaning in ''there (statement) near''.

And so the other locative adverbs decline.

===Pronouns===
====Personal Pronouns====

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;Pronouns&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Cyrillic&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''kaj'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''кай'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Thou&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''le'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ле'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;He/she/it&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''am'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ам'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;We (exclusive)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''fi'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''фи'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;We (inclusive)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''fikaj'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''фикай'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;You&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''lěni'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''лěни'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;They&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''amini'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''амини'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

Personal pronouns use the same endings substantives to decline. Personal pronouns in nominative '''are not needed''' before declined verbs, since they already show their person with desinences.

Personal pronouns declined in '''genitive''' play the role of our '''''possessive adjectives/pronouns'''''. They are placed ''before'' the substantive but they are not adjectives and they ''do not decline'' (note: they are already declined in genitive). Other Uralic languages have particular personal desinence to express our possessive adjectives, and maybe Lišěč had but surely lost them.

''My mother'': kajal anja/кайал анйа

====Interrogative Pronouns====

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;Pronouns&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Cyrillic&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;What&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''nik'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ник'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Who&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''këta'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''кëта'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Which&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''jõgë'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''йõгë'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;How Much&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''skolg'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''сколг'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

Interrogative pronouns use the same endings for substantives to decline.

===Numerals===

{|
|-
!&lt;center&gt;Number&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Latin&lt;/center&gt;
!&lt;center&gt;Cyrillic&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''nõl'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''нõл'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ögši'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''öгши'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''kägśi'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''кäгзи'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''öłne'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''öљнë'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ňiła'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''њиља'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''biśi'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''бизи'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''güśij'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''гÿзий'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;7&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''sjěn'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''сйěн'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;8&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''vaśën'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''вазëн'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;9&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''điviţ'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''ћивиө'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|&lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;10&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''kyme'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''кыме'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

===Verbs===

Verbs do conjugate according to '''''persons''''', '''''moods''''' (''indicative, subjunctive, conditional, accusative, imperative'') and '''''tenses''''' (''present, aorist, perfect past, imperfect past, ancient past, anterior past, recent future, far future, anterior future'')

Verbs do conjugate according to persons by adding some '''personal endings''':

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Personal Desinence||Latin||Cyrillic
|-
|''I''||&lt;center&gt;'''-alm/elm/olm'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-алм/елм/олм'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Thou''||&lt;center&gt;'''-atë/etë/otë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-атë/етë/отë'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''He/She/It''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ast/est/ost'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-аст/ест/ост'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''We (exclusive)''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ammë/emmë/ommë'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-аммë/еммë/оммë'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''We (inclusive)''||&lt;center&gt;'''-amäl/emäl/omäl'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-амäл/емäл/омäл'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''You''||&lt;center&gt;'''-atëni/etëni/otëni'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-атëни/етëни/отëни'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''They''||&lt;center&gt;'''-astyn/estyn/ostyn'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-астын/естын/остын'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

This makes the nominative personal pronouns completely '''''useless''''' to conjugate verbs.

Before adding the personal endings, you have to indicate the verb’s mood, by adding '''modal endings''':

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Mood||Latin||Cyrillic
|-
|''indicative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''subjunctive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-šaš/šeš/šoš'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-шаш/шеш/шош'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''conditional''||&lt;center&gt;'''-laň/leň/loň'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-лањ/лањ/лањ'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''accusative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-nan/nen/non'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-нан/нен/нон'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''imperative''||&lt;center&gt;'''-aj/ej/oj'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ай/ей/ой'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

* The '''''Indicative''''' mood marks certain facts and it’s the mood of the reality.

* The '''''Subjunctive''''' mood marks uncertain facts, doubts, and possibility..

* The '''''Conditional''''' mood marks facts under a specified condition, possibility, unreality.

* The '''''Accusative''''' mood marks actions in subordinated clauses. It can only appear in this kind of clauses, which so do not require particular conjunctions. It can be added together with subjunctive or conditional endings, if the meaning of the verbal action requires them.

* The '''''Imperative''''' mood marks orders. It '''does not require personal endings'''.

At last, but before the personal endings, you should add the '''temporal endings''', to indicate the verb’s tense:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Tense||Latin||Cyrillic
|-
|''Present''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ak/ek/ok'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ак/ек/ок'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Aorist''||&lt;center&gt;'''-as/es/os'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ас/ес/ос'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Perfect Past''||&lt;center&gt;'''-amt/emt/omt'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-амт/емт/омт'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Imperfect Past''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ostal/ostel/ostol'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-остал/остел/остол'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Ancient Past''||&lt;center&gt;'''-akaš/ekeš/okoš'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-акаш/екеш/окош'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Anterior Past''||&lt;center&gt;'''-đarn/đern/đorn'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ћарн/ћерн/ћорн'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Recent Future''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ňaţ/ňeţ/ňoţ'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-њаө/њеө/њоө'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Far Future''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ssan/ssen/sson'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ссан/ссен/ссон'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Anterior Future''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ülaj/ülej/üloj'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ÿлай/ÿлей/ÿлой'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

* The '''''Present tense''''' marks an action which takes place in present time.

* The '''''Aorist tense''''' marks an action, which took place in past time, but without any time reference, and any aspectual reference.

* The '''''Perfect Past tense''''' marks an action in a specified past, with the meaning of the completeness of the action itself. The expressed action is complete and with no links with present time.

* The '''''Imperfect Past tense''''' marks an action in a specified past, with the meaning of incompleteness of the action itself. The expressed action is not complete or it has some links with present time, or we talk about the time of last of the action itself.

* The '''''Ancient Past tense''''' marks an action, which took place before an action expressed by the Aorist tense.

* The '''''Anterior Past tense''''' marks an action, which took place before an action expressed by the Perfect Past tense or Imperfect Past tense.

* The '''''Recent Future tense''''' marks an action, which will take place in a future not far from present time.

* The '''''Far Future tense''''' marks an action, which will take place in a far future from present time.

* The '''''Anterior Future tense''''' marks an action, which will take place before an action expressed by Recent Future tense or Far Future tense.

There are some other verbal endings, which are the ''infinitival'' ending and ''participial'' endings:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#E0E0FF&quot;|Mood||Latin||Cyrillic
|-
|''Infinitive''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ajn/ejn/ojn'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-айн/ейн/ойн'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Present Participle''||&lt;center&gt;'''-ağanđ/eğenđ/oğonđ'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ађанћ/еђенћ/ођонћ'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|''Past Participle''||&lt;center&gt;'''-at/et/ot'''&lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt;'''-ат/ет/от'''&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

* '''''Infinitive'''''  is the form you find in dictionaries, and, together with accusative modal endings, it follows modal verbs.

* The '''''Present Participle'''''  is an adjectival endings, which form an adjective with the meaning ''one who does…'' ''that which does…'' in present form.

* The '''''Past Participle'''''  is an adjectival endings, which form an adjective with a ''passive meaning'' for transitive verbs, and simple ''past meaning'' for intransitive verbs.


To negate a verb you may place the adverb '''ěłi/ěљи''' before the verb.

==Syntax==
===Verb &quot;to have&quot;===
Lišĕč language does not have a verb similar to English verb “to have”. This is a main feature also of all languages in Uralic family. To express possession you can use the construction:

Owned thing or being in '''Nominative''' + '''Õłojn/Õљойн''' (''to be'') + ''Dative'' of the owner:

* ''They have two children'' → '''Aminiem õłokostyn kägśi pëkaałij / Аминием õљокостын кäгзи пëкаљий'''

==Lexycon==
:''See: [[Lišěč-English dictionary]]''

===Useful expression===
* Üvëen Amüen / Ÿвёен Амÿен: ''Good morning''
* Üvëen Pĕinaan / Ÿвёен Пĕинаан: ''Good afternoon (day)''
* Üvëen Vičĕren / Ÿвёен Вичĕрен: ''Good evening''
* Üvëen Jõon / Ÿвёен Йõон: ''Good night''

* Üvëõške mënnat / Ÿвёõшке мённат: ''Welcome''

* Puaakalm lišĕčnaan / Пуаакалм лишĕчнаан: ''I speak Lišěč''
* Ĕłi puaakalm lišĕčnaan / Ĕљи пуаакалм лишĕчнаан: ''I don't speak Lišěč''
* Puaakatë anglaśnaan? / Пуаакатё англазнаан?: ''Do you speak English?''
* Jõgëan kelen puakaatë? / Йõгёан келен пуаакате?: ''Which language do you speak?

===Lord's prayer===
{|
|
:Fial Ipa, ktõr õłokotë tajväka
:sanktakammë leel nimien
:mënnajast leel küningrik
:tĕdaekemmë leel vylen
:śo tajväka, śo mälmake
:đnes antajatë fiam đnesmasen lĕjpäen
:õnt fergepejetë fial velkĕnesen
:śo fi fergepekemmë fial velketelnesem
:õnt ĕłi oğiatojotë ferśukedenë
:õnt svobõdojotë fian pakadaţë
:Amen
||
:Фиал Ипа, ктõр õљокотё тайвäка
:санктакаммё леел нимиен
:мённайаст леел кÿнингрик
:тĕдаекеммё леел вылен
:зо тайвäка, зо мäлмаке
:ћнес антайатё фиам ћнесмасен лĕйпäен
:õнт фергепейетё фиал велкĕнесен
:зо фи фергепекеммё фиал велкетелнесем
:õнт ĕљи ођиатойотё ферзукеденё
:õнт свобõдойотё фиан пакадаθё
:Амен
|}

===Babel text===
:Allë mälma puaasast ögšien kelen õnt śĕlpnesen sänanesen
:Koške mënnasastyn vasţõkšonë, linnes sapuaasastyn ebensöğe Šinĕarsöğe õnt pyśattuaasastyn sinaansöğe.
:Õnt säňoesestyn: &quot;Mënnajatëni, valmystaajamäl cigëlnese õnt kĕjttaejemäl aminian tulikom&quot;. Bëňücesestyn cigëlnesen päjkake kivinesel õnt bitumeen päjkake kalkaal.
:Õnt säňoesestyn: &quot;Mënnajatëni, rakenajamäl gradaan õnt kõrgëon turnon tajväõňa, õłokňoţomäl tuntaotnosos õnt ĕłi ferirňeţemäl mälmarekä&quot;.
:Erra alasõlasast nädänenesest turnon õnt gradaan, ktõrnoson pëkanas linnesel rakenostalastyn.
:Erra säňoesest: &quot;Nädäejetë, õłokostyn ögšies folkos õnt puaakastyn ögšien kelen. Täme õłokost algaas aminial tyõol. No könnekestyn tĕdanenekestyn tuyon, ktõron vylakastyn&quot;.
:&quot;Alasõlajatë mešenneneketë aminial kelen, śo ĕjkuga ümĕrtekňeţestyn kelen müynesel linnesel&quot;.
:Õnt Erra äjotteesest linnesen mälmarekä, śo kĕsgetesestyn rakennanasastyn gradaan.
:Śo Erra inimiesest gradaam Babel, śiksi tüksõdo Erra mešenesest kelnesen mälmael õnt tükšonë äjotteesest linnesen mälmarekä.

:Аллë мäлма пуаасаст öгшиен келен õнт зĕлпнесен сäнанесен
:Кошке мённасастын васθõкшонë, линнес сапуаасастын ебенсöђe Шинĕрасöђе õнт пузаттуаасастын синаансöђе.
:Õнт сäњоесестын: &quot;Мённайатёни, валмыстаайамäл цигёлнесе õнт кĕиттаейемäл аминиан туликом&quot;. Бёњÿцесестын цигёлнесен пäйкаке кивинесел õнт битумеен пäйкаке калкаал.
:Õнт сäњоесестын: &quot;Мённайатёни, ракенайамäл градаан õнт кõргëон турнон тайвäõња, õљoкњoθомäл тунтаотносос õнт ĕљи ферирњеθемäл мäлмарекä&quot;.
:Ерра аласõласаст нäдäненесест турнон õнт градаан, ктõрносон пëканас линнесел ракеносталастын.
:Ерра сäњoесест: &quot;Нäдäейетë, õљокостын öгшиес фолкос õнт пуаакастын öгшиен келен. Тäме õљокост алгаас аминал тыõол. Но кöннекестын тĕданенекестын туыон, ктõрон вылакастын&quot;.
:&quot;Аласõлайатë мешенненекетё аминиал келен, зо ĕйкуга ÿмĕртекњеθестын келен мÿыиесел линнесел&quot;.
:Õнт Ерра äйоттеесест линнесен мäлмарекä, зо кĕсгетесестын ракеннанасастын градаан.
:Зо Ерра инимиесест градаан Бабел, зикси тÿксõдо Ерра мешенесест келнесен мäлмаел õнт тÿкшонё äйоттеесест линнесен мäлмарекä.

[[Category:Uralic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammar of Silindion</title>
    <id>2029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41058</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-19T02:02:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subjunctive */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Historical Silindion Grammar.
{{Workinprogress}} 

  This will eventually contain a grammar of the Silindion language according to the following plan:

     A) Letters and Orthography
     B) Phonology
         1) Vowels and Consonants of Silindion
           a) Vowels
           b) Stops
           c) Fricatives
           d) Other
         2) Historical Development 
           a) Vowels
           b) Consonants
           c) Lenition 
           d) Stress
              i. Syncope
              ii. Metathesis
         3) Vowel Harmony 
     C) Morphology
         1) Case Usages in Silindion
         2) Nouns 
             a) Vowel Stems 
             b) Consonant Stems
             c) Rare or Irregular Stems
         3) Demonstratives
         4) Personal Pronouns
             a) Nominative 
             b) Oblique Stem
             c) Enclitic 
             d) Possessive 
             e) Possessive Enclitics
         5) Non-personal Pronouns
             a) Interogative
             b) Other
         6) Relative Particles and Prefixes
         7) Adjectives
             a) Base form
                i. derivation from nouns
                ii. non-derivative
             b) Comparative
             c) Superlative
             d) Equative Constructions
             e) Prefixes with Adjectives
         8) Tense Usages 
         9) Verbs
              a) Stem Classes
              b) Infinite Forms
                  i. Infinitives
                  ii. Participles
                       1) Present
                       2) Past
                  iii. Gerunds
                       1) Nominal 
                       2) Conjunctive
                       3) Anterior
                       4) Abessive
                       5) Adjectival
              c) Active Finite Forms
                 i. Present Classes
                 ii. Imperfect
                 iii. Past Classes
                 iv. Optative/Future
                 v. Subjunctive
                     1) Present
                     2) Past
              d) Passive Finite Forms
                 i. Present 
                     1) Impersonal 3s
                 ii. Imperfect
                 iii. Past
                 iv. Optative/Future
                 v.  Subjunctive
                     1. Present
                     2. Past
           10) Prepositions
           11) Adverbs 
               i. non-derived
               ii. derived from nouns
               iii. derived from adjectives
           12) Numerals
               i. basic forms
               ii. composition forms
               iii. ordinals
           13) Conjunctions 
         D) Syntax That Is Not In Morphology

=='''Letters and Orthography'''==

Here is a preliminary scan of the alphabet and an example of its use:

[[Image:silindionalphabet.jpg]]

[[Image:silindionexample.jpg]]


'''Id i phendenya mornë Uristiénëa'''
'''ievissa mirto i nossë mirnanólmëa.'''
'''Filisi no i yénëanna istankómëa,'''
'''teldenvi ya ropavi elkaniri.'''

''Behold the shaded western hills''
''where the winter snows are falling.''
''I come to the new-year's feast,''
''In silence, under star-host watch.''

=='''Case Usage'''==

Silindion nouns can be inflected in 14 cases. The cases are nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, locative, allative, comitative, instrumental, copulative, essive, topical, adjectival. The last case, the benefactive, is an extension of the dative, and is not in use in the modern language, except for in some grammatical tracts. In older forms of the language, it is widespread in the usage given below. The topical is also called relative, since it relates one noun to another, as explained below. 

*Nominative indicates the subject of a verb. It is also used adpositionally, as in &lt;'''Nanthalonis, i nista'''&gt; &quot;Nanthalonis, the king&quot;. 

*Accusative indicates the object of a verb. It also indicates motion through a place or time, and is used with prepositions such as ‹'''ono'''› &quot;through&quot;, ‹'''pero'''› &quot;across&quot; or ‹'''erë'''› &quot;during&quot;. 

*Genitive indicates the possessor. It is also used with various prepositions, such as ‹'''ess'''› &quot;inside of&quot; or ‹'''omë'''› &quot;because of&quot;. It is also used as the object of a few verbs, namely &lt;'''anëallo'''&gt; &quot;to promise&quot;, which is intransitive in High Silindion.  

*Dative indicates the indirect object and the person or thing for which an action is done. The last usage is called the benefactive use, and in Old, Middle and some High Silindion texts, is indicated by an extra ‹-r› to the dative ending. An example of this is, &lt;'''nistanu'''&gt; &quot;to the king&quot; (dative)  =&gt;  &lt;'''nistanur'''&gt; &quot;for the king&quot; (benefactive). 

*Ablative indicates separation, and is mostly used to translate 'from'. It is used with prepositions such as ‹'''ka'''› &quot;away from&quot; or ‹'''eis'''› &quot;from out, out of&quot;. It is also used as the object of a few verbs, namely &lt;'''moniello'''&gt; &quot;to hear&quot;, which is intransitive in High Silindion. In comparative constructions it introduces the standard. An example of this usage is the following, &lt;'''ëan i nari më pantio nattolim'''&gt; &quot;this bird is smaller than the other&quot;. The word &lt;'''nattolim'''&gt;, indicating meaning &quot;than the other&quot;. 

*Locative indicates place. It is used with prepositions such as ‹'''o'''› &quot;in&quot;, ‹'''a'''› &quot;at&quot;, ‹'''emë'''› &quot;on&quot;, ‹'''eiva[n]'''› &quot;within&quot;, ‹'''ina'''› &quot;near&quot; and many others. Metaphorically it also indicates time, and thus is used with prepositions like ‹nor› &quot;before&quot;. It is also used, with the preposition &lt;'''ompo'''&gt; &quot;over&quot;, to indicate the object of the verb &lt;'''línyello'''&gt; &quot;to play an instrument&quot;. An example of this usage is, &lt;'''lir empindo ompo i yalmavi'''&gt; &quot;the cantor plays upon a harp&quot;. 

*Allative indicates motion towards a place. It is used with prepositions like ‹'''noro'''› 'towards' or ‹'''noss'''› &quot;into&quot;. It is also used as the animate agent in passive sentences. 

*Comitative means 'together with'. If two or more nouns are animate, they may be connected by adding the comitative suffix to the last noun. An example of this usage is, &lt;'''pëa mëamma'''&gt; &quot;a father and a mother&quot;. Occasionally this usage is seen with inanimate nouns as well. 

*Instrumental indicates the instrument with which something is done, or how something is done. Thus it means both 'using X' and 'by doing X'. It also indicates what something is made out of. It is not often used with animate nouns.  

*Copulative is attached to a noun or interrogative pronoun to form sentences meaning 'X = Y'. An example of this is, &lt;'''i nar lavando'''&gt; &quot;the man is a hunter&quot;. It is only used to link two [pro]nouns together, not a [pro]noun with an adjective.

*Essive is attached to a predicate nominative or interrogative pronoun to form sentences meaning 'It = Y'. That is, when the predicate nominative is the only element present. It is mostly used with a definite predicate, although indefinite predicates may occur as well. An example of this is, &lt;'''kirmeihya'''&gt; &quot;it is my ship&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''kirma'''&gt; &quot;ship&quot;). The essive also means 'as' or 'when', such as in the following sentence, &lt;'''nópië, asui Eril nëa némpian niva'''&gt; &quot;as a poet, Eril created many beautiful poems&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''nopio'''&gt; &quot;poet&quot;). Finally, in Poetic High Silindion only, the essive may be used to derive an adjective from a noun. However, in Low Silindion this is done with the adjectival. In some poems, the essive seems to have the same meaning as the topical, depending on translation. 

*Relative/Topical indicates the topic of the sentence. In this sense, it can be translated as 'as for X' or 'about X'. Most of the time however, the relative is used to derive an adjective meaning 'X-like', such as the word ‹'''rilitma'''› &quot;jewel-like&quot;. The topical is also used to mean 'as X', after an equative adjective. Another use of the relative is to mean 'but' after the conjunction ‹'''në'''› &quot;and&quot;. However, this use is restricted to sentences of the form 'X, but as for Y'. An example of this is, &lt;'''ihyotma, ë niva, në tahyotma, ië nukil'''&gt; &quot;today, (it) is beautiful, but (as for) yesterday, (it) was cloudy&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''tahyón'''&gt; &quot;yesterday&quot;). 

*Adjectival derives an adjective from a noun. Mostly the meaning is transparent, such as in the following examples, &lt;'''vierya émëa'''&gt; &quot;forest paths, paths of the forest&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''ema'''&gt; &quot;forest&quot;), &lt;'''nerendo núkëa'''&gt; &quot;wilderness dweller, dweller in the wilderness&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''nuko'''&gt; &quot;wilderness&quot;). However, sometimes the meaning is not that obvious, such as in the following examples, &lt;'''sílnëa'''&gt; &quot;silver&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''silni'''&gt; &quot;star&quot;), &lt;'''ílië'''&gt; &quot;holy&quot; (&lt;- &lt;'''ilë'''&gt; &quot;god&quot;).

=='''Personal Pronouns'''==

Personal pronouns have multiple stem forms, for differing usages. The first stem form is the nominative, a bare stem form which is not used in derivation. The second is the oblique stem, to which unique pronominal case endings can be added to create a paradigm. Then there are the two enclitic stems; one oblique and one possessive. These are non-derivational and are suffixed at the end of a fully inflected verb, noun or prepositional form. Lastly, there are free possessives, which are also non derivational, they tend to precede an associated noun. 

==='''Nominative Pronouns'''===


{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Singular'''
! '''Plural'''
|-
| 1st Person
| '''si'''
| '''hyan'''
|-
| 2nd Person
| '''lë'''
| '''nassa'''
|- 
| 3rd Person epicene
| '''ein'''
| '''anto'''
|- 
| 3rd Person masculine
| '''eino'''
| '''ento'''
|-
| 3rd Person feminine
| '''éinië''' 
| '''éntië'''
|- 
| 3rd Person neuter 
| '''ess'''
| '''enta[ssë]''' 
|}


===='''Epicene pronouns'''==== 
These are used when a specific gender is not needed or when the speaker wishes to conceal the gender. &lt;'''enta'''&gt; seems to be a more common variant of &lt;'''entassë'''&gt;, which is a High Silindion form. 


===='''Gendered Pronouns'''====
When referring to a limited number of words, such as &lt;'''larë'''&gt; &quot;moon&quot;,  gendered pronouns are used, mostly in poetic situations. The appropriate pronoun for &lt;'''larë'''&gt; is &lt;'''éinië'''&gt;.


===='''Variants and Other Forms'''==== 
There are also several other forms, which are less common:

* '''hyanna''' &quot;all of us&quot; (inclusive 1pl)
* '''tai''' &quot;both of them&quot; (dual 3pl)

==='''Oblique Pronouns'''===
The following are the oblique pronominal stems:


{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Singular'''
! '''Plural'''
|-
| 1st Person
| '''siT'''
| '''[hy]aT/[hy]an'''
|-
| 2nd Person
| '''liT'''
| '''anaT'''
|- 
| 3rd Person epicene
| '''o'''
| '''tei'''
|- 
| 3rd Person masculine
| '''o'''
| '''tei'''
|-
| 3rd Person feminine
| '''ie''' 
| '''tei'''
|- 
| 3rd Person neuter 
| '''o'''
| '''tei''' 
|}


===='''Pronouns with T-stems'''====
All those pronouns with stems ending in _T_ are changeable, and can appear as &lt;'''sit, lit, at, hyat'''&gt;, &lt;'''siss, liss, ass, hyass'''&gt; or &lt;'''si, li, a, hya'''&gt;.


===='''Variation in 1st Person Plural'''====
The variation in the first person plural is due to both stylistic and dialectic differences. Those forms ending in _T_ are northern dialectal forms. Those forms beginning in _hy_ are Low Silindion (i.e. colloquial or non-courtly/scholarly). 


===='''Oblique Stem + Case Suffixes'''====

{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Acc. -ti/-ssi'''
! '''Dat. -ni'''
! '''Abl. -lim'''
! '''Rel. -tma'''
! '''All. -nna'''
! '''Loc. -vi'''
! '''Inst. -i'''
! '''Comm. -mma'''
! '''Cop. -(a)r'''
|-
| 1st s. 
| ''sitti''
| ''sinti''
| ''silim''
| ''sitma''
| ''sinta''
| ''sivi''
| ''sissi''
| ''sinta''
| ''sissar''
|-
| 1st pl.
| ''[hy]anti''
| ''[hy]anni''
| ''[hy]alim''
| ''[hy]atma''
| ''[hy]anna''
| ''[hy]avi''
| ''[hy]ani''
| ''[hy]amma''
| ''[hy]anar''
|- 
| 3rd m.
| ''ossi''
| ''oni''
| ''olim''
| ''otma''
| ''onna''
| ''ovi''
| ''ë''
| ''omma''
| ''or''
|- 
| 3rd f. 
| ''iessi''
| ''ieni''
| ''ielim''
| ''ietma''
| ''ienna''
| ''ievi''
| ''ië''
| ''iemma''
| ''ier''
|-
|}

*note, like &lt;'''ie-'''&gt; is &lt;'''tei-'''&gt;, and like &lt;'''hyaT-'''&gt; is &lt;'''anaT'''&gt;.

==='''Enclitic Oblique Pronouns'''===
Enclitic oblique pronouns are attached to verbs and prepositions to indicate either the direct or indirect object. They are indeclinable and, except for the 1st person plural, have only one form per person and number.


{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Singular'''
! '''Plural'''
|-
| 1st Person
| '''-sis'''
| '''-hyass/syass, -na'''
|-
| 2nd Person
| '''-li'''
| '''-nass'''
|- 
| 3rd Person masculine/neuter
| '''-o'''
| '''-ta/-ssa'''
|- 
| 3rd Person feminine
| '''-ië'''
| '''-ta/-ssa'''
|}


===='''Variation in 1st Person Plural'''====
The form &lt;'''-hyass/-syass'''&gt; is used with third person singular verb forms. The form &lt;'''-syass'''&gt; takes the place of the third person singular present ending &lt;'''-n/r'''&gt;. The form &lt;'''-hyass'''&gt; is used in all other tenses. The form &lt;'''-na'''&gt; is used with all other persons and with prepositions. 

===='''Variation in 3rd Person Pronouns'''====
The third person plural form &lt;'''-ssa'''&gt; is used after vowels. The third person singular forms &lt;'''-o, -ië'''&gt; assimilate to preceding vowels, according to the standard assimilation rules. 


===='''Double Enclitic Pronouns'''====
Two enclitic pronouns may be found on the same word. If this is the case, the first indicates the indirect object:


1)
{| border = 1
|-
| '''nésyasso.'''
|-
| '''ne-'''
| '''-n-'''
| '''-syass'''
| '''-o'''
|-
| give
| 3rd person singular subject
| 1st person plural
| 3rd person singular
|-
|}

'''He gives it to us.'''


===='''Possession with Enclitic Pronouns'''====
Enclitic pronouns may also be attached to the noun + copulative case/enclitic complex to indicate possession: 


2) 
{| border = 1
|-
| '''lankalli.'''
|-
| '''lanka-'''
| '''-r-'''
| '''-li'''
|-
| horse
| copulative
| to you
|-
|}

'''You have a horse.'''


===='''Stylistic Repositioning of Enclitics'''====
In poetry only (and very exceptionally indeed) these enclitic pronouns can be repositioned. That is, they can become proclitics that can attach to a wider range of words, such as nouns and adjectives as well. In this capacity, the normally forms are: '''sis, li, o, ye, na, nass, ta'''. 


3) 
{| border = 1
|-
| '''Nan'''
| '''ka'''
| '''salim'''
| '''na'''
| '''rómpëa.'''
|-
| Light
| from
| EVIL-ablative
| us
| PROTECT-adjectival.gerund 
|}

'''A light which protects us from evil.'''

==='''Possessive Pronouns'''===
Possessive pronouns have two functions. Either they represent the genitive of the personal pronouns (i.e. 'mine', 'yours', etc.) or they are used to indicate possession (i.e. 'my, your', etc.). These two uses are fairly distinct, as the second is usually used in poetry or High Silindion. The following are the forms of these pronouns:

{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Singular'''
! '''Plural'''
|-
| 1st Person
| '''ehya'''
| '''anya'''
|-
| 2nd Person
| '''elya'''
| '''anatya'''
|- 
| 3rd Person epicene
| '''eya'''
| '''taya'''
|- 
| 3rd Person masculine
| '''enya'''
| '''taya'''
|-
| 3rd Person feminine
| '''enyë''' 
| '''taya'''
|- 
| 3rd Person neuter 
| '''enya'''
| '''taya''' 
|}

==='''Enclitic Possessive Pronouns'''===
Enclitic Possessive Pronouns are attached to nouns (after all case endings) to indicate possession. They are indeclinable and have only phonological not grammatical variants. The following table gives the forms of these pronouns:


{| border = 1
! '''Person'''
! '''Singular'''
! '''Plural'''
|-
| 1st Person
| '''-hya/sya'''
| '''-nya'''
|-
| 2nd Person
| '''-lya'''
| '''-natya'''
|- 
| 3rd Person masculine/neuter
| '''-nya'''
| '''-tëa/-ssëa'''
|- 
|3rd Person epicene
|'''-ëa'''
|'''-tëa/-ssëa'''
|-
| 3rd Person feminine
| '''-nyë'''
| '''-tëa/-ssëa'''
|}


===='''1st Person Singular Possessive'''====
The first person form &lt;'''-sya'''&gt; is attached to a final consonant. This final consonant may sometimes be the original final consonant of the stem, which has, in other cases, been either lost or altered. This usually only happens in High Silindion; Low Silindion preferring to attach the suffix to the synchronic ending of the noun : 


1)
{| border = 1
|-
| '''velesya'''
|-
| '''veleT-'''
| '''-sya'''
|-
| knot
| 1st person singular possessive
|-
|}

&quot;My knot&quot;  (High Silindion for &lt;'''vélteihya'''&gt; from &lt;'''veltë'''&gt;.


===='''3rd Person Plural Possessive'''====
The third person form &lt;'''-tëa'''&gt; attaches to a consonant. Just like &lt;'''-sya'''&gt;, it is used, in High Silindion to attach to consonants which were originally present but have been altered diachronically. 


2)
{| border = 1
|-
| '''ranátëa'''
|-
| '''ranaD-'''
| '''-tëa'''
|-
| property
| 3rd person plural possessive
|-
|}

&quot;Their property&quot; (High Silindion for &lt;'''ranássëa'''&gt; from &lt;'''rana'''&gt;.

----
----

=='''Verbs'''==

A) Finite Verbs are conjugated for (present, imperfect, past, future), mood (indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative), voice (passive, active, impersonal) and number (singular, plural). Present and past tenses can be either '''thematic''' or '''athematic'''. Thematic tenses have suffixes beginning in a vowel, athematic tenses have suffixes beginning in a consonant. 


B) Infinite verbs consist of an infinitive, gerunds and participles, as well as various verbal adjectives and sometimes a verbal noun. The last two categories are not normally grammaticalised, but depend on the lexical root itself, that is, they are not part of the verbal paradigm.


C) A verbal paradigm is arranged into '''stem classes''' and '''principle parts'''. Both of these categories help in classifying and conjugating the verb correctly. 


D) The are five main stem classes: vowel stems, regular consonant stems, changeable consonant stems, semi-vowel stems, and compound stems. There is also an irregular group, which consist of verbs which add _l_ or _n_ to a vowel.


E) From the seven principle parts, one can make the entire verbal paradigm, according to this schema:

{| border = 1
|- 
|'''1st Principle Part'''
|'''2nd Principle Part'''
|'''3rd Principle Part'''
|'''4th Principle Part'''
|'''5th Principle Part'''
|'''6th Principle Part'''
|'''7th Principle Part'''
|-
|infinitive
|nominal, conjunctive, abessive, adjectival, necessitive gerund, impersonal
|passive, passive participle
|present
|past
|imperfect, subjunctives, anterior-gerund, imperative-sg., present participle
|imperative-pl. 
|}


Certain verbs deviate from this pattern and will be mentioned in the appropriate section below. Furthermore, some verbs have &quot;irregular&quot; principle parts, that is, deviations that do not fall into the normal range of variant patterns. The following shall serve as examples:


*The verbs &lt;'''askello'''&gt; &quot;to shake hands&quot; and &lt;'''terskello'''&gt; &quot;to hammer&quot; have ''i-stems'', &lt;'''aski-'''&gt; and &lt;'''terski-'''&gt;, despite the lack of _i_ in the infinitive (1st principle part). The verb &lt;'''niniello'''&gt; &quot;to desire&quot;, has an irregular past participle (3rd principle part): '''nirë'''. The verbs &lt;'''surollo'''&gt; &quot;to rustle&quot;, &lt;'''piello'''&gt; &quot;to touch&quot;, &lt;'''tiello'''&gt; &quot;to take&quot;, have irregular past tenses (5th principle part): '''asulti''', '''aphiksi''', '''istë''', respectively. The verbs '''antandiello'''&gt; &quot;dedicate&quot;, &lt;'''falyallo'''&gt; &quot;awaken&quot; have irregular gerunds (2nd principle part): '''antana''', '''falina''', respectively. 

==='''Verbal Stem Classes'''===

Verbs are classified according the last phonological element in the word, be it semi-vowel, consonant, or vowel. This is termed the '''stem-sound'''. Usually, despite other changes in the word morphologically, the stem-sound stays constant. However, there are three cases in which this is not the case: 

*A certain class of consonant stems have at most four different stem sounds. These are termed the '''changeable''' stems. 

*A certain class of vowel stems whose 3rd, 5th and 6th principle parts add either _l_ or _n_. These termed are termed the '''augmented''' stems. 

*Regular morphophonemic changes may affect the stem, such as in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd or 7th principle part of some verbs as well as in athematic verbs (of various tenses). These are completely predictable, and involve processes like vowel contraction, assimilation and metathesis. These changes are not the same as those that occur in changeable consonant stems which are fairly irregular.


===='''Vowel Stems'''====
Verbs with stems ending in a vowel may end in the following vowels or vowel/consonant combinations: '''a,ya,o,ëo,u,i,ē,e'''.


====='''A-stems'''=====
Those stems ending in &lt;'''a'''&gt; and &lt;'''ya'''&gt; are not formally distinct from each other except in the first principle part. 


====='''E-stems'''=====
Those ending in &lt;'''ē'''&gt; are distinct from those ending in &lt;'''e'''&gt; throughout their conjugation, except in some derivatives of the 6th principle part, i.e., the imperative singular, the present participle, the present and past subjunctive and the anterior gerund. 


====='''O-stems'''=====
Those stems in &lt;'''o'''&gt; differ from those in &lt;'''ëo'''&gt; only due to the presence of an _e_ in ''ëo-verbs'', which becomes _i_ in the subjunctives, optative/future and past (where the past tense is an ''ë-past'').


===='''Consonant Stems'''====
There are four types of consonant stems: regular, changeable, semi-vowel, and compound stems. 


====='''Regular Stems'''=====
The regular stems are: '''t,p,k,l,r,n,m,ng-stems'''.


====='''Changeable Stems'''=====
The changeable stems are: '''T,D/L,P,B,K,G,Gw,s'''. Note that they are written with a capital letter (save for ''s-stems''). They have at most four different stems: ''pre-constonant'', ''pre-vowel'', ''pre-y'' and ''other''. Examples of Changeable Consonant stems are the following:

* &lt;'''peT-'''&gt; &quot;to eat&quot;: 
Pre-Consonant: ''pet''
Pre-Vowel: ''pess''

* &lt;'''laD-'''&gt; &quot;to steal&quot;:
Pre-Consonant: ''lad''
Pre-Vowel: ''lar''
Pre-y: ''lan''

* &lt;'''roL-'''&gt; &quot;to defend&quot;: 
Pre-Consonant: ''rod''
Pre-vowel: ''rol''

* &lt;'''neP-'''&gt; &quot;to sing&quot;: 
Pre-consonant: ''nep''
Pre-vowel: ''neph''

* &lt;'''reB-'''&gt; &quot;to row&quot;: 

Pre-consonant: ''reb''
Pre-vowel: ''rev''
Pre-y: ''rem''
Other:  ''rep''

* &lt;'''reK-'''&gt; &quot;to reach&quot;:
Pre-consonant: ''rek''
Pre-vowel: ''re''

* &lt;'''faG-'''&gt; &quot;to spit&quot;: 
Pre-consonant: ''fag''
Pre-vowel: ''fa''

* &lt;'''ruGw-'''&gt; &quot;to follow&quot;: 
Pre-consonant; ''rug''
Pre-vowel: ''ruv''
Other: ''ru''

* &lt;'''pos-'''&gt; &quot;to heal&quot;:  
Pre-Consonant: ''por''
Pre-vowel: ''pos''
Pre-y: ''poh''


====='''Semi-Vowel Stems'''=====
The semi-vowel stems are: '''(y),(w),y,w'''.


====='''Compound Stems'''=====
The compound stems are: '''st,nt,nd,ld,nn,rn,mp,mm,sk'''.


===='''Augment Stems'''====
This is a small class of verbs which have a basic stem in a vowel. However, in certain principle parts, this vowel can be augmented by either an _l_ or an _n_. 


====='''Use of Augment in Augment Stems'''=====
The augment occurs in the 3rd principle part and derivatives of the 6th principle part. Namely, it occurs in the anterior gerund, the subjunctive, the optative/future, and sometimes in the imperfect and present participle (according to stylistic and dialectal variation). Certain verbs also have the augment in the 5th principle part. Furthermore, they are distinguished from all other groups of verbs in the 1st principle part, which has the ending &lt;'''-llë'''&gt; rather than &lt;'''-llo'''&gt;. The verbs in this group are:

* &lt;'''ya-'''&gt; &quot;to go&quot;:           ''yan'' (3rd, 5th, 6th)
* &lt;'''ne-'''&gt; &quot;to give&quot;:         ''nel'' (3rd, 5th, 6th)
* &lt;'''u-'''&gt; &quot;to gleam&quot;:         ''ul''  (3rd, 5th, 6th)
* &lt;'''ni-'''&gt; &quot;to negate&quot;:       ''nin'' (3rd, 5th, 6th)
* &lt;'''si-'''&gt; &quot;to shine&quot;:        ''sil'' (3rd, 5th, 6th)
* &lt;'''onëa-'''&gt; &quot;to disappear&quot;:  ''onëan'' (3rd, 5th, 6th) 
* &lt;'''këa-'''&gt; &quot;to leave&quot;:       ''këan'' (3rd, 5th, 6th) 
* &lt;'''faya-'''&gt; &quot;to extinguish&quot;: ''fayan'' (3rd, 5th 6th) 
* &lt;'''hya-'''&gt; &quot;to age&quot;:         ''hyan'' (3rd, 5th, 6th) 
* &lt;'''se-'''&gt; &quot;to clasp&quot;:        ''sen'' (only in 5th, otherwise ''e-stem''.)
* &lt;'''ra-'''&gt; &quot;to hold&quot;:         ''ran'' (only in 3rd, otherwise ''a-stem''.)
* &lt;'''se-'''&gt; &quot;to seem&quot;:        (only 1st &lt;'''sellë'''&gt;, otherwise ''e-stem''.)

==='''Infinitives'''===

In Silindion, there is one main inifinitive, although in certain registers there can be up to four infinitives: '''present, present 2, future, perfect'''. The present infinitive is the first principle part. All other infinitives are formed from 6th principle part.

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===='''Present [First Infinitive]'''====

The present or first infinitive formed in 8 different ways. The choice between the eight types is conditioned by factors such as verbal stem-type, stress pattern, vowel harmony, register and derivation. The eight suffixes are: '''''-iello, -eallo, -yello, -yallo, -ello, -ollo, -llo, -lle'''''. The can be divided into 4 groups for descriptive purposes. Group A: thematic suffixes: '''''-iello, -eallo'''''; Group B athematic y-suffixes: '''''-yello, -yallo'''''; Group C athematic vowel-suffixes: '''''-ello, -ollo''''', Group D: simple suffixe: '''''-llo, -lle'''''. 

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====='''Group A suffixes'''=====

These suffixes are found in many types of verb. They are termed 'thematic' because they are formed by combining a vowel -e- with the athematic y-suffixes, which is then contracted in various ways. Thus, ''-e-yello'' becomes '''''-iello''''' and ''-e-yallo'' becomes '''''-eallo'''''. The suffix '''''-iello''''' is rather common, '''''-eallo''''' is considerably less so. 


======'''-IELLO'''======
The suffix '''''-iello''''' is found with the following stem types: ''t-stems'', ''k-stems'', ''r-stem'', ''l-stems'', ''n-stems'', ''w-stems'', ''nd-stems'', ''nt-stems'', ''nn-stems'', ''rn-stems'', ''ng-stems'', ''mp-stems'', ''ld-stems'', ''T-stems'', ''D/L-stems'', ''P-stems'', ''B-stems'', ''Gw-stems''.

It is the default suffix for stems whose root is unstressed (i.e. with stress on the ending). It is also the default for non-derived T and n stems (accounting for a small percentage of primary verbs, unlike '''inchoative ''yaT-verbs''''' and '''denominal ''n-verbs'''''). In contast, it is the default for derived ''r-stems'' ending in the stativizing suffix '''''-ár'''''. It also seems to be the preferred ending for ''P-stems'' (even if the root is stressed).  The above are the main tendencies in the usage of this suffix. It is likely that no hard and fast rules can be made.  There are a few roots that take this suffix that do not conform to any of the above generalities:  '''kusiello''' from &lt;'''nkus-'''&gt; 'lose' (''s-stem''), '''ernóriello''' from &lt;'''ernór-'''&gt; 'be located in, settle' (stressed ''r-stem'') and several others. 


'''Changeable Stems:'''
For changeable stems, their pre-vowel form is always used before this suffix.


'''Examples of ''-iello'''''

*&lt;'''fat-'''&gt; 'do'  -&gt;  '''fatiello'''
*&lt;'''vuk-'''&gt; 'spin' -&gt; '''vukiello'''
*&lt;'''lor-'''&gt; 'open' -&gt; '''loriello'''
*&lt;'''thel-'''&gt; 'generate' -&gt; '''theliello'''
*&lt;'''ren-'''&gt; 'move slowly' -&gt; '''reniello'''
*&lt;'''diw-'''&gt; 'be powerful' -&gt; '''diviello'''
*&lt;'''fingand-'''&gt; 'go swimming' -&gt; '''fingandiello'''
*&lt;'''sint-'''&gt; 'sew' -&gt; '''sintiello'''
*&lt;'''sonn-'''&gt; 'shake' (tr.) -&gt; '''sonniello''' 
*&lt;'''leurn-'''&gt; 'clean' -&gt; '''leurniello''' 
*&lt;'''ling-'''&gt; 'ring' -&gt; '''lingiello'''
*&lt;'''namp-'''&gt; 'hammer' -&gt; '''nampiello'''
*&lt;'''mald-'''&gt; 'move' (tr.) -&gt; '''maldiello'''
*&lt;'''aT-'''&gt; 'nurture' -&gt; '''assiello'''
*&lt;'''siD-'''&gt; 'recline' -&gt; '''siriello'''
*&lt;'''sóP-'''&gt; 'sleep' -&gt; '''sóphiello''' 
*&lt;'''leB-'''&gt; 'laugh' -&gt; '''leviello'''
*&lt;'''ruGw-'''&gt; 'follow' -&gt; '''ruviello''' 
*&lt;'''namár-'''&gt; 'be named' -&gt; '''namáriello'''


======'''-EALLO'''======
The suffix '''''-eallo''''' is found in a small group verbs having an unstressed '''-a-''' in the first syllable that end in nasals, l, r, rr, nd, and T. There are four verbs which do not follow this tendency: &lt;'''mál-'''&gt; 'prosper' (stressed '''-a-'''), &lt;'''mén-'''&gt; 'rise' ('''-e-'''), &lt;'''ilmen-'''&gt; 'raise' ('''-e-'''), &lt;'''nen-'''&gt; 'despair' ('''-e-''').  


'''Examples of ''-eallo'''''

*&lt;'''ilkam-'''&gt; 'quieten'  -&gt;  '''ilkameallo'''
*&lt;'''kan-'''&gt; 'surprise' -&gt; '''kaneallo'''
*&lt;'''ilpar-'''&gt; 'fill' -&gt; '''ilpareallo'''
*&lt;'''harr-'''&gt; 'meet for the first time' -&gt; '''harreallo'''
*&lt;'''mond-'''&gt; 'drag' -&gt; '''mondeallo'''
*&lt;'''paT-'''&gt; 'diminish, wane' -&gt; '''passeallo'''

----

====='''Group B Suffixes'''=====
These suffixes are termed athematic y-suffixes', because they are formed by added '''ye/ya''' directly to the infinitival ending '''-llo''', resulting in 
'''''-yello, -yallo'''''. The suffix '''''-yello''''' is very common, while '''''-yallo''''' is considerably less so. 


======'''-YELLO'''======
The suffix '''''-yello''''' is used with vowel stems, and the following consonant stems: ''t-stems'', ''k-stems'', ''r-stems'' (rare), ''l-stems'', ''n-stems'', ''y-stems'', ''w-stems'', ''ng-stems'', ''st-stems'', ''T-stems'', ''D-stems'', ''B-stems'', ''K-stems'', ''G-stems'', ''s-stems'', and the semi-vowel stems ending in (y) and (w). A verb which take -yello but does not come from any of the above stems in &lt;'''sérn-'''&gt; '''be ready'''. 

This ending is the default in stems having a stressed vowel (except for those stem types mentioned above). Because adding this suffix to a consonant stem results in a cluster, various phonological rules operate in order to reduce or modify the cluster. Also, all vowel stems exhibit diphthong reduction and other attendant changes.


'''Consonant Stems:''' 
The following consonant stems exhibit some phonological changes:

''y-stems'':
These stems lose their _y_ before the suffix. Thus there is '''noyello''' from &lt;'''noy-'''&gt; 'consecrate'. 


''w-stems'': 
These stems make a distinction between HS and LS forms. In HS, the ''w'' of the stem is lost in stems with the vowel _u_. Thus, there is '''nuyello''' from &lt;'''nuw-'''&gt; 'tune'.  The ''w'' is also lost in stems ending in _aw_, after rounding the _a_ to an _o_. Thus, there is '''doyello''' from &lt;'''daw-'''&gt; 'roar. This is true for both HS and LS.  In LS, all other stem types, change the stem final consonant to _m_. Thus, we have '''numyello''' from &lt;'''nuw-'''&gt;, '''timyello''' from &lt;'''tiw-'''&gt; 'use, shape' (compare HS '''tiuyello'''). 


''ng-stems'':
These stems change their final consonant to _n_ before the suffix. Thus there is '''fínyello''' from &lt;'''fíng-'''&gt; 'swim'. 


''st-stems'':
These stems lose the final _t_ before the suffix. Thus there is '''lisyello''' from &lt;'''list-'''&gt; 'think'.


''(w)-stems'' and ''(y)-stems''
These stems lose their semi-vowels. In this respect, ''(w)-stems'' behave exactly like ''w-stems''. However, ''(y)-stems'' behave differently.  Since all ''(y)-stems'' end in _ay_, these behave like ''a-stems'' in the infinitive. Thus, for example, we have '''persiello''' from &lt;'''persa(y)-'''&gt; 'encompass, include'.


The changeable stems ending in ''T'', ''D'', ''B'', and ''S'' end in their pre-y form, if they have one. Otherwise, they end in their pre-consonant form. The changeable stems ending in ''G'' and ''K'' end in their pre-vowel form.

'''Vowel Stems:'''
The following changes happen to vowel-stems. The final vowel of vowel-stems combines with the suffix to produce '''''-iello''''' (equivalent to the thematic suffix above). Because stems ending in vowels usually take athematic endings in other forms, it is preferable to view their infinitives as being athematic as well - even though the forms would be the same if their infinitive were thematic. For _ya_ stems, the combined form ''-yiello'' is further reduced to '''''-iello'''''. Thus we have '''kaniello''' from &lt;'''kanya-'''&gt;. 


'''Examples of ''-yello''

* &lt;'''huila-'''&gt; 'rain' -&gt; '''huiliello'''
* &lt;'''malya-'''&gt; 'move' (intr) -&gt; '''maliello'''
* &lt;'''nanke-'''&gt; 'uncover, discover' -&gt; '''nankiello'''
* &lt;'''lē-'''&gt; 'show, point out' -&gt; '''liello'''
* &lt;'''sari-'''&gt; 'farm' -&gt; '''sariello'''
* &lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; 'live' -&gt; '''lissiello'''
* &lt;'''néit-'''&gt; 'increase' -&gt; '''néityello'''
* &lt;'''nek-'''&gt; 'hurt, cause pain' -&gt; '''nekyello'''
* &lt;'''sëur-'''&gt; 'get torn, ripped, cut' -&gt; '''sëuryello'''
* &lt;'''vel-'''&gt; 'tie' -&gt; '''velyello'''
* &lt;'''nalpín-'''&gt; 'play a piano' -&gt; '''nalpínyello'''
* &lt;'''náy-'''&gt; 'be permitted'  -&gt; '''náyello'''
* &lt;'''mew-'''&gt; 'gleam' -&gt; '''meuyello/memyello'''
* &lt;'''fíng-'''&gt; 'swim' -&gt; '''fínyello'''
* &lt;'''mist-'''&gt; 'sit' -&gt; '''misyello'''
* &lt;'''iT-'''&gt; 'poke, prick' -&gt; '''ityello'''
* &lt;'''saD-'''&gt; 'cultivate' -&gt; '''sanyello'''
* &lt;'''reB-'''&gt; 'row' -&gt; '''remyello'''
* &lt;'''seK-'''&gt; 'write' -&gt; '''seyello'''
* &lt;'''faG-'''&gt; 'spit' -&gt; '''fayello'''
* &lt;'''dles-'''&gt; 'freeze' -&gt; '''lehyello'''
* &lt;'''kó(w)-'''&gt; 'bark' -&gt; '''kóyello'''
* &lt;'''a(y)-'''&gt; 'be' -&gt; '''iello'''

 
======'''-YALLO'''======


-ello: sk, lk
-yallo:  e:, e, a, y (if -a- in first syllable), ya 
-ollo:  -o- in first syllable
-llo:  eo, a, o, 
-lle: augment stems

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==='''Participles'''===

Silindion has two participles an active present participle and a passive participle. They differ from gerunds in the fact that they function not as verbs but as adjectives solely. This means that they do not have verbal argument structure and thus cannot take objects (even if the verb they are related to is transitive). 

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===='''Active Present Participle'''====
The active present participle is an adjective formed from an old verbal noun in an ''a-stem''. This ''a-stem'' noun usually does not exist apart from its adjectival derivative, however a few examples do survive: 

* &lt;'''doa'''&gt;  &quot;roaring&quot;             : &lt;'''daw-'''&gt; &quot;to roar&quot;
* &lt;'''koa'''&gt;  &quot;barking&quot;            : &lt;'''ka(w)-'''&gt; &quot;to bark&quot;
* &lt;'''lesa'''&gt;  &quot;frost&quot;                 : &lt;'''les-'''&gt; &quot;to freeze&quot;


====='''Derivation'''=====
The active participle is formed by adding the adjectival ending &lt;'''-ni'''&gt; to this ''a-stem'' noun. The participle appears to be formed from the 6th principle part with a suffix &lt;'''-ani'''&gt;, due to various sound-changes (see below for the root: &lt;'''daw-'''&gt;). When added to ''a-stem'' verbs, the two _a_ vowels coalesce to form _o_. When added to ''o-stem'' verbs, the vowels coalesce to form _u_. All other stem types show no change (other than normal changes that occur in the 6th principle part, such as alternative stem forms in changeable stems, or augmented stem forms in augmented stems). 

{| border = 1
! Stem Type
! Assimilation
! Example 
|-
|  ''a''
|  -a+ani -&gt; -oni 
|   &lt;'''lia-'''&gt; &quot;to glow&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''lioni'''&gt; &quot;glowing&quot;     
|-
|  ''ya''  
|  -ya+ani -&gt; -yoni 
|   &lt;'''kuiya-'''&gt; &quot;to form&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''kuiyoni'''&gt; &quot;forming&quot;    
|-
|  ''o''
|  -o+ani -&gt; -uni 
|  &lt;'''tildo-'''&gt; &quot;to frequently see&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''tilduni'''&gt; &quot;frequently seeing&quot;   
|-
|}

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==='''Gerunds'''===

In Silindion, there are six different gerunds, which are used to indicate the relation of one action to the action of the main verb. The types of gerunds are the following: '''nominal, anterior, abessive, conjunctive, necessitive, adjectival'''.  Except for the anterior gerund, these forms are made from the second principle part.

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===='''Nominal Gerund'''====
The nominal gerund is a nominalisation of the verbal root, essentially expressing either a noun ending in _-ing_, in English or a verbal noun ending in _-tion_.


====='''Derivation'''=====
The nominal gerund is formed by adding the ending &lt;'''-na'''&gt;  to the stem of the verb, this forms the 2nd principle part. For vowel stems, the nominal gerund is a ''d-stem''. An example of this type of verb is:

*  &lt;'''mi-'''&gt; &quot;to fall&quot;   -&gt;  &lt;'''mina'''&gt; &quot;falling&quot;


======'''Assimilation in Consonant Stems'''======
For consonant stem verbs, various assimilations occur when the gerund ending is added. Also, note, that the gerund is an ''a-stem'' in consonant verbs (except for gerunds of ''n-stems'' which are ''d-stems'').
    
{| border = 1
! Stem Type
! Assimilation
! Example 
|-
|  ''T/t''
|  -t+na -&gt; -nta 
|   &lt;'''peT-'''&gt; &quot;to eat&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''penta'''&gt; &quot;eating&quot;     
|-
|  ''D/L''  
|  -d+na -&gt; -nda 
|   &lt;'''siD-'''&gt; &quot;to sit&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''sinda'''&gt; &quot;sitting&quot;    
|-
|  ''P/p''
|  -p+na -&gt; -mpa 
|  &lt;'''neP-'''&gt; &quot;to sing&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''nempa'''&gt; &quot;singing&quot;   
|-
|  ''B''
|   -b+na -&gt; -mba
|   &lt;'''reB-'''&gt; &quot;to row&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''remba'''&gt; &quot;rowing&quot; 
|-
|  ''K/k''
|   -k+na -&gt; -nka
|   &lt;'''reK-'''&gt; &quot;to reach&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''renka'''&gt; &quot;reaching&quot;
|-
|  ''G(w)''
|   -g+na -&gt; -nga
|   &lt;'''faG-'''&gt; &quot;to spit&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''fanga'''&gt; &quot;spitting&quot;
|-
|  ''s''
|   -s+na -&gt; -rna
|   &lt;'''pos-'''&gt; &quot;to heal&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''porna'''&gt; &quot;healing&quot;
|-
|  ''l'' 
|  -l+na -&gt; -lda 
|   &lt;'''thel-'''&gt; &quot;to create&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''thelda'''&gt; &quot;creating&quot;
|-
|  ''r'' 
|  -r+na -&gt; -rna 
|   &lt;'''ker-'''&gt; &quot;to halve&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''kerna'''&gt; &quot;halving&quot;
|-
|  ''n'' 
|  -n+na -&gt; -nna 
|   &lt;'''lin-'''&gt; &quot;to play&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''linna'''&gt; &quot;playing&quot;  (accusative: '''lindán''')
|-
|  ''m'' 
|  -m+na -&gt; -mma 
|   &lt;'''nam-'''&gt; &quot;to name&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''namma'''&gt; &quot;naming&quot;      
|-
|  ''ng'' 
|  -ng+na -&gt; -nga 
|   &lt;'''ling-'''&gt; &quot;to ring&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''linga'''&gt; &quot;ringing&quot;   
|}


======'''Semi-vowel Stems'''======
For the semi-vowel verbs, the ending is &lt;'''-na'''&gt;, just like the vowel stems. For these verbs the nominal gerund is a ''d-stem''. Examples of this type of verb are:

*  &lt;'''persa(y)-'''&gt; &quot;to include&quot; -&gt;  &lt;'''perseina'''&gt; &quot;including&quot;
*  &lt;'''pay-'''&gt; &quot;to keep vigil&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''paina'''&gt; &quot;keeping vigil&quot;
*  &lt;'''ko(w)-'''&gt; &quot;to bark&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''kona'''&gt; &quot;barking&quot;
*  &lt;'''mew-'''&gt; &quot;to glitter&quot; -&gt;  &lt;'''meuna'''&gt; &quot;glittering&quot;


======'''Compound Stems'''======
For compound verbs, the ending is &lt;'''-a'''&gt;, save for ''st-stems'', which have the ending &lt;'''-na'''&gt; and a stem ending in _s_. The gerund is an ''a-stem'' for this type of verb.

* &lt;'''mald-'''&gt; &quot;to move X&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''malda'''&gt; &quot;moving&quot;
* &lt;'''kest-'''&gt; &quot;to divide&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''kesna'''&gt; &quot;dividing&quot;


====='''Usage'''===== 
The nominal gerund is normally used as a noun, and may take case endings. It can also be used as a substitute to full complement clauses, which are normally formed with the conjunction &lt;'''ta'''&gt; and the indicative or subjunctive. 


1) Nominal: 

{| border = 1 
| '''ahwáteisi 
| '''liu'''
| '''pentán'''
|-
| aug.-DO-past-1st.sing.   
| perfect particle
| EAT-gerund-accusative
|}

'''I have just finished eating'''.


2) Indicative Future Complement:

{| border = 1
| '''avavissi 
| '''i'''
| '''lio''' 
| '''ninmanye'''
|- 
|aug.-RUMOR-past.3rd.sing.
|the
|woman
|MARRY-gerund-topical-3rd.sing.possessive
|}

'''The woman rumored that she would get married'''.


3) Subjunctive Purpose Complement:

{| border = 1
| '''sunu'''
| '''sinti'''
| '''tandán'''
| '''i'''
| '''nistari'''
|- 
| WANT-impersonal.passive
| ME-dative
| RULE-gerund-accusative
| the
| KING-genitive
|}

'''I want the king to rule'''.


* '''Note:''' The subject of a nominal gerund is either a possessive suffix or a genitive noun. (see examples 2 and 3 above).

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===='''Conjunctive Gerund'''====
This gerund is used to express events that occur simultaneously with the main verb, that is, it can translate clauses beginning with &quot;while&quot;. It can also have the circumstantial connotations, like &quot;since&quot; or &quot;because&quot;.  As the examples will show, it is essentially timeless. In its simultaneous function, it is often accompanied by the conjunction &lt;'''ve'''&gt; &quot;as&quot;. 


====='''Derivation'''=====
The Conjunctive Gerund is formed by adding the prefix &lt;'''i-'''&gt; to the 2nd principle part. With verbs beginning in a vowel, the prefix becomes the on-glide &lt;'''y-'''&gt;. Examples of the formation are:

*  &lt;'''til-'''&gt; &quot;to see&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''issilda'''&gt;  &quot;while seeing&quot;
*  &lt;'''empi-'''&gt; &quot;to chant&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yempina'''&gt; &quot;while chanting&quot;.


====='''Stylistic i-Dropping'''=====
In some texts (especially poetry) the prefix &lt;'''i-'''&gt; is written as a detached word and may be found before other material, instead of the verb. It also may be omitted completely.

====='''Usage'''=====

1) Circumstantial 

{| border = 1 
| '''isompa,''' 
| '''en'''
| '''filiello'''
| '''iss'''
|-
| conjunctive-SLEEP-gerund  
| NOT-3rd.sg.
| COME-inf.
| here
|}

'''Because he's sleeping, he can't come here'''.


2) Simultaneous 

{| border = 1 
| '''vë'''
| '''yempina,'''
| '''roponë'''
| '''i'''
| '''nimán'''
|-
| as
| conjunctive-SING-gerund
| WATCH-impf.
| the
| CROWD-acc.
|}

'''As he was singing, he was watching the crowd'''.

---

===='''Anterior Gerund'''====
This Gerund is used to express events that have already occured and have been thoroughly completed. It is usually translated as &quot;after having X-ed&quot;. 


====='''Derivation'''=====
It is formed by adding the suffix &lt;'''-isë'''&gt; to the root of the 6th principle part. This is for the most part straightforward. However, in two cases this is a problem. 


======'''Phonological Change in Vowel Stems'''======
In the case of verbs ending in a vowel certain morphophonemic changes occur. For ''a-stem'' verbs, the combination yields _ei_. For ''e-stem'' and ''ē-stem'' verbs, the combination yields _i_. For ''o-stem'' verbs, the combination yield _ei_, for ''ëo-stem'' verbs, the combination yields _iei_. For ''u-stem'' verbs, the combination yields _i_.   


======'''K-stems &amp; y-stems'''======
In the case of verbs ending in a changeable ''K-stem'' and a ''y-stem'', one adds the ending to a reduced form of the root. Hence for the verb &lt;'''reK-'''&gt; &quot;to reach&quot;, one adds the ending to &lt;'''r-'''&gt;, instead of &lt;'''re-'''&gt; and for the verb &lt;'''noy-'''&gt; &quot;to consecrate&quot;, one adds the ending to &lt;'''no-'''&gt; instead of &lt;'''noy-'''&gt;. 

* &lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; &quot;to live&quot;        -&gt;   &lt;'''lissisë'''&gt; &quot;having lived&quot;
* &lt;'''saT-'''&gt; &quot;to raise up&quot;      -&gt;   &lt;'''sassisë'''&gt; &quot;having raised up&quot; 
* &lt;'''noy-'''&gt; &quot;to consecrate&quot;   -&gt;   &lt;'''noisë'''&gt; &quot;having consecrated&quot;
* &lt;'''fat-'''&gt; &quot;to do&quot;            -&gt;   &lt;'''fatisë'''&gt; &quot;having done&quot;
* &lt;'''reK-'''&gt; &quot;to reach&quot;        -&gt;   &lt;'''risë'''&gt; &quot;having reached&quot;


====='''Usage'''=====
The Anterior Gerund can be used in three main functions. The first as a non-grammaticalised perfective aspect with certain auxiliary verbs. It is usually used as such in High Silindion, other varieties having other ways of expressing this aspect. For a more thorough look at aspect, see the appropriate section. Another usage is similar to the conjunctive gerund, that is, as a sentential adjunct. However, it is used exclusively to show previous time. The last is as a non-passive nominal modifier. In this usage it is usually found before the noun being modified. 


1) Pefective Aspect
{| border = 1
| '''aniksisi'''
| '''liu'''
| '''pessisë'''
|- 
| aug.-ARRIVE-past-1st.sing. 
| perfect particle
| EAT-anterior.gerund
|}

'''I have just eaten.'''


2) Sentential Adjunct
{| border = 1
| '''Purisë'''
| '''myentán,'''
| '''onuyanë'''
| '''i'''
| '''nuno'''
|- 
| SAY-anterior.gerund
| THIS-accusative
| LEAVE-past
| the
| young man
|}

'''Having said this, the young man left.'''


3) Nominal Modifier
{| border = 1
| '''eillini'''
| '''i'''
| '''rutalo'''
| '''misisë'''
| '''limmo'''
| '''osso'''
| '''rulín'''
|- 
| aug.-PLANT-past 
| the 
| since
| FALL-anterior.gerund
| by means of
| WIND-pl-instrumental
| SAPLING-accusative
|}

'''He planted the sapling, which has since fallen because of the wind.'''

----

===='''Abessive Gerund'''====
This Gerund is used to express events that have not occured. It is used as the negative of both the anterior gerund and the conjunctive gerund. It can also be used as a negative of the nominal gerund, if needed. It is usually translated by &quot;without&quot;. 


====='''Derivation'''=====
It is formed by adding the prefix &lt;'''en-'''&gt; to the 2nd principle part. This prefix assimilates to verbs beginning in '''l''', '''s''', '''p''', '''f''', '''v''', '''m''', and '''r'''. A further change occurs in verbs beginning with '''hw''' and '''th'''.  In these verbs, the prefix becomes &lt;'''e-'''&gt;, and the initial combinations become '''sw''' and '''st''' respectively. In verbs beginning with '''h''', the the initial changes to '''k'''. Verbs beginning with other consonants undergo no change. 


* &lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; &quot;to live&quot;        -&gt;   &lt;'''ellissuna'''&gt; &quot;without living&quot;
* &lt;'''saT-'''&gt; &quot;to raise up&quot;      -&gt;   &lt;'''essanta'''&gt; &quot;without raising up&quot; 
* &lt;'''pay-'''&gt; &quot;to be vigilant&quot;   -&gt;   &lt;'''empaina'''&gt; &quot;without being vigilant&quot;
* &lt;'''fat-'''&gt; &quot;to do&quot;            -&gt;   &lt;'''efanta'''&gt; &quot;without doing&quot;
* &lt;'''vuk-'''&gt; &quot;to weave&quot;         -&gt;   &lt;'''evunka'''&gt; &quot;without weaving&quot;
* &lt;'''mew-&gt;'''&gt; &quot;to glitter&quot;      -&gt;   &lt;'''emmeuna'''&gt; &quot;without glittering&quot;
* &lt;'''runi-'''&gt; &quot;to soar&quot;         -&gt;   &lt;'''errunina'''&gt; &quot;without soaring&quot;
* &lt;'''hyeK-'''&gt; &quot;to fight&quot;        -&gt;   &lt;'''esyenka'''&gt; &quot;without fighting&quot;
* &lt;'''thR-'''&gt; &quot;to cover&quot;         -&gt;   &lt;'''estarna'''&gt; &quot;without covering&quot;
* &lt;'''hum-'''&gt;  &quot;to soothe, calm&quot; -&gt;   &lt;'''enkumma'''&gt; &quot;without calming&quot;
* &lt;'''til-'''&gt;  &quot;to see&quot;          -&gt;   &lt;'''entilda'''&gt; &quot;without seeing&quot;
* &lt;'''del-'''&gt;  &quot;to bundle&quot;       -&gt;   &lt;'''endelda'''&gt; &quot;without bundling&quot;
* &lt;'''yaT-'''&gt;  &quot;to happen&quot;       -&gt;   &lt;'''enyanta'''&gt; &quot;without happening&quot;
* &lt;'''nalpin-'''&gt; &quot;to play piano&quot; -&gt;   &lt;'''ennalpinna'''&gt; &quot;without playing piano&quot;


====='''Usage'''=====
The translation of this form varies according to use. If it negates a nominal gerund it is usually translated &quot;not X-ing&quot;. If it negates a conjunctive gerund it is usually translated as &quot;without X-ing&quot;. If it negates an anterior gerund it is usually translated as &quot;having not X-ed&quot;. 


1) Nominal Gerund Negation

{| border = 1
| '''empurnonya,'''
| '''varilië'''
| '''i'''
| '''laro'''
| '''sammanna'''
|- 
| abessive-SPEAK-gerund-instrumental-3s.poss. 
| CONDEMN-passive-past 
| the
| thief 
| DEATH-allative
|}

'''By not speaking, the thief was condemned to death.'''
 

2) Anterior Gerund Negation

{| border = 1
| '''empenta'''
| '''erë'''
| '''nani'''
| '''urón,'''
| '''eimpetyassi'''
|- 
| abessive-EAT-gerund
| during 
| whole 
| DAY-accusative
| aug.-BECOME.HUNGRY-past 
|}

'''Having not eaten for a whole day, he became hungry.'''


3) Conjunctive Gerund Negation

{| border = 1
| '''enostona,'''
| '''ahwingi'''
| '''pero'''
| '''i'''
| '''nirnë'''
|- 
| abessive-BREATHE-gerund
| aug.-SWIM-past 
| across
| the 
| RIVER-accusative
|}

'''Without breathing, he swam across the river.'''

----

===='''Necessitive Gerund'''====
The necessitive gerund is used to express the same ideas as the Latin Gerundive. That is, it can be translated as &quot;should/must X&quot; or &quot;fit to be X-ed&quot;. It occasionally is used in a purposive sense, that is &quot;in order that&quot;. The theme or patient is usually  in the nominative case (or is expressed as a personal ending on the verb). The agent is usually placed in the allative case. However, if the meaning of the construction is &quot;must&quot;, the theme is in the genitive and the agent is expressed as a personal ending on the verb. If the meaning of the construction is &quot;in order that&quot; then the theme is in the nominative.  


====='''Derivation'''=====
It is formed from the 2nd principle part by adding the dative case ending, according to either the rule for nominal ''a-stems'' or ''d-stems''. 

====='''Usage'''=====

1) Should

{| border = 1
| '''Vávëa'''
| '''ëan'''
| '''pentanu'''
| '''sinta?'''
|- 
| how 
| BE-present-3s 
| EAT-necessitive
| ME-allative
|}

'''How should I eat it?'''


2) Must

{| border = 1
| '''ëalë'''
| '''nenkanu'''
| '''neketyari.'''
|- 
| BE-present-2s
| ENDURE-necessitive 
| HARDSHIP-pl-genitive
|}

'''You must endure hardships.'''

* '''Note:''' In this construction, the theme is in the genitive case.


3) In order to

{| border = 1
| '''Kesema'''
| '''nekéssëa'''
| '''fantanu...'''
|- 
| participle
| passive 
| MAKE-necessitive
|}

'''In order to form the past participle...'''

* '''Note:''' In this construction, the theme is in the nominative case.

----

===='''Adjectival Gerund'''====
The adjectival gerund is used the verbal equivalent to the present participle. What this means is that, unlike the present participle, the adjectival gerund can both describe a particular noun and have argument structure of its own. It is usually best translated as a relative clause, however, this will depend on the context.


====='''Derivation'''=====
It is formed from the 2nd principle part by adding the adjectival case ending according to the nominal rules for ''d-stems'' or ''a-stems'', depending of verb-class. In some cases however, especially for ''s-stem, r-stem'', and ''rn-stem'' verbs, the adjectival gerund is formed by adding the adjectival case ending according to the ''d-stem'' rules, despite the fact the the principle part is an ''a-stem''. However, this is not a hard and fast rule, and occasionally ''a-stem'' forms are found as well. Also, hybrid forms are used on occasion.

* '''mirna''' &quot;falling&quot; -&gt; '''mírdëa''' / '''mírnëa''' /  '''mírndëa''' 


====='''Usage'''=====
In addition to the &quot;collapsed-relative-clause&quot; usage, some verbs (especially intransitive ones) use this form to translate various different '''verbal adjectives''', such forms similar to English adjectives ending in -ous or -y. In this sense it is just a &quot;second present participle&quot; or sorts, that is, it has no verbal function at all.


1) Relative Clause

{| border = 1
| '''Nórë'''
| '''anti'''
| '''lénëan'''
| '''mórnië'''
| '''neldéndëa.'''
|-
| tree
| US-dative
| SHELTER-accusative
| shady
| PRESENT-adjectival.gerund
|}

'''A tree which presents us a shady shelter.'''


2) Verbal Adjective 

{| border = 1
| '''këasi'''
| '''pero'''
| '''i'''
| '''narnán
| '''mëundëa.'''
|-
| LEAVE-1st.singular
| across
| the
| SEA-accusative
| GlITTER-adjectival.gerund
|}

'''I leave across the glittery sea.'''

----
----

==='''Active Finite Forms'''===

===='''Imperfect'''====
The Imperfect has one formation for all types of stem, it is based on the root of the 6th principle part. For vowel stem verbs, the imperfect is athematic, except for ''ē-stems''. For consonant stems and ''ē-stems'', itis a thematic formation, consisting of a variable theme vowel _V_ followed by the tense suffix, &lt;'''-në'''&gt;. The theme vowel is usually the same as the present theme vowel. In those cases where the present tense of the verb is athematic, the theme vowel is the same as the root vowel. Some verbs with _u_ as the root vowel use _o_ as the theme vowel.

Examples:

*&lt;'''tad'''&gt; &quot;to rule&quot;   -&gt; &lt;'''taranë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''fat'''&gt; &quot;to do&quot;     -&gt; &lt;'''fatanë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''yaT'''&gt; &quot;to become&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yassanë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''rev'''&gt; &quot;to row&quot;    -&gt; &lt;'''revenë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''til'''&gt; &quot;to see&quot;    -&gt; &lt;'''tilinë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''rop'''&gt; &quot;to watch&quot;  -&gt; &lt;'''roponë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''muK'''&gt; &quot;to sail&quot;   -&gt; &lt;'''muonë-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''pur'''&gt; &quot;to speak&quot;  -&gt; &lt;'''puronë-'''&gt;

----

===='''Subjunctive'''====
The Subjunctive has one formation for all types of stem. 


====='''Present Subjunctive'''=====
In the present, it is formed by suffixing &lt;'''-i'''&gt; to the stem of the verb. I


======'''Vowel Stems'''======
n the case of ''a-stems'', ''o-stems'', ''e-stems'' and ''ē-stems'', the vowels coalesce into _ei_. For ''ëo-stems'', the vowels coalesce to become _iei_. In the case of ''i-stems'' and ''u-stems'', the vowels coalesce to become _i_.

*&lt;'''yalma-'''&gt; &quot;to play the harp&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yalmei-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''ilno-'''&gt;  &quot;to make bloom&quot;    -&gt; &lt;'''ilnei-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''lē-'''&gt; &quot;to show&quot;             -&gt; &lt;'''lei-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''de-'''&gt; &quot;to gather&quot;           -&gt; &lt;'''dei-'''&gt; 
*&lt;'''dorëo-'''&gt; &quot;to finish&quot;        -&gt; &lt;'''doriei-'''&gt;  
*&lt;'''moni-'''&gt; &quot;to hear&quot;           -&gt; &lt;'''moni-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; &quot;to live&quot;          -&gt; &lt;'''lissi-'''&gt;


======'''Consonant Verbs'''======
Consonant verbs take the suffix &lt;'''-i'''&gt;, to the root of the 6th principle part.  Note that in changeable verbs, this usually means that a special stem form is used, see the two examples below.

*&lt;'''muK-'''&gt; &quot;to sail&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''mui-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''taD-'''&gt; &quot;to rule&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''tari-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''fat-'''&gt; &quot;to do&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''fati-'''&gt;


====='''Past Subjunctive'''=====
The past subjunctive is formed by suffixing &lt;'''-u'''&gt; to the root of the 6th principle part. 


======'''Vowel Stems'''======
In the case of ''a-stems'', this combination becomes _o_. In the case of ''o-stems'', this combinations becomes _u_. In the case of ''e-stems'' and ''ē-stems'', this combination becomes _ëu_. In the case of all stems ending with _o_ and _u_, the suffix itself disappears in combination. It also has the '''augment''' (for which see below). 

*&lt;'''yalma-'''&gt; &quot;to play the harp&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''ayalmo-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''ilno-'''&gt;  &quot;to make bloom&quot;    -&gt; &lt;'''eilno-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''lē-'''&gt; &quot;to show&quot;             -&gt; &lt;'''alëu-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''de-'''&gt; &quot;to gather&quot;           -&gt; &lt;'''adëu-'''&gt; 
*&lt;'''dorëo-'''&gt; &quot;to finish&quot;        -&gt; &lt;'''adorëo-'''&gt;  
*&lt;'''moni-'''&gt; &quot;to hear&quot;           -&gt; &lt;'''amoniu-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; &quot;to live&quot;          -&gt; &lt;'''alissu-'''&gt;


======'''Changeable Stems'''======
The final consonant of changeable consonant verbs undergoes the same modification as in the subjunctive present. 

*&lt;'''eT-'''&gt; &quot;to lack&quot;  -&gt; &lt;'''eissu-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''neP-'''&gt; &quot;to sing&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''anephu-'''&gt;


======'''w-Stems'''======
Some verbs with stems in _w_, have two alternative forms for this tense, one reflecting a more recent analogical change, the other being the historically developed form.

*&lt;'''daw-'''&gt; &quot;to roar&quot;        -&gt; &lt;'''adau-'''&gt;  ''or'' &lt;'''adavu-'''&gt;
*&lt;'''diw-'''&gt; &quot;to be powerful&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''adiu-'''&gt;  ''or'' &lt;'''adivu-'''&gt;

----

===='''Preterite'''====
The preterite has two formations and eight suffixes. It is the 5th principle part of the verb and is the most unpredictable. The two formations are termed the '''root-preterite''' and '''zero-grade preterite'''. The root-preterite is by far the more common. The root-preterite is formed from the root of the verb, with no modification, beyond the addition of the '''augment''' (see below) and the addition of one of the eight suffixes. The zero-grade preterite however, is formed by modifying the vowel of the root in some way, usually unpredictably. 


====='''The Preterite Augment'''=====
Almost all preterites have a prefix which is, essentially, &lt;'''a-'''&gt;. This is termed the '''augment'''. It causes lenition to consonant initial verbs and vowel contraction to vowel initial verbs. In the case of verbs beginning of _k_, lenition causes the _k_ to drop completely and then various changes occur: _a_+_e/i_ -&gt; _ai_, _a_+_o/u_ -&gt; au, _a_+_a_ -&gt; _a_. Certain verbs behave a bit unpredictably however, reflecting earlier forms of the root, or various other irregularities:

*&lt;'''ya-'''&gt; &quot;to go&quot;  -&gt;  '''ayanë''' and not '''*ëanë''' (with vowel contraction).
*&lt;'''kus-'''&gt; &quot;to lose&quot; -&gt; '''ankusi''' and not '''*ausi''' (with lenition).
*&lt;'''ë-'''&gt; &quot;to be&quot; -&gt;     '''ië''' and not '''*ai''' (with vowel contraction).


======'''The Augment with Compound Verbs'''======
In certain compound verbs (formed by prefixing a prepositional element to the root of a verb), the augment is found between the prefix and the root. The only common verb displaying this property is:

*&lt;'''onëa-'''&gt; &quot;to leave&quot; -&gt; '''onuyanë''', where the medial _u_ represents the augment, after vowel contraction with the original ending of the preposition &lt;'''ono'''&gt;. 


======'''Verbs with no Augment'''======
The verbs &lt;'''vo(w)-'''&gt; &quot;to be&quot;, &lt;'''thiello'''&gt; &quot;to be necessary&quot;, &lt;'''siello'''&gt; &quot;to sneeze&quot; and the defective verb &lt;'''hur'''&gt; &quot;it is raining&quot; do not have an augment: being in the past tense &lt;'''vusi'''&gt;, &lt;'''thi'''&gt;, &lt;''''si'''&gt; (although &lt;'''assi'''&gt; is found) and &lt;'''huksi'''&gt; respectively. This lack of an augment is more widespread in poetry. 


====='''Preterite Suffixes'''=====
The eight suffixes are, in order of decreasing frequency, &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;, &lt;'''-i'''&gt;, &lt;'''-si'''&gt;, &lt;'''-ti'''&gt;, &lt;'''-zero'''&gt;, &lt;'''-ssi'''&gt;, &lt;'''-na'''&gt;, and &lt;'''-në'''&gt;. These are added to both types of formations. 


======'''Nasal Suffixes'''======
The nasal suffixes, &lt;'''-në'''&gt; and &lt;'''-na'''&gt; are not at all common, being present in a total of eight verbs. They are usually part of the more formal register, known as High Silindion and may alternate with more common suffixes in some verbs. The following list gives all the verbs that take these suffixes, with any  variant past tenses as well:

*&lt;'''ra-'''&gt; &quot;to have, hold&quot; -&gt; '''arena, arti'''
*&lt;'''se-'''&gt; &quot;to attach, clasp together&quot; -&gt; '''asenë, asessi'''
*&lt;'''se-'''&gt; &quot;to seem&quot; -&gt; '''asena, asti'''
*&lt;'''neit-'''&gt; &quot;to increase&quot; -&gt; '''aneintë''' 
*&lt;'''vow-'''&gt; &quot;to have existance&quot; -&gt; '''avona, avovë''' 


The following three verbs have nasal past tenses, especially in poetry and older varieties of the language, but they share special properties to be discussed below:  &lt;'''sëur-'''&gt; &quot;to get ripped, torn, cut&quot;, &lt;'''yeir-'''&gt; &quot;to get weighed, weigh&quot;, &lt;'''sar-'''&gt; &quot;to get hot/burned&quot;. 


======'''Other Suffixes'''======
The distribution of the other suffixes can be outlined broadly, however, even so, the formation of a preterite is the least obvious of all of the principle parts.


'''Suffix with Vowel Stems:'''
For most vowel stems, the suffix is &lt;'''-i'''&gt;. When added to an ''a-stem'', ''e-stem'' and ''o-stem'', the combination becomes 
&lt;'''-ë'''&gt;. When added to an ''ëo-stem'', the combination becomes &lt;'''-ië'''&gt;. When added to a ''u-stem'', the combination becomes &lt;'''-i'''&gt;. Examples of these stem types are:

*&lt;'''nalla-'''&gt; &quot;to pound&quot; -&gt; '''anallë''' 
*&lt;'''hwanske-'''&gt; &quot;to wound with a bow&quot; -&gt; '''ahwanskë'''
*&lt;'''nayo-'''&gt; &quot;to permit, allow&quot; -&gt; '''anayë'''
*&lt;'''lissu-'''&gt; &quot;to live&quot; -&gt; '''alissi''' 


'''Zero Suffix &amp; -ssi:'''
''i-stems'' have no suffix, while ''ē-stems'' usually have the suffix &lt;'''-ssi''''&gt;, with a few exceptions. 

*&lt;'''moni-'''&gt; &quot;to hear&quot; -&gt; '''amoni'''
*&lt;'''vē-'''&gt; &quot;to gossip&quot; -&gt; '''avissi'''


'''Suffixes with Changeable Stems:'''
For changeable stems, the following broad rules apply: ''B-stems'' have &lt;'''-si'''&gt;, ''D-stems'' have &lt;'''-ti'''&gt;, ''G-stems'' (and ''Gw-stems'')
have &lt;'''-i'''&gt;, P-stems have &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;, T-stems have &lt;'''-si'''&gt; (with some &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;), '''K-stems''' have &lt;'''-si'''&gt;. '''s-stems''' have &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;. Where these rules do not apply, &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; is default (see below however for vowel-harmony rules with this suffix). 

*&lt;'''reB-'''&gt; &quot;to row&quot; -&gt; '''arepsi'''
*&lt;'''saD-'''&gt; &quot;to plant&quot; -&gt; '''asatti'''
*&lt;'''faG-'''&gt; &quot;to spit&quot; -&gt; '''ahwai'''
*&lt;'''neP-'''&gt; &quot;to sing&quot; -&gt; '''anephë'''
*&lt;'''ermissiaT-'''&gt; &quot;to fall in love&quot; -&gt; '''eirmissiassi'''
*&lt;'''seK-'''&gt; &quot;to write&quot; -&gt; '''aseksi'''
*&lt;'''dles-'''&gt; &quot;to freeze&quot; -&gt; '''aldesë'''


'''Harmonic Suffixes with Consonant Stems:'''
Other simple consonant stems (together with augmented stems) take mostly &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;, using &lt;'''-i'''&gt; as an harmonic allomorph in certain circumstances. This vowel harmony actually applies in all cases when &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; is used. Basically, &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; is used whenever the root vowel (the vowel preceding the suffix) is '''_a_''' (and '''_ai_'''), '''_e_''' (and '''_ei_''') or '''_o_''', that is, the low vowels and the central vowel. The &lt;'''-i'''&gt; suffix is used if the root vowel is '''_i_''' or '''_u_''', that is, the high vowels. There are very few exceptions to this rule; those that do exist have historical explanations. The following examples illustrate this contrast:

*&lt;'''fal-''' &quot;to wander&quot; -&gt; '''aphalë'''
*&lt;'''fil-''' &quot;to come&quot; -&gt; '''ahwili'''
*&lt;'''pel-''' &quot;to seek&quot; -&gt; '''aphelë'''
*&lt;'''sun-''' &quot;to walk&quot; -&gt; '''asuni'''
*&lt;'''ol-''' &quot;to sparkle&quot; -&gt; '''ulë''' ('''a-ol-ë''')


The main exceptions to this rule are: &lt;'''sul-'''&gt; &quot;to flow&quot; ('''asulë''' &lt; '''aso:lë'''), &lt;'''si(l)-'''&gt; &quot;to shine&quot; ('''asili, asilë'''), &lt;'''nun-'''&gt; &quot;to detect scent&quot; ('''anunë'''), &lt;'''perophur-'''&gt; &quot;to relate&quot; ('''apherophurë, peruphurë'''), &lt;'''pur-'''&gt; &quot;to speak&quot; ('''aphurë'''), &lt;'''sur-'''&gt; &quot;to rustle&quot; ('''asulti, asurë'''), &lt;'''tusk-'''&gt; &quot;to hoot&quot; ('''assuskë'''), &lt;'''nuw-'''&gt; &quot;to tune&quot; ('''anuvë'''), &lt;'''ling-'''&gt; &quot;to ring&quot; ('''alingë''').


'''Suffixes with N-stems:'''
''n-stems'' take either &lt;'''-ti'''&gt; or &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; (with harmonic alteration). There are also a few instances of &lt;'''-si'''&gt;. The consonantal past tense suffixes are associated, for the most part, with verbs which have been derived from a noun by means of the deverbal suffix &lt;'''-n'''&gt;. While this is not a hard and fast rule, it does cover a large number of ''n-stems''. Otherwise, the suffix is usually &lt;'''-ë'''&gt;. The examples below show both the noun (if any) and the derived verb:

*&lt;'''nossa'''&gt; &quot;snow&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''nossan-'''&gt; &quot;to snow&quot; -&gt; '''anossanti'''
*&lt;'''riska''' &gt; &quot;popping, swelling&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''riskan-'''&gt; &quot;to swell, pop&quot; -&gt; '''ariskassi''' ('''a-riskan-si''')
*&lt;'''nomben-'''&gt; &quot;to get engaged&quot; -&gt; '''anombenë'''
*&lt;'''ndun-'''&gt; &quot;to rush&quot; -&gt; '''anduni'''


'''Suffixes with ''y-stems'':'''
These take either &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; or no suffix, rather indiscriminately. 

*&lt;'''nay-'''&gt; &quot;to be permitted&quot; -&gt; '''anai'''
*&lt;'''nankoy-'''&gt; &quot;to apply to&quot; -&gt; '''anankoyë'''


'''Suffixes with Compound Stems:''' 
Compound stems take either &lt;'''-ë'''&gt; (with harmony) for the most part, or &lt;'''-si'''&gt; only in ''nd-stems'', ''nt-stems'' and ''rn-stems'' to some extent.

*&lt;'''teld-'''&gt; &quot;to silence&quot; -&gt; '''asseldë'''
*&lt;'''pelk-'''&gt; &quot;to ask&quot; -&gt; '''aphelkë'''
*&lt;'''namp-'''&gt; &quot;to hammer&quot; -&gt; '''anampë'''
*&lt;'''yathend-'''&gt; &quot;to be obligated&quot; -&gt; '''ayathensi'''  (note, not '''*ëathensi''' with vowel contraction)
*&lt;'''sint-'''&gt; &quot;to sew&quot; -&gt; '''asinsi'''
*&lt;'''vovern-'''&gt; &quot;to answer&quot; -&gt; '''avoversi'''
*&lt;'''harr-'''&gt; &quot;to meet for the 1st time&quot; -&gt; '''aharrë'''
*&lt;'''mersk-'''&gt; &quot;to conceal&quot; -&gt; '''amerskë'''
*&lt;'''risk-'''&gt; &quot;to swell&quot; -&gt; '''ariski'''
*&lt;'''misp-'''&gt; &quot;to destroy&quot; -&gt; '''amispi'''
*&lt;'''list-'''&gt; &quot;to begin to think&quot; -&gt; '''alisti'''

====='''Zero-Grade Preterites'''=====

* &lt;'''ra-'''&gt; &quot;hold&quot; -&gt; '''a-r-ti'''   (augment + zero-grade-root + suffix) (but, '''arena''' is also found).
* &lt;'''se-'''&gt; &quot;seem&quot; -&gt; '''a-s-ti''' (augment + zero-grade-root + suffix) (but, '''asena''' is also found). 
* &lt;'''vo(w)-'''&gt; &quot;exist&quot;  -&gt; '''vu-si'''  (zero-grade-root + suffix).
* &lt;'''the-'''&gt; &quot;be necessary&quot; -&gt; '''th-i''' (zero-grade-root + suffix).
* &lt;'''tildo-'''&gt; &quot;frequently see&quot; -&gt; '''-assil-ti''' (a-tild-ti)  (augment + zero-grade-root + suffix).  
* &lt;'''ren-'''&gt; &quot;drown&quot; (High Silindion) -&gt; '''a-r-si''' (a-rn-si) (augment +zero-grade-root + suffix)  (but, '''aressi''' &amp; '''arenti''' are also found).
*&lt;'''tera-'''&gt; &quot;work metal&quot; -&gt; '''a-sser-ti''' (augment + zero-grade-root + suffix) (but, '''asserë''' is also found).


====='''Irregular Past Tenses'''=====
These are past tenses which are not formed according to the two normal formations (root or zero-grade) or having special suffixes. 


======'''Stative Pasts'''======
The irregular nasal past tenses of &lt;'''sëur-'''&gt; &quot;to get ripped, torn, cut&quot;, &lt;'''yeir-'''&gt; &quot;to get weighed, weigh&quot;, &lt;'''sar-'''&gt; &quot;to get hot/burned&quot;. 

These verbs form past tenses from stems that do not end in '''_r_'''. This is because '''_r_''' was originally a derivational suffix indicating process. When viewed from the past, process and state sometimes become synonymous. That is &quot;got ripped&quot; and &quot;have been ripped&quot; mean basically the same thing. This was indicated in Old Silindion by replacing the process suffix '''_r_''' with a stativizing '''_n_''', followed by a harmonic vowel. This resulted in the (original) past tenses:

*&lt;'''sëur-'''&gt;  -&gt; '''senkë'''   ('''sekw-n-e''')
*&lt;'''yeir-'''&gt;   -&gt; '''yeina'''    ('''yay-n-a''')
*&lt;'''sar-'''&gt;    -&gt; '''salda'''    ('''sal-n-a''')

Eventually, these were replaced by '''asëurë''', '''ayeirë''', and '''asarë''' respectively. 


======'''Pia-'''======
The past tense of &lt;'''pia-'''&gt; &quot;to touch&quot; is irregular. This verb becomes a ''k-stem'' in the past tense, taking the suffix &lt;'''-si'''&gt;: '''aphiksi'''.


======'''Fē-'''======
The past tense of &lt;'''fē-'''&gt; &quot;to flee&quot; is irregular. This verb sometimes takes the peculiar suffix &lt;'''-essi'''&gt;: '''aphiessi''' (but '''aphissi''' is also found). 


======'''Su-'''====== 
The past tense of &lt;'''su-'''&gt; &quot;to want&quot; is irregular. This verb is almost always used in the passive, thus the past tense is &lt;'''súrië'''&gt;.


======'''Mot- &amp; Thor-'''======
The irregular verbs &lt;'''mot/mar/mat-'''&gt; &quot;to hide&quot; and &lt;'''thor/thar/tha-'''&gt; &quot;to cover&quot; are irregular in the past tense as well. These verbs have the past tenses '''amatë''' and '''athasi''' (also '''athorë''') respectively. 


======'''Ti-'''======
The verb &lt;'''ti-'''&gt; &quot;to take&quot; is irregular.  This verb is defective and has no past tense. The past tense is supplied by the synonym &lt;'''ist-'''&gt;, which only exists in this tense. Thus the past is &lt;'''eistë'''&gt;. This root is also used for the past tense of &lt;'''vayanti-'''&gt; &quot;to choose a path&quot;, which is &lt;'''vayaneistë'''&gt; in the past tense. (Note internal augmentation).


======'''Sur-'''======
The verb &lt;'''sur-'''&gt; &quot;to rustle&quot; is irregular. In addition to having the past tense &lt;'''asurë'''&gt;, this verb also becomes an ''l-stem'' in the past tense, making &lt;'''asulti'''&gt;. This is probably due to contamination with &lt;'''sul-'''&gt; &quot;to flow&quot;.

----

===Regular and Irregular Principle parts===
In this section common verbs will all of their principle parts shall be given. In addition, those verbs which have &quot;irregular&quot; principle parts of some kind will be listed.

===='''Regular Principle Parts'''====

{| border = 1 
! Stem Class
! 1st 
! 2nd
! 3rd
! 4th 
! 5th
! 6th
! 7th 
|-
|''o-stem''
|niello
|nona
|norë
|non
|anë,
|nonë
|nossë
|-
|''u-stem''
|lissiello
|lissuna
|lissurë
|lissún,
|alissi
|lissunë
|lissussë
|-
|''i-stem''
|sariello
|sarina
|sarilë
|sarín
|asari
|sarinë
|sarissë
|-
|''ē-stem''
|vëallo
|vinë
|virë
|vién
|avissi
|vienë
|vissë
|-
|''e-stem''
|nankiello
|nankena
|nankerë
|nankén
|anankë
|nankenë
|nankessë
|-
|''a-stem''
|silliello
|sillana
|sillarë
|sillán
|asillë
|sillanë
|sillassë
|-
|''ëo-stem''
|delëollo
|delëona
|delëorë
|delëon
|adélië
|delëonë
|delëossë
|}

----
----

=='''Syntax'''==

==='''Standard of Comparison'''===

A) In Silindion, the standard of comparison (i.e. &quot;than-phrases&quot;) are formed in two ways according to the type of comparative. 


B) If the comparative is used adjectively to denote the attributes of a referential noun phrase, then the standard of comparison is a noun phrase as well. 
The standard of comparison is inflected for ablative case. 


C) If the comparative is used adverbially to denote the manner by  or degree to which something is done, then the standard of comparison is a prepositional relative with a resumptive pronoun (for more information, see the appropriate section).


1)  Standard of Comparison = Noun Phrase

{| border = 1
|- 
| '''ëan'''
| '''i'''
| '''nari'''
| '''më'''
| '''pantio'''   
| '''nattolim'''
|-
| BE-present-3rd-sing.
| the
| BIRD
| this
| SMALL-comparative
| OTHER-ablative
|}

&quot;This bird is smaller that the other one.&quot;


2) Standard of Comparison = Relative Clause

{| border = 1
|-
| '''purontë'''  
| '''layo'''
| '''ta(lim)'''
| '''yova'''
| '''phurosi'''
| '''ulo'''
|- 
| SPEAK-present-3rd-plural
| GOOD-comparative
| which-(ablative)
| relative
| SPEAK-present-1st-sing.
| BEYOND-it
|}

&quot;They speak better than I speak.&quot;

----

==='''Subordination'''===

===='''Complement Clauses'''====

===='''Purpose Clauses'''====

===='''Relative Clauses'''====

A) Relative clauses in Siliindion are formed in a number of ways depending on dialect and register. In the following sections, Standard Low Silindion (the vernacular language in use for every day life as well as so-called 'vulgar literature' and some poetry will be described. A separate section, entitled Relative Clauses in High Silindion will deal with the court language and the language of religion, epic poetry and other 'higher' forms of literature. 


B) In Low Silindion (hereafter: Silindion), the relative clause is formed by means of two elements: the '''relative pronoun''' and the '''subordinating conjunction'''. The both the relative pronoun and the subordinating conjunction are vary with regard to animacy. The pronoun varies with regard to number only for inanimates. The following table gives the forms of both the relative pronoun and the subordinating conjunction. The forms of the pronoun are found under the labels 'singular' and 'plural'. 


{| border = 1 
|-
! Animacy 
! Singular
! Plural  
! Subordinator
|-
|'''Animate'''
|të
|të
|yo
|-
|'''Inanimate'''
|ta
|tona
|yova
|-
|}


C) The animate subordinator is usually prefix that attaches to the following verb. Vowels are changed as in the following chart.
Consonants that can be lenited, are lenited (except for _k_, which remains unchanged). The only time that the subordinator is not a prefix
is if the verb begins in a diphthong. 


{| border = 1
! Verb Initial
! Assimilation
! Example 
|-
|  ''a''
|  yo + a &gt; yu 
|   &lt;'''aski-'''&gt; &quot;to shake hands&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yuski-'''&gt; &quot;relative-shake.hands&quot;     
|-
|  ''o''  
|  yo + o -&gt; yu
|   &lt;'''or-'''&gt; &quot;to speak&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yur-'''&gt; &quot;relative-speak&quot;    
|-
|  ''i''
|  yo + i -&gt; yei 
|  &lt;'''ilor-'''&gt; &quot;to terrify&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yeilor'''&gt; &quot;relative-terrify&quot;
|- 
| ''u''
| yo + u -&gt; yu
| &lt;'''urr-'''&gt; &quot;to swallow&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yurr-'''&gt; &quot;relative-swallow&quot;   
|-
| ''e'' / ''ei''
| yo + e -&gt; yoi
| &lt;'''es-'''&gt; &quot;to jump&quot; -&gt; &lt;'''yois-'''&gt; &quot;relative-jump&quot;
|-
|}


D) The pronoun may be inflected for any of the cases (except for the essive, copulative and adjectival). Examples of the inflected pronoun are found in the following sections.


E)  With inanimate antecedents, the number distinction (&lt;'''ta'''&gt; ''singular''; &lt;'''tona'''&gt; ''plural'') found in the relative pronoun is optional. This does not correlate with restrictiveness vs. non-restrictiveness and is likely a free variant. The number distinction is more common in literature and in High Silindion.


1) Number Agreement:

{| border = 1
| '''i'''
| '''mar'''
| '''në'''
| '''i'''
| '''ssorma'''
| '''tonán'''
| '''yova'''
| '''lenyáneinto'''
| '''i'''
| '''deni...'''
|- 
| the
| CITY
| and
| the
| TOWER
| which-plural-accusative
| relative
| BUILD-imperfect-3rd.plural
| the
| PEOPLE
|}

&quot;the city and tower that the people were building...&quot;


2) Non-Number Agreement:

{| border = 1
| '''ya'''
| '''i'''
| '''nóriavi'''
| '''ta'''
| '''malyanto'''
| '''o'''
| '''ostervi...'''
|- 
| under
| the
| TREE-plural-locative 
| which
| MOVE-pres.-3rd.-plural
| in
| WIND-locative
|}

&quot;Under the trees that move in the wind...&quot;
 

F)  With non-human animate nouns (such as animals) as antecedents, both the inanimate and animate pronouns may be used, together with either the animate or inanimate subordinator. This tendency to restrict animacy marking to humans is very usual in spoken Silindion. 


3)  Animal = Animate

{| border = 1
| '''Nissa'''
| '''phessina'''
| '''i'''
| '''lëorna'''
| '''tein'''
| '''yulavassë'''
| '''apa'''
|- 
| let
| EAT-subj.-1st-plural
| the
| WHITE.DEER-accusative
| which-accusative
| rel.-aug.-CATCH-past-3rd-sing.
| father
|}

&quot;Let's eat the white deer that father caught.&quot;


4) Animal = Inanimate

{| border = 1
| '''Nissa'''
| '''phessina'''
| '''i'''
| '''lëorna'''
| '''tan'''
| '''yova'''
| '''alavassë'''
| '''apa'''
|- 
| let
| EAT-subj.-1st-plural
| the
| WHITE.DEER-accusative
| which-accusative
| relative.inanimate 
| aug.-CATCH-past-3rd.-sing.
| father
|}


====='''Headed Relative Clauses'''=====

Headed relative clauses have an antecedent, headless relative clauses do not. 

======'''Argument Relative Clauses'''======


A) The pronoun may either be inflected for the case that the argument has in the relative clause or the case that the antecedent has (this is called '''case attraction'''). 


1) Non-case attraction:

{| border = 1
| '''Monienta'''
| '''i'''
| '''vurmán'''
| '''Alarieli'''
| '''të'''
| '''yossarán'''
| '''emë'''
| '''turnivi.'''
|- 
| HEAR-optative/future.2nd.plur 
| the 
| STORY-accusative
| Alarië-genitive
| who-nominative
| rel.-RULE-pres.-3rd.sing.
| on
| NIGHT-locative 
|}

&quot;You shall hear the story of Alarië who rules over night.&quot;

* '''Note:''' The pronoun is inflected as a nominative, as it is acting as the subject of the relative clause. This is despite the fact that the antecedent is in the genitive.


2) Case Attraction:

{| border = 1
| '''a'''
| '''hweya'''
| '''Rilméveri,'''
| '''të'''
| '''yumiri'''
| '''apanya...'''
|- 
| oh
| DAUGHTER-nominative
| Rilmevë-genitive
| WHO-nominative
| rel.-aug.-LOVE-past-3rd.sing.
| FATHER-nominative-our
|}

&quot;Oh daughter of Rilmevë, whom our father loved...&quot;

*'''Note:''' The pronoun is inflected as nominative. This is despite the fact that it is acting as the object of the relative clause. However, because it is in apposition to the antecedent, 'daughter', it is inflected as nominative; i.e. it is attracted to the case of the antecedent. 


B) Unusually (from the point of view of language-typology), case attraction is only found when the relative clause is '''non-restrictive''', i.e. appositive (as an option). The explanation is likely that the relative pronoun is functioning like an antecedent in its own right, hence it must have case appropriate to its clause, not the relative clause. This phenomenon is also found in embedded questions, for which see the appropriate section.

======'''Prepositional Relative Clauses'''======


A) There are two methods of forming a prepositional relative clause (i.e. when the the relation between relativized element and subordinate clause is a prepositional relation). 


B) The most common method is to inflect the relative pronoun in an oblique case (dative, ablative, allative, comitative, locative, instrumental, relative, benefactive) and place the relative pronoun between the antecedent and the relative clause, which is introduced by the subordinator. 


C) The second method is to add a preposition with a resumptive pronoun.  In this case, the relative pronoun remains uninflected (normally, although inflection in an oblique case appropriate to the preposition is sometimes found).


D) In the first sentence type, no prepositions are found. In the second type, prepositions are required. The difference is one of specificity, i.e. whenever a more specific prepositional relation is required (i.e. meanings such as &quot;beyond&quot; or &quot;above&quot;) the preposition+resumptive strategy would be used. Whenever a generic prepositional relation is meant (i.e. &quot;at&quot;, &quot;in&quot;) the normal method is used. 


1) No Preposition + Resumptive

{| border = 1
|-
| '''arti''' 
| '''haitín'''
| '''to'''
| '''yova'''
| '''aropsi''' 
| '''i'''
| '''siryán'''
|-
| aug.-HOLD/HAVE-past-3rd-sing.
| SWORD-accusative
| which-instrumental
| relative
| aug.-PROTECT/GUARD-past-3rd-sing.
| the
| GATE-plural-accusative
|}

&quot;He had a sword with which he guarded the gates.&quot;


2) Preposition + Resumptive

{| border = 1
|-
| '''ië'''
| '''noldi'''
| '''i'''
| '''morno'''
| '''ta'''
| '''yova'''
| '''amisti''' 
| '''yo'''
|-
| was
| COOL
| the
| SHADE
| which
| relative
| aug.-SIT-past-3rd-sing.
| beneath-it
|}

&quot;The shade under which he sat was cool.&quot;

('''ië	noldi i morno tavi yova amisti''' would mean &quot;the shade in which/where he sat was cool.&quot;


======'''Genitival Relative Clauses'''======


A) There are two ways of forming a relative clause which has a genitival relation, i.e. which can be translated as &quot;whose&quot;.


B) The first way, found commonly in poetry, is to place the pronoun (in the genitive) after the antecedent followed immediately by the subordinate clause, with no intervening subordinator. This seems to be found with animate antecedents. Note that in this construction, the object possessed by the antecedent is usually (but not always) placed at the end of the subordinate clause, as in the example.


1) Non-Fronting Construction

{| border = 1
|-
| '''a'''
| '''noirë'''
| '''na'''
| '''teiri'''
| '''rento'''
| '''sinta'''
| '''i'''
| '''nempë'''
|-
| oh
| HOLY
| ONE
| who-genitive
| REACH-3rd-plural
| ME-allative
| the
| SONG-plural
|}

&quot;Oh holy one, whose songs reach me...&quot;


C) The second way of forming a genitival relative, found most often with inanimate antecedents, is to inflect the relative pronoun and front the possessed object to before the subordinated verb. In this construction, the subordinator is found. However, it may be best to analyze the subordinator and the relative pronoun has one grammatical element. In fact, it is occasionally written as one, i.e. as '''tariyova'''.


2) Fronting Construction

{| border = 1
|-
| '''silinya'''
| '''tariyova'''
| '''nan'''
| '''ahwili''' 
| '''mi'''
|- 
| STAR-plural
| whose
| LIGHT
| aug.-FALL-past-3rd-sing.
| down
|-
|}

&quot;Stars whose light falls down.&quot; 

* ''''Note:''' In this construction, '''tari''' is not inflected for number. This is another indication, perhaps, that this has become divorced from the relative pronoun '''ta'''.

====='''Headless Relative Clauses'''=====


====='''High Silindion Relative Clauses'''=====


====='''Poetic Relative Clauses'''=====


====='''Copular Relative Clauses'''=====

===='''Embedded Questions'''====

----

==='''Quotation'''===

----

==='''Conditional Clauses'''===

----

==='''Information Structure'''===

===='''Topicalization'''====

===='''Focalization'''====

----

==='''Copular Clauses'''===

===='''Descriptive'''====

===='''Identificational'''====

===='''Emphatic'''====

===='''Existential'''====

----</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Case Usages in Silindion</title>
    <id>2030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:02:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Denihilonihil</title>
    <id>2032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29432</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-01T10:14:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Gigni de nihilo nihil, in nihilo nil posse reverti==

[[Image:Blossom.jpg]]

From this famous quote by the Roman poet and satirist Persius was derived my username.

:'''yu.''' high school student from the tropical island of Singapore.&lt;br /&gt;
:would like to be intellectual some day.

For more personal information, please see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Denihilonihil my Wikipedia userprofile].

==Alternative history of East Asia and colonialism==

===States===
*[[Freschzierra D'Olascheiy]]
**Provinces: [[Csecer]], [[Vledine]], Aldan, Arraron, Charchup, Estanove, Geldan, Lillue, Okhotsk (Ochotysque), Verkhovsk (Verchovysque)
**[[Januet Empire]], [[Fresch Civil War]], [[1736 Revolution]], [[First Fresch Republic]], [[1760 Revolution]], [[Fresch Treaty of Unification]]
*[[Zelma]]
**[[Zelman Soviet Socialist Republic]]
*Altonia
*Aluevea
*Dharesia (also Dharis)
*Frivest

===Languages===
*[[Fresch]] (or Fresque; standard Csecerean dialect)
**Dialects: [[Ammerian]], [[Lillian]], [[Irions]]
**Descended from: [[Zaenistian]]
*[[Zelman]]
*Altonian
*Aluevèan
*Dharesian
*[[Frivestian]]

==Ilethes==

*[[Ilethes]], the planet ([[:Category: Ilethes]])
*[[References to Earth in the design of Ilethes]]

===Geography===
'''Continents:'''
*[[Arophania]]
*[[Canthres]]
*[[Eresphria]]
*[[Istheusia]]
*[[Marcasia]]

'''Oceans, Seas, Rivers'''
*[[Artya]]
*[[As am Iraph]]
*[[Auzirean Sea]]
*[[Chisthian Sea]]
*[[Deis Paphresis]]
*[[Hibondassian Sea]]
*[[Issol A'i]]
*[[Nes river]]
*[[Pelassian Sea]]
*[[Theph river]]
*[[Thorfu]]

===Anthropography===
*[[Dethrians]]
**[[Hagean Alliance]], later [[Hagean Empire]]
**[[Vichau States]]
**[[Dethria]]
*[[Areth]]
**[[Lazeian Empire]]
**[[Arithia]]
*[[Karyaba]]
*[[Ivir]]
*[[Andu]]

==General unclassified languages==
*[[Parseltongue-inspired]]

==Raw material==
====Arophanic language family====

The table below lists the genealogy of the largest Arophanic languages in Ilethes today.

{| border=1 width=100%
!colspan=12 bgcolor=#c0c0c0| [[Arophanic languages]]
|-
|colspan=12 align=center| [[Proto-Arophanic]]
|-
!colspan=9 bgcolor=#c0c0c0| [[Arithidic languages]] ||colspan=3 bgcolor=#c0c0c0 align=center| [[Sypric languages]]
|-
|colspan=9 align=center| [[Proto-Arithidic]] ||colspan=3 align=center| [[Proto-Sypric]]
|-
|rowspan=6 align=center width=8.3%| Old Herallian ||colspan=8 rowspan=2 align=center| Ancient Arithide ||colspan=2 align=center| Old Sypric ||rowspan=2 align=center| '''[[Torugian]]'''
|-
|align=center| '''[[Syprian]]''' ||align=center| [[Basson]]
|-
|colspan=8 align=center| '''[[Classical Arithide]]''' 
|-
|rowspan=5 align=center width=8.3%| (Classical Arithide) ||colspan=3 rowspan=2 align=center| [[Koine Arithide]]
!colspan=4 bgcolor=#c0c0c0| [[Lazeic languages]]
|-
|colspan=4 align=center| Old Lazeic
|-
|colspan=3 rowspan=2 align=center| [[Middle Arithide]] ||colspan=3 align=center| High Lazeic ||align=center| Low Lazeic
|-
|rowspan=2 align=center| '''[[Herallian]]''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[Lezina]] ||align=center| Old Vethudic ||rowspan=2 width=8.3% align=center| '''[[Hyrrgonian]]'''
|-
|width=8.3% align=center| '''[[Modern Arithide]]''' ||width=8.3% align=center| [[Charian]] ||width=8.3% align=center| [[Docau]] ||width=8.3% align=center| '''[[Litsena]]''' ||width=8.3% align=center| [[Samecian]] ||width=8.3% align=center| '''[[Vethudic]]''' 
|}

====Hesperidian language family====
Named after the daughters of Hesperus in Roman mythology in English, the corresponding name of this language family in [[Dethric]], ''Erespha'', is the god that governs the setting of the sun in [[Dethria]]n lore.

(genealogy tba)


====Lytho-Grisic language family====

(genealogy tba)

==To Do==

*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]], esp. personal pronouns table
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]
*[[Classical Arithide numerals]]
*update [[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]
*update [[List of Classical Arithide irregular nouns]]
*[[Koine Arithide]]


*[[History of Classical Arithide]]
*[[Modern Arithide]]
*[[Av (Arithide)]]


*[[Zesou Crisis]]
*[[History of the Areth]]
*[[Arithia]]
*[[Dethric language]]
*[[Time on Ilethes]]
*[[Athebian calendar]]
*[[Pisex Treaty]]
*[[Lazea]], [[Lazaea]], [[Lazeia]]
*[[Calagia]]
*[[Arithian Soldierate]]
*[[Tannea]]
*[[Tannaea (province)]]

==Assorted notifications and contributions==

*[[Template:Succession box]] is now created. Free to use for rulers and dynasties of conworlds! (23 Feb 2006)
*[[Template:Infobox]] is now created. Free to use for summarising languages! (23 Feb 2006)
*[[Template:Consonants]] and [[Template:Vowels]] are now created and free for use in documenting phonologies! (24 Feb 2006)
*[[Template:Warbox]] is now created. Free to use for conworld military conflicts! (08 Oct 2006)
*[[Template:Translit]] is now created. Free to use for conlang transliteration points-to-note! (15 Oct 2006)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Case Usages</title>
    <id>2033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:35:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Case Usages moved to Case Usages in Silindion: Merge, part II</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Case Usages in Silindion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerunds in Silindion</title>
    <id>2034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:01:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Eosp</title>
    <id>2035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27067</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-27T23:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eosp</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed contact info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big &gt;'''Eosp'''&lt;/big &gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Student,&lt;br /&gt;
translator&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''&lt;br /&gt;(In order of proficiency ↔ &lt;s&gt;deficiency&lt;/s&gt;! :)
|| [[Wikipedia:English language|English]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:French language|French]], &lt;br /&gt;
[[Wikipedia:Esperanto|Esperanto]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Active created conlangs:'''
|| [[Cenoji]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:Language|Languages]],&lt;br /&gt;
[[Conlangcity:|Constructed languages]], &lt;br /&gt;
|}

Hello!  I am eosp, a conlanger and all-around crazy person.

Feel free to edit this, but please don't vandalize it, because I wouldn't do it to your page.

== Languages I've Created ==
I have worked on the following languages:

* [[Cenoji]]: Really agglutinative, somewhat in development.  Part of the Conworld [[Njetoluhi]].  (Pronounced /'nje.T2.lY.xi/, but I can't spell it.  Or pronounce it well, for that matter. :) )</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cenoji</title>
    <id>2036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-17T16:50:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eosp</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Cenoji'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||[[Njetoluhi]], by the Sea Elves
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||~3 000, distributed in clans of about 20 people.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Njetoluhi
:Elfin
::Sea Races
:::Eastern Coast
::::'''Cenoji'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[User:Eosp|Eosp]]||2006
|}

== Phonology ==
The vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u] are pronounced /{/, /e/, /i/, /2/, and /y/, respectively.  [i] is pronounced /I/ if directly preceded by the letter [j].

The consonants are [c], [f], [h], [j], [l], [m], [n], [s], [t].  All of these are pronounced like their lower-case X-SAMPA counterparts, except for the following:
* [c] = /s/
* [h] = /C/
* [s] = /S/
* [t] = /T/

All of the consonants except [j] and [s] can be followed by [j] to make a cluster.  Example: [lju] is pronounced /'ljy/.

The syllable structure is &lt;CV&gt;.  C is a consonant (or cluster) and V is a vowel.

Emphasis starts high and declines towards the end of the word, but then rises about halfway on the last syllable.

A small pause is placed between grammatical inflections and roots.  This is optional but helps when dealing with large words.  No such pause is needed between words, because the tone helps clarify this.

== Grammar ==
=== Cases ===
* Nominative: indicates the subject of the sentence.
* Accusative: indicates the object of the sentence.
* Temporal: indicates the time an event took place.
* Facilitative: indicates a noun that helps the event take place.  In the case of a three-noun sentence (such as ''I gave a letter to John''), ''letter'' would be in the nominative and ''I'' would be in the facilitative.  (this sentence would probably be closer to ''With my help, a letter gave itself to John.'')
* Obstructive: indicates a noun that prevents or hinders an event.
* Result: Indicates the result of a sentence.

=== Syntax and Rules ===
* The basic order is Subject-Object-Verb, although any order is valid.  The item appearing first is given the emphasis.  Example: ''joe.NOM mary.ACC like'' indicates that Joe likes Mary, as opposed to Bill liking Mary.  If we were to say that Joe likes Mary, as opposed to Joe liking Felicia, we would say ''mary.ACC joe.NOM like'' instead.
* Three numbers exist: singular, few (undefined, but usually for numbers less than five or six), and many (anything larger than few).
* Adjectives must agree with their noun in number (singular, few, or many) and case.
* Subclauses are simply sentences with a [na] particle on each end.  The equivalents to prepositions (but, therefore) are marking the ending [na] particle with the proper case.  Example: ''I would go skiing, but I had a concussion'' would be ''I would go skiing na I had a concussion na.OBSTRUCTIVE''.
* There are no definite or indefinite articles.
* Any number of cases may be added to a word to express an added meaning.  Example: in a reflexive action, the noun would have both the nominative and accusative.
* The temporal case does not have plural endings.
* There is no future tense, you use the &quot;I plan to ''verb''&quot; construction.  This is a cultural consideration, since the Elves firmly believe that the future cannot be predicted and can always change.
* Possession with pronouns ('''I''', '''you''', '''he''', as opposed to '''Bob''') is indicated using the inflections in the table below.  Possession for other nouns ('''Bob''', or '''the tree''') is indicated using subclauses and auxiliary verbs, as in: ''(george.NOM possess.PRESENTINDICATIVE.3PSINGULAR tent.ACC).NOM has-property.PRESENTINDICATIVE.3PSINGULAR green.ACC'', which means ''George's tent is green''.
* Verbs are inflected for their pronoun in the table below and the tense, also in one of the below tables.

=== Grammatical Markers ===
==== Case Table ====
{|
|| '''Case''' || '''Singular''' || '''Few''' || '''Plural''' || '''Notes'''
|-
|| Nominative || (none) || -hi || -hitja ||
|-
|| Accusative || -he || -ne || (remove previous vowel)-etja ||
|-
|| Temporal || -ju || (N/A) || (N/A) || Only used in the singular.
|-
|| Facilitative || -homja || -homjita || -homitja ||
|-
|| Obstructive || -hoho || -huho || -huho || No inflection for &quot;plural&quot;.
|-
|| Result || -mji || -mjuli || -mjitja ||
|}

==== Verb Tenses ====
{|
|| '''Mode''' || '''Past''' || '''Present''' || '''Conditional''' || '''Notes'''
|-
|| Indicative || -lolahi || -ninahi || -fjofahi || Only used when talking factually.
|-
|| Subjunctive || -lunalju || -minamju || -ninanju || Used in storytelling, lies, possible truths, etc.
|-
|| Imperative || -nitu || -ljatu || -fehija || Command form.
|}

==== Verb Inflections to Serve as Pronouns ====
{|
|| '''Person''' || '''Singular''' || '''Few''' || '''Plural''' || '''Notes'''
|-
|| First || -ji || -je || -je ||
|-
|| Second || -li || -le || -lja ||
|-
|| Third || -hi || -he || -hja || Not inflected for gender.
|}

==== Possessive Noun Inflections ====
These are added to the noun they modify.  Plurality is based on the noun, not the pronoun.  Gender is optional and is based on the gender of the person.
{|
|| '''Person''' || '''Singular''' || '''Few''' || '''Plural''' || '''Male''' || '''Female'''
|-
|| First || -ni || -ne || -nja || -nu || -nju
|-
|| Second || -li || -le || -lja || -lu || -lju
|-
|| Third || -hi || -he || -hja || (N/A) || (N/A)
|}

== Wordlist ==
* Ce /'ce/. Mother or inspirer, to create, inspiring.  Swadesh #42.
* Colji /'co.ljI/.  Love, to love, loving.
* Meli /'me.li/.  Servant, child, descendant, to serve or descend from, subservient.  First person pronoun.  Swadesh #1, #4.
* Mutja /'my.Tj&amp;/.  To believe or follow.  Believer or follower (in a religious sense), devout.
* Njetoluhi /'nje.T2.ly.xi/. World, to exist or live, in existence or living.
* Naha /'n&amp;.x&amp;/.  Master, to rule, dominant.  Second person pronoun.  Swadesh #2, #5.
* Noji /'n2.ji/. Language, to speak, spoken.
* Sama /'S&amp;.m&amp;/.  Generous, to give.
* Salite /'S&amp;.li.Te/.  Verb used to assign adjectives to nouns.
* Tuseji /'Ty.Se.jI/.  Monolith or giant, to enlarge, large, overall.  Swadesh #27.
* Tana /'T&amp;.n&amp;/. Genitive verb.
* Tunja /*Ty.nj&amp;/.  &quot;Therefore&quot; particle.
* Tosu /'T2.Sy/.  Feet or legs, to walk or move, moving.

== Example Sentences ==
* Melihi cenojihe nojijeninahi.  We speak Cenoji.
* Na meli ceninuhe tanajeninahi na na tuseji tananinahi nojihjahe nahe nojihilunalju.  My mother speaks the language of the giants.
* Na meli njetoluhiheni tanajiminamju na nahahe salitefjofahihi.  That which might be my world might be chief in its class.

== Translations ==
* For this is the way God loved the world: He gave his one and only Son, so that everyone who believes in him will not perish but have eternal life.  -- John 3:16 Na naha njetoluhihe coljihilolahi na tunja na melihe samahilolahi nahe tunja na mutjahitja njetoluhihjafjofahi nahehe.  -- Janu 3:16

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerunds</title>
    <id>2037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T02:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Gerunds moved to Gerunds in Silindion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gerunds in Silindion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Anurisiya</title>
    <id>2038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:30:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anurisiya</username>
        <id>124</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Real name: Wilson

Location: Singapore, Singapore

Languages in progress:
*[[Ërun Rymeth|Rymeth]]
*[[Ilerigir Kangeyazin|Kangeyazin]]

Cultures in Progress:

''World of Eraminä''
*[[Rymethus]]
**[[Rymeth Sèvayn]]
**[[Hazeryneth]]
**[[Isheyneth]]
**[[Seraineth]]
**[[Ugereth]]

*[[Kangeya]]
**[[Kangeyazin]]
**[[Shamazin]]

''The Lein Saga''
*[[Lein Empire]]
*[[Thridan]]
*[[Kal Usuk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ërun Rymeth</title>
    <id>2039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-22T10:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Ërun Rymeth|pronounce='jɛrun rɪ'mɛθ|tu=Eraminä|species=Human&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Rymeth Sèvayn|in=Rymethus, Rymeth Empire|no=|script=|tree=|morph=Agglutinative|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Anurisiya|Anurisiya]]|date=}}

'''Ërun Rymeth''' is a language spoken by the [[Rymeth Sèvayn]] people, of the continent of [[Rymethus]] in the land of [[Eraminä]]. The name literally means 'Tongue of the Inheritors'. It has Subject-Object-Verb ('Cow grass eat') word order, and is agglutinative with both prefixes and suffixes.


== Distribution ==

Ërun Rymeth, with wide dialectal differences (so wide that many of the dialects are in fact mutually unintelligible), is spoken all over the [[Rymeth Empire]], which occupies approximately the southern one-third of the whole continent. Besides this, the sheer size and cultural weight of the Empire also makes the language the lingua franca of the whole continent, such that even the Seraineth, who have for past millenia been frequently at odds with the Empire, make use of this language in commerce and trade.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ilethes</title>
    <id>2040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T17:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ilethes''' is one of the outermost planets orbiting the star [[Dephelis]], and has no satellite in its orbit. Instead, it is engaged in mutual orbit with the planet of [[Valmante]]. Ilethes is believed to be 6.332 billion years old.

==Names==

==History==

{{seealso|Maguera}}

In the beginning, the planet now known as Ilethes was a swift-moving ball of rock, growing rapidly as it gathered ever more debris on its surface as it moved through space, and occasionally in collisions with asteroids and other assorted cosmophernalia. As the planet grew larger in mass, so concomitantly grew its gravitational pull, which led to what might be called cosmological sedimentation, as increasing amounts of debris, of increasing mass, settled on the surface of the planet, eventually weighing it down enough for it to be pulled into a mutual orbit with the planet [[Valmante]].

In time, the core of Ilethes melted, due to the immense heat generated by the great pressure of cosmic debris and other matter that had accumulated on its surface, and the barren, rocky mass which once could not have supported life now began to decompose, irradiating its surrounding matter, and its riches of minerals seeped into the looser, more permeable outer layers of the planet; at the same time, the melting core emanated large amounts of heat, which diffused outwards and consumed the matter of the planet from the inside, enlarging the molten core and creating currents of molten matter of enormous strength that circulated inside the planet and set it in rotation, occasionally pressing hard enough against the still-solid crust to cause bulges, protrusions and other deformities on the surface. At times, velocity differentials between different currents led to tectonic activity, splitting up the crust into various “plates” that moved at different speeds in different directions, in turn leading to new tectonic landforms such as buckled mountains at convergent plate boundaries, and upsurges of molten material from the core which solidified as they reached the surface forming new crust of significantly decreased thickness and lower altitude. Plate boundaries were, however, not fixed due to the constantly changing directions of the currents; new plates splintered from old as regularly as did old plates coalesce into new.

As the core continued to give off heat, the entire surface of the planet was warmed, and eventually heated up sufficiently that volatile elements and compounds had already escaped some distance from the planet to form its atmosphere, while other less volatile ones had also melted, and formed running streams and rivers, which were found especially often midway up mountains, collecting into lakes and seas of mixed substance where the altitude was lower, especially in depressions. By far, the substance present in the largest quantity had been dihydrogenated oxygen, which quickly evaporated into the atmosphere as the planet heated up, but which also condensed rapidly upon contact with the far colder temperatures further away from Ilethes’ surface, forming an atmospheric zone at the upper extent of which it constantly rained, and at the lower limit of which falling rain constantly evaporated and returned within the zone.

Eventually, however, the currents in the core began to slow as its energy had dissipated in the form of outbound heat, and the planet’s rotation slowed significantly, as temperatures fell and rain began to fall on the surface of Ilethes. With water, the planet’s surface underwent a host of changes—rivers accentuated previously milder landforms such as valleys and lakes, while eroding many once stark features, such as mountains; erosion of the surface resulted in the development of a rich layer of soil, fertilized by minerals both carried in the water and eventually deposited, and held within the ground and brought close to the surface by the water. Repeated cycles of such heating and cooling of the planet gave rise to a host of proto-lifeforms that seasonally alternated between activity and dormancy, surviving on nutrients released by the presence of water and reverting to suspended animation in periods of drought and global freezing. The planet eventually settled around an equilibrium rotation-speed that had currents in the core flowing considerably faster around the “equator” than at the “poles”, leaving temperatures at the equator high with little precipitation, and temperatures at the poles low with most precipitation solidified on the ground.

At this time Ilethes was not an illuminated planet. In its mutual orbit with [[Valmante]] neither was able to give off light in the same way that both emitted heat from within; lifeforms on both planets had, significantly, developed strong abilities to “see” in infra-red, while photosensitivity was an area of relative impairment. Yet while the planets maintained constant, stable revolutions around each other, neither drawing nearer nor drifting apart, as a unit they had been in motion, albeit slower than they had been individually, towards a light-emitting star, namely, [[Dephelis]].

==Dual-planet system==

===Magnetic field===

===Day &amp; night===

==Physical characteristics==

===Chemical composition===

===Shape===

===Position in orbit===

===Internal structure===

===Tectonic plates===

==Geography==

===Terrain===

===Continents===

===Hydrosphere===

===Atmosphere===

===Climate===

===Biosphere===

===Natural resources===

===Natural hazards===

==Human interaction==

===Land use===

===Depictions &amp; descriptions===

====Western culture====

====Eastern culture====

====Fiction====

===Environmentalism===

==See also==

*[[D-2 dual-planet system]]
*[[Valmante]]
*[[List of countries of Ilethes]]

[[Category:Conworlds]]
[[Category: D-2 dual-planet system]]
[[Category: Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Empire</title>
    <id>2041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-06T03:47:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lein Dynasty''' was a dynasty of the Empire, of that civilisation which was anciently known as the Yesan, preceded by the [[Har Dynasty]] and succeeded by the [[Yech Dynasty]]. It was ruled by the family of the same name, and ruled for around 500 years (depending on the definition of the ending of the dynasty, since it split into two at its end); founded by [[Lein Durun berHikas]], it had either 20 or 21 Emperors in all (again, depending on definition). See [[Genealogy of the Lein Emperors]].

The Lein Dynasty was the fourth unified dynasty of the Yesan, and in terms of historical impact one of the greatest ever. During the dynasty the Empire [[expansion of the Lein Dynasty|more than doubled in area]], and [[Order of the World|extended military and political control over four continents]], to the extent of carving up entire continents into properly-defined states, all of which were them placed under the protection and suzerainty of the Imperial Court. Meanwhile, artistically the Lein was also a golden age, with new styles of sculpting, painting and other graphic arts imported from all over the world, while poetry evolved from the old, relatively rigid style of the 'ode' to the new 'song' and 'assertion' forms. At the same time other art forms also flourished, from painting to music to sculpture; the [[Tomb of Areya]], for example, contained no less than 600 stone sculptures, to serve as handmaidens, servants and guards for the [[Nim Areya|Empress]] buried within.

== Beginnings ==

The founding of the Lein Dynasty had its roots in the corruption and terror which occupied the last decades of the Har Dynasty. During the reign of the last two Har Emperors, the country was slipping into ever-greater chaos; while many families, granted Imperial Approvals to monopolise trade in certain regions and to pay the taxes to the government, were rapidly growing into political powers of their own right, the princes, families of the imperial consorts (the [[Outer Kin]]) and the officials were being engaged in bitter factional infighting in the power centre.

At the same time, a series of agricultural crises and famines in the last decades of Har rule resulted in great hardship in the southern regions, which since time immemorial had been the economic power base of the Har Emperors; huge movements of population were at first held back, then slaughtered by the army, and before long these impoverished peasants began to fight back. A series of large agrarian revolts shook the South, while in the north tensions were also running high as officials stopped receiving salaries (all money going towards the war effort) and the [[Thridan]] people from the northern border ceaselessly building up large camps as though preparing to invade the Empire on a massive scale. 

It was into this political mess that Lein Durun berHikas, the founder of the Dynasty, plunged with a small army of his own. He first claimed that he would capture the provincial capital of Kurad Province, the large city of Alemos, in order to fortify against the outer enemy and to return peace to the inner lands - an ostensibly pro-Imperial message which earned him the support of officials still loyal to the old regime. By the time he reached Alemos his ranks had swelled tenfold to more than 80,000 men, and the city surrendered without a fight, starting the [[Lein Founding War]] as Lein Durun's army fought both the peasant uprisings and, eventually, the very same government it had allied with against those peasant uprisings. Five years later, aged 40, Lein Durun captured the capital city of Meiron and was crowned in [[Ansagin Palace]] as the First Emperor of the Lein Dynasty.

==Early Period==

The so-called Early Period of the Lein Dynasty refers mostly to the reigns of the first three Emperors, stretching across 59 years: Durun, his son Kasan, and his grandson Onge; it was marked first by great reforms which paved the way for an early burst of prosperity, before the tyranny and misrule of Onge nearly brought the whole Empire to its knees. 

Lein Durun, with the assistance of his [[Grand Chancellor]] [[Aran Ozei berKami]], set in motion sweeping reforms to the original laws of the Har Dynasty. Firstly, he simplified the increasingly labyrinthine legal code of the Har, and created the [[Code of the Progenitor]], which besides being a legal code was also a set of rules for the behaviour of officials, and the standards expected of all Emperors after him. The next and even more important reform was that of land; millions of squares of land had either been left unused due to the revolts and the Founding War, or were producing very inefficiently due to their being owned by large absentee landowners (who often did not put money into ensuring the productiveness of their land). To solve this, Durun and Aran Ozei created a system whereby peasants were encouraged to move and organise their own land, pooling their money (together with considerable Imperial subsidies) to purchase agricultural tools, while the large army which had fought in the Founding War was put to good use building irrigation and water conservancy systems so as to increase the yield of the lands, especially the highly fertile southwestern fields - which, by the end of Durun's reign, was routinely producing three crops a year.

'''Famous Rulers'''
*[[Lein Durun berHikas]]
*[[Lein Loran berOnge]]
*[[Lein Atha berLoran]]
*[[Lein Sora berAtha]]

'''See also'''
*[[Lein Imperial Regalia]]
*[[Lein Imperial Army]]
*[[The High Houses]]

{{succession box|title=Lein Dynasty|years= ruled 518 ''or'' 526|before=[[Har Dynasty]]|after=[[Yech Dynasty]]}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genealogy of the Lein Emperors</title>
    <id>2042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:38:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anurisiya</username>
        <id>124</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following list is a '''genealogy of the Lein Emperors''', of the [[Lein Empire]].

{{emperor|order=Founding|given=Lein Durun berHikas|b=-40|d=16|rn=Hikri Darusa (lit. &quot;the Light is Rising&quot;)|rp1=0|rp2=16|pt=Grand Progenitor of the Lein Dynasty}}

{{emperor|order=Second|given=Lein Kasan berDurun|b=-11|d=35|rn=Osha Kanmre, literally ‘Prosperous and Mighty’|rp1=16|rp2=35|pt=The Learned Emperor}}

{{emperor|order=Third|given=Lein Onge berKasan|b=9|d=59|rn=Nawan Kanom, literally ‘Unmatched Might’|rp1=35|rp2=59|pt=The Dethroned (No Imperial title bestowed)}}

{{emperor|order=Fourth|given=Lein Loran berOnge|b=31|d=85|rn=Hikri Hayei, literally ‘Radiant Learning’|rp1=59|rp2=85|pt=The Civil Emperor}}

{{emperor|order=Fifth|given=Lein Atha berLoran|b=69|d=117|rn=Chievan Anomre, literally ‘Enlightened Prospect’|rp1=85|rp2=117|pt=The Enlightened Emperor}}

{{emperor|order=Sixth|given=Lein Sora berAtha|b=99|d=177|rn=Doyon Kanom, ‘Benevolent Might’ (117-157)
Telrene Anir, ‘Time of Great Peace’ (157-177)|rp1=117|rp2=177|pt=The Great Martial Emperor}}

{{emperor|order=Seventh|given=Lein Kera berSora|b=125|d=194|rn=Toware Gisa, ‘Peaceful Rise’
|rp1=177|rp2=194|pt=The Honoured Emperor}}


'''Eighth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Aghe berSuman
Lifetime: 169-203
Reign name: Hawan Odomir, ‘Inaugural Administration’
Reign Period: 194-197
Posthumous Title: None (deposed)

'''Ninth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Dosem berSuman
Lifetime: 174-203
Reign name: Hawan Odomir (left unchanged from previous reign)
Reign Period: 197-203
Posthumous Title: None (deposed)

'''Tenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Dora berKera
Lifetime: 176-228
Reign name: Edei Odomir, ‘Blessed Administration’
Reign Period: 203-228
Posthumous Title: The Radiant Emperor

'''Eleventh Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Temira berDora
Lifetime: 202-243
Reign name: Kinim Towar, ‘Respected Peace’
Reign Period: 228-243
Posthumous Title: The Conscientious Emperor

'''Twelfth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Ademre berChisane
Lifetime: 216-271
Reign name: Awanar Oshai, ‘Lasting Prosperity’
Reign Period: 243-271
Posthumous Title: The Perceptive Emperor

'''Thirteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Dasera berAdemre
Lifetime: 253-287
Reign name: Towaran Odomir ‘Peaceful Administration’
Reign Period: 271-287
Posthumous Title: The Respected Emperor

'''Fourteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Torol berSarun
Lifetime: 278-323
Reign name: Shanoi Runagan ‘Soaring Drake’
Reign Period: 287-323
Posthumous Title: The Naïve Emperor

'''Fifteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Izora berTorol
Lifetime: 304-357
Reign name: ‘All-encompassing Benevolence’ 
Reign Period: 323-357
Posthumous Title: The Just Emperor

'''Sixteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Odare berIzora
Lifetime: 336-393
Reign name: ‘Prosperous Tranquility’
Reign Period: 357-393
Posthumous Title: The Rebuilding Emperor

'''Seventeenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Karuna berOdare
Lifetime: 361-409
Reign name: ‘Just and Moral’
Reign Period: 393-409
Posthumous Title: The Peaceable Emperor

'''Eighteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Nuren berHasich
Lifetime: 396-451
Reign name: ‘Martial Industriousness’ 
Reign Period: 409-451
Posthumous Title: The Juvenile Emperor

After this, the Lein Dynasty splits into two: the Eastern and Western Courts; both claimed to be the original Lein Dynasty.

'''Eastern Emperors'''

----

'''Nineteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Ukad berNuren
Lifetime: 421-478
Reign name: ‘Three Phoenixes’
Reign Period: 451-478
Posthumous Title: The Discerning Emperor

'''Twentieth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Danel berUkad
Lifetime: 452-494
Reign name: ‘Divine Vastness’
Reign Period: 478-494
Posthumous Title: The Ambitious Emperor

'''Twenty-First Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Alez berDanel
Lifetime: 484-526
Reign name: ‘Enduring Glory’
Reign period: 494-515
Posthumous Title: The Rash Emperor

'''Western Emperors'''

----

'''Nineteenth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Umir berNuren
Lifetime: 435-489
Reign name: ‘Blessed Contentment’
Reign Period: 451-489
Posthumous Title: The Humble Emperor

'''Twentieth Emperor'''
Given name: Lein Kedin berUmir
Lifetime: 468-518
Reign name: ‘Blessed Might’
Reign Period: 489-510
Posthumous Title: The Tolerant Emperor

The Western Court fell to the then-Imperial High Commissioner of Finances, Yech Asal, in 510; his treatment of Lein Kedin and the Lein family, to whom he allocated a palace near Kiron and allowed them to keep their property, impressed many in the world. After a brief struggle with the Yech, the Eastern Court also decided to surrender; again Yech Asal treated his predecessors with magnanimity, and thus the Lein ended without much massive bloodshed (compared to ~2 million dead for the Lein Founding War, the war which established Yech control over the whole Empire cost around 250,000 lives).</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Low Elvish</title>
    <id>2043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-29T13:51:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Low Elvish&lt;br&gt;Norelbhrin'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||southwestern Britain
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||5000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[South Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Low Elvish'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||[[fluid-S]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||Jörg Rhiemeier||2000-
|}

'''Low Elvish''' (Low Elvish '''Norelbhrin''') is a descendant of [[Old Albic]] spoken in southwestern Britain.

Over time, the language has undergone some fundamental changes.  For example, the Old Albic case endings are lost, but a new system of case marking has arisen by initial mutations.  The developments can be compared to similar developments that occured at the same time in other languages of western Europe.

[[category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>South Albic</title>
    <id>2044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-17T14:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''South Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||southern Britain and elsewhere
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''South Albic'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Old Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Low Elvish]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Macaronesian]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2001-
|}

'''South Albic''' is a branch of the [[Albic]] family spoken in southern Britain and several colonial areas including [[Macaronesia]].  It includes the classical form of [[Old Albic]] as well as the modern [[Low Elvish]] and [[Macaronesian]] languages.

South Albic is the largest branch of Albic in terms of both languages belonging to it and speakers of those languages.

The classical [[Old Albic]] language is based on the South Albic dialects of the classical period, and the modern South Albic languages can be considered more or less direct descendants of it.

==Sound changes in South Albic==

Symbols:

T neutral stop &lt;br&gt;
T` aspirated stop &lt;br&gt;
D voiced stop &lt;br&gt;
Th fricative &lt;br&gt;
C any consonant &lt;br&gt;
C* zero or more consonants &lt;br&gt;
V any vowel &lt;br&gt;
X any segment &lt;br&gt;
X* zero or more segments of any kind&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;#&lt;/nowiki&gt; word boundary

The three grades of stops (neutral, aspirated, voiced) remain distinct.

'''*h''' deletes with vowel lengthening in codas:

V'''h''' &gt; V: / _(C,#)

Clusters of '''s'''+stop are simplified except intervocally:

'''s'''T &gt; T`&lt;br&gt;
'''s'''T` &gt; T`&lt;br&gt;
'''s'''D &gt; D

Clusters of stop+'''s''' undergo metathesis:

T'''s''' &gt; '''s'''T&lt;br&gt;
T`'''s''' &gt; '''s'''T`&lt;br&gt;
D'''s''' &gt; '''s'''D

Intervocalic '''s''' becomes '''r''' (eastern dialects only; partly restored by analogy):

'''s''' &gt; '''r''' /V_V

In the eastern dialects, '''s''' also deletes word-initially before resonants.

Aspirates are changed into neutral stops if another aspirate or '''h''' follows (precedence from right to left): 

T` &gt; T / _X*T` &lt;br&gt;
T` &gt; T /_X*'''h'''

Vowels undergo umlaut (precedence from right to left):

V &gt; [+open] / _C*'''a'''&lt;br&gt;
V &gt; [+front] / _C*'''i'''&lt;br&gt;
V &gt; [+round] / _C*'''u'''

Aspirated stops are changed into fricatives:

T` &gt; Th

This latter change was still underway in classical times: many rural dialects still had aspirated stops.


[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gobldi Guk</title>
    <id>2045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29118</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T19:53:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Gobldi Guk'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||various countries, by goblins
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||''[[Wikipedia:Harry Potter|Harry Potter]]'' or somewhere else
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Language isolate (non-human)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''Gobldi Guk'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2006
|}

'''Gobldi Guk''' (which means 'language of the Goblins') is a language spoken by Goblins.  The inspiration for this language is from the ''[[Wikipedia:Harry Potter|Harry Potter]]'' series of books, wherein the word ''Gobbledygook'' is used as the name of the language of goblins.  Gobldi Guk could be that language.

Gobldi Guk is a simple language.  It is not an especially ambitious project and not meant to ever reach the degree of sophistication I intend to reach with [[Albic]] (to which it is entirely unrelated).  It is just a little side project - a ''[[funlang]]''.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
{|
|| ||Labials ||Alveolars ||Velars
|-
||Voiceless stops ||'''p''' ||'''t''' ||'''k'''
|-
||Voiced stops ||'''b''' ||'''d''' ||'''g'''
|-
||Voiced lateral || ||'''l''' ||
|}

The lateral can be syllabic.

===Vowels===
{|
|| ||Front ||Central ||Back
|-
||High ||'''i''' ||'''y''' ||'''u'''
|-
||Mid  ||'''e''' || ||'''o'''
|-
||Low  ||'''ä''' ||'''a''' ||'''&amp;aring;'''
|}

The back vowels are rounded, the others unrounded.  All vowels are creaky voiced.

==Morphology==

===Nouns===

====Number====

Nouns in Gobldi Guk are not inflected for number.
  
====Case====

Nouns in Gobldi Guk take the following case endings:

{|
||Absolutive || -Ø
|-
||Ergative || '''-gä'''
|-
||Genitive || '''-di'''
|-
||Locative || '''-bo'''
|}

===Pronouns===

{|
||1st person ||'''ba'''
|-
||2nd person ||'''kä'''
|-
||3rd person ||'''le'''
|-
||Reflexive ||'''ga'''
|}

Unlike nouns, these pronouns have plural forms, which are formed with the ending '''-ly'''.  Cases are formed the same way as with nouns, e.g. '''balydi''' 'I-PL-GEN = our'.

===Verbs===

Verbs are inflected only for tense:

{|
||Non-past || -Ø
|-
||Past || '''-ka'''
|}

==Vocabulary==

'''alba''' n. snob.

'''bäbä''' n. mother.

'''burbur''' adj. green.

'''dädä''' n. father.

'''gobl''' n. goblin.

'''gugl''' v. to speak.

'''guk''' n. tongue, language.

'''lälog''' n. friend.

'''oggog''' v. kill.

'''uglug''' n. enemy.

[[Category:Funlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Funlang</title>
    <id>2046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46345</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:53:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''funlang''' is a 'just for fun' conlang.  Of course, many conlangs - including many famous and ambitious ones - are made just for fun.  In this sense, Quenya and Sindarin could be considered funlangs.

More specifically, however, a '''funlang''' is a small conlang project done without much afterthought or high aspiration, as a distraction from more 'serious' conlang projects.  A funlang in this sense usually has no detailed conculture or conhistory attached, the grammar is and will remain sketchy, the vocabulary is small, etc.  It is done without much effort.  An example of a funlang is [[Gobldi Guk]], as opposed to the more ambitious [[Albic]] project of the same author.

[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Self-segregating morphology</title>
    <id>2047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48162</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T20:39:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>list now local</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Self-segregating morphology''' is a [[morphology]] designed such that the morpheme boundaries can be easily determined from the phoneme sequence alone.  Thus, parsing the language is much simplified and a major source of ambiguity is eliminated.  Self-segregating morphology is frequently found in [[engineered language|engelang]]s.  A pure form of this is not found in natlangs and thus out of place in a [[naturalistic artlang]].  However, some natlangs have strict rules about [[accent]] placement within a word (e.g. Polish), or all vowels at the start of a morpheme may have a glottal stop (e.g. German).

A simple example of a self-segregating morphology is the following: Each morpheme consists of an alternating sequence of consonants and vowels, beginning and ending with a consonant.  Under this rule, morpheme boundaries are marked by consonant clusters.  For example, the wordform '''balaklamballan''' can only be segmented as '''balak-lam-bal-lan'''.

==See also==

[[List of self-segregating morphology methods]]

[[Category:Morphology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Naturalistic artlang</title>
    <id>2048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46343</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:49:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>morcat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''naturalistic artlang''' is an [[artlang]] that is designed to resemble a [[natlang]].  A good naturalistic artlang has a grammar as complex as grammars of natlangs and avoids unnatural features such as [[self-segregating morphology]] or a [[philosophical language|taxonomic vocabulary]].  Famous examples of naturalistic artlangs are [[Wikipedia:Quenya|Quenya]], [[Wikipedia:Sindarin|Sindarin]], [[Wikipedia:Brithenig|Brithenig]] and [[Wikipedia:Verdurian language|Verdurian]].  Many naturalistic artlangs come with a fictional history and an elaborated conculture associated with it; some conlangers create entire families of interrelated naturalistic artlangs.

==The Naturalist Manifesto==

Jesse Bangs posted a manifesto to the CONLANG mailing list on March 11, 2002:

[http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0203B&amp;L=CONLANG&amp;P=R13933&amp;I=-3 Lighting Some Flames: Towards conlang artistry]

[[User:WeepingElf|I]] whole-heartedly subscribe to the first of the three goals stated therein, ''naturalness''.  The second goal, ''completeness'', warrants some criticism.  As in most other arts, there is merit in both large (complete conlangs) and small forms (sketchlangs) of conlanging.  I'd always prefer an ingenious and original sketchlang over a language with 10,000 words that turns out to be a relex of English (or Lojban, or Esperanto).  The third goal, ''creativity'', is of course self-evident, but I don't think it can be measured by typological distance from the languages one is familiar with.  Of course, relexes and euroclones done out of laziness are bad.  But that doesn't mean one has to go on an anti-L1 binge and cram  every single 'exotic' feature one can find into one's conlang.  Take [[Germanech]], for example.  That language does nothing not found in various western European languages.  Everything you can find in Germanech occurs in German, in French or in some other major European language.  But that only makes sense - it is ''meant'' to be a pretty ordinary European language, because that's where it is set, and it is intended as a Romance language that has undergone the characteristic sound changes of German.  And those changes won't turn Vulgar Latin into a bizarre monster with clicks, split-ergative morphosyntax, or whatever.  Everything else than a &quot;humdrum European language&quot; would not be what is called for here.

[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flafi</title>
    <id>2049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29104</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T17:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Flafi'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||unknown, by small furry beings
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Language isolate (non-human)
&amp;nbsp;'''Flafi'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2006
|}

'''Flafi''' is a [[funlang]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is meant to be spoken by an unspecified race of small furry beings.

==Phonology==

Flafi has a very small phoneme inventory: only two consonants and two vowels.

===Consonants===

{|
|| ||Labial ||Alveolar
|-
||Voiceless fricative ||'''f''' ||
|-
||Voiced lateral || ||'''l'''
|}

The only allowed consonant cluster, besides the geminates '''ff''' and '''ll''', is '''fl''', which, unlike the geminates, may occur initially.  No final clusters or geminates.

===Vowels===

{|
|| ||Front ||Central
|-
||High ||'''i''' ||
|-
||Low || ||'''a'''
|}

Both vowels are unrounded.

===Syllable structure===

Maximally, CCVC.

==Morphosyntax==

Flafi is entirely isolating.  Word order is OSV.

==Sample text==

'''Flafi lilaf flafi.''' -- ''Lilaf speak language.''

'''Lilaf falaialal al fali.''' -- ''Lilaf live on (the) planet.''

==Vocabulary==

'''al''' locative particle; in, on. 

'''falaialal''' n. land, planet.

'''fali''' v. exist, live.

'''flafi''' v. speak; n. language.

'''lilaf''' n. lilaf (a small furry being).
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jörg's funlangs</title>
    <id>2050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T20:59:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Funlangs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists the [[funlang]]s I have made.  Of course, ''all'' my conlangs are made just for fun and thus could be listed here.  What I mean with 'funlang' is a small, quickly created and very incomplete minilang that doesn't try to be [[naturalist artlang|naturalistic]] or anything else, but is rather a caricature of a language.

* [[Flafi]]
* [[Gobldi Guk]]

[[Category:Funlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parseltongue</title>
    <id>2051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29141</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:14:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Parseltongue''' is a fictional language spoken by snakes in the ''Harry Potter'' series of novels (author: J. K. Rowling), whose known human speakers include the Lord Voldemort and Harry Potter. This language has, however, not been publicly described by Rowling and has no known form.

Indeed, it is unlikely that a dictionary or a grammar of Parseltongue was ever written even in the ''Harry Potter'' wizarding world itself.  The reason for this is that Parseltongue is not as much a learnable language as an innate magical ability.  Either you are born a ''Parselmouth'', in which case you can speak and understand Parseltongue without ever learning it, or you are not, in which case you will never ever be able to speak or understand Parseltongue.

What a Parselmouth hears when he listens to a snake (or another Parselmouth) are the natural hissing sounds of the snake (or, respectively, their imitation by the Parselmouth), and at the same moment, he magically knows what the snake (or the Parselmouth) wants to tell him.  When he speaks Parseltongue, the Parselmouth subconsciously 'translates' his thoughts into snake-sounds.  The knowledge of the grammar and the lexicon of Parseltongue  is subconscious and cannot be told to someone else or written down.

===Related or descended conlangs===
* [[Parseltongue-inspired]], aka ''Fispa''

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Njetoluhi</title>
    <id>2052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:42:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eosp</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Filled Pools */ changed some stuff</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Njetoluhi is a &quot;water world.&quot;  Civilization is limited, and is distributed on small islands and ''filled pools''.

== Filled Pools ==
A filled pool is essentially a whirlpool that is so powerful that it has filled itself with flotsam.  Curiously, although these are typically about 15 meters below the surface, they are stable and livable.  The water simply flows around the outside.  Unfortunately, they are almost completely cut off from the outside world, since any ship approaching will probably be destroyed.  (Approaching fish can be netted.)  There are two ways to enter a filled pool.  One, usually used by humans, is to take a large wooden ring with a deck and platform.  Once this is towed (by a large fleet of ships, although some have ''very'' large sails instead) into place, you can simply throw down a rope--although this makes people dizzy.  The Elves can also use magic to freeze the whirlpool.

Filled pools are relatively common, and about 20 people can live comfortably in one.  Although it can serve as a trading base, it is typically safer to store items above.

== Cenoji ==
[[Cenoji]] is the main language of the Sea Elves.  These Elves do not live underwater, although they can go under for long periods (about half a day).  The Elves typically live in clans aboard the aforementioned wooden rings.  Their society is ''de facto'' decentralized and peaceful, but in law the High King of All Elves maintains rule.

Cenoji is a simple language yet heavily agglutinating.  See the link above for more information.

== Society ==
Most of the Elves are traders.  Some live in filled pools, others live on small islands, some stay permanently on their boats, and the rest live on the &quot;mainland.&quot;  This is really a fringe of livable beach, with an impenetrable forest past it.

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Philosophical language</title>
    <id>2053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46347</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>better cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''philosophical language''' is an [[engineered language]] implementing some kind of philosophical idea.

Often, the term is understood to refer to an [[a priori]] conlang with a vocabulary based on a general taxonomy of ideas.  Words are derived from more general words.  For example, 'cat' would be a derivative of 'mammal' (perhaps with a few levels in between) which would be a derivative of 'animal', etc.  While this works well with some fields of discourse where a natural taxonomy exists (as in the 'cat' example above), it fails in most others where any taxonomy remains arbitrary.  Philosophical languages also suffer from the problem that words with similar meaning are also very similar in form, which can lead to misunderstandings.

An interesting variation of this approach is the [[arithmographic language]], as first envisioned by Leibniz.

Philosophical languages were popular in the 17th century, but some were designed later - until the present day.

[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:WeepingElf</title>
    <id>2054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7842</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-09T20:25:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">oh my god hahahaha [[Flafi]] is such a hilarious language. it's like pokémon, which can only say their own name, truncations of it, repetitions of it but nothing else. hahahaha you've made my day oh gosh this is too funny. -grin --[[User:Denihilonihil|Denihilonihil]] 08:13, 22 February 2006 (PST)
----

Joerg, I've updated more of the Silindion page, if you'd like to take a look. [[User:Erelion12]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-1</title>
    <id>2055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42239</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-25T21:18:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Phonology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''X-1'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||a priori experimental language
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO (sort of)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||agglutinating, polysynthetic
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||[[logical language]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2005-
|}

'''X-1''' (for 'eXperimental language #1') is the provisional designation for an [[X-languages|experimental language]] that is intended to be a [[briefscript]] as well as a [[logical language|loglang]].  X-1 has only one open word class, the ''predicate words'' fulfilling the fuctions of nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. in natlangs, and a [[self-segregating morphology]].

X-1 is based on a 2005 discussion in the CONLANG mailing list about an article by Jeff Prothero titled &quot;Near-optimal loglan syntax&quot; and incorporates ideas from Ray Brown and others.  It was formerly named '''brz''' (a name coined by Ray Brown) but I dropped that name because it was meaningless and not even a morphologically correct expression in the language: '''b''' would be a uniliteral morpheme, and '''rz''' a fragment of a triliteral one - hence, '''brz''' would be garbage.

X-1 owes a lot to other people:

* to Jeff Prothero, the self-segregation system based on morpheme lengths indicated by the number of initial consecutive '1' bits;
* to Raymond A. Brown, the phonology;
* to [[User:Eosp|veritosproject]], the variable-based syntax.

X-1 is still under development; consider everything in this article ''work in progress''.

==Phonology==

X-1 is fundamentally a language of ''bits''.  An X-1 utterance is, at least underlyingly, a bit stream.  Each morpheme consists of one or more bit quartets. For purpose of writing it in a more human-readably way, the language uses the following 16 letters, each representing one of the 16 possible bit quartets:

'''j g l z ñ d µ b p m t n s r k h'''

How is this pronounced?  The letters are mapped onto a system of
seven consonants (/p t k s l m n/) and four vowels (/i E O u/)
by the following rules:

Each letter has a consonantal value followed by a vowel.  The vowels are inserted according to an automatic rule that is described below. 

The letters are realized thus:

{|
||Bits ||Letter ||Pronunciation
|-
||0000 ||'''j''' ||zero followed by a front vowel
|-
||0001 ||'''g''' ||[k]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||0010 ||'''l''' ||[l]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||0011 ||'''z''' ||[s]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||0100 ||'''ñ''' ||[n]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||0101 ||'''d''' ||[t]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||0110 ||'''µ''' ||[m]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||0111 ||'''b''' ||[p]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||1000 ||'''p''' ||[p]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||1001 ||'''m''' ||[m]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||1010 ||'''t''' ||[t]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||1011 ||'''n''' ||[n]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||1100 ||'''s''' ||[s]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||1101 ||'''r''' ||[l]  followed by a back vowel
|-
||1110 ||'''k''' ||[k]  followed by a front vowel
|-
||1111 ||'''h''' ||zero followed by a back vowel
|}

When looking closer at this chart, you will notice some regularities.
The second half contains the same consonant values as the first half,
in reverse order.  In fact, a bit pattern and its ''one's complement'' (i.e., what you get when you flip all the bits) have the same consonant value.  The frontness is indicated by the last bit of the literal: 0 gives a front vowel, 1 a back vowel.

The consonant values of the first half of the chart are not
assigned arbitrarily.  The odds are obstruents, the evens are
sonorants.  The systematic becomes clear in the following chart:

{|
||0000  ||zero   ||0001  ||/k/
|-
||0010  ||/l/    ||0011  ||/s/
|-
||0100  ||/n/    ||0101  ||/t/
|-
||0110  ||/m/    ||0111  ||/p/
|}

There are four vowels, namely /E/, /i/, /O/ and /u/.  Whether
the vowel is high (/i/, /u/) or low (/E/, /O/) is indicated by
the first bit of the ''following'' literal.  A 0
gives a high vowel, a 1 a low vowel.  If there is no literal
following, the vowel is high.  (Hint: nothing counts as zero.)

For example, '''dt''' is pronounced [tOti] because the bit pattern
is ''0101 1010''.  Both literals have the consonantal value /t/.
The LSB of '''d''' is 1: back vowel.  The MSB
of '''t''' is 1: low vowel.  The low back vowel is /O/.  The LSB
of '''t''' is 0: front vowel.  There is no following literal: high vowel.  The high front vowel is /i/.

==Morphology==

Morphology of X-1 is self-segregating.  The length of a morpheme (in quartets) is indicated by the number of consecutive 1s at the begin of the morpheme, plus one.  (This is a slight modification of the rule in Jeff Prothero's Plan B: I count the bits that come ''first in the bit stream'', while Prothero counts ''least significant'' bits.  But position values of bits do not matter in this scheme, only the bits themselves.)  So, the morpheme length can be told by the first bits, or the first letter:

{|
||Letter ||Bits &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ||Morpheme length (in quartets)
|-
||'''j''' ||0000 ||1
|-
||'''g''' ||0001 ||1
|-
||'''l''' ||0010 ||1
|-
||'''z''' ||0011 ||1
|-
||'''ñ''' ||0100 ||1
|-
||'''d''' ||0101 ||1
|-
||'''µ''' ||0110 ||1
|-
||'''b''' ||0111 ||1
|-
||'''p''' ||1000 ||2
|-
||'''m''' ||1001 ||2
|-
||'''t''' ||1010 ||2
|-
||'''n''' ||1011 ||2
|-
||'''s''' ||1100 ||3
|-
||'''r''' ||1101 ||3
|-
||'''k''' ||1110 ||4
|-
||'''h''' ||1111 ||5+
|}

If the first letter of the morpheme is '''h''' , the sequence of consecutive 1s extends to the next bit quartet.  For example, a morpheme beginning with '''ht''' is six bit quartets long.  This way, you can have infinitely many morphemes.

Morphemes with at least three quartets are ''predicate words'', which are the only open lexical class of X-1, taking the functions of nouns, adjectives and verbs.  (Yes, ''nouns'' are predicate symbols, too.  Think about it.)  Biliteral morphemes (2 quartets) are ''connectives'', and uniliterals (1 quartet) are ''variables'' (except '''j''', which is a ''scope delimiter'', indicating that variables in following clauses are not coreferent with variables in preceding clauses).

The ''arity'' (or valency, i. e. the number of arguments) of a predicate word is indicated by its length.  The arity is always the length (in quartets) of the predicate word minus 2.  Thus, 3-quartet predicates are unary, 4-quartet predicates are binary, etc.

==Syntax==

A sentence consists of a sequence of clauses, which consist of a predicate word followed by one or more arguments.  Each predicate word has a fixed number of arguments (see above).  Arguments can be proper names or ''variables''.

==Example==

An X-1 sentence could look like this:

'''strgrlggrdrgstllrkklkrbpgl'''&lt;br&gt;
[sEtElukOlulitukulutOlukOsEtililElOkEkilEkElipOpikuli]&lt;br&gt;
'''str-g-rlg-g-rdr-g-stl-l-rkk-l-krbp-g-l'''&lt;br&gt;
''fox x; brown x; quick x; dog y; lazy y; jump.over x y;''&lt;br&gt;
'The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.'</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aganean</title>
    <id>2056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21690</id>
      <timestamp>2007-05-07T16:18:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonMoore</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aganean''' (Agn: ''Cucg ua håcg'') is the primary language of the Kingdom of Ag (Agn: ''Håcgrum ua cgysrå'')

==Alphabet and orthography==
The Aganean alphabet consists of the following 20 letters:

'''a å b c cg d dg e ë g h hg l m p r s s´ u y (aë)'''

Digraphs are considered their own letters for collation purposes. Two letters, ''ô'' and ''y'' have the variations ''oë'' and ''aë'' respectively. They are considered the same letter, as ''ô'' and ''y'' are used only internally within a word with ''oë'' and ''aë'' used when the sounds begin or end a word. The letter ''y'' is always a vowel.

The letter ''u'' has two sounds, before a consonant or at the end of a word it sounds like ''oo'', before another vowel, it sounds like an English ''y'' or German ''j''.  If the letter ''u'' is sounded as an ''oo'' before any vowel, it is written ''ù'', but still collated as if it were ''u''. The same goes for ''à'' and ''ò'' which are used only before ''ë'' to show both vowels are sounded seperately, as opposed to ''oë'' and ''aë''.  The letters ''à'' and ''ò'' are not used when ''oë'' and ''aë'' occur internally within a word, since ''oë'' and ''aë'' are never used as a diphthong in such cases.

==Vocabulary==
See: [[Aganean lexicon]]

==Grammar==
Aganean is an isolating language. Aganean has no inflections, but uses particles for these functions.

===Nouns===
Aganean has no plural, and uses numbers to show these functions, as well as particles: ''ca'': &quot;some, a few&quot;, ''hgepd'': &quot;large group, herd&quot;.  These are not always necessary, since context can usually sort it out. There are a few words which are inherently plural; compare ''mus´cgyl'': ''boy'' and ''cårcgaë'': &quot;boys, children&quot;; ''ryc'': &quot;mountain, mountaintop&quot;, ''mascgyl'', &quot;mountains, mountain range&quot;.

Aganean is an ergative-absolutive language, and the word order is patient-verb-agent. The particle ''e/ë'' is used to signify the agent. The patient  is usually left unmarked, but may be marked with ''aë'' if desired, although this often sounds awkward.

====Pronouns====

Pronouns in Aganean are invariable, and with the exception of &quot;we&quot; are also not marked for plural:

*uë - I
*es´, huës - you 
*u - he, she, they
*ul - it, they
*ùëc - we (you + I)
*ùër - we (you + I + he/she/they)
*ùëm - we (he/she/they + I)
*gu - this/that/these/those (one[s])

ë à ò ù s´ å

===Verbs and adverbs===
Aganean has no tenses, but three aspects, perfective, continuous and habitual. Aganean uses particles to conjugate verbs:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;
|-
!Aganean verbs!!perfective!!continuous!!habitually!!negative
|-
|'''imperative'''||ma||sgë||aëm||ra
|-
|'''would'''||mar||sar||aër||ar
|-
|'''negative'''||mycg||sycg||aërecg||aërcg
|-
|'''want'''||më||së||aërë||rë
|-
|'''must'''||moë||soë||aëroë||roë
|-
|'''can'''||mus´||sus´||aërus´||rus´
|-
|'''need'''||mu||su||aëu||ru
|-
|'''become'''||mo||has´||aës´||aës´
|-
|'''make'''||pam||pas||aëpd||oëpd
|-
|}

''ru ba gycamd leu e uë.'' I don't need to go to the hospital.

*''ru'' - not need
*''ba'' - to, at, in
*''gycamd'' - hospital
*''leu'' - to go
*''e/ë'' - indicates agent of sentence
*''uë'' - I, me


ë à ò ù s´</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Succession box</title>
    <id>2057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:50:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;br/&gt;
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{|style=&quot;background:#efefef; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:50%; font-size:95%&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=8
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|style=&quot;width:30%; text-align:center;&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br/&gt;'''{{{before}}}'''
|style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; text-align:center;&quot;|'''{{{title}}}'''&lt;br/&gt;{{{years}}}
|style=&quot;width:30%; text-align:center;&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br/&gt;'''{{{after}}}'''
|}
&lt;/div&gt;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:S-bef</title>
    <id>2058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:19:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;{{{rows}}}&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br/&gt;'''{{{before}}}'''</text>
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    <title>Template:S-aft</title>
    <id>2059</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;{{{rows}}}&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br./&gt;'''{{{after}}}'''
|-</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:S-ttl</title>
    <id>2060</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">|width=&quot;40%&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=&quot;{{{rows}}}&quot;|</text>
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    <title>Template:Start box</title>
    <id>2061</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:22:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:End box</title>
    <id>2062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:22:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">|}</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:Qif</title>
    <id>2063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7348</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:26:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{{else{{{test|}}}|{{{test{{{test|}}}|{{{then|}}}}}}}}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:Infobox</title>
    <id>2064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:56:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; font-size: 110%;&quot;| {{{name}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Pronounced: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{pronounce}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Timeline and Universe: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{tu}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Species: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{species}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Spoken: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{in}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Total speakers: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{no}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Writing system: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{script}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Genealogy: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{tree}}}
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| Typology
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Morphology: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{morph}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Morphosyntax: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{ms}}}
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Word order: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{wo}}}
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| Credits
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Creator: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{creator}}}
|-
|style=&quot;width: 30%&quot;| Created: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| {{{date}}}
|}</text>
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    <title>Template:Consonants</title>
    <id>2065</id>
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      <id>7441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:56:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || {{IPA|x}} || {{IPA|ɣ}} || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Logical language</title>
    <id>2066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46348</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:56:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* External links */ morcat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''logical language''' (or short, '''loglang''') is an [[engineered language]] that attempts to implement formal logic. 
Logical languages are meant to allow (or enforce) unambiguous statements. They are typically based on predicate logic but can be based on any system of formal logic. The two best-known logical languages are the predicate languages [[Wikipedia:Loglan|Loglan]] and its successor [[Wikipedia:Lojban|Lojban]], which aim to eliminate syntactical ambiguity and reduce semantic ambiguity to a minimum.

==External links==

*[http://minyeva.alkaline.org/links.htm Garrett's Links to Logical Languages]
*[http://www.loglan.org/ The Loglan Institue]
*[http://www.lojban.org/ The Logical Language Group]

[[Category:Loglangs|*]]
[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engineered language</title>
    <id>2067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46346</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''engineered language''' (or short, '''engelang''') is a conlang designed to test or prove some hypothesis about how languages work or might work.  Usually, engineered languages have testable design goals, such as unambiguity or self-segregation.  Two important subgroups of engineered languages are [[philosophical language]]s and [[logical language]]s.

Engineered languages are usually not associated with [[worldbuilding]] and have no [[conculture]]s attached.

[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Briefscript</title>
    <id>2068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-16T08:48:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Speedtalk */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Briefscript''' is a term coined by Ray Brown for an [[engineered language]] that, at least in written form, has much shorter words than most natural languages.  Some briefscripts are also '''speedtalks''', i.e. languages that are also very concise in spoken form.

==Speedtalk==

The term '''speedtalk''' comes from Robert A. Heinlein's 1949 novella, ''Gulf'', and refers to an extremely concise language in which all morphemes (including lexemes, such as nouns or verbs) are just one phoneme long.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-languages</title>
    <id>2069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21821</id>
      <timestamp>2007-05-22T11:53:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of X-languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''X-languages''' are [[engineered language|experimental languages]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  They are called this way because they are designated by the letter &quot;X&quot; followed by a number.  The &quot;X&quot; stands for &quot;eXperimental language&quot;.

The X-languages are quite different from each other and do not form a unified family of any sort.  They surely aren't cognate in the historical linguistic sense as, for example, [[Low Elvish]] and [[Macaronesian]] are cognate.  None of the X-languages has a conculture attached, and none is intended to be [[naturalist artlang|naturalistic]].

What I am ''not'' going to do is to propose ''any'' of the X-languages as an [[auxlang]] or anything like that.  They are ''experimental'' and way too bizarre to be actually used (for example, I doubt that any human can parse an [[X-2]] sentence which makes ample use of the language's stack-manipulation tricks in real time); and I am doing this (as all of my conlangs) just for ''fun ''.

I am also not going to say goodbye to [[naturalist artlang|naturalist artlanging]].  My ''main'' conlang project is still [[Albic]].  But there are some really crazy ideas in my head that fit neither there nor in any other naturalist language, and want to be let loose in experimental languages.

It is also very unlikely that any of these projects will ever reach a high level of development.  My interest in these projects (and the knowledge that would be required to do them properly) is too limited to follow through on them.

==List of X-languages==

* [[X-1]], a briefscript loglang
* [[X-2]], a stack-based language
* [[X-3]], a speedtalk-like langauage with a large phoneme inventory
* [[X-4]], a speakable musical language
* [[X-5]], an [[arithmographic language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-2</title>
    <id>2070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44137</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-15T11:54:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sample text */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''X-2'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||a priori experimental language
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||stack-based (superficially, VSO)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||isolating
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||split-S
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2006
|}

'''X-2''' is an [[X-languages|experimental language]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  Like its older cousin [[X-1]], it is not meant to be [[naturalist artlang|naturalistic]] and has no conculture attached.

The syntax of X-2 is not based on tree structures as in human natural languages (as well as in the vast majority of conlangs),  but on a ''LIFO stack'', similar to the [[Wikipedia:Forth programming language|Forth]] programming language and Jeffrey Henning's [[Fith]].  Its syntactic approach, however, is quite different from Fith, despite using a stack like Fith does.  X-2 does not distinguish between nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, but (like [[X-1]]) has only one single open word class  encompassing all of these.  It also features (again like [[X-1]]) a [[self-segregating morphology]].

Credits go to Raymond A. Brown for suggesting the kind of syntax used in X-2 in a discussion in the CONLANG mailing list in February 2005.

X-2 is still very much under construction.

==Phonology==

X-2 lacks labial consonants and rounded vowels and thus can be spoken without  moving the lips.  The orthography is strictly phonemic.

===Consonants===

{|
|| ||Alveolar ||Postalveolar ||Velar ||Glottal
|-
||Voiceless stops ||'''t''' || ||'''k''' ||
|-
||Voiced stops ||'''d''' || ||'''g''' ||
|-
||Voiceless fricatives ||'''s''' ||'''c''' [ʃ] ||'''x''' ||'''h'''
|-
||Voiced fricatives ||'''z''' ||'''j''' [ʒ] || ||
|-
||Click ||'''q''' [!] || ||
|-
||Lateral ||'''l''' || || ||
|-
||Trill ||'''r''' || || ||
|}

===Vowels===

{|
|| ||Front ||Central ||Back
|-
||High ||'''i''' || ||'''u''' [ɯ]
|-
||Mid ||'''e''' || ||'''o''' [ɤ]
|-
||Low || ||'''a''' ||
|}

All vowels (including the back ones) are unrounded.  There are no length dístinctions and no diphthongs.

==Morphology==

X-2 is an isolating language; there are no derivational or inflectional affixes.    The morphology used is self-segregating.  Each morpheme is an alternating sequence of consonants and vowels beginning and ending with a consonant.  Thus, there are no vowel clusters and no consonant clusters ''within'' morphemes.  On the other hand, all morpheme ''boundaries'' are marked by a consonant following a consonant.  For example, the phoneme sequence '''galakturjeristol''' can only be broken up into morphemes as '''galak-tur-jeris-tol'''.

There are three classes of words in X-2.  One are the ''lexemes'', or content words.  These have two or more syllables.  The lexemes of X-2 correspond to nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs  in natural languages.  Lexemes are pushed onto the stack.  The lexemes are the only open word class in X-2.

The second class of words are the ''relationals'', which express relations between lexemes.  A relational pops expressions from the stack, combines them into a complex expression, and pushes that expression back onto the stack.  The relationals can be likened to case endings and prepositions in human languages.  However, they encode ''semantic'' roles rather than notions such as 'subject' or 'object'.

The third (and smallest) word class in X-2 are the ''stack operators''.  These do such things as duplicating the top item of the stack, swapping the topmost two items, and similar things.

Morphemes of the shape CVCVC or longer are lexemes.  Morphemes of the shape CVC are grammatical morphemes (relationals and stack operators).  There is a single morpheme consisting of a single consonant: '''q''', which finishes a sentence.

===Relationals===

In the following definitions, 'E1' refers to the top expression on the stack and  'E2' to the expression immediately below it.

'''cil''' E1 is attribute of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''dag''' E1 is agent of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''les''' E1 is patient of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''rut''' E1 is location of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''set''' E1 is source of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''tut''' E1 is goal of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''xaz''' E1 is part of E2.&lt;br&gt;
'''zil''' E1 is possessor of E2.

===Stack operators===

'''dud''' doubles the top element of the stack.&lt;br&gt;
'''kik''' discards the top element of the stack.&lt;br&gt;
'''lit''' swaps the top two elements of the stack.&lt;br&gt;
'''q''' finishes the sentence (popping the top expression from the stack).&lt;br&gt;

==Syntax==

The syntax of X-2 is based on a ''stack'', i. e. a data structure supporting only two basic operations.  Imagine, for example, a stack of cards.  You can either ''push'' an item onto the top of the stack, or ''pop'' the top item from the stack.  The stack used in X-2 holds ''expressions'' which are either single lexemes or multiple lexemes connected by relationals (see below).  An expression can be the equivalent of a word, a phrase, a clause or a whole sentence.

The stack-based syntax allows for many complicated syntactic rearrangements.  Lexemes can be pushed onto the stack and left there for a long time before anything is done with them.

==Sample text==

'''salat kakal cixil cil talag cil dag kahak jujur cil tohok xaz rut q'''&lt;br&gt;
''jump fox quick ATTR brown ATTR AGT dog lazy ATTR above PART LOC .''&lt;br&gt;
'The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.'</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Eldin raigmore</title>
    <id>2071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37590</id>
      <timestamp>2008-09-12T16:00:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added link to Dr. Helen Charters's professional artlang &quot;Vampiric&quot;, used in the &quot;30 Days of Night&quot; movies.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''eldin raigmore'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| HERE IS PLACE FOR A PICTURE, MAYBE A PICTURE OF ME! :)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| 1952 C.E.; City of Texarkana, Miller County, State of Arkansas, United States of America
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| MY PROFESSION
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages that I write:'''
|| U.S.American English
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages that I read well:'''
|| English
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages that I speak well:'''
|| 
Southron U.S.American English, Trans-Mississippi Confederacy regional dialect; 

Southron U.S.American English, Western Confederacy regional dialect; 

Southron U.S.American English, white ethnic dialect; 

Southron U.S.American English, black ethnic dialect.
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages that I (questionably) understand:'''
|| 
non-Southron U.S.American English; 

non-black, non-white dialects of U.S.American English; 

non-U.S.American English; 

French; 

German.
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages that I read sort-of well:'''
|| 
French; 

German.
|-
|valign=top|'''Other natural languages I know a bit of:'''
|| 
Hindi; 

Mandarin; 

Russian; 

Spanish; 

Tamil.
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| 
A handful or two of unnamed sketchlangs; 

A not-yet-completed interstellar-multispecies conlang provisionally named [[Reptigan]]; 

A not-yet-completed ancient-medieval conlang provisionally named [[Adpihi]]; 

An unnamed, contemplated possible diachronic link from [[Adpihi]] to [[Reptigan]].
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| CONLANGS THAT I KNOW/USE/AM INERESTED IN THAT OTHERS HAVE CREATED
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| MY INTERESTS
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| MORE INFORMATION
|}

I am trying to make this cohesive.  (&quot;Coherent&quot; will do, I suppose, if &quot;cohesive&quot; is out of my reach.)

-----

I) Source of Pseudonym.

The name &quot;eldin raigmore&quot; is a pseudonym.  That's why I don't capitalize it.

I borrowed it without asking from the novel (it's the hero's name) &quot;World Out of Mind&quot; by the Scottish S.F. writer J.T. McIntosh, whose middle initial might be I or L instead of T, and whose last name might be M'Intosh instead of McIntosh.

{{seealso|see=[[http://www.booksandwriters.co.uk/website/page.asp?pagetext=writer&amp;method=display&amp;id=27697&amp;bookmark=1&amp;recordcount=1]]}}

I would have asked, but I couldn't find out either the author's name nor the title of the novel until after I had already begun using it.  Now it's easier to just keep using it unless and until somebody tells me I've violated someone's right to the name.  If I have done so, I apologize, and will cease immediately; but I'm hoping and guessing it's O.K.

-----

II) My personal linguistic history.

I was born 1952 C.E. in City of Texarkana, Miller County, State of Arkansas, United States of America.  I was raised until about age 21 mostly in City of Texarkana, Bowie County, State of Texas, United States of America.  The East Texas version of American English is my L1 and various American Englishes are the only language everyone agrees I'm fluent in. 

In 1959 my parents decided to become missionaries.  The (American) Methodist Board of Global Missions decided to send my father (then the only pathologist/coroner/medical examiner for the &quot;Four States Area&quot; -- the parts of Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma that are nearest each other) -- to teach at the Christian Medical College and Hospital in City of Vellore, State of Tamil Nadu (then known as State of Madras), India.

My parents went to Scarrett College in Nashville Tennesse to learn Urdu and Hindi.  While we were there, we four children -- my older sister, me, my brother (younger than me), and our sister (the &quot;baby&quot; of the family) -- were all taught in experimental classes at teachers' colleges.  I was taught Spanish, so I guess Spanish is my first L2.  (My father could actually speak Spanish, including quoting poems; and my wife speaks Spanish well enough to be the one called to the phone by the medical-supply firms and law firms she works for.  Me, I don't speak it so well.)

We traveled to India, originally for a 2-year contract; but while there we extended it to a five-year contract.  However, after just 19 months, we had to come home, because both of my parents had to be hospitalized.

In India I attended two English-speaking schools.  The one I attended most was Vidhyalayam, in the village of Bhagyam, a suburb of Vellore.  All of the children in the Medical Compound (where foreign doctors, foreign hospital staff, foreign medical-college faculty, etc., lived) attended that school; and Indian families who worked at the College or Hospital and had an English-speaking child could send their children there, too. 

Almost all of our teachers were Indian ladies.  All but the Principal were Christians.

Not many people there were Americans, and only we were Southrons.

My sister was asked to spell &quot;Puzzle&quot; by her Indian teacher and spelled it &quot;Pea you zee zee ell ee&quot;.  She was shocked and disconcerted to hear her teacher tell her that was &quot;wrong&quot;.  Her British classmates came to her defense; &quot;No, Miss! American children say 'zee' instead of 'zed'!&quot;. 

So, in addition to learning about Seventh Day Adventists going to church on Saturday and not eating meat, and Australian doctors having trouble talking to Indian policemen [Dr.:&quot;B-A-S-E.&quot;  Cop:&quot;B-I-S-E.&quot;  Dr.:&quot;No, 'A'! 'A', the first letter of the alphabet!&quot; Cop:&quot;But,.. 'I' isn't the first letter of the alphabet?!?&quot;], and learning to spell &quot;chapel&quot; as &quot;sea hech yay pea yee yell&quot;, I was taught Hindi and Tamil.

So Tamil and Hindi are my second and third L2s.  We were in a Tamil-speaking area so I picked up a lot of Tamil vocabulary and can still read and pronounce some Tamil script and understand some Tamil words.  Most of it has faded, however.  I was not at an age where I was worried about grammar at all, so I doubt I learned any Tamil grammar.

Nobody spoke Hindi where we lived.  Most people would fall back on English whenever Tamil didn't work; most of the rest would do the reverse, falling back on Tamil whenever English didn't work.  So my Hindi education was no better than my Spanish education.

My parents, however, both learned Tamil quite well.

After 19 months, everyone in the family had at least one illness (my brother had two).  Most of these were perfectly treatable in India (except my father's lung infection).  Most of them could be contracted in America (especially including my father's lung infection).  None of the children needed to be hospitalized; but, since both of the parents did, and my father had to return to America, it was thought we should all return to Texas.

In High School, Junior College, and College I took French.  I got good enough at it to make my way around in Turkey among people who had no other language in common with me.  So I guess French is my fourth L2.  My father could actually speak French.

In Graduate School I took Scientific and Technical Reading German and S&amp;TR Russian.

I translated a paper by Felix W. Hausdorf for my German teacher.  The hard part was, when I translated &quot;unabzahlbar&quot; as &quot;uncountable&quot; or &quot;nondenumerable&quot;, he still didn't know what it meant.

In situations where I try to speak German among many people who speak it much better than I, I get told &quot;eldin, you don't speak German!&quot;  But, if I claim not to speak it, and then meet a Polish lady who speaks German but not English, and translate between her and the rest of the group, I get asked, &quot;eldin, why didn't you tell us you can speak German?&quot;  Maybe that will give you an idea how good/bad my German is;  I can't pass for either a German-speaker or a non-German-speaker.

As for Russian, I can pronounce and understand a few Cyrillic words.  I guess my Tamil's probably a tad better than my Russian.

So my fifth and sixth L2s are German and Russian.

I made friends with another graduate student who was born in Taiwan and married an American man.  They made me their daughter's god-father.  They brought the baby's mother's parents from Taiwan to live with them.  The grandfather spoke English, but the grandmother spoke only Chinese.  

Another graduate student -- a Japanese-born American with a Finnish surname -- was trying to teach me to read Spaceship Yamamoto, while my god-daughter, my compadre, my commadre, and the rest of that family, were teaching me Chinese.  Maybe I have a little Chinese as a seventh L2.

I'm not sure I should really claim all seven of these as L2s.  I have had conversations only in English, French, and German (I suspect my French is as good/bad as my German -- I can't convince people I speak it, and I can't convince them I don't).  I have read an occasional sign in Spanish, Tamil, Russian, Turkish, and Chinese -- quite unreliably in some cases.  I mean, even in French --- drive around Quebec and you see these big arrows pointing down the street with the word &quot;DIRECTION&quot; written on them.  What are you supposed to think?  &quot;Yeah, that's a direction, all right. --- so, what?&quot;

-----

{{Babel-X|en|de-1|fr-1}}

[[Adpihi]]

[[Reptigan]]

[[Vampiric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Vowels</title>
    <id>2073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:54:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ʊ}} || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || || {{IPA|ə}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || || {{IPA|æ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Seealso</title>
    <id>2074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T01:59:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''See also [[{{{1}}}]] for more information''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fith</title>
    <id>2075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Fith'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||planet Fithia
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Fithian&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp; '''Fith'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||Jeffrey Henning ||1996-2005
|}

'''Fith''' is a stack-based alien language invented by Jeffrey Henning.  It is spoken by centauroid sapient marsupials on the planet Fithia.

==External link==

[http://www.langmaker.com/fith.htm Fith: The Alien Language With A LIFO Grammar]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Center</title>
    <id>2076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Footnote</title>
    <id>2077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Emperor</title>
    <id>2078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:19:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; width: 60%; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf;&quot;| {{{order}}} Emperor
|-
|width=30% style=&quot;border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| '''Given name:''' || {{{given}}}
|-
|width=30% style=&quot;border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| '''Lifetime:''' || {{{b}}} &amp;ndash; {{{d}}}
|-
|width=30% style=&quot;border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| '''Reign name:''' || {{{rn}}}
|-
|width=30% style=&quot;border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| '''Reign Period:''' || {{{rp1}}} &amp;ndash; {{{rp2}}}
|-
|width=30% style=&quot;border-right: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| '''Posthumous Title:''' || {{{pt}}}
|}
&lt;br/&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Erelion12</title>
    <id>2079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:23:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>User:Erelion12 moved to SILINDION</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[SILINDION]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>North Albic</title>
    <id>2080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T16:14:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''North Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Scotland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''North Albic'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Caledonian]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Alfheimian]](†)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2005-
|}

'''North Albic''' is one of the three main branches of the [[Albic]] language family.  The only North Albic language surviving into modern times is [[Caledonian]], but the poorly attested extinct [[Alfheimian]] language probably belongs here as well.

The most characteristic linguistic feature of North Albic is the merger of the [[Proto-Albic]] voiced stops with the Proto-Albic neutral stops; thus, there is no longer a voicing opposition in stops (nor anywhere else in the phonology), only an opposition of aspiration.

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Proto-Albic</title>
    <id>2081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-30T11:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Proto-Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||British Isles
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||extinct
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''Proto-Albic'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2001-
|}

'''Proto-Albic''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the [[Albic]] languages; it is assumed to have been spoken in southern Britain between 2000 and 1500 BC.

[[Category:Albic]]
[[Category:Protolanguages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Macaronesia</title>
    <id>2082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47432</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-21T20:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Macaronesia''' refers to the Azores, Madeira, Canary and Cape Verde islands.  The name is from the Greek for 'blessed islands'.  In the [[League of Lost Languages]], Macaronesia is home of several  [[Albic]] languages of the [[Macaronesian]] subbranch.

==Macaronesia in the UKW World==

In the [[UKW World]], these islands are the territory of the '''Republic of Macaronesia''', a country that acquired its independence from Portugal in 1928, and joined the European Union in 1986.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Macaronesian</title>
    <id>2083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T14:35:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Macaronesian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||[[Macaronesia]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 2000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[South Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Macaronesian'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Azorese]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Madeirese]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Canarese]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Capverdic]]&lt;br&gt;

|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2002-
|}

'''Macaronesian''' is a subbranch of [[South Albic]].  The Macaronesian languages are spoken in [[Macaronesia]].  They are, generally speaking, the most conservative Albic languages in terms of morphology, though they have substantially innovated in terms of phonology (they are tonal and have simplified consonant clusters).

==Classification==

The Macaronesian branch consists of four languages: [[Azorese]] (spoken in the Azores), [[Madeirese]] (spoken in Madeira), [[Canarese]] (spoken in the Canary Islands) and [[Capverdic]] (spoken in the Cape Verde Islands).

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>West Albic</title>
    <id>2084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T16:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''West Albic'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Ireland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''West Albic'''&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Iverinian]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Borgarnesian]](†)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2004-
|}

'''West Albic''' is one of the three main branches of the [[Albic]] language family.  The only West Albic language surviving into modern times is [[Iverinian]].

The main linguistic feature of West Albic is a merger of the [[Proto-Albic]] aspirated stops with the neutral stops.

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Fenix-script.png</title>
    <id>2085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7553</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:07:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fenix script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Fenix script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Khaful-scipt.png</title>
    <id>2086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:15:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Khaful script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Khaful script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maüicca</title>
    <id>2087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-18T04:43:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevynbello</username>
        <id>131</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Tifet-script.png</title>
    <id>2088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:23:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tifet Script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tifet Script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Nasdzh.gif</title>
    <id>2090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:33:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The preferred shape of the {{IPA|ʒ}} character of [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Durun berHikas</title>
    <id>2091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44573</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-02T14:40:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lein Durun berHikas, the Exalted Progenitor''' was the first [[Tairazun]] and founder of the [[Lein Dynasty]]. Born to the  [[House of the Lein]], a powerful aristocratic family in the north, he led a revolt against the reigning [[Hara Dynasty]], owing to a dispute over annual tributes which resulted in the execution of several family members, and after nine years of war managed to supplant the Hara Dynasty with his own house. 

Besides being the founding Tairazun of the dynasty, Lein Durun is also extremely significant to the history of the [[Tarakasa|Tarakasane]] as a whole, in terms of his role in centralising the dynasty and bringing an end to the semi-feudal imperial system that previous Tarakasa dynasties had embraced. This general policy of centralisation, rather than delegation of lands to relatives for administration, would set in motion a process culminating in the massive reforms of the [[Four Great Tairazunen]], and especially [[Lein Sora berAthain]]. 

[[Category:Lein Saga]]
[[Category:Tairazunen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Great Emperors</title>
    <id>2092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:59:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anurisiya</username>
        <id>124</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Four Great Emperors''' is a term used to describe two groups of Emperors of the Lein Dynasty: the '''Former Four Great Emperors''' (for whom the usage of the term is far more common), namely [[Lein Loran]], [[Lein Atha]], [[Lein Sora]] and [[Lein Kera]]; or the '''Latter Four Great Emperors''', namely [[Lein Dora]], [[Lein Temira]], [[Lein Ademre]] and [[Lein Dasera]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Regalia</title>
    <id>2093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-06T23:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. lein saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Regalia of the Lein Dynasty''' are the artifacts which serve as symbols of the power of the Emperor; amongst them the most important are the Three First Bestowments: the Throne, the Imperial Seal, and the Imperial Sceptre.

==The Imperial Throne==

The Imperial Throne of the Lein is also known as the Variska Throne, after the great three-headed serpent-condor which the Lein used as their symbol. A common image in the mythology and religion of the northern Empire, where Durun himself hailed from, the Variska was a guardian beast created to watch over mankind and defend the weak from injustice. The throne itself is a large, golden chair, made to fit at least three people - the Emperor, the Empress at his left, and the Crown Prince if he was not old enough to have his own seat, in the middle; behind the throne is a gold and silver statue of the Variska, whose wings formed the back of the throne, and its three heads looking upwards in three directions. 

Another intriguing feature of the throne is the vast, white rug, made of white ferret pelts, which was draped over the wings of the Variska all the time. This had its origin in a hunt which Lein Durun had, a month before he started his rebellion, and when he was still undecided about the viability of opposing the Har regime and starting his own realm; hitting an eagle over a crag, he climbed the crag to retrieve the carcass only to see that the eagle had an albino ferret in its claws. (Albino ferrets, being extremely rare, were often taken as portents of great fortune or immense misfortune in the Empire.) Taking the sign to be for the good, Durun finally set his mind on rebellion; and when he finally took on the title of Emperor, he ordered that such a coat of pelts be made, and draped over the throne as a personal reminder of the will of Heaven which backed his legitimacy, and the drape has been there ever since.

==Imperial Sceptre==

The Imperial Sceptre is the symbol of the Emperor's status as supreme commander of all military forces within the Empire, and is nearly two feet long. Made of gold and silver, and encrusted with nearly 60 rubies and 20 diamonds,

[[Category:Lein Saga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caledonian</title>
    <id>2094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T16:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Caledonian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Scotland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 500
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[North Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Caledonian'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]|| 2004-
|}

'''Caledonian''' is the only modern representative of the [[North Albic]] branch of the [[Albic]] family, spoken by about 500 people in the Scottish Highlands.


[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfheimian</title>
    <id>2095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22750</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-04T16:15:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Alfheimian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Sweden
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||extinct
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[North Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Alfheimian'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2006-
|}

'''Alfheimian''' is an extinct [[Albic]] language once spoken in southwestern Sweden, north of the city of Göteborg.  The language is attested only from a small number of early mediaeval runic stone inscriptions found in the area.  The name 'Alfheimian' is based on ''Alfheim'', a historical designation of the region where the inscriptions were found.  It is not chosen without afterthought: the region was probably named because [[British Elves|Elves]] lived there - whose dialect apparently evolved into Alfheimian.

Analysis of the inscriptions easily reveals that Alfheimian was an [[Albic]] language.  It also shows traits that seem to indicate that it was [[North Albic]]: the voiced stops have apparently merged with the neutral stops (graphemes '''b''', '''d''', '''g'''), while the aspirated stops (graphemes '''p''', '''t''', '''k''') remained distinct; there is no indication of [[South Albic]] umlaut; the word for 'family' is '''etta''', which is otherwise only found, as a [[Coric]] borrowing, in [[Caledonian]], while other Albic languages show reflexes of [[Proto-Albic]] '''*tamba'''.


[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iverinian</title>
    <id>2096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T16:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Iverinian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Ireland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 1000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[West Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Iverinian'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2005-
|}

'''Iverinian''' is the only modern surviving langauge of the [[West Albic]] branch of the [[Albic]] family, spoken by about 1000 individuals in Ireland.

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borgarnesian</title>
    <id>2097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T16:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Borgarnesian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Iceland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||extinct
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;[[West Albic]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Borgarnesian'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#6666FF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2006-
|}

'''Borgarnesian''' is an extinct [[Albic]] language once spoken in Iceland.  It is only attested in a single (but rather long) stone inscription (probably from the 9th century) that was found near the Icelandic town of Borgarnes (hence the name).  The language shows features (such as the merger of neutral and aspirated stops) which indicate that it belongs to the [[West Albic]] branch.

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tokana</title>
    <id>2098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34666</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-29T12:53:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Tokana'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||northwestern North America
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 35,000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Kman&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''Tokana'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO, free
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||agglutinating
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||[[fluid-S]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||Matthew Pearson ||
|}

'''Tokana''' is a [[naturalistic artlang]] by Matthew Pearson, an American linguist.

==External link==

[http://mpearson.narod.ru/tok.toc.html Tokana Reference Grammar]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Silindion</title>
    <id>2099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40747</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-12T23:19:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erelion12</username>
        <id>120</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Silindion'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Nestean&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Silic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Silindion'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||agglutinating &gt; fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||Elliott Lash||2000-
|}

'''Silindion''' is a language spoken by [[Neste]] in a fantasy world.  See [[SILINDION]] for details.

==External link==

[http://erelion.free.fr/ Historical Silindion Grammar and Reader]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Subject Object Verb</title>
    <id>2100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46604</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:12:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[XX Language]] &gt; [[XX]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistic typology]], '''Subject Object Verb''' (SOV) is the type of languages in which the subject, object, and verb of a sentence appear (usually) in that order.   
If English were SOV, then &quot;Sam oranges ate&quot; would be an ordinary sentence.  
Among natural languages, SOV is the most common type.
It corresponds roughly to [[reverse Polish notation]] in computer languages. 
The SOV languages include [[Turkish]], [[Japanese]], [[Korean]], [[Manchu]], [[Mongolian]], [[Ainu]], [[Nivkh]], [[Persian]], [[Pashto]], [[Kurdish]], [[Burushaski]], [[Basque]], [[Latin]], [[Burmese]], [[Tibetan]], [[Amharic]], [[Tigrinya]], [[Abkhaz]], [[Abaza]], [[Adyghe]], [[Kabardian]], [[Sumerian]], [[Akkadian]], [[Elamite]], [[Hittite]], [[Navajo]], [[Hopi]], [[Aymara]], [[Quechua]], [[Pali]], [[Nepali]], [[Sinhalese]] and most [[Indian languages]].

[[German]] is basically SVO, but employs SOV in subordinate clauses. [[Dutch]] does this as well but also employs it in certain independent clauses. See [[V2 word order]]. [[French]], [[Portuguese]] and [[Spanish]] are SVO, but use SOV when a pronoun is used as the (direct or indirect) object: e.g., &quot;Sam a mang&amp;eacute; des oranges&quot;, &quot;Sam comeu laranjas&quot; or &quot;Sam comió naranjas&quot; (Sam ate oranges) would become &quot;Sam les a mang&amp;eacute;es&quot;, &quot;Sam as comeu&quot; or &quot;Sam las comió&quot; (Sam them ate). This type of ordering is sometimes (although rarely) used in English under [[poetic license]], especially in works of [[William Shakespeare]].

SOV languages tend to have the adjectives before nouns, to use [[postposition]]s rather than [[preposition]]s, to place relative clauses before the nouns to which they refer, and to place auxiliary verbs after the action verb. Some have special [[grammatical particle|particle]]s to distinguish the subject and the object, such as the Japanese ''ga'' and ''o''.  SOV languages also seem to exhibit a tendency towards using a [[Time Manner Place|Time-Manner-Place]] ordering of prepositional phrases.

An example in [[Japanese]] is: 
&amp;#31169;&amp;#12399;&amp;#31665;&amp;#12434;&amp;#38283;&amp;#12369;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12377;&amp;#12290;(watashi wa hako wo akemasu.) meaning &quot;I open a/the box/boxes.&quot; In this sentence, &amp;#31169; (watashi) is the subject (or more specifically, topic) meaning &quot;I&quot; as in first person singular, and it is followed by the &amp;#12399; (wa) topic-marker. &amp;#31665; (hako) is the object meaning box (in Japanese no distinction is made between whether a word uses &quot;a&quot; or &quot;the&quot;, or plural or singular unless specifically stated), followed by &amp;#12434; (wo) which is the object-marker in Japanese. &amp;#38283;&amp;#12369;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12377; (akemasu) is the polite non-past form of the verb which means &quot;to open&quot; and is at the end of the sentence.

Although [[Latin]] was an [[inflected language]], the most usual word order was SOV. An example would be: &quot;servus puellam amat&quot;, meaning &quot;The slave loves the girl.&quot; In this sentence, &quot;servus&quot; is the subject, &quot;puellam&quot; is the object and &quot;amat&quot; is the verb.

==See also==

* [[Topic-prominent language]]
* [[Verb Subject Object]]
* [[Subject Verb Object]]

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Subject Object Verb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-3</title>
    <id>2101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44138</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-15T11:55:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''X-3'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||a priori experimental language
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||agglutinating, polysynthetic
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||to be determined
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]] ||2006
|}

'''X-3''' is an [[X-languages|experimental language]] by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].  It is a [[briefscript|speedtalk]]-style language with a huge phoneme inventory allowing for very short words - ''one phoneme per morpheme'', such that a word of three phonemes may contain an entire sentence.

&lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate metadata&quot; id=&quot;inuse&quot; style=&quot;background: #cfc; border: 1px solid #aaa; margin: 0 2.5%; padding: 0 10px&quot;&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''This article is currently undergoing a major edit.'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
'''The contents are incomplete and in need of elaboration and/or change!'''&lt;br/&gt;
As a courtesy, please do not make edits to this article while this message is displayed, in order to avoid [[Wikipedia:Edit conflict|edit conflicts]].  If you need to know who is working on the article and when the edit session began, please check the [{{SERVER}}{{localurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=history}} edit history][[Template:Inuse|.]]
&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dethric language</title>
    <id>2102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46364</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T12:50:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Sample text and translation */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Dethric (Déthiaris)|pronounce=&lt;span style=&quot;font: 11px GentiumAlt, Gentium&quot;&gt;ˈðeθiɐrɨs&lt;/span&gt;|tu=[[Ilethes]]|species=Human&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Dethrians]]|in=Dethria; lingua franca across [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|the West]]|no=''(tba)''|script=Lazeian alphabet|tree=''(tba)''&lt;!-- Hesperidian, ... --&gt;|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=23 Feb 2006}}

'''Dethric''' is a [[Hesperidian languages|Hesperidian]] language, widely spoken in modern times as a ''lingua franca'' across the western Ilethes (the continents of [[Eresphria]], [[Canthres]], [[Arophania]] and northern and western [[Marcasia]]).

==Name and genealogy==

Due to nationalist and other parametric concerns, there are disputes in the scholarly circles regarding the proper naming of the language known in English as Dethric. Although Dethric is a Hesperidian language, it branched off from the original family considerably early and had developed sufficiently on its own to have become mutually unintelligible with other dalects originally spoken on Dethria by the time of the expansion into Canthres, of which pioneers the &quot;dialect&quot; was the dominant tongue. It is, however, traditionally considered to be the successor to the earliest attested (written) language on the continent of Dethria, largely for historical reasons ''(see [[#Early Dethric and Dethrian Dark Ages|below]])''.

Dethric is properly a member of the [[South Hesperidian languages|South Hesperidian]] language sub-family, but bears closer resemblance at first sight to members of the [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic]] family due to considerable borrowing of both lexical and grammatical items and structures from the [[Classical Arithide]] of the [[Lazeian Empire]].  

==History==

===Early Dethric and Dethrian Dark Ages===

{{seealso|#Early syllabary}}

===Hagea-Vichau rivalry===

===Influence of Lazeian Empire and subsequent Middle Dethric===

The Dethric of the Dark Ages was to become Middle Dethric through the rejuvenating influence of the Lazeian Empire, the world's richest and most powerful state at the time. With its rich philosophical heritage and diverse expressive possibilities, Classical Arithide greatly enriched the Dethric tongue, much as French did for English in the centuries after the Norman conquest. Previously obscure concepts were now introduced, and the language gained a significant degree of subtlety, nuance and variation. In addition to that, writing was also reintroduced to the Dethrians, with the [[Lazeian alphabet]] modified and adapted for the sounds of Dethric.

{{seealso|#Lazeian alphabet}}

===Dethric in modern times===


{{seealso|#Spelling reform}}

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

''(table here)''

====Fricativised plosives====

All historic plosives have been fricativised, and are so reflected in the orthography (historic {{IPA|[g]}} has been lost except before front vowels). Where the velar plosives ({{IPA|[k], [g]}}) appear they have been reduced from labialised velars ({{IPA|[kʷ], [gʷ]}}); a {{IPA|[g]}} before an {{IPA|[n]}} generally assimilates in nasality.

The voiceless alveolar fricative phoneme ({{IPA|[s]}}) also varies sporadically to its voiced counterpart intervocalically, and when occurring as the last sound in a word, plosivises (de-fricativises) the following fricative if there is one, e.g. &quot;anas thumen&quot; is pronounced {{IPA|[ɐˈnastʊmɞn]}}; the palatal fricative ({{IPA|[ʃ]}}) is uncommon but occurrent. The above consonants may geminate (although gemination of {{IPA|[v], [g]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}} are rare); the voiceless glottal fricative phoneme ({{IPA|[h]}}), which occurs only word-initially and has been lost intervocalically, may not.

====Sonorants====

The lateral approximant ({{IPA|[l]}}) is what is known as a &quot;clear l&quot;, The nasal stops ({{IPA|[m], [n]}}) may assimilate regressively to each other or the following consonant (the velar nasal is an allophone of the alveolar nasal). The trill approximant ({{IPA|[r]}}) is akin to the Italian.

===Vowels===

''(table here)''

''(vowel variation + evolution from basic vowels)'' (note see also reductionism)

====Reductionism====

Dethric vowels have been affected by reductionism, and this change is most apparent in the orthography (and especially in romanisation), where modern monophthongs are represented by digraphs depicting historical diphthongs, and reduced vowels are represented by glyphs historically denoting full-quality sounds. Stressed vowels may lengthen slightly. The unrounded low vowel varies between central and back position; the close-mid front vowel may vary to open-mid position; all non-high vowels potentially reduce even further to a schwa. Vowels may exert harmonising influence on one another, although this process has generally become significantly less productive in recent years.

==Writing and orthography==

===Early syllabary===

===Alistrian alphabet===

===Lazeian alphabet===

===Spelling reform===

Before, Dethric was spelt much as it was pronounced in the [[Dethrian Middle Ages]], despite the major changes that spoken Dethric had undergone (q.v. above), leading to a situation where Dethric fricatives were spelt with letters that represented plosives, while extant letters for fricatives in the alphabet lay unused. This disjuncture with the rest of the Lazeian world created the impetus for a major spelling overhaul, conveniently helped by a disruptive war with its neighbours (see [[War of the Red Letters]]). 

==Grammar==

===Morphology, morphosyntax and word order===

===Nouns and pronouns===

====Declensions====

===Verbs===

====Aspect, mood and tense====

====Causativity and transitivity====

===Adjectives and adverbs===

==Sample text and translation==

{{stub}}

[[Category:Ilethes]]
[[Category:Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Proto-Coric</title>
    <id>2103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22753</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-04T16:17:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Proto-Razaric]] moved to [[Proto-Coric]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Proto-Coric'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||British Isles
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||extinct
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Coric]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''Proto-Coric'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||ergative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2006-
|}

'''Proto-Coric''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the [[Coric]] languages; it probably was spoken about 5000 years ago in the British Isles.

[[Category:Coric]]
[[Category:Protolanguages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pictish</title>
    <id>2104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22755</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-04T16:18:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Pictish'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Scotland
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||ca. 500
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||[[Coric]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;'''Pictish'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||fusional
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||ergative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FF6666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2006-
|}

'''Pictish''' is the only surviving [[Coric]] language; it is spoken by a few extended families in the eastern Scottish highlands.

[[Category:Coric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Subject Verb Object</title>
    <id>2106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46605</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:14:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[XX language]] &gt; [[XX]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistic typology]], '''subject-verb-object''' ('''SVO''') is a sentence structure where the [[subject]] comes first, the [[verb]] second, and the [[object]] third.  Languages are classified according to the dominant sequence of these constituents of sentences.  This sequence is the most common.  [[English]], [[Chinese]], [[Taiwanese]], [[Vietnamese]], [[Thai]], [[Khmer]], the [[Romance languages]], [[Russian]], [[Bulgarian]], [[Kiswahili]], [[Hausa]], [[Yoruba]], [[Nahuatl]], [[Quiche]], [[Guaraní]], [[Javanese]], [[Malay]] and [[Indonesian]] are examples of languages that follow this pattern. 

An example of this order in English is:

:''Sam ate the oranges.''

In this, ''Sam'' is the subject, ''ate'' is the verb, ''the oranges'' is the object.

Some languages are more complicated: in [[German]] and in [[Dutch]], SVO is often considered basic since this is the unmarked order in declarative main clauses. However, any other constituent may come before the verb instead of the subject which then must follow immediately after the verb. Furthermore, in certain subordinated sentences as well as in infinitive phrases, the verb comes last, as do removable parts of the verb in declarative main clauses. This is called [[V2 word order]].

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Subject Verb Object]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linguistic typology</title>
    <id>2107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46651</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T12:18:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Subject-Verb-Object positioning */ link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Linguistic typology''' is the [[typology]] that [[classifies]] languages by their features. Linguistic typology includes [[Morphological typology|morphological]], syntactic (sometimes &quot;morphosyntactic&quot;), and phonological typology. Typological classification of languages contrasts with the more familiar '''genetic''' classification into families that share an ancestor language (see [[historical linguistics]]).  A genetic class is a language ''family'', while a typological class is a language ''type''. Research on typology often overlaps with research on [[linguistic universal]]s.

==Typological systems==
===Subject-Verb-Object positioning===
One set of types is determined by the basic order of subject, verb, and object in sentences:
*[[Subject Verb Object]]
*[[Subject Object Verb]]
*[[Verb Subject Object]]
*[[Verb Object Subject]]
*[[Object Subject Verb]]
*[[Object Verb Subject]]
These are usually abbreviated SVO and so forth, and may be called just &quot;typologies&quot; of the languages to which they apply.

Some languages split verbs into an auxiliary and an infinitive or participle, and put the subject or object between them. For instance, German (&quot;Im Wald ''habe'' ich einen Fuchs ''gesehen''&quot; - *&quot;In-the wood have I a fox seen&quot;), Dutch (&quot;Hans ''vermoedde'' dat Jan Piet Marie ''zag leren zwemmen''&quot; - *&quot;Hans suspected that Jan Piet Marie saw teach swim&quot;) and Welsh (&quot;''Mae''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;r gwirio sillafu wedi'i ''gwblhau''&quot; - *&quot;Is the check spelling after to complete&quot;). In this case, typology is based on the non-analytic tenses (i.e. those sentences in which the verb is not split) or the position of the auxiliary. German is thus SVO/VSO (without &quot;im Wald&quot; the subject would go first) in main clauses and Welsh is VSO (and O would go after the infinitive).

Both German and Dutch are often classified as [[V2 word order|V2]] languages, as the verb invariantly occurs as the second element of a full clause.

Some languages that are [[Inflected language|inflected]] are difficult to classify in the SVO typological system, because virtually any ordering of verb, object, and subject is possible and correct. All we can do for such languages is find out which word order is the most frequent.
For example, in a non-inflected language, the subject and object of a sentence are determined by word order; in an inflected language, the determination may be made by [[affix]]es applied to nouns to designate their grammatical roles. In such a system, fixed word order is not necessary to determine meaning (although highly inflected languages do sometimes develop normative word orders).  Inflected languages without a fixed word order include [[Word order in Latin|Latin]], [[Polish]], and [[Greek]].

===Ergative-accusative===
Another common classification is according to whether a language is [[Accusative case|accusative]] or [[Ergative-absolutive language|ergative]].  In a language with [[noun case|case]]s, the classification depends on whether the subject of an intransitive verb has the same case as the subject or the object of a transitive verb. If a language has no cases, but is SVO or OVS, then the classification depends on whether the subject of an intransitive verb is on the same side as the subject or the object of the transitive verb.

Many languages show mixed accusative and ergative behaviour (e.g. ergative morphology marking the verb arguments, on top of an accusative syntax). Other languages (called &quot;[[active language|active languages]]&quot;) have two types of intransitive verbs&amp;mdash;some of them (&quot;active verbs&quot;) join the subject in the same case as the subject of a transitive verb, and the rest (&quot;stative verbs&quot;) join the subject in the same case as the object. Yet other languages behave ergatively only in some contexts (this is called [[split ergativity]], and is usually based on the grammatical person of the arguments or in the tense/aspect of the verb).  For example, only some verbs in [[Georgian language|Georgian]] behave this way, and, as a rule, only while the tense called [[aorist]] is used.

See also: [[morphosyntactic alignment]].

==External links==
* [http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/organisations/alt/ Association for Linguistic Typology]
* [http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fss/organisations/alt/sylplank.htm#MORPHOLOGICAL%20TYPOLOGY Themes in Typology: Basic Reading List]


{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Linguistic typology]]

[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Verb Subject Object</title>
    <id>2108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46603</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:10:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[XX language]] &gt; [[XX]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Verb Subject Object'''&amp;mdash;commonly used in its abbreviated form '''VSO'''&amp;mdash;is a term in [[linguistic typology]]. It represents one type of languages when classifying languages according to the sequence of these constitutents in neutral expressions: ''Ate Sam oranges''. The word order roughly corresponds to the order of symbols in (non-reverse) [[Polish notation]] or the S-expressions of the [[Lisp programming language]].

Examples of languages with VSO word order include the [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic branch]] of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic language family]] (namely [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Manx]]), related [[Welsh]] (the only VSO [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic language]]), [[Ancient Egyptian]], [[Aramaic]], [[Biblical Hebrew]], [[Phoenician]], [[Canaanite]], [[Ge'ez]], [[Classic Maya]], [[Tagalog]],　[[Hawai'ian]], [[Maori]] and [[Tongan]]. 

Even though [[Arabic]] originally had VSO word order, it is now usually more understood with SVO, especially [[Egyptian Arabic]] and [[Moroccan Arabic]].

== Inversion into VSO ==
There are many languages which switch from SVO ([[Subject Verb Object]]) order to VSO order with different constructions, usually for emphasis. For example, sentences in [[English]] poetry can sometimes be found to have a VSO order; [[French]] questions may reverse the order of the subject and verb into the VSO order (although this is not required); and [[Arabic]] sentences use a SVO order or a VSO order depending on whether the subject or the verb is more important.

Non-VSO languages that use VSO word order in [[question]]s include [[Dutch]] and many [[Germanic languages]], [[French]], and [[Spanish]].

== See also ==
*[[Subject Object Verb]]
*[[Subject Verb Object]]


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    <title>Verb Object Subject</title>
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        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
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      <comment>copy from Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Verb Object Subject''' - commonly used in its abbreviated form '''VOS''' - is a term in [[Linguistic typology]].
It represents one type of languages when classifying languages according to the sequence of these constitutents in neutral expressions: ''Ate oranges Sam''.

Examples include [[Malagasy]], (Old) [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Toba]] [[Batak]] and [[Fijian language|Fijian]]. Note that these three languages are all [[Austronesian languages]].  This word order is also found in Mayan languages like [[Tzotzil]].


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  <page>
    <title>Tzotzil</title>
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      <comment>rm redlinks, cat:OT</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Tzotzil''' Maya of the central highlands of the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of Chiapas are a Native American group, the direct descendants of the [[Maya Civilization|Classic Maya]].  Tzotzil, along with [[Tzeltal language|Tzeltal]] and [[Ch'ol|Ch'ol]] is descended from the proto-Ch'ol spoken in the late classic period at sites such as Palenque and Yaxchilan.  Today, the largest Tzotzil municipalities are Chamula and Zinacantan.

The word &quot;tzotzil&quot; means &quot;people of wool&quot; (tzotz = wool in the Tzotzil language). Tzotzil people make their clothing primarily out of wool. However, according to ancient Maya language, &quot;tzotzil&quot; could also be translated as &quot;bat people&quot;, given the association of their culture with this animal in the view of the Mayas.

The Tzotziles were for centuries exploited by Europeans as laborers on coffee and sugar plantations, particularly in the central valleys of the state.

With the collapse of coffee prices in the 1980s, sustainable employment has been hard for many people in the highlands to find.  As both population and foreign tourism have risen, the sale of artisan goods has replaced other economic activities.  Tzotziles  usually sell their products in the nearby cities of San Cristobal de las Casas, Comitán, and Simojovel. Recently, and increasingly, many Maya from the highlands of Chiapas have found migration to other parts of Mexico, and illegal immigration to the United States a way to break away from [[subsistence farming]] and abysmal wages.

There still exist some racial/cultural integration issues, especially with white people, mestizos, and westernized Indians (all called ladinos&quot;). Also, most of the enrollment source for the Zapatista guerrilla are tzotziles.

The Tzotzil dialect of the Mayan language had about 350,000 speakers as of 2002.

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Laughlin, Robert M. | title=The great Tzotzil dictionary of San Lorenzo Zinacantán | publisher=Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press | year=1975 }}


{{stub}}

{{wikipedia|Tzotzil}}
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    <title>Object Subject Verb</title>
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      <comment>categ grammar,</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Object Subject Verb''' (OSV) is one of the permutations of expression
used in [[Linguistic typology]].
OSV denotes the sequence &quot;Object Subject Verb&quot; in neutral expressions: ''Oranges Sam ate.''
It is a notation used when classifying languages according to the dominant
sequence of these constitutents.

This sequence is rare. One example of a language that uses it is [[Xavante language|Xavante]]. It is also found in some other languages of Brazil, including [[Jamamadi language|Jamamadi]], [[Apurinã language|Apurinã]], [[Kayabí language|Kayabí]] and [[Nadëb language|Nadëb]]. [[Sardinia|Sardinians]] very often use OSV while speaking in Italian. Many non-Sardinian speakers in Italy find this &quot;Sardinian Italian Accent&quot; very funny. This structure may on occasion be seen in English, usually in the future tense or with the conjunction &quot;but&quot;, such as in the following examples: &quot;To Rome I shall go!&quot;, &quot;I hate oranges, but apples I'll eat!&quot;

This word order appears in a number of [[constructed language]]s, such as [[Teonaht]], as it is often chosen by language inventors for its exotic sound. The [[Star Wars]] character [[Yoda]] speaks in a modified form of this word order. This word order is also used in the game ''[[Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars]]'' by [[Bowyer]].


{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Object Subject Verb]]

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    <title>Constructed language</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''artificial''' or '''constructed language''' (known colloquially as a '''[[conlang]]''' among aficionados), is a [[language]] whose [[phonology]],  [[grammar]] and [[vocabulary]] are specifically devised by an individual or small group, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a [[culture]] the way [[natural language]]s do.  Some are designed for use in human [[communication]] (usually to function as [[international auxiliary language]]s), but others are created for use in fiction, [[linguistics|linguistic]] experimentation, secrecy ([[code]]s), or for the experience of doing so ([[artistic language]]s, [[Language game (linguistics)|language games]]). These languages are sometimes associated with [[constructed world]]s.

The synonym '''''planned language''''' is sometimes used when referring to [[international auxiliary language]]s, and by those who may object to the more common term &quot;artificial&quot;. Some speakers of [[Esperanto]] avoid the term &quot;artificial language&quot; because they deny that there is something &quot;unnatural&quot; in communicating in this language.  However,  outside the [[Esperanto community]] the term [[language planning]] refers to prescriptive measures taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, even &quot;natural languages&quot; may be submitted to a certain amount of artificiality, and in the case of [[prescriptive grammar]]s, the line is difficult to draw.

==Overview ==

Constructed languages are often divided into '''''[[a priori]]'' languages''', in which much of the grammar and vocabulary is created from scratch (using the author's imagination or automatic computational means), and '''''[[a posteriori]]'' languages''', where the grammar and vocabulary are derived from one or more natural languages.

Fictional and experimental languages can also be naturalistic, in the sense that they are meant to sound natural and, if derived ''a posteriori'', they try to follow natural rules of [[phonology|phonological]], lexical and [[grammar|grammatical]] change. Since these languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication, a naturalistic fictional language tends to be more difficult and complex, not less (because it tries to mimic common behaviours of natural languages such as irregular verbs and nouns, complicated phonological rules, etc.).

In light of the above, most constructed languages can broadly be divided as follows:

* '''Engineered languages''' (''[[engelang]]s''), further subdivided into '''philosophical languages''' and '''logical languages''' (''loglangs'') - devised for the purpose of experimentation in [[logic]] or [[philosophy]]
* '''Auxiliary languages''' (''[[auxlang]]s'') - devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language)
* '''Artistic languages''' (''[[artlang]]s'') - devised to create aesthetic pleasure

The boundaries between these categories, however, are by no means clear.  For example, for some fictional auxiliary languages, and also some constructed languages, it is hard to decide whether they are &quot;artistic&quot; or &quot;engineered&quot;.

A constructed language can have native speakers if children learn it at an early age from parents who have learned the language. [[Esperanto]] has a considerable number of [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]], variously estimated to be between 200 and 2000. A member of the [[Klingon Language Institute]], [[d'Armond Speers]], attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) [[Klingon language|Klingon]] speaker. Evan Robertson, the creator of [[Mosro]], successfully taught the language to his four youngest children.  However, as soon as a constructed language ''does'' have a number of native speakers, it begins to evolve, and thereby loses its constructed status over time.  For example Modern [[Hebrew]] was modelled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of [[Israel]] was founded in 1948.

Proponents of particular constructed languages often have many reasons for using them.  Among these, the famous but disputed [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] is often cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way in which one thinks. Thus, a &quot;better&quot; language should allow the speaker to reach some elevated level of intelligence, or to encompass more diverse points of view.

In the [[CONLANG]] Mailing List, a community of [[conlanger]]s has developed, which has its own customs, such as [[translation relay]]s.

==History==

Grammatical speculation is documented from [[Classical Antiquity]], with [[Plato]]'s ''[[Cratylus]]''. However the suggested mechanisms of grammar were designed to explain existing languages ([[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]]), and not aiming at constructing new grammars.  Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, [[Pāṇini]] constructed a meta-linguistic formalism, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language.

The earliest non-natural languages were not so much considered &quot;constructed&quot; as &quot;super-natural&quot; or mystical. The  [[Lingua Ignota]], recorded in the 12th century by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] is an example of this, apparently it is a form of private mystical [[cant (language)|cant]] (see also [[language of angels]]).  Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by Adam and Eve in Paradise, lost in the [[confusion of tongues]]. The first Christian project for an ideal language is outlined in [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'', where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature.  [[Ramon Llull|Raymond Lull]]'s ''Ars magna'' was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith.  It was basically an application of combinatorics on a given set of concepts.  During the [[Renaissance]], Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were carried ''ad absurdum'' in a [[Magical thinking|magical]] context, resulting in [[cryptography|cryptographic]] applications. The [[Voynich manuscript]] may be an example of this. Renaissance interest in [[Ancient Egypt]], notably the discovery of the ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'' of [[Horapollo]], and first encounters with the [[Chinese script]] directed efforts towards a perfect language of written characters.  [[Johannes Trithemius]], in his works ''Steganographia'' and ''Polygraphia'', attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one.  In the 17th century, interest in [[Magical thinking|magical]] languages was continued  by the [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Alchemy|Alchemists]] (like [[John Dee]]).  [[Jakob Boehme]] in 1623 spoke of a &quot;natural language&quot; (''Natursprache'') of the senses.

[[Musical language]]s from the Renaissance were tied up with [[mysticism]], magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the [[language of the birds]].  The [[Solresol]] project of 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context.

The 17th century also saw the rise of projects for &quot;philosophical&quot; or &quot;a priori&quot; languages.  Pioneered by [[Francis Lodwick]]'s ''A Common Writing'' (1647) and ''The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing'' (1652),  [[George Dalgarno]] (''Ars signorum'', 1661) and [[John Wilkins]] (''Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language'', 1668) produced systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression.  [[Gottfried Leibniz]] with ''lingua generalis'' in 1678 pursued a similar end, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing binary calculus. These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into &quot;characters&quot; or hierarchies, an idea that with the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] would ultimately lead to the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.

Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an ''a priori'' language based on such a classification of concepts.  Under the entry ''Charact&amp;egrave;re'', [[D'Alembert]] critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century.  From the ''Encyclopédie'', projects for ''a priori'' languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe.  Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until the early [[20th century]] (e.g. [[Ro]]), but most recent [[engineered language]]s have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. [[Lincos]] and [[programming language]]s), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., [[Loglan]] and [[Lojban]]) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., [[Ithkuil]]).

Already in the ''Encyclopédie'' attention began to focus on ''a posteriori'' auxiliary languages. [[Joachim Faiguet]] in the article on ''Langue'' already wrote a short proposition of a &quot;laconic&quot; or regularized grammar of [[French]]. During the [[19th century]], a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that [[Louis Couturat]] and [[Leopold Leau]] in ''Historire de la langue universelle'' (1903) could review 38 projects.  The first of these that made any international impact was [[Volapük]], proposed in 1879 by [[Johann Martin Schleyer]], and within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe.  However, this language by its very success lost its unity, and within a few years, fell into obscurity, making way for [[Esperanto]], proposed in 1887 by [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]], the most successful IAL to date. [[Loglan]] (1955) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic return to the aims of the ''a priori'' languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language.

Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in [[Gargantua and Pantagruel|Pantagruel]], and in [[Utopia]]n contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects from the [[20th century]].  ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language.  [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] was the first to develop a family of related fictional languages and was the first academic to publicly discuss artistic languages, admitting to ''[[A Secret Vice]]'' of his in 1930 at an Esperanto congress. ([[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Newspeak]]'' should be considered a parody of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.)

By the turn of the [[21st century]], it had become common for science-fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, and constructed languages are a regular part of movies of the genre, including ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' and ''[[Atlantis: The Lost Empire]]''.

== See also ==

* [[List of constructed languages]]
* [[Universal language]]
* Language construction
** [[CONLANG]], [[conlanger]]
** [[List of language regulators|Language regulator]]
** [[Language Construction Kit]]
** [[Language game (linguistics)]]
** [[Artificial script]]
* Language modelling and translation
** [[Language translation]]
** [[Knowledge representation]]
** [[Translation relay]]
** [[Universal grammar]]
** [[Metalanguage]]
* Prescriptive grammar
** [[Language planning]]
** [[Linguistic protectionism]]
** [[List of language regulators]]
** [[Spelling reform]]
** [[Pāṇini]]
** [[Duden]], [[German spelling reform of 1996]]
* Spontaneous emergence of grammar
** [[Glottogony]]
** [[Pidgin]]
** [[Poto and Cabengo]]
** [[June and Jennifer Gibbons]]
* Mystical languages
** [[Glossolalia]]
** [[Language of the birds]]

== References ==

* [[Alan Libert]], ''A Priori Artificial Languages''. Lincom Europa, Munich, 2000. ISBN 3-89586-667-9
* [[Umberto Eco]], ''The search for the perfect language'', 1993.

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Conlang}}

=== Scholarship ===

* [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:C4Pf-lezOvAJ:journal.media-culture.org.au/0003/languages.php+site:journal.media-culture.org.au+constructed+language&amp;hl=en Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet] by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000).
&lt;!-- used Google cache because can't access the original article.  Should try again later. --&gt;
*[http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/outpost.htm Language Arts Outpost] preserves several articles from the paper zine ''Journal of Planned Languages''
*[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/index.html The Language Lab], Rick Harrison's site, also reprints several such articles on specific languages

=== Real life classes on conlangs ===

*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs_decal Spring 2005 and Spring 2006 UC Berkeley Conlangs DE-Cal] (and its recorded videos, on [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=conlangs archive.org] and [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=conlangs video.google.com])
*[http://www.uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html List of Esperanto university classes worldwide (in Esperanto)]

===Communities===

* [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html The CONLANG Mailing List]
* [http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs LiveJournal Conlangs community]
* [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/index.php Zompist Bulletin Board] - a highly active online forum devoted to conlangs (and conworlds in general)
* [http://www.kutjara.com/wiki KutjaraWiki] - a wiki, running on MediaWiki, managed by the denizens of the Zompist BBoard
* [http://www.artlangs.com ArtLangs.com :: The ArtLangs Community] - A forum and site on conlanging and conworlding
* [http://www.conlanger.com Conlanger.com] - A multilingual forum and link collection for conlanging
* [irc://irc.efnet.net/ConLang #ConLang] - The IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet
*[http://scriptorium.17.forumer.com/index.php Scriptorium Bulletin Board] &amp;mdash; A forum primarily devoted to artificial and natural writing systems

===How to===

* [http://zompist.com/kit.html The Language Construction Kit]
* [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/ng/lng/how/index.html How to Create a Language] by [[Pablo David Flores]], inspired by the Language Construction Kit; covers some overlooked topics
** [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/sp/lng/como/index.html Cómo crear un lenguaje] - [[Spanish language]] version
* [http://langmaker.com/ Langmaker: ConLangs and neologisms forum]

===Link collections===

* [http://www.langmaker.com/ Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com] - over 1,000 languages listed, frequently updated
&lt;!-- * [http://www.myconlanglinks.tk/ Invaluable Conlang Links] [Broken?] --&gt;
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/9219/conlib.html A Constructed Languages Library]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/5555/conlang.htm The Conlang Yellow Pages]
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/ Blueprints For Babel]
* [http://minyeva.alkaline.org/links.htm Garrett's Links to Logical Languages]

===Collections of constructed language resource links===

*[http://www.sys.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.html Some Internet resources relating to constructed languages]
*[http://www.langmaker.com/db/rsc_a2z_index.htm More Internet resources relating to constructed languages]

===Wikis on or about constructed languages===

* [http://talideon.com/concultures/wiki ConlangWiki] - a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures.
* [http://conlang.wikicities.com/ Conlang Wikicity]
* [http://ial.wikicities.com/ IAL Wiki] - a wiki for the Auxlang community
* [http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki Unilang.org] - a database of language- and linguistic-related information


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  <page>
    <title>Phonology</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Phonology''' ([[Greek]] ''phonē'' = voice/sound and ''logos'' = word/speech), is a [[subfield]] of [[linguistics]] which studies the [[sound]] system of a specific [[language]] (or languages). Whereas [[phonetics]] is about the physical production and [[perception]] of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages.

An important part of phonology is studying which sounds are distinctive units within a language. In [[English_language|English]], for example, /p/ and /b/ are distinctive units of sound, (i.e., they are ''[[phoneme]]s'' /the difference is ''phonemic''). This can be seen from [[minimal pair]]s such as &quot;pin&quot; and &quot;bin&quot;, which mean different things, but differ only in one sound. On the other hand, /p/ is often [[pronunciation|pronounced]] differently depending on its position relative to other sounds, yet these different pronunciations are still considered by [[native speakers]] to be the same &quot;sound&quot;. For example, the /p/ in &quot;pin&quot; is [[Aspiration|aspirated]] while the same phoneme in &quot;spin&quot; is not. In some other languages, eg [[Thai]] and [[Quechua]], this same difference of aspiration or non-aspiration does differentiate phonemes. 

In addition to the minimal meaningful sounds (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, such as the /p/ in English described above, and topics such as [[syllable structure]], [[stress]], [[accent]], and [[intonation]].

The principles of phonological theory have also been applied to the analysis of [[sign language|signed languages]], with [[gestures]] and their relationships as the object of study.

==Representing phonemes==
The [[writing systems]] of some languages are based on the phonemic principle of having one [[letter]] (or combination of letters) per [[phoneme ]] and vice-versa. Ideally, speakers can correctly write whatever they can say, and can correctly read anything that is written. (In practice, this ideal is never realized.) However in English, different spellings can be used for the same phoneme (e.g., ''rude'' and ''food'' have the same [[vowel]] sounds), and the same letter (or combination of letters) can represent different phonemes (e.g., the &quot;th&quot; [[consonant]] sounds of ''thin'' and ''this'' are different). In order to avoid this confusion based on [[orthography]], phonologists represent phonemes by writing them between two slashes: &quot; /  / &quot; (but without the quotes). On the other hand, the actual sounds are enclosed by square brackets: &quot; [ ] &quot; (again, without quotes). While the letters between slashes may be based on spelling conventions, the letters between square brackets are usually the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) or some other [[phonetic transcription]] system.

==Phoneme inventories==
===Doing a phoneme inventory===
Part of the phonological study of a language involves looking at data (phonetic [[transcription (linguistics) | transcriptions]] of the speech of [[native speaker]]s) and trying to deduce what the underlying [[phoneme]]s are and what the sound inventory of the language is. Even though a language may make distinctions between a small number of phonemes, speakers actually produce many more phonetic sounds. Thus, a phoneme in a particular language can be pronounced in many ways.

Looking for minimal pairs forms part of the research in studying the phoneme inventory of a language. A [[minimal pair]] is a pair of words from the same language, that differ by only a single sound, and that are recognized by speakers as being two different words. When there is a minimal pair, the two sounds constitute separate phonemes. (It is often not possible to detect all phonemes with this method so other approaches are used as well.) If two similar sounds do not constitute separate phonemes, they are called [[allophone]]s of the same underlying phoneme.

===Phonemic distinctions or allophones===
If two similar sounds do not constitute separate phonemes, they are called [[allophone]]s of the same underlying phoneme. For instance, voiceless stops ({{IPA |/p/, /t/, /k/}}) can be aspirated. In English, voiceless stops at the beginning of a word are [[Aspiration|aspirated]], whereas after /s/ they are not aspirated. (This can be seen by putting your fingers right in front of your lips and notice the difference in breathiness as you say 'pin' and 'spin'.) There is no English word 'pin' that starts with an unaspirated p, therefore in English, aspirated {{IPA |[pʰ]}} (the {{IPA |[ʰ]}} means aspirated) and unaspirated [p] are allophones of an underlying phoneme /p/.

Another example of allophones in English is how the /t/ sounds in the words 'tub', 'stub', 'but', and 'butter' are all pronounced differently, yet are all perceived as &quot;the same sound.

Another example: in English, the liquids {{IPA |/l/}} and {{IPA |/ɹ/}} are two separate phonemes (minimal pair 'life', 'rife'); however, in [[Korean]] these two liquids are allophones of the same phoneme, and the general rule is that {{IPA |[ɾ]}} comes before a vowel, and {{IPA |[l]}} does not (e.g. ''Seou'''l''''', ''Ko'''r'''ea'').  A native speaker will tell you that the {{IPA |[l]}} in Seoul and the {{IPA |[ɾ]}} in Korean are in fact the same letter.  What happens is that a native Korean speaker's brain recognises the underlying phoneme {{IPA |/l/}}, and, depending on the phonetic context (whether before a vowel or not), expresses it as either {{IPA |[ɾ]}} or {{IPA |[l]}}.  Another Korean speaker will hear both sounds as the underlying phoneme and think of them as the same sound.  This is one reason why most people have an accent when they attempt to speak a language that they did not grow up hearing; their brains sort the sounds they hear in terms of the phonemes of their own native language.

===Change of a phoneme inventory over time===
The particular sounds which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, {{IPA |[f]}} and {{IPA |[v]}} were allophones in English, but these later changed into separate phonemes.  This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in [[historical linguistics]].

==Other topics in phonology==
Phonology also includes topics such as [[assimilation]], [[elision]], [[epenthesis]], [[vowel harmony]], [[tone]], non-phonemic [[prosody]] and [[phonotactics]]. Prosody includes topics such as [[stress]] and [[intonation]].

===Word stress===
In some languages, [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] is non-phonemic.  Some examples include [[Finnish]] and all ancient Germanic languages ([[Old Norse]], [[Old English]] and [[Old High German]]) as well as some modern Germanic languages such as [[Icelandic]]. However, in other modern-day Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is phonemically distinctive, although there are only a few minimal pairs. In German, for example, {{IPA |/ˈaugust/}}, the personal name August, contrasts with {{IPA |/auˈgust/}} , the month August. 

The distinction of stress is often seen in English words where the verb and noun forms have the same spelling.  For example, consider {{IPA|/ˈrɛbəl/}} 'rebel' the noun (which places the emphasis on the first syllable) contrasted with {{IPA|/rɪˈbɛl/}} 'rebel' the verb (which instead puts the emphasis on the second syllable).

Another example is the pair ''insight'' {{IPA|/ˈɪnsaɪt/}} and ''incite'' {{IPA|/ɪnˈsaɪt/}}, where in the former the stress lies on the first syllable and in the latter on the second syllable. In American English, the words ''Missouri'' and ''misery'' are also distinguished only by stress. In ''Missouri'', the stress lies on the penultimate syllable, but in ''misery'' it lies on the first syllable.

==Development of the field==
The Polish scholar [[Jan Baudouin de Courtenay]] coined the word ''[[phoneme]]'' in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He worked not only on the theory of the phoneme but also on phonetic alternations (i.e., what is now called [[allophony]] and [[morphophonology]]). His influence on [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], the father of [[Structuralism]], was significant.

Prince [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]]'s posthumously published work, the ''Principles of Phonology'' (1939), is considered the foundation of the [[Prague School]] of phonology. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetskoy is considered the founder of [[morphophonology]], though morphophonology was first recognized by Baudouin de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy split phonology into [[phonemics]] and [[archiphoneme|archiphonemics]]; the former has had more influence than the latter. Another important figure in the Prague School was [[Roman Jakobson]], who was one of the most prominent linguists of the [[twentieth century]].

In 1968, [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle]] published ''[[The Sound Pattern of English]]'', the basis for [[Generative Phonology]]. In this view, phonological representations (surface forms) are structures whose phonetic part is a sequence of phonemes which are made up of [[distinctive feature]]s. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, [[Gunnar Fant]], and Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or -. Ordered phonological rules govern how this phonological representation (also called underlying representation) is transformed into the actual pronunciation (also called surface form.) An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the Generativists folded morphology into phonology, which both solved and created problems. 

In the late 1960s, [[David Stampe]] introduced [[Natural Phonology]]. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal [[phonological process]]es which interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed are language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on [[distinctive feature]]s within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second-most prominent Natural Phonologist is Stampe's wife, [[Patricia Donegan]]; there are many Natural Phonologists in Europe, though also a few others in the U.S., such as [[Geoffrey Pullum]]. The principles of Natural Phonology were extended to [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] by [[Wolfgang Dressler]], who founded [[Natural Morphology]].

In 1976 [[John Goldsmith]] introduced [[autosegmental phonology]]. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as ''one'' linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as ''some parallel sequences'' of features which reside on multiple tiers.

[[Government Phonology]], which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of [[principle]]s and vary according to their selection of certain binary [[parameter]]s.  That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations.  Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict.  Prominent figures include [[Jonathan Kaye]], [[Jean Lowenstamm]], [[Jean-Roger Vergnaud]], [[Monik Charette]], [[John Harris(linguist)|John Harris]], and many others.

In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, [[Alan Prince]] and [[Paul Smolensky]] developed [[Optimality Theory]]—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of [[constraint]]s which is ordered by importance: a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by [[John McCarthy (linguist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Alan Prince]], and has become the dominant trend in phonology. Though usually unacknowledged, Optimality Theory was strongly influenced by Natural Phonology; both view phonology in terms of constraints on speakers and their production, though these constraints are formalized in very different ways.

==See also==

* [[Phoneme]]
* [[Morphophonology]]
* [[Phonological hierarchy]]
* [[Prosody (linguistics)]]
* [[English phonology]]
* [[Shibboleth]]


==External links==

* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonology.htm What is phonology?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAutosegmentalPhonology.htm What is autosegmental phonology?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsGenerativePhonology.htm What is generative phonology?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsLexicalPhonology.htm What is lexical phonology?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsMetricalPhonology.htm What is metrical phonology?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhonologicalDerivation.htm What is a phonological derivation?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonologicalHierarchy.htm What is phonological hierarchy?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPhonologicalSymmetry.htm What is phonological symmetry?]
* &lt;small&gt;SIL: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhonologicalUniversal.htm What is a phonological universal?]
* &lt;small&gt;Lexicon of linguistics: &lt;/small&gt;[http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Metrical+phonology&amp;lemmacode=540 Metrical phonology]
* [http://www.celt.stir.ac.uk/staff/HIGDOX/STEPHEN/PHONO/PHONOLG.HTM On-line phonology course] (of [[English language|English]])
* [http://davidbrett.uniss.it/index Another on-line phonology course dealing with English] using large amounts of [[Macromedia Flash]] interaction.
* [http://specgram.com/PsQ.XVI.4/06.pulju.indefinite.html Variation in the English Indefinite Article]: A humorous article demonstrating the importance of phonology (as opposed to merely syntax and semantics) in linguistic analysis.

==Bibliography==

* Anderson, John M.; and Ewen, Colin J. (1987). ''Principles of dependency phonology''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Bloch, Bernard. (1941). Phonemic overlapping. ''American Speech'', ''16'', 278-284.
* Bloomfield, Leonard. (1933). ''Language''. New York: H. Holt and Company. (Revised version of Bloomfield's 1914 ''An introduction to the study of language'').
* Chomsky, Noam. (1964). Current issues in linguistic theory. In J. A. Fodor and J. J. Katz (Eds.), ''The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy language'' (pp. 91-112). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
* Chomsky, Noam; and Halle, Morris. (1968). ''The sound pattern of English''. New York: Harper &amp; Row.
* Clements, George N. (1985). The geometry of phonological features. ''Phonology Yearbook'', ''2'', 225-252.
* Clements, George N.; and Samuel J. Keyser. (1983). ''CV phonology: A generative theory of the syllable''. Linguistic inquiry monographs (No. 9). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-2625-3047-3 (pbk); ISBN 0-2620-3098-5 (hbk).
* Firth, J. R. (1948). Sounds and prosodies. ''Transactions of the Philological Society 1948'', 127-152.
* Gilbers, Dicky; and de Hoop, Helen. (1998). Conflicting constraints: An introduction to optimality theory. ''Lingua'', ''104'', 1-12.
* Goldsmith, John A. (1979). The aims of [[autosegmental phonology]]. In D. A. Dinnsen (Ed.), ''Current approaches to phonological theory'' (pp. 202-222). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
* Goldsmith, John A. (1989). ''Autosegmental and metrical phonology: A new synthesis''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
* Halle, Morris. (1954). The strategy of phonemics. ''Word'', ''10'', 197-209.
* Halle, Morris. (1959). ''The sound pattern of Russian''. The Hague: Mouton.
* Harris, Zellig. (1951). ''Methods in structural linguistics''. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
* Hockett, Charles F. (1955). ''A manual of phonology''. Indiana University publications in anthropology and linguistics, memoirs II. Baltimore: Waverley Press.
* Hooper, Joan B. (1976). ''An introduction to natural generative phonology''. New York: Academic Press.
* Jakobson, Roman. (1949). On the identification of phonemic entities. ''Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague'', ''5'', 205-213.
* Jakobson, Roman; Fant, Gunnar; and Halle, Morris. (1952). ''Preliminaries to speech analysis: The distinctive features and their correlates''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Kaisse, Ellen M.; and Shaw, Patricia A. (1985). On the theory of lexical phonology. In E. Colin and J. Anderson (Eds.), ''Phonology Yearbook 2'' (pp. 1-30).
* Kenstowicz, Michael. ''Phonology in generative grammar''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
* Ladefoged, Peter. (1982). ''A course in phonetics'' (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
* Martinet, André. (1949). ''Phonology as functional phonetics''. Oxford: Blackwell.
* Martinet, André. (1955). ''Économie des changements phonétiques: Traité de phonologie diachronique''. Berne: A. Francke S.A.
* Pike, Kenneth. (1947). ''Phonemics: A technique for reducing languages to writing''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Sapir, Edward. (1925). Sound patterns in language. ''Language'', ''1'', 37-51.
* Sapir, Edward. (1933). La réalité psychologique des phonémes. ''Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique'', ''30'', 247-265.
* de Saussure, Ferdinand. (1916). ''Cours de linguistique générale''. Paris: Payot.
* Stampe, David. (1979). ''A dissertation on natural phonology''. New York: Garland.
* Swadesh, Morris. (1934). The phonemic principle. ''Language'', ''10'', 117-129.
* Trager, George L.; and Bloch, Bernard. (1941). The syllabic phonemes of English. ''Language'', ''17'', 223-246.
* Trubetzkoy, Nikolai. (1939). ''Grundzüge der Phonologie''. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague 7.
* Twaddell, William F. (1935). On defining the phoneme. Language monograph no. 16. ''Language''.

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Phonology]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about linguistics. For the voicemail transcription service, see [[Phonetic (service)]]''
'''Phonetics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;phi;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;ή, ''phone'' = sound/voice) is the study of [[sound]]s ([[human voice|voice]]). It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds ([[phone]]s) as well as those of non-speech sounds, and their production, audition  and perception, as opposed to [[phonology]], which operates at the level of sound systems and abstract sound units (such as [[phoneme]]s and [[distinctive feature]]s). Phonetics deals with the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages. Discussions of meaning ([[semantics]]) therefore do not enter at this level of [[linguistics|linguistic analysis]].

While [[writing system]]s and [[alphabet]]s are in many cases closely related to the sounds of speech, strictly speaking, phoneticians are more concerned with the sounds of speech than the [[symbol]]s used to represent them.  So close is the relationship between them however, that many dictionaries list the study of the symbols (more accurately [[semiotics]]) as a part of phonetic studies. On the other hand, [[logographic]] writing systems typically give much less phonetic information, but the information is not necessarily non-existent.  For instance, in [[Chinese character]]s, a ''phonetic'' refers to the portion of the character that hints at its pronunciation, while the [[radical (Chinese character)|radical]] refers to the portion that serves as a [[semantics|semantic]] hint.
Characters featuring the same phonetic typically have similar pronunciations, but by no means are the pronunciations predictably determined by the phonetic due to the fact that pronunciations diverged over many centuries while the characters remained the same.  Not all Chinese characters are ''radical-phonetic compounds'', but a good majority of them are.

Phonetics has three main branches:
*[[articulatory phonetics]], concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other [[speech organ]]s in producing speech
*[[acoustic phonetics]], concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear
*[[auditory phonetics]], concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input it receives.

There are over a hundred different phones recognized as distinctive by the [[International Phonetic Association]] (IPA) and transcribed in their [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].

Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 years ago in ancient [[India]], with [[Pāṇini]]'s account of the place and manner of articulation of consonants in his ''cerca'' fifth-century BCE treatise of [[Sanskrit]]. Nearly all Indian alphabets today order their consonants according to Pāṇini's classification.

==See also== 
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Tolkāppiyam]] (a 200 BCE grammar of [[Tamil]]) 
* [[Speech processing]]
* [[Acoustics]]
* [[biometric word list]]
* [[Phonetics departments at universities]]
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
* [[X-SAMPA]]

==External links and references==
*[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Summer_2004/ling001/lecture2.html The sounds and sound patterns of language] U Penn
*[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/ UCLA lab data]
*[http://archive.phonetics.ucla.edu/ UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive]
*[http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/phonetik/EGG/page1.htm EGG and Voice Quality] (electroglottography, phonation, etc.)
*[http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/handbook.htm IPA handbook]
*[http://www.ling.lu.se/research/speechtutorial/tutorial.html Speech Analysis Tutorial]
*[http://www.uni-erfurt.de/sprachwissenschaft/personal/lehmann/CL_Lehr/PhonPhon/Phon_Index.html  Lecture materials in German on phonetics &amp; phonology, university of Erfurt] 

==Bibliography==

* Catford, J. C. (1977). ''Fundamental problems in phonetics''. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-32520-X.
* Clark, John; &amp; Yallop, Colin. (1995). ''An introduction to phonetics and phonology'' (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19452-5.
* Hardcastle, William J.; &amp; Laver, John (Eds.). (1997). ''The handbook of phonetic sciences''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-6311-8848-7.
* [[Peter Ladefoged|Ladefoged, Peter]]. (1982). ''A course in phonetics'' (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
* Ladefoged, Peter. (2003). ''Phonetic data analysis: An introduction to fieldwork and instrumental techniques''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23269-9 (hbk); ISBN 0-631-23270-2 (pbk).
*Ladefoged, Peter; &amp; Maddieson, Ian. (1996).  ''The sounds of the world's languages''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-19814-8 (hbk); ISBN 0-631-19815-6 (pbk).
* [[Ian Maddieson|Maddieson, Ian]]. (1984). ''Patterns of sounds''. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). ''Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* Pisoni, David B.; &amp; Remez, Robert E. (Eds.). (2004). ''The handbook of speech perception''. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-6312-2927-2.
* Rogers, Henry. (2000). ''The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics''. Harlow, Essex: Pearson. ISBN 0-582-38182-7.
* Stevens, Kenneth N. (1998). ''Acoustic phonetics''. Current studies in linguistics (No. 30). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-2621-9404-X.

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Phonetics]]

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
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    <title>Phoneme</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In human [[language]], a '''phoneme''' is a set of [[phone]]s (speech sounds or sign elements) that are cognitively equivalent. It is the basic unit that distinguishes between different words or [[morpheme]]s — changing an element of a word from one phoneme to another produces either a different word or obvious nonsense, whereas changing an element from one phone to another, when both belong to the same phoneme, produces the same word (sometimes with an odd or incomprehensible pronunciation).

Phonemes are not the physical [[segment (linguistics)|segment]]s themselves, but mental [[abstraction]]s of them. A phoneme could be thought of as a family of related [[phone]]s, called [[allophone]]s, that the speakers of a language think of, and hear or see, as being categorically the same. 

In [[sign language]]s, the phoneme was formerly called a ''[[chereme]]'' (or ''cheireme''), but usage changed to ''phoneme'' when it was recognized that the mental abstractions involved are essentially the same as in oral languages. 

A phonemically &quot;perfect&quot; [[alphabet]] is one that has a single symbol for each phoneme.

'''Phonemics''', a branch of [[phonology]], is the study of the systems of phonemes of languages. 

Although the concept has been fundamental to the development of phonological analysis of language beneath the level of the syllable, some linguists reject the theoretical validity of the phoneme. Some think that phonemes are more a product of literacy (i.e., the need to categorize the phonetics of a language in order to write it down systematically with a minimum number of letters). Other critics charge that the mind processes sub-phonemic elements of speech (e.g., [[distinctive feature|feature]]s) in meaningful ways.

A common test to determine whether two phones are allophones or separate phonemes relies on finding so-called [[minimal pair]]s: words that differ only in the phones in question. 

==Background and related ideas==

The term ''phonème'' was reportedly first used by Dufriche-Desgenettes in 1873, but it refered to only a sound of speech. The term ''phoneme'' as an [[abstraction]] was developed by the Polish linguist Jan Niecislaw [[Baudouin de Courtenay]] and his student [[Mikołaj Kruszewski]] during 1875-1895.  The term used by these two was ''fonema'', the basic unit of what they called ''psychophonetics''. The concept of the phoneme was elaborated in the works of [[Nikolai Trubetzkoi]] and other of the [[Prague School]] (during the years 1926-1935), as well as in that of [[structuralism|structuralist]]s like [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], [[Edward Sapir]], and [[Leonard Bloomfield]]. Later, it was also used in [[generative linguistics]], most famously by [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle]], and remains central in any accounts of the development of virtually all modern schools of [[phonology]]. 

The phoneme can be defined as &quot;the smallest meaningful psychological unit of sound.&quot; The phoneme has mental, physiological, and physical substance: our brains process the sounds; the sounds are produced by the human speech organs; and the sounds are physical entities that can be recorded and measured.

For an example of phonemes, consider the English words ''pat'' and ''sat'', which appear to differ only in their initial consonants. This difference, known as '''contrastiveness''' or '''opposition''', is sufficient to distinguish these words, and therefore the P and S sounds are said to be different phonemes in English. A pair of words that are identical except for such a sound are known as a [[minimal pair]]; this is the most frequent demonstration that two sounds are separate phonemes.

If no minimal pair can be found to demonstrate that two sounds are distinct, it may be that they are [[allophone]]s. Allophones are variant phones (i.e., sounds) that are not recognized as distinct by a speaker, and are not meaningfully different in the language, and so are perceived as &quot;the same&quot;. This is especially likely if they consistently occur in different environments. For example, the &quot;dark&quot; L sound at the end of the English word &quot;wool&quot; is quite different from the &quot;light&quot; L sound at the beginning of the word &quot;leaf&quot;, but this difference is meaningless in English, and is determined by whether the sound is at the beginning or end of a word. A native English speaker might have a hard time hearing the difference at first, but in [[Turkish]] the difference between &quot;light&quot; and &quot;dark&quot; L is sufficient to distinguish words. That is, they are two separate phonemes in Turkish, but allophones of a single phoneme in English.

The phonemic relationship of two sounds may not be obvious to a non-native speaker, which is why minimal pairs and an understanding of phonetic environments are important. For example, in [[Korean]], there is a phoneme /r/ that is a [[flap consonant|flapped]] ''r'' between vowels, and is an ''l''-sound next to other consonants. These sound very different to an English speaker, who is attuned to hearing them because the differences are meaningful in English. However, the native speaker has learned from an early age to filter out the difference, as they are not meaningful in their language. In Korean, for instance, it is impossible to distinguish the two words &quot;ram&quot; and &quot;lam&quot;, despite the fact that both R and L sounds occur in the language.

Across multiple languages, the same IPA symbol may be used to represent a phoneme, but their actual pronunciation may not be identical but merely similar. For example, the Finnish word ''maat'' (&quot;countries&quot;) sounds different from the [[Received Pronunciation|British English (Received Pronunciation)]] word ''mart'' even though both are phonemically transcribed as IPA {{IPA|/mɑ:t/}}[http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/hyfl/projektit/vokaalikartat_eng.html]; the Spanish word ''sin'' (&quot;without&quot;) has a somewhat different vowel from the American English ''seen'' though both are transcribed as {{IPA|/sin/}}. Such distinctions can be made in a [[phonetic transcription]].

The exact number of phonemes in [[English language|English]] depends on the speaker and the method of determining phoneme vs. allophone, but estimates typically range from 40 to 45, which is above average across all languages. [[Pirahã]] has only 10, while [[!Xóõ]] has 141.

Depending on the language and the [[alphabet]] used, a phoneme may be written consistently with one letter; however there are many exceptions to this rule — see [[#Writing systems|Writing systems]] below.

Some languages make use of [[pitch (music)|pitch]] for the precise same purpose. In this case, the tones used are called [[toneme]]s. Some languages distinguish words made up of the same phonemes (and tonemes) by using different ''durations'' of some elements, which are called [[chroneme]]s. However, not all scholars working on languages with distinctive duration use this term.

Usually, long [[vowel]]s and [[consonant]]s are represented either by a length indicator or doubling of the symbol in question.

In sign languages, phonemes may be classified as ''Tab'' (elements of location, from Latin ''tabula''), ''Dez'' (the hand shape, from ''designator''), ''Sig'' (the motion, from ''signation''), and with some researchers, ''Ori'' (orientation). Facial expressions and mouthing are also phonemic.

===Notation===

A transcription that only indicates the different phonemes of a languages is said to be ''phonemic''. Such transcriptions are enclosed within virgules (slashes), '''/ /'''; these show that each enclosed symbol is claimed to be phonemically meaningful. On the other hand, a transcription that indicates finer detail, including allophonic variation like the two English L's, is said to be ''phonetic'', and is enclosed in square brackets, '''[&amp;nbsp;]'''. 

The common notation used in linguistics employs virgules (slashes) (/ /) around the symbol that stands for the phoneme. For example, the phoneme for the initial consonant sound in the word &quot;phoneme&quot; would be written as {{IPA|/f/}}. In other words, the '''[[grapheme]]s''' are &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;ph&amp;gt;&lt;/tt&gt;, but this digraph represents one sound {{IPA|/f/}}. '''[[Allophone]]s''', more phonetically specific descriptions of how a given phoneme might be commonly instantiated, are often denoted in linguistics by the use of diacritical or other marks added to the phoneme symbols and then placed in square brackets ([ ]) to differentiate them from the phoneme in slant brackets (/ /). The conventions of [[orthography]] are then kept separate from both phonemes and allophones by the use of the markers &amp;lt; &amp;gt; to enclose the spelling.

The symbols of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) and extended sets adapted to a particular language are often used by linguists to write phonemes of oral languages, with the principle being one symbol equals one categorical sound.  Due to problems displaying some symbols in the early days of the Internet, systems such as [[X-SAMPA]] and [[Kirshenbaum]] were developed to represent IPA symbols in plain text.  As of 2004, any modern web browser can display IPA symbols (as long as the [[operating system]] provides the appropriate fonts), and we use this system in this article.

The only published set of phonemic symbols for a sign language is the [[Stokoe notation]] developed for [[American Sign Language]], which has since been applied to [[British Sign Language]] by Kyle and Woll, and to [[Australian Aboriginal sign languages]] by Adam Kendon. However, there are several phonetic systems, such as [[SignWriting]].

===Examples===

Examples of phonemes in the [[English language]] would include sounds from the set of English consonants, like {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}. These two are most often written consistently with one letter for each sound. However, phonemes might not be so apparent in written English, such as when they are typically represented with combined letters, called '''[[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]''', like &amp;lt;sh&amp;gt; (pronounced {{IPA|/ʃ/}}) or &amp;lt;ch&amp;gt; (pronounced {{IPA|/tʃ/}}).

To see a list of the phonemes in the English language, see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA for English]].

Two sounds that may be allophones (sound variants belonging to the same phoneme) in one language may belong to separate phonemes in another language or dialect. In English, for example, {{IPA|/p/}} has aspirated and non-aspirated allophones:aspirated as in {{IPA|/pɪn/}}, and non-aspirated as in {{IPA|/spɪn/}}. However, in many languages (e. g. [[Chinese]]), aspirated {{IPA|/pʰ/}} is a phoneme distinct from unaspirated {{IPA|/p/}}. As another example, there is no distinction between {{IPA|[r]}} and {{IPA|[l]}} in [[Japanese]], there is only one {{IPA|/r/}} phoneme in Japanese, although the Japanese {{IPA|/r/}} has allophones that make it sound more like an {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, or {{IPA|/r/}} to English speakers. The sounds {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/s/}} are distinct phonemes in English, but allophones in [[Spanish]]. {{IPA|/n/}} (as in ''run'') and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} (as in ''rung'') are phonemes in English, but allophones in [[Italian]] and Spanish.

An important phoneme is the [[chroneme]], a phonemically-relevant extension of the duration of a consonant or vowel. Some languages or dialects such as [[Finnish]] or Japanese allow chronemes after both consonants and vowels. Others, like [[Italian]] or [[Australian English]] use it after only one (in the case of Italian, consonants; in the case of Australian, vowels).

===Arguments against the phoneme===

Rather than a basic mental unit of language, some think that the phoneme may well be a perceptual artifact of alphabetic literacy (see the terms [[Phonemic awareness]] and [[Phonological awareness]]). If not that, it may be an [[epiphenomenal]] aspect to listening removed from face-to-face encounters, that is, text-like listening (qv [[phone]] and [[feature]]). It could be said that the unit of the phoneme is a necessary construct if we wish to set a dynamic, complex spoken language into static, written form expressed at a sub-syllabic level, though the model is a simplification and no where near phonologically or phonetically complete. The phoneme has the theoretical weakness from the perspective of phonology in that it uses, in part, lexical criteria to determine something that is supposed to be phonological (i.e., minimal pairs of words to point out phonological categories). 

Much of phonology, while accepting the phoneme as possible model or unit of language for description, has largely moved past the segmental phoneme as a basic unit of speech, of speech processing or of language acquisition. This is because the concept of the 'feature' is viewed as beneath the level of the phoneme while also spanning across segments. Meanwhile, attempts at capturing a phonological picture of the psychological control and structure underlying real speech flounder on the inadequacies of the phoneme for such purposes (that is, the phoneme can not account for co-articulation or assimilation of controlled speech, among other phenomena). Such an endeavor is more for the field of articulatory phonology, and its rival unit of phonology is the 'articulatory gesture'. However, the term 'phoneme', though variably defined and delimited, remains a widely and uncritically accepted concept in second and foreign language teaching and in the psychology of native literacy (especially for acquisitional literacy in alphabetic languages, such as English).

==Restricted phonemes==
A '''restricted phoneme''' is a phoneme that can only occur in a certain environment: There are restrictions as to where it can occur. English has several restricted phonemes:

* {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, as in ''sing'', occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning. (In many other languages, such as [[Swahili]], {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can start a word.)
* {{IPA|/h/}} occurs only at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end. (A few languages such as [[Arabic]] allow /h/ at the ends of words.)
* In many American dialects with the [[cot-caught merger]], {{IPA|/ɔ/}} occurs only before /r/, /l/, and in the [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/ɔi/}}. 
* In [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic dialects]], /r/ can only occur before a vowel, never at the end of a word or before a consonant.
* Under most interpretations, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} occur only before a vowel, never at the end of a syllable. However, many phonologists interpret a word like ''boy'' as either {{IPA|[boi̯]}} or {{IPA|[boj]}}.

==Neutralization, archiphoneme, underspecification==
Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they don't contrast, the contrast is said to be '''neutralized'''. 

An example from English is the neutralization of the plosives /k, g/ following /s/. Phonetically, the [[Aspiration|unaspirated]] [[tenuis consonant|tenuis]] plosive in ''sky'' is closer to English /g/, which is partially [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] in the initial position, than to [[Aspiration|aspirated]] /k/. This can be heard by comparing ''the sky'' with ''this guy''; also, in the speech of young children who are not yet able to produce consonant clusters, they often pronounce ''sky'' as what '''''sounds like''''' {{IPA|/gai/}} to adult ears but is actually produced with an unaspirated, unvoiced [k]. That is, /k/ and /g/ are constrastive word initially, 

{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; 
|   
|   
| {{IPA|[k&amp;#688;aɪ]}}
| ''chi''
|-
|   
|   
| {{IPA|[gaɪ]}}
| ''guy''
|}

But not after an /s/,

{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; 
|   
|   
| {{IPA|[skaɪ]}}
| →
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''sky''
|-
|   
|   
| {{IPA|[skaɪ]}}
| →
|}

Thus one cannot say whether the underlying representation of the plosive in ''sky'' is {{IPA|/k/}} without aspiration, or {{IPA|/g/}} without voicing. This neutralization can instead be represented as an archiphoneme |G|, in which case the underlying representation of ''sky'' would be |{{IPA|sGaɪ}}|.

Another way to talk about archiphonemes involves the concept of '''[[underspecification]]'''. Phonemes can be considered fully specified segments while archiphonemes are underspecified segments. In [[Tuvan]], phonemic vowels are specified with the features of tongue height, backness, and lip rounding. The archiphoneme |U| is an underspecified high vowel where only the tongue height is specified. 

{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; 
|- 
|   
|   
! phoneme/&lt;br&gt;archiphoneme
! height
! backness
! roundedness
|-
|   
|   
| {{IPA|/i/}}
| high
| front
| unrounded
|-
|   
|   
| {{IPA|/ɯ/}}
| high
| back
| unrounded
|-
|   
|   
| {{IPA|/u/}}
| high
| back
| rounded
|-
|   
|   
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|U|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| high
| -
| -
|}

Whether |U| is pronounced as front or back and whether rounded or unrounded depends on [[vowel harmony]]. If |U| occurs following a front unrounded vowel, it will be pronounced as the phoneme {{IPA|/i/}}; if following a back unrounded vowel, it will be as an {{IPA|/ɯ/}}; and if following a back rounded vowel, it will be an {{IPA|/u/}}. This can been seen in the following words:

{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; 
|-
|   
|   
| &lt;nowiki&gt;-|Um|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|
|
| 'my'
|
| (the vowel of this suffix is underspecified)
|-
|   
|   
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|idikUm|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| →
| {{IPA|[idikim]}}
| 'my boot'
|  
| (/i/ is front &amp; unrounded)
|-
|   
|   
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|xarUm|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| →
| {{IPA|[xarɯm]}}
| 'my snow'
|  
| (/a/ is back &amp; unrounded)
|-
|   
|   
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|nomUm|&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| →
| {{IPA|[nomum]}}
| 'my book'
|  
| (/o/ is back &amp; rounded)
|}

It should be noted that not all phonologists accept the concept of archiphonemes. Many doubt that it reflects how people process language or control speech, and some argue that archiphonemes add unnecessary complexity.

==Non-phonemes==

[[Prothesis (linguistics)|Prothesis]], [[epenthesis]] and [[paragoge]], due to [[phonotactics]], add sounds into words without adding meaning. Nevertheless, the sound is added, and thus the phoneme status may be ambiguous. For example, in Spanish a prothetic ''e-'' must be added before initial /s/ + consonant clusters, e.g. '''''e'''strés''.

==Phonological extremes==
Of all the sounds that a human vocal tract can create, different languages vary considerably in the number of these sounds that are considered to be distinctive phonemes in the speech of that language.  [[Ubyx]] and some dialects of [[Abkhaz Abkhaz]] have only two phonemic vowels, and many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] have three. On other extreme, the [[Bantu languages|Bantu language]] [[Ngwe]] has fourteen vowel qualities, twelve of which may occur long or short, for twenty-six oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, for thirty-eight vowels; while [[!Xóõ]] achieves thirty-one pure vowels—not counting vowel length, which it also has—by varying the phonation. [[Rotokas]] has only six consonants, while !Xóõ has somewhere in the neighborhood of seventy-seven, and Ubyx eighty-one. [[French]] has no phonemic tone or stress, while several of the [[Kam-Sui languages]] have nine tones, and one of the [[Kru languages]], [[Wobe]], has been claimed to have fourteen, though this is disputed. The total number of phonemes in languages varies from as few as eleven in Rotokas to as many as 112 in !Xóõ (including four tones). These may range from familiar sounds like {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[s]}}, or {{IPA|[m]}} to very unusual ones produced in extraordinary ways (see: [[Click consonant]], [[phonation]], [[airstream mechanism]]).  The [[English language]] itself uses a rather large set of thirteen to twenty-two vowels, including diphthongs, though its twenty-two to twenty-six consonants are close to average. (There are twenty-one consonant and five vowel ''letters'' in the English alphabet, but this does not correspond to the number of consonant and vowel ''sounds''.)

The most common vowel system consists of the five vowels {{IPA|/i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/}}. The most common consonants are {{IPA|/p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/}}.  A very few languages lack one of these: standard [[Hawai‘ian]] lacks {{IPA|/t/}}, [[Mohawk]] lacks {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/m/}}, Hupa lacks both {{IPA|/p/}} and a simple {{IPA|/k/}}, colloquial [[Samoan]] lacks {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}, while Rotokas and [[Quileute]] lack {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}. While most of these languages have very small inventories, Quileute and Hupa have quite complex consonant systems.

==Writing systems==
At least in theory, in a phonemic writing system, a given symbol represents a single phoneme, and each phoneme is represented by a single symbol. This may differ from a phonetic orthography, which only requires that the spelling be unambiguously determined by the pronunciation, and the pronunciation unambiguously indicated by the spelling. Phonemic representation of a language is often described as 'broad transcription', while a phonetic rendering is called 'narrow'. A phonetic system would have more symbols or spelling conventions, since it might, in part, attempt to capture some key sound variations (allophones)of a phoneme. Learners of a foreign or second language can benefit from a more phonetic writing system if it reveals subtleties in pronunciation that are phonemically glossed over by literate native or fluent speakers of that language (since the latter's purpose is fluent reading).  

English spelling (whether British, American or Australian) is often cited as the classic example of a nonphonemic, and indeed unphonetic, spelling system. [[Welsh]] and [[Irish]] are, by contrast, among the more predictable orthographies among languages using the Latin alphabet. In [[French]], rules to predict pronunciation from spelling are quite simple and have few exceptions, as long as there are some clues such as context or part of speech, but guessing spelling from pronunciation is quite difficult, especially because of the many silent letters. It should be noted that both written English and French (being lexical cousins, if quite different phonologically speaking) tend to preserve word root (over sound) relationships. [[Italian]], [[Spanish]] and especially [[Finnish]] have a very close letter-to-phoneme correspondence. [[Karelian]] has a perfectly phonemic spelling system, as it has no [[standard language]], but it has a complete spelling system.

Other languages fall somewhere in between polar distinctions such as &quot;lexical vs. phonemic and/or phonetic&quot; and &quot;phonemic vs. phonetic&quot;.  Although English is often given as an example of an unphonetic orthography, its system is nowhere near to being as logographic (lexical or word-based) a system as Chinese writing is.  English spelling conveys etymological, derivational and inflectional information, but also vast amounts of phonetic information as well. In a nutshell, written English displays a great deal of complexity for representing vowel sounds within a fairly stable and consistent consonant framework (though there is a shortage of letters all around, with 26 letters and phoneme counts well over 40). [[Spanish]] is often given as an example of a phonetic orthography, but it has numerous imperfections including [[Silent letter|silent letters]].  It is, at least, possible to tell the correct pronunciation of any written Spanish word. Another phonemic orthography is [[Serbian]]. Its phonemicity was established by Serbian &quot;[[Noah Webster|Webster]]&quot; [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]]. He followed a strict phonemic principle, which is best told by his own words: &quot;Write as you speak and read as it is written.&quot;. [[Hindi]], a descendant of [[Sanskrit]], is an example of phonetically written language represented with a non-Roman Alphabet that is partly syllabic in nature. Hindi's writing system, however, probably ultimately descends from the same ancient Middle Eastern sources that gave the world the Roman, Cyrillic and Arabic scripts. 

Real world distinctions between phonemic and nonphonemic orthographies are exaggerated. All languages are written with conventions that represent both meaning and pronunciation. This is true at both ends of the scale: Chinese characters are first and foremost symbols for morphemes and words, but they may have some phonetic elements to their composition as well (and these work, sometimes at least, the way spelling analogies do in written English). At the other extreme, there are a few orthographies which are complete and consistent phonemic representations of an artificial national standard. The phonemic principles by which orthographies might be standardized might also exclude representation of variations in pronunciation within the spoken dialects of a national language. 

Korean hangul, an invented writing system, has been called a linguistically perfect writing system because of its attention to phonetic-featural detail, capturing the language analytically at a fine-tuned featural level. However, it is not clear that native speakers need such phonetic-featural detail to learn to read Korean, and Korean, as it is actually written and read, could be processed synthetically at higher levels language, such as syllable types and whole words (i.e., sight words that are quickly read because they occur so often in text).

== See also ==
{{commons|:Category:Phonemes}}
* [[Minimal pair]]
* [[Phone]]
* [[Phonology]]
* [[Morphophonology]]
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Initial-stress-derived noun]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhoneme.htm What is a ''phoneme''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnAllophone.htm What is an ''allophone''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhone.htm What is a ''phone''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAPhoneticallySimilarSegm.htm What is a ''phonetically similar segment''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAMinimalPair.htm What is a ''minimal pair''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsComplementaryDistributio.htm What is ''complementary distribution''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnEnvironment.htm What is an ''environment''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsContrastInIdenticalEnvir.htm What is an ''contrast in identical environments''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsContrastInAnalogousEnvir.htm What is an ''contrast in analogous environments''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/ComparisonOfMorphemeMorphAllom.htm Comparison of morpheme-morph-allomorph &amp; phoneme-phone-allophone? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/Phonology.htm What is ''phonology''? &lt;small&gt;(SIL)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=phoneme Phoneme &lt;small&gt;(Lexicon of Linguistics)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=allophony Allophony &lt;small&gt;(Lexicon of Linguistics)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=transcription Transcription &lt;small&gt;(Lexicon of Linguistics)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Grapheme-phoneme+conversion Grapheme-Phoneme Conversion &lt;small&gt;(Lexicon of Linguistics)&lt;/small&gt;]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/zoek.pl?lemma=Phoneme+restoration Phoneme Restoration &lt;small&gt;(Lexicon of Linguistics)&lt;/small&gt;]
*[http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Phonemic_awareness phonemic awareness]

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Phoneme]]

[[Category:Phonology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Morpheme</title>
    <id>2116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-12T05:21:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>fix wp ref</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Morpheme-based morphology]], a '''morpheme''' is the smallest language unit that carries a [[semantics|semantic]] interpretation. Morphemes are, generally, a distinctive [[collocation]] of [[phoneme]]s (as the free form pin or the bound form -s of pins) having no smaller meaningful members.

''English example:''
The word &quot;unbelievable&quot; has three morphemes &quot;un-&quot;, (negatory) a bound morpheme, &quot;-believe-&quot; a free morpheme, and &quot;-able&quot;. &quot;un-&quot; is also a [[prefix morpheme|prefix]], &quot;-able&quot; is a [[suffix morpheme|suffix]]. Both are [[affix|affixes]].

== Types of morphemes ==
* Free morphemes like ''town'', ''dog'' can appear with other [[lexeme]]s (as in ''town-hall'' or ''dog-house'') or they can stand alone, or &quot;free&quot;. [[Allomorph|Allomorphs]] are variants of a morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-&amp;#618;z/.
* Bound morphemes like &quot;un-&quot; appear only  together with other morphemes to form a lexeme. Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes.  Morphemes existing in only one bound form are known as &quot;cranberry&quot; morphemes, from the &quot;cran&quot; in that very word.
* Inflectional morphemes modify a word's tense, number, aspect, and so on. (as in the ''dog'' morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme ''s'' becomes ''dogs'').
* Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create (derive) another word: the addition of &quot;-ness&quot; to &quot;happy&quot;, for example, to give &quot;happiness&quot;.

== Reference ==
{{cite book | first=Andrew| last=Spencer | year=1992 | title=Morphological Theory | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford:Blackwell | id= | url= | authorlink= }}

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Morpheme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linguistic universal</title>
    <id>2117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-06T23:36:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ. linguistics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''linguistic universal''' is a statement that is true for all natural languages. For example, ''All languages have [[noun]]s and [[verbs]].'' or ''All spoken languages have [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s'' (but not [[sign language]]s, to which [[phonology|phonological]] universals have no relevance). Research in this area of [[linguistics]] is closely tied to [[linguistic typology]], and intends to reveal information about how the [[human brain]] processes [[language]]. The field was largely pioneered by the linguist [[Joseph Greenberg]], who from a set of some thirty languages derived a set of basic universals, mostly dealing with [[syntax]].

==Terminology==
Linguists distinguish between two kinds of universals: '''absolute''' (opposite: '''statistical''', often called '''tendencies''') and '''implicational''' (opposite '''non-implicational'''). Absolute universals apply to every known language and are quite few in number; an example would be ''All languages have [[pronoun]]s''. An implicational universal applies to languages which have a particular feature that is always accompanied by another feature, such as ''If a language has [[trial grammatical number]], it also must have [[dual grammatical number]],'' while non-implicational universals just state the existence (or non-existence) of one particular feature.

Also in contrast to absolute universals are '''tendencies''', statements that may not be true for all languages, but nevertheless are far too common to be the result of chance. They also have implicational and non-implicational forms. An example of the latter would be ''The vast majority of languages have [[nasal consonant]]s''{{ref|Gbe}}. However, most tendencies, like their universal counterparts, are implicational. For example, ''With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] order are [[postposition]]al''. Strictly speaking, a tendency is not a kind of universal, but exceptions to most statements called universals can be found. For example, [[Latin]] is an SOV language with [[preposition]]s. Often it turns out that these exceptional languages are undergoing a shift from one type of language to another. In the case of Latin, its descendant [[Romance languages]] switched to [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]], which is a much more common order among prepositional languages.

Linguistic universals in syntax are sometimes held up as evidence for [[universal grammar]] (though [[epistemology|epistemological]] arguments are more common). Other explanations for linguistic universals have been proposed, for example that linguistic universals tend to be properties of language which aid communication. If a language were to lack one of these properties, it has been argued, it would probably soon evolve into a language having that property.

==In semantics==
In the domain of [[semantics]], research into linguistic universals has taken place in a number of ways. Some linguists, starting with [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], have pursued the search for a hypothetic irreducible semantic core of all languages; a modern variant of this approach can be found in the [[Natural Semantic Metalanguage]] of [[Anna Wierzbicka|Wierzbicka]] and associates.{{ref|NSM}}. Other lines of research suggest cross-linguistic tendencies to use body part terms metaphorically as adpositions, or tendencies to have morphologically simple words for cognitively salient concepts.{{ref|rosch}} The human body, being a physiological universal, provides an ideal domain for research into semantic and lexical universals. In a seminal study, Andersen (1978) proposed a number of universals in the semantics of body part terminology, including the following: in any language, there will be distinct terms for &lt;small&gt;BODY&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;HEAD&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;ARM&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;EYES&lt;/small&gt;, &lt;small&gt;NOSE&lt;/small&gt;, and &lt;small&gt;MOUTH&lt;/small&gt;; if there is a distinct term for &lt;small&gt;FOOT&lt;/small&gt;, there will be a distinct term for &lt;small&gt;HAND&lt;/small&gt;; similarly, if there are terms for &lt;small&gt;INDIVIDUAL TOES&lt;/small&gt;, then there are terms for &lt;small&gt;INDIVIDUAL FINGERS&lt;/small&gt;. Subsequent research has shown that most of these features have to be considered cross-linguistic tendencies rather than true universals. Several languages, for example [[Tidore language|Tidore]] and [[Kuuk Thaayorre language|Kuuk Thaayorre]], lack a general term meaning 'body'. Rather, the highest level in the partonomy of body part terms would be the word for 'person'{{ref|enfield}}.

==Notes and references==
===Notes===
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|Gbe}} Gbe languages like [[Ewe language|Ewe]] and [[Fon language|Fon]] are examples of languages that lack true nasal consonants (see [[Gbe languages#Nasality in Gbe]]).
# {{note|NSM}} see for example Goddard &amp; Wierzbicka (1994) and Goddard (2002).
# {{note|rosch}} Rosch et. al. (1976)
# {{note|enfield}} Enfield et. al. ''to appear'', 17
&lt;/div&gt;

===Bibliography===
*Andersen, E.S. (1978) 'Lexical Universals of Body-Part Terminology'. In Greenberg 1978, 335-368.
*Bach, Emmon  &amp; Harms, Robert T. (eds.) (1968) ''Universals in linguistic theory.'' New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
*Comrie, Bernard (1981) ''Language universals and linguistic typology.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Enfield, Nick J. &amp; Asifa Majid &amp; Miriam van Staden (to appear) 'Cross-linguistic categorisation of the body: Introduction' (special issue of ''Language Sciences'').
*Ferguson, Charles A. (1968) 'Historical background of universals research'. In: Greenberg, Ferguson, &amp; Moravcsik, ''Universals of human languages'', pp. 7&amp;ndash;31.
*Goddard, Cliff and Wierzbicka, Anna (eds.). 1994. ''Semantic and Lexical Universals - Theory and Empirical Findings''. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
*Goddard, Cliff (2002) '[http://www.une.edu.au/arts/LCL/disciplines/linguistics/Goddard_Ch1_2002.pdf The search for the shared semantic core of all languages]'. In Goddard &amp; Wierzbicka (eds.) ''Meaning and Universal Grammar - Theory and Empirical Findings'' volume 1, pp. 5-40, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
*Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1963) ''Universals of languages''. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
*Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1978a) ''Universals of human language'' Vol. 4: ''Syntax''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
*Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1978b) ''Universals of human language'' Vol. 3: ''Word structure''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
*Rosch, E. &amp; Mervis, C.B. &amp; Gray, W.D. &amp; Johnson, D.M. &amp; Boyes-Braem, P. (1976) 'Basic Objects In Natural Categories', ''Cognitive Psychology'', 8-3, 382-439.

== External links==
* [http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/Korean/Artikel02/ Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements] by Joseph H. Greenberg

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Linguistic universal]]

[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alphabet</title>
    <id>2118</id>
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      <id>48204</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
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      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Spelling */ linkfix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''alphabet''' is a complete standardized set of ''letters'' &amp;mdash; basic written symbols &amp;mdash; each of which roughly represents a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]], either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past.  There are other [[writing system|systems of writing]] such as [[logogram]]s, in which each symbol represents a [[morpheme]], or word, and [[syllabary|syllabaries]], in which each symbol represents a syllable.

The word &quot;alphabet&quot; itself comes from [[alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[beta (letter)|beta]], the first two symbols of the [[Greek alphabet]].  There are dozens of alphabets in use today.  Most of them are '[[linear writing|linear]]', which means that they are made up of lines.  Notable [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] are the [[Braille|Braille alphabet]], [[Morse code]] and the [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] alphabet of the ancient city of [[Ugarit]].
{{alphabet}}
==Types==

The term &quot;alphabet&quot; is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense. In the wider sense, the term refers to any script that is segmental on the [[phoneme]] level, i.e. that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish true &quot;alphabets&quot; from two other subtypes, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. The three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants. Abjads record only consonants and leave vowels (or most vowels) unexpressed; in Abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, both consonants and vowels have separate symbols. The first alphabet in the wider sense was the [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet]], an [[abjad]], which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] became the ancestor of all later alphabets. The first alphabet in the narrow sense was the [[Greek alphabet]].

Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and Korean [[Hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[Amharic]], [[Hindi]], and [[Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary, as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel, rather than each consonant-vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph, as in a true syllabary. 

The boundaries between these three types are not always clear-cut. For example, Iraqi [[Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa]] script of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Amharic_language#Amharic_Abugida_Symbols_.28.22Fidel.22_.E1.8D.8A.E1.8B.B0.E1.88.8D.29|Amharic abugida]] have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a [[syllabary]] rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.)

Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on the treatment of tone, though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]] (an abugida), vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone.  More rarely, a script has separate letters for the tones, as is the case for [[Hmong]] and [[Zhuang]]. For many of these languages, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas. 

Alphabets can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawai'ian]] alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[Okina|ʻokina]] and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated'', that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' and ''j''. However, such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but had to be learned as word symbols &amp;ndash; that is, as [[logogram]]s like Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]].

The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ'', though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added to represent sounds from Persian and English). 

The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest true alphabets include [[Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak]] (for the [[Latin alphabet]]), with 46. However, these scripts either include di- and tri-graphs, similar to Spanish ''ch'', or [[diacritic]]s, like Slovak ''č''. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]], with 41 letters. 

Syllabaries typically include 50 to 400 glyphs (though the [[Múra-Pirahã language]] of [[Brazil]] would require only 24 if tone were not indicated, and Rotokas 30), and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script.

It is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet.  [[French]] uses the same basic alphabet as English, but many of the letters can carry [[diacritic]] and other marks (for example, é, à or ô). In French, these marks are not considered to create additional letters.  However, in [[Icelandic]], the accented letters (such as á, í and ö) are considered distinct letters of the alphabet.  Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Old English]] and [[Ou (letter)|&amp;#546;]] in [[Algonquian language|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic]], which came from the [[Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which came from ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, or [[Italian]], which only uses the letters ''j'', ''k'', ''x'', ''y'' and ''w'' for foreign words.

==Spelling==
{{details|Spelling}}

Each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed.  In a perfectly [[phonology| phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions:  a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.  However, languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.

Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways:

* A language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digraph]]s and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph]]s. [[Kabardian]] uses a tesseragraph (four letters) for one of its phonemes.
* A language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters.
* A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons.
* Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence.
* Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word.
* A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items (such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary.

National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard.  However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as [[English]], it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet.

Some national languages like [[Finnish]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.  The [[Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed: each phoneme of Standard Italian is represented in only one way. However, pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy.  At the other extreme, however, are languages such as English and [[Irish]], where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels.  However, even English has general rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time.

The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].

==Collation==
{{details|Collation}}

An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called collating. Note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet; for examples see [[Latin alphabet#Collating in other languages|Latin alphabet: Collating in other languages]].

In recent years the [[Unicode]] initiative has attempted to collate most of the world's known writing systems into a single [[character encoding]]. As well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non-Roman scripts, the Unicode project has provided a focus for script-related scholarship.

==The Alphabet effect==

Some communication theorists (notably those associated with the so-called &quot;Toronto school of communications&quot;, such as [[Marshall McLuhan]], [[Harold Innis]] and more recently [[Robert K. Logan]]) have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis, coding, decoding, and classification. This set of hypotheses may be known as &quot;the Alphabet effect&quot;, after the title of Logan's [[1986]] work. 

The theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems; and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it. Proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic (as distinct to other types of) writing systems has made a significant impact on &quot;Western&quot; thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction, analysis, and classification. McLuhan and Logan (1977) postulates that, as a result of these skills, the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law, monotheism, abstract science, deductive logic, objective history, and individualism. According to Logan, &quot;All of these innovations, including the alphabet, arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the Tigris-Euphrates river system and the Aegean Sea, and within the very narrow time frame between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C.&quot; (Logan 2004). 

However, many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet, such as the codified law of [[Hammurabi]] in [[Babylonia]], which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet. Since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous, it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter.

== See also ==

* [[Abecedarium]]
* [[Abjad]]
* [[Abugida]]
* [[Akshara]]
* [[Alphabetical order]]
* [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
* [[Artificial script]]s
* [[Character set]]
* [[Lipogram]]
* [[List of alphabets]]
* [[Syllabary]]
* [[Transliteration]]
* [[Unicode]]
* [[A]] | [[B]] | [[C]] | [[D]] | [[E]] | [[F]] | [[G]] | [[H]] | [[I]] | [[J]] | [[K]] | [[L]] | [[M]] | [[N]] | [[O]] | [[P]] | [[Q]] | [[R]] | [[S]] | [[T]] | [[U]] | [[V]] | [[W]] | [[X]] | [[Y]] | [[Z]]

== References ==

* {{cite book | author=Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William | title=The World's Writing Systems | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-19-507993-0 }} - Overview of modern and some ancient  writing systems.
* {{cite book | author=Driver, G.R. | title=Semetic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1976 }}
* {{cite book | author=Hoffman, Joel M. | title=In the Beginning:  A Short History of the Hebrew Language | publisher=NYU Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0814736548 }} - Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing.
* {{cite book | author=Logan, Robert K. | title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization | publisher=Hampton Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-57273-522-8}}
* McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp. 373-383. 
* {{cite book | author=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain; Bacon, Josephine | title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing | publisher=Abbeville Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-7892-0521-1 }}
* {{cite book | author=Sacks, David | title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z | publisher=Broadway Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7679-1173-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Saggs, H.W.F | title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0300050313}} - Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing.

== External links ==
{{wiktionarypar|alphabet}}

* [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm Alphabetic Writing Systems]
* [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe]
* The [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/characters.html Unicode Consortium]
* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets] animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html History of alphabet]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html The Hebrew Alphabet]

{{wikipedia}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Greek alphabet</title>
    <id>2119</id>
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      <id>48166</id>
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        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Main table */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Greek alphabet''' is an [[alphabet]] that has been used to write the [[Greek language]] since about the [[9th century BC]]. It was the first true [[alphabet]], that is, an alphabet with a symbol for each vowel and consonant, and is the oldest alphabetic script in use today. The letters are also used to represent [[numbers]] — [[Greek numerals]] — in the same sorts of contexts as [[Roman numerals]]. Besides writing modern Greek, today its letters are used as [[Greek letters used in mathematics|mathematical symbols]], [[particle physics|particle names]] in physics, as [[Astronomical naming conventions#Names of stars|names of stars]], in the names of [[fraternities and sororities]], in the [[Lists of tropical cyclone names|naming of supernumerary tropical cyclones]], and for other purposes. The Greek alphabet originated as a modification of the [[Phoenician alphabet]] and in turn gave rise to the [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]], [[Glagolitic alphabet|Glagolitic]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]], [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]], and possibly the [[Armenian alphabet]]s, as well as the [[Latin alphabet]], as documented in [[History of the alphabet]]. The Greek alphabet is unrelated to [[Linear B]] and the [[Cypriot syllabary]], earlier writing systems for Greek.

==Main table==

The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows (pronunciations transcribed using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center&quot;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Letter
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Name
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Pronunciation
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Corresponding&lt;br /&gt;[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]&lt;br /&gt;letter
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | [[Transliteration of Greek to the Latin alphabet|Transliteration]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;!-- footnote explains caveats --&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | Greek
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | English
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | Ancient
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | Modern
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | Ancient
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot; | Modern
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Α α
| {{polytonic|ἄλφα}}
| [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]]
| {{IPA|[a] [a&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[a]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_aleph.png|20px|Aleph]] [[Aleph (letter)|'Aleph]]
| a
| a
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Β β
| {{polytonic|βῆτα}}
| [[Beta (letter)|Beta]]
| {{IPA|[b]}}
| [[Voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|[v]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_beth.png|20px|Beth]] [[Beth (letter)|Beth]]
| b
| v
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Γ γ
| {{polytonic|γάμμα}}
| [[Gamma (letter)|Gamma]]
| {{IPA|[g]}}
| [[Voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|[&amp;#669;]}}]] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]];&lt;br /&gt;[[Voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|[&amp;#611;]}}]] otherwise
| [[Image:phoenician_gimel.png|20px|Gimel]] [[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]]
| g
| gh, g, y
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Δ δ
| {{polytonic|δέλτα}}
| [[Delta (letter)|Delta]]
| {{IPA|[d]}}
| [[Voiced dental fricative|{{IPA|[&amp;#240;]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_daleth.png|20px|Daleth]] [[Daleth]]
| d
| d, dh
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ε ε
| {{polytonic|ἒψιλόν}}
| [[Epsilon (letter)|Epsilon]]
| {{IPA|[e]}}
| [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_he.png|20px|He]] [[He (letter)|He]]
| e
| e
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ζ ζ
| {{polytonic|ζῆτα}}
| [[Zeta (letter)|Zeta]]
| {{IPA|[zd]}}, later {{IPA|[z&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Voiced alveolar sibilant|{{IPA|[z]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_zayin.png|20px|Zayin]] [[Zayin]]
| z
| z
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Η η
| {{polytonic|ἦτα}}
| [[Eta (letter)|Eta]]
| {{IPA|[&amp;#603;&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_heth.png|20px|Heth]] [[Heth (letter)|Heth]]
| e, ē
| i
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Θ θ
| {{polytonic|θῆτα}}
| [[Theta (letter)|Theta]]
| {{IPA|[t&amp;#688;]}}
| [[Voiceless dental fricative|{{IPA|[&amp;#952;]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_teth.png|20px|Teth]] [[Teth]]
| th
| th
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ι ι
| {{polytonic|ἰῶτα}}
| [[Iota (letter)|Iota]]
| {{IPA|[i] [i&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]], [[Palatal approximant|{{IPA|[j]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_yodh.png|20px|Yodh]] [[Yodh]]
| i
| i
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Κ κ
| {{polytonic|κάππα}}
| [[Kappa (letter)|Kappa]]
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| [[Voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|[c]}}]] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]];&lt;br /&gt;[[Voiceless velar stop|{{IPA|[k]}}]] otherwise
| [[Image:phoenician_kaph.png|20px|Kaph]] [[Kaph]]
| k
| k
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Λ λ
| {{polytonic|λάμβδα}}
| [[Lambda (letter)|Lambda]]
| {{IPA|[l]}}
| [[Alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|[l]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_lamedh.png|20px|Lamedh]] [[Lamedh]]
| l
| l
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Μ μ
| {{polytonic|μῦ}}
| [[Mu (letter)|Mu]]
| {{IPA|[m]}}
| [[Bilabial nasal|{{IPA|[m]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_mem.png|20px|Mem]] [[Mem]]
| m
| m
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ν ν
| {{polytonic|νῦ}}
| [[Nu (letter)|Nu]]
| {{IPA|[n]}}
| [[Alveolar nasal|{{IPA|[n]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_nun.png|20px|Nun]] [[Nun (letter)|Nun]]
| n
| n
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ξ ξ
| {{polytonic|ξῖ}}
| [[Xi (letter)|Xi]]
| {{IPA|[ks]}}
| {{IPA|[ks]}}
| [[Image:phoenician_samekh.png|20px|Samekh]] [[Samekh]]
| x
| x, ks
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ο ο
| {{polytonic|ὄμικρόν}}
| [[Omicron]]
| {{IPA|[o]}}
| [[Close-mid back rounded vowel#Mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|[o̞]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_ayin.png|20px|Ayin]] [[Ayin|'Ayin]]
| o
| o
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Π π
| {{polytonic|πῖ}}
| [[Pi (letter)|Pi]]
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| [[Voiceless bilabial stop|{{IPA|[p]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_pe.png|20px|Pe]] [[Pe (letter)|Pe]]
| p
| p
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ρ ρ
| {{polytonic|ῥῶ}}
| [[Rho (letter)|Rho]]
| {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[r&amp;#805;]}}
| [[Alveolar flap|{{IPA|[ɾ]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_res.png|20px|Res]] [[Resh]]
| r ({{polytonic|ῥ}}: rh)
| r
|-
| &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;&gt;Σ σ&lt;br /&gt;ς&lt;/span&gt; (final)
| {{polytonic|σῖγμα}}
| [[Sigma (letter)|Sigma]]
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant|{{IPA|[s]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_sin.png|20px|Sin]] [[Shin (letter)|Shin]]
| s
| s
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Τ τ
| {{polytonic|ταῦ}}
| [[Tau (letter)|Tau]]
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| [[Voiceless alveolar stop|{{IPA|[t]}}]]
| [[Image:phoenician_taw.png|20px|Taw]] [[Taw (letter)|Taw]]
| t
| t
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Υ υ
| {{polytonic|ὒψιλόν}}
| [[Upsilon (letter)|Upsilon]]
| {{IPA|[u] [u&amp;#720;], later [y] [y&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]
| from [[Image:phoenician_waw.png|20px|Waw]] [[Waw (letter)|Waw]]
| u, y (between consonants)
| y, v, f
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Φ φ
| {{polytonic|φῖ}}
| [[Phi (letter)|Phi]]
| {{IPA|[p&amp;#688;]}}
| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|[f]}}]]
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | origin disputed (see text)
| ph
| f
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Χ χ
| {{polytonic|χῖ}}
| [[Chi (letter)|Chi]]
| {{IPA|[k&amp;#688;]}}
| [[Voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|[ç]}}]] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]];&lt;br /&gt;[[Voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|[x]}}]] otherwise
| ch
| ch, kh
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ψ ψ
| {{polytonic|ψῖ}}
| [[Psi (letter)|Psi]]
| {{IPA|[ps]}}
| {{IPA|[ps]}}
| ps
| ps
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:133%;&quot;|Ω ω
| {{polytonic|ὦμέγα}}
| [[Omega]]
| {{IPA|[&amp;#596;&amp;#720;]}}
| [[Close-mid back rounded vowel#Mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|[o̞]}}]]
| o, ō
| o
|}
# For details and different transliteration systems see [[Transliteration of Greek into English]].

Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details, see [[History of the Greek alphabet]].

===Obsolete letters===

The following letters are not part of the standard Greek alphabet, but were in use in pre-classical times or in certain dialects. The letters digamma, qoppa, and sampi were also used in [[Greek numerals]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Letter
! style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Name
! style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Pronunciation
! style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | Corresponding&lt;br /&gt;[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]&lt;br /&gt;letter
! style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot; | [[Transliteration of Greek to the Latin alphabet|Transliteration]]
|-
| [[Image:Greek_alphabet_digamma2.png|25px]]
| [[Digamma (letter)|Digamma]]
| {{IPA|[w]}}
| [[Image:phoenician_waw.png|20px|Waw]] [[Waw (letter)|Waw]]
| w
|-
| [[Image:Greek_alphabet_san.png|40px]]
| [[San (letter)|San]]
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| [[Image:phoenician_sade.png|20px|Sade]] [[Tsade]]
| s
|-
| [[Image:Greek alphabet qoppa.png|40px]]
| [[Qoppa (letter)|Qoppa]]
| {{IPA|[q]}}
| [[Image:phoenician_qof.png|20px|Qoph]] [[Qoph]]
| q
|-
| [[Image:Greek alphabet sampi.png|40px]]
| [[Sampi (letter)|Sampi]]
| {{IPA|[ts]}} ?
| Origin disputed
| &amp;ndash;
|}

==Letter combinations and diphthongs==
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|Letters !! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|Pronunciation !! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|Latin [[transliteration]]
|-----
! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot;|archaic !! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot;|classical !! style=&quot;background:#ccffff;&quot;|modern
|-----
|[[Iota subscript|{{Polytonic|ᾳ}}]]||[{{IPA|a&amp;#720;&amp;#618;}}]||[{{IPA|a&amp;#720;}}]||[[Open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[a]}}]]||a
|-----
|αι||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|a&amp;#618;}}]||[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]]||ae
|-----
|ει||[{{IPA|e&amp;#618;}}]||[{{IPA|e&amp;#720;}}]||[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]||i
|-----
|[[Iota subscript|{{Polytonic|ῃ}}]]||[{{IPA|ɛːi}}]||[{{IPA|ɛː}}]||[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]||e
|-----
|οι||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|o&amp;#618;}}]||[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]||oe, i (final)
|-----
|υι||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|y&amp;#618;}}]||[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]||ui
|-----
|[[Iota subscript|{{Polytonic|ῳ}}]]||[{{IPA|&amp;#596;&amp;#720;&amp;#618;}}]||[{{IPA|&amp;#596;&amp;#720;}}]||[[Close-mid back rounded vowel#Mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|[o̞]}}]]||o
|-----
|αυ||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|a&amp;#650;}}]||[{{IPA|av}}] before vowel or voiced consonant;&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|af}}] before voiceless sound||au, av
|-----
|ευ||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|e&amp;#650;}}]||[{{IPA|e̞v}}] before vowel or voiced consonant;&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|e̞f}}] before voiceless sound||eu, ev
|-----
|ηυ||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|&amp;#603;&amp;#720;&amp;#650;}}]||[{{IPA|iv}}] before vowel or voiced consonant;&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|if}}] before voiceless sound||eu
|-----
|ου||[{{IPA|o&amp;#650;}}]&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|o&amp;#720;}}]||[{{IPA|u&amp;#720;}}]||[[Close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|[u]}}]]||u, ou
|-----
|γγ*||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;g}}]||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;g}}] in formal speech (palatalised to [{{IPA|ŋɟ}}] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]),&lt;br /&gt;but often reduced to [[Voiced velar stop|{{IPA|[g]}}]] (palatalised to [[Voiced palatal stop|{{IPA|[ɟ]}}]] before {{IPA|[e̞]}} or {{IPA|[i]}});&lt;br /&gt;also pronounced [{{IPA|ŋɣ}}] in some contexts (palatalised to [{{IPA|ŋʝ}}] before {{IPA|[e̞]}})||ng
|-----
|γκ*||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;k}}]||[[Voiced velar stop|{{IPA|[g]}}]] at the beginning of a word (palatalised to [[Voiced palatal stop|{{IPA|[ɟ]}}]] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]);&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|&amp;#331;g}}] otherwise (palatalised to [{{IPA|ŋɟ}}] before {{IPA|[e̞]}} or {{IPA|[i]}}),&lt;br /&gt;but often reduced to {{IPA|[g]}} (palatalised to {{IPA|[ɟ]}} before {{IPA|[e̞]}} or {{IPA|[i]}})||nc, nk
|-----
|γξ*||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;ks}}]||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;ks}}]||nx, nks
|-----
|γχ*||&amp;nbsp;||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;x}}]||[{{IPA|&amp;#331;ç}}] before [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#Mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[e̞]}}]] or [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]];&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|&amp;#331;x}}] otherwise||nch, nkh
|-----
|μπ||-||-||[[Voiced bilabial stop|{{IPA|[b]}}]] at the beginning of a word;&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|mb}}] otherwise, but often reduced to {{IPA|[b]}}||mp
|-----
|ντ||-||-||[[Voiced alveolar stop|{{IPA|[d]}}]] at the beginning of a word;&lt;br /&gt;[{{IPA|nd}}] otherwise, but often reduced to {{IPA|[d]}}||nt
|}
*Some scholars see [[Velar nasal|{{IPA|[ŋ]}}]] ([[agma]]) as a [[phoneme]] in its own right.

==Ligatures==
Before the days of printing, [[scribes]] made use of a number of [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]] to save space, in Greek as in other languages. The ligature for ου &amp;mdash; resembling a V above an O &amp;mdash; is still sometimes seen. For a modern use of this in the [[Latin alphabet]], see [[Ou (letter)]]

==History==
{{alphabet}}[[Image:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|Early Greek alphabet. [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]]]

''Main article: [[History of the Greek alphabet]].''

According to legends recounted by [[Herodotus]], the alphabet was first introduced to Greece by a Phoenician named [[Cadmus]], who also figures in other [[Greek mythology]].

The most notable change in the Greek alphabet, compared to its predecessor, the [[Phoenician alphabet]], is the introduction of written [[vowel]]s, without which Greek &amp;mdash; unlike Phoenician &amp;mdash; would be unintelligible.  In fact most alphabets that contain vowels are derived ultimately from Greek, although there are exceptions ([[Hangul]], [[Orkhon script]], [[Ge'ez alphabet]], [[Indic alphabets]], and [[Old Hungarian script]]). The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet [[matres lectionis]] were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels.

Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  These consonants made up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician. In west Greek, Χ was used for /{{IPA|ks}}/ and Ψ for /{{IPA|kʰ}}/ &amp;mdash; hence the value of our letter x, derived from the western Greek alphabet. Over the [[middle ages]] these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for /{{IPA|θ}}/, /{{IPA|f}}/, and /{{IPA|x}}/. The origin of those letters is disputed.

The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter won out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the [[Ionic numeral system]], however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  Sampi (apparently in a rare local glyph form from Ionia) was introduced at the end — to stand for 900.  Thousands were written using a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).

Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly western (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek; the former gave rise to the [[Old Italic alphabet]] and thence to the [[Latin alphabet]].  [[Athens]] took the Ionic script to be its standard in [[403 BC]], and shortly thereafter the other versions disappeared.  By then Greek was always written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way — or, most likely, ''[[boustrophedon]]'', so that the lines alternate direction.

During the [[Middle ages]], the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter σ is even written ς at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the [[Long s|long and short s]] at the time.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronunciation.

Because Greek [[minuscule]]s arose at a (much) later date, no historic minuscule actually exists for ''san''. Minuscule forms for the other letters were only used numerically. For number 6, modern Greeks use an old [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] called stigma ({{polytonic|Ϛ}}, {{polytonic|ϛ}}) instead of digamma or use στ if it is not available. For 90 they use modern z-shaped qoppa forms: {{polytonic|Ϟ}}, {{polytonic|ϟ}} (Note that some web browser/font combinations will show the other qoppa here).

==Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages==

The primary use of the Greek alphabet has always been to write the Greek language and related dialects (including [[Ancient Macedonian]]).  However, at various times and in various places, it has also been used to write other languages.

Early examples:

*Some Narbonese [[Gaulish]] inscriptions in southern France use the Greek alphabet (c300 BC).
*The [[Hebrew]] text of the [[Bible]] was written in Greek in [[Origen]]'s [[Hexapla]].
*An 8th century [[Arabic]] fragment preserves a text in Greek.

In more modern times:

*[[Turkish]] spoken by [[Orthodox Christian]]s ([[Karamanlides]]) was often written in Greek script, and called &quot;[[Karamanlidika]]&quot;.
*[[Tosk]] [[Albanian]] was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500 (Elsie, 1991).  The printing press at [[Moschopolis]] published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the [[Bitola|Monastir]] conference standardized a [[Albanian alphabet|Latin orthography]] for both Tosk and [[Gheg]].  The Greek-based [[Arvanitic alphabet]] is now only used in Greece.
*Various [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] dialects, similar to the modern [[Macedonian language]], have been preserved in Greek script.  The modern Macedonian language uses a modified [[Cyrillic alphabet]].
*[[Aromanian]] (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters.  There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the [[Romanian]] orthography will be adopted.
*[[Gagauz]], a [[Turkic language]] of the northeast Balkans.
*[[Surguch]], a [[Turkic language]] spoken by a small group of [[Orthodox Christian]]s in northern Greece.
*[[Urum]] or Greek Tatar.
* The [[Coptic alphabet]] is the Greek alphabet augmented with several new letters.
*The [[Old Nubian language]] of [[Makuria]] used the Greek alphabet augmented with three Coptic letters and three unique letters.

==Greek encodings==

A variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947 &quot;Greek Character Encoding for Electronic Mail Messages&quot;.

The two principal ones still used today are [[ISO/IEC 8859-7]] and [[Unicode]].  ISO 8859-7 supports only [[monotonic orthography]]; Unicode supports [[polytonic orthography]].

===Greek in Unicode===

Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for [[epigraphy]].  With the use of [[combining characters]], Unicode also supports Greek [[philology]] and [[dialectology]] and various other specialized requirements.  However, most current implementations of Unicode do not support combining characters well, so, though alpha with [[macron]] and [[acute accent|acute]] can be ''represented'' as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: {{Polytonic|ᾱ́}}.

For extended discussion of problematic Greek letter forms in Unicode see [http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html Greek Unicode Issues].

There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in [[Unicode]].
The first is &quot;Greek and Coptic&quot; (U+0370 &amp;mdash; U+03FF).
This block is based on [[ISO 8859-7]] and is sufficient to write Modern Greek.
There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

This block also supports the [[Coptic language]]. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of
Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with
no Greek equivalents still remain in this block.

To write polytonic Greek, one may use [[combining diacritical mark]]s or the precomposed characters in the &quot;Greek Extended&quot; block (U+1F00 &amp;ndash; U+1FFF).

====Greek and Coptic====
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; lang=&quot;el&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
!width=&quot;7.2%&quot;|&amp;nbsp;!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|0!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|1!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|2!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|3!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|4!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|5!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|6!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|7!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|8!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|9!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|A!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|B!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|C!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|D!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|E!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|F
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!0370
|style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#884;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#885;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#890;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#894;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!0380
|style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#900;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#901;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#902;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#903;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#904;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#905;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#906;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#908;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#910;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#911;}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!0390
|{{polytonic|&amp;#912;}}||Α||Β||Γ||Δ||Ε||Ζ||Η||Θ||Ι||Κ||Λ||Μ||Ν||Ξ||Ο
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03A0
|Π||Ρ||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||Σ||Τ||Υ||Φ||Χ||Ψ||Ω||{{polytonic|&amp;#938;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#939;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#940;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#941;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#942;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#943;}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03B0
|{{polytonic|&amp;#944;}}||α||β||γ||δ||ε||ζ||η||θ||ι||κ||λ||μ||ν||ξ||ο
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03C0
|π||ρ||{{polytonic|&amp;#962;}}||σ||τ||υ||φ||χ||ψ||ω||{{polytonic|&amp;#970;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#971;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#972;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#973;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#974;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03D0
|{{polytonic|&amp;#976;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#977;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#978;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#979;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#980;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#981;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#982;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#983;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#984;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#985;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#986;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#987;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#988;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#989;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#990;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#991;}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03E0
|{{polytonic|&amp;#992;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#993;}}||colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background:#ddd;&quot;|''(Coptic letters here)''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!03F0
|{{polytonic|&amp;#1008;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1009;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1010;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1011;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1012;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1013;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1014;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1015;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1016;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1017;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1018;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1019;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1020;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1021;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1022;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#1023;}}
|}

====Greek Extended (precomposed polytonic Greek) ====
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; lang=&quot;el&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
!width=&quot;7.2%&quot;|&amp;nbsp;!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|0!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|1!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|2!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|3!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|4!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|5!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|6!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|7!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|8!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|9!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|A!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|B!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|C!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|D!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|E!!width=&quot;5.8%&quot;|F
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!1F00
|{{polytonic|&amp;#7936;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7937;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7938;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7939;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7940;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7941;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7942;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7943;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7944;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7945;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7946;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7947;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7948;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7949;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7950;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7951;}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!1F10
|{{polytonic|&amp;#7952;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7953;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7954;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7955;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7956;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7957;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#7960;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7961;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7962;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7963;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7964;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#7965;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!1F20
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8000;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8001;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8002;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8003;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8004;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8005;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8008;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8009;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8010;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8011;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8012;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8013;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8016;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8017;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8018;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8019;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8020;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8021;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8022;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8023;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8025;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8027;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8029;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8031;}}
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8032;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8033;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8034;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8035;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8036;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8037;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8038;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8039;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8040;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8041;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8042;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8043;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8044;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8045;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8046;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8047;}}
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8048;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8049;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8050;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8051;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8052;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8053;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8054;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8055;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8056;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8057;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8058;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8059;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8060;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8061;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!1F80
|{{polytonic|&amp;#8064;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8065;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8066;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8067;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8068;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8069;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8070;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8071;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8072;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8073;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8074;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8075;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8076;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8077;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8078;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8079;}}
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8080;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8081;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8082;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8083;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8084;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8085;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8086;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8087;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8088;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8089;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8090;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8091;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8092;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8093;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8094;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8095;}}
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8096;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8097;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8098;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8099;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8100;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8101;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8102;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8103;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8104;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8105;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8106;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8107;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8108;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8109;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8110;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8111;}}
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|{{polytonic|&amp;#8112;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8113;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8114;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8115;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8116;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8118;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8119;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8120;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8121;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8122;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8123;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8124;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8125;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8126;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8127;}}
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|style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8178;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8179;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8180;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||{{polytonic|&amp;#8182;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8183;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8184;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8185;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8186;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8187;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8188;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8189;}}||{{polytonic|&amp;#8190;}}||style=&quot;background:#ccc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|}

====Combining and letter-free diacritics====
[[Combining diacritical mark|Combining]] and spacing (letter-free) [[diacritical mark]]s pertaining to [[Greek language]] are:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!combining!!spacing!!sample!!description
|-
|U+0300||U+0060||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̀}} )||&quot;varia / [[grave accent]]&quot;
|-
|U+0301||U+00B4, U+0384||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;́}} )||&quot;oxia / tonos / [[acute accent]]&quot;
|-
|U+0304||U+00AF||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̄}} )||&quot;[[macron]]&quot;
|-
|U+0306||U+02D8||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̆}} )||&quot;vrachy / [[breve]]&quot;
|-
|U+0308||U+00A8||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̈}} )||&quot;dialytika / [[diaeresis]]&quot;
|-
|U+0313|| ||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̓}} )||&quot;psili / comma above&quot; ([[spiritus lenis]])
|-
|U+0314|| ||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̔}} )||&quot;dasia / reversed comma above&quot; ([[spiritus asper]])
|-
|U+0342|| ||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;͂}} )||&quot;perispomeni&quot; ([[circumflex]])
|-
|U+0343|| ||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̓}} )||&quot;[[coronis|koronis]]&quot; (= U+0313)
|-
|U+0344||U+0385||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;̈́}} )||&quot;dialytika tonos&quot; (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)
|-
|U+0345||U+037A||( {{polytonic|&amp;nbsp;ͅ}} )||&quot;ypogegrammeni / [[iota subscript]]&quot;.
|}

==Bibliography==

*Humez, Alexander and Nicholas, ''Alpha to omega: the life &amp;amp; times of the Greek alphabet'', Godine, 1981, ISBN 087923377X.  A popular history, more about Greek roots in English than about the alphabet itself.
*Michael S. Macrakis, ed., ''Greek letters: from tablets to pixels'', proceedings of a conference sponsored by the Greek Font Society, Oak Knoll Press, 1996, ISBN 1884718272. Includes papers on history, typography, and character coding by [[Hermann Zapf]], [[Matthew Carter]], [[Nicolas Barker]], [[John A. Lane]], [[Kyle McCarter]], [[Jerôme Peignot]], [[Pierre MacKay]], [[Silvio Levy]], ''et al.''
*Jeffery, Lilian Hamilton, ''The local scripts of archaic Greece: a study of the origin of the Greek alphabet and its development from the eighth to the fifth centuries B.C.'', Oxford, 1961, ISBN 0198140614.
*Macrakis, Stavros M., &quot;Character codes for Greek: Problems and modern solutions&quot; in Macrakis, 1996.  Includes discussion of the Greek alphabet used for languages other than Greek. [http://www.writingsystems.net/systems/greek/languages.htm]
* Robert Elsie, &quot;Albanian Literature in Greek Script: the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth-Century Orthodox Tradition in Albanian Writing&quot;, ''Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies'' '''15''':20 (1991) [http://www.elsie.de/pub/pdf_articles/A1991AlbLitGreek.pdf].

==See also==
{{Commons|Greek alphabet}}
*[[Ancient Greek phonology]]
*[[Arvanitic alphabet]]
*[[Greeklish]]
*[[Polytonic orthography]]
*[[Monotonic orthography]]
*[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]
*[[Greek letters used in mathematics]]
*[[Transliteration of Greek into English]]
*[[Greek numerals]], a system of representing numbers using letters of the Greek alphabet
*[[List of XML and HTML character entity references]]

==External links==
* [http://greek-language.com/alphabet The Greek Alphabet] A presentation of the Greek letters with pronunciation for Modern and Classical Greek.
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/#greek The Greek Script Online Trainer] Shows common errors for each letter (''e.g.'' υ ''vs.'' ν).

{{wikipedia}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Object Verb Subject</title>
    <id>2120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46613</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:52:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Object Verb Subject''' (OVS) is one of the [[permutation]]s of expression used in [[linguistic typology]]. OVS denotes the sequence '[[Object]] [[Verb]] [[Subject]]' in unmarked expressions: ''Oranges ate Sam'', ''Thorns have roses''. While these sentences remain grammatically correct in English, unlike those written in [[Subject Object Verb]], their meaning is lost.  But English and other [[Subject Verb Object]] languages frequently use an Object-Verb-Subject type sentence order when writing in the [[passive voice]], for example ''The oranges were eaten by Sam''.

&lt;!-- Note: the kind of [[permutation]] meant here is clearly the kind used in mathematics described in the first section of the permutation article. Some work will definitely have to be done to make that section of the permutation article a little more intelligible and interesting for language oriented people. So remains to be done :-) . --&gt;
OVS is a class of languages used in the classification of languages according to the dominant [[sequence (linguistics)|sequence]] of these [[constituents (linguistics)|constituents]]. In this case the sequence of the constituents is Object Verb Subject. This sequence is the rarest of the six possible orderings of Subject, Verb, and Object. Examples of human languages that use it include [[Guarijio]] and [[Hixkaryana]].

Although not dominant, this sequence is also possible when the object is stressed in languages that have relatively free word order due to case marking. [[Romanian]], [[Basque]], [[Esperanto]], and, to some extent, [[German]] are examples. Some languages, such as [[Swedish]], which normally lack any extensive case marking, allow such structures when [[pronoun]]s (which are marked for case) are involved.

This sequence was chosen for the [[artificial language]] [[Klingon]], a language spoken by the [[extraterrestrial]] [[Klingon race]] in the fictional universe of the [[Star Trek]] series, in order to make the language sound deliberately alien and counterintuitive. Thus, Klingon uses the rarest permutation of expression, which is expected given the designers' goals.

==See also==   
* [[Word order in Latin]]

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Object Verb Subject]]

[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Klingon language</title>
    <id>2121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48958</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-05T16:35:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Consonants */ &quot;Affricate&quot; isn't a POA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;It has been suggested that this article or section be '''merged''' into ''[[Klingon]]''. &lt;/div&gt;

The '''Klingon language''' or '''Klingonese''' ('''''tlhIngan Hol''''' in Klingon) is a [[constructed language]] – an [[artistic language]] created by [[Marc Okrand]] for [[Paramount Pictures]] and spoken by [[Klingon]]s in the fictional [[Star Trek]] universe.  He designed the language with [[Object Verb Subject]] (OVS) word order to give an alien feel to the language. Klingon is similar to [[Native American languages]] in several aspects. The basic sound (along with a very few words) was first devised by [[James Doohan]] for ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]''; the film marked the first time the language had been heard on screen, all previous appearances of the Klingons being in English.

Klingon is sometimes referred to as Klingonese (most notably in the ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'' episode &quot;[[The Trouble with Tribbles]]&quot;), but among the Klingon-speaking community this is often understood to refer to another Klingon language that is described in [[John M. Ford]]'s Star Trek novels as [[Klingonaase]].

== Language ==
A description of the Klingon language can be found in Okrand's book &lt;cite&gt;The Klingon Dictionary&lt;/cite&gt; (Published by Pocket Books, Simon &amp; Schuster, 1985, second edition with new addendum 1992, ISBN 067174559X). Other notable works include &lt;cite&gt;The Klingon Way&lt;/cite&gt; (with Klingon sayings and proverbs), &lt;cite&gt;Klingon for the Galactic Traveler&lt;/cite&gt; and the two audio productions &lt;cite&gt;Conversational Klingon&lt;/cite&gt; and &lt;cite&gt;Power Klingon&lt;/cite&gt;.  In the pilot episode of ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'', &quot;[[Broken Bow (Enterprise episode)|Broken Bow]]&quot; (2001), the Klingon language is described as having eighty [[articulatory phonetics|polyguttural]] [[dialect]]s constructed on an adaptive [[syntax]] ''(for more, see [[#Phonology|Phonology]])''.  

Three books have also been published in the tongue:  &lt;cite&gt;[[ghIlghameS]]&lt;/cite&gt; (&lt;cite&gt;[[Gilgamesh]]&lt;/cite&gt;), ''Hamlet'' (&lt;cite&gt;[[Hamlet]]&lt;/cite&gt;), and &lt;cite&gt;paghmo' tIn mIS&lt;/cite&gt; (&lt;cite&gt;[[Much Ado About Nothing]]&lt;/cite&gt;).  These last two choices were inspired by a remark by a Klingon chancellor in ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'' that [[Shakespeare]] is best read in the original Klingon.

Some [[Trekkies]] take the time to learn it and at some Star Trek [[convention]]s one can hear enthusiasts use it amongst themselves. They often greet each other with the Klingon word ''nuqneH'' (literally: &quot;What do you want?&quot;), which is said to be the closest thing to a greeting that exists in the language.  Another phrase commonly heard among Star Trek fans is &quot;''&lt;nowiki&gt;Qapla' &lt;/nowiki&gt;''&quot;, the Klingon word for &quot;success&quot;.

[[D'Armond Speers]] and his wife began raising a child bilingually in English and Klingon; Speers spoke in Klingon and his wife in [[English language|English]]. A few years into his life, the child began rejecting Klingon and gravitating towards English, as he could use English with many more speakers. The fact that Klingon lacked many words for things that were important in a baby's life, such as &quot;diaper&quot;, and &quot;pacifier&quot;, was a lesser issue. At the time of Speers' attempt, Klingon even lacked words for many objects common around the house, such as &quot;table&quot;.

In May 2003, the [[Multnomah County, Oregon]] [[Department of Human Services]] named Klingon on a list of 55 languages for which it might conceivably need interpreters; this story was circulated out-of-context as an [[urban legend]] claiming that the department was looking to hire a Klingon interpreter. [[County]] [[Chair]] [[Diane Linn]] called the listing the &quot;result of an overzealous attempt to ensure that our safety net systems can respond to all customers and clients.&quot; [http://www.snopes.com/humor/iftrue/klingon.asp]

Paramount owns a [[copyright]] to the official dictionary and other [[Canon (fiction)|canonical]] descriptions of the language. Some people dispute the validity of Paramount's claim of copyright on the language itself in light of the [[Supreme Court of the United States | U.S. Supreme Court's]] ''[[Feist v. Rural | Feist]]'' decision, but no challenge has actually been brought to court.

A [[programming language]] called [[var'aq]] was inspired by Klingon.

[[Google]] is available in Klingon. [http://www.google.com/intl/xx-klingon/]

Features of the Klingon language were taken from various real Earth languages:-
* Using a sentence as a noun clause by appending ''&lt;nowiki&gt;'e'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' to it was inspired by [[Sanskrit]] (which uses ''iti'' in the same role).
* The relative pronoun prefix for verbs is similar to a [[Swahili]] construction.
* Pronoun verb prefixes occur in [[Swahili]] and [[Nahuatl]].
* Amalgamating the subject and object pronoun prefixes is paralleled in [[Nahuatl]].
* The rules for use of the suffix ''je'' = &quot;and&quot; are about the same as in [[Sanskrit]] (which uses ''ca'').
* The word ''HoD'' = &quot;captain&quot; occurs also as an English [[acronym]] ''HoD'' = &quot;head of department&quot;.

== Phonology ==

Klingon has been developed with a phonology that, while based on human [[natural languages]], is intended to sound alien. The effect is mainly achieved by the use of a number of [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] and [[uvular consonant|uvular]] consonants in the language's inventory. Although natural languages use a number of different [[airstream mechanism]]s besides the common [[pulmonic egressive]], these other mechanisms are not used in Klingon. This is perhaps because these sounds are a lot more difficult to learn to produce if one's language does not use them. Klingon has twenty-one or twenty-two consonants, but only five cardinal vowels. Klingon is normally written in a variant of the [[Latin alphabet]] (see [[#Writing system|below]]). In this orthography, [[upper case|upper]] and [[lower case]] letters are not interchangeable (uppercase letters mostly represent sounds different to those expected by English speakers). In the discussion below, standard Klingon orthography appears in ''&amp;lt;angle brackets&amp;gt;'', and the [[phoneme|phonemic transcription]] in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] is written between ''/slashes/''.

===Consonants===
The inventory of consonants in Klingon is spread over a number of [[place of articulation|places of articulation]]. In spite of this, the inventory has many gaps: Klingon has no [[velar consonant|velar plosives]], and only one [[sibilant consonant|sibilant]].

;[[Labial consonant|Labials]]
:&amp;lt;p&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/pʰ/}} &amp;mdash; [[aspiration|aspirated]] [[voiceless bilabial stop]] (as [[English language|English]] ''pan'', but accompanied by puff of air not only in word initial positions, but in all positions)
:&amp;lt;b&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/b/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiced bilabial stop]] (as English ''ban'')
:&amp;lt;m&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/m/}} &amp;mdash; [[bilabial nasal]] (as English ''man'')
:&amp;lt;v&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/v/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiced labiodental fricative]] (as English ''van'')
;[[Coronal consonant|Coronals]]
:&amp;lt;t&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/tʰ/}} &amp;mdash; [[aspiration|aspirated]] [[voiceless alveolar stop]] (as English ''tan'', but accompanied by puff of air not only in word initial positions, but in all positions)
:&amp;lt;tlh&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/t͡ɬ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate]] (as in [[Nahuatl]] ''Nahuatl'')
:&amp;lt;ch&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ʧ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiceless postalveolar affricate]] (as English ''church'')
:&amp;lt;j&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ʤ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiced postalveolar affricate]] (as English ''judge'')
:&amp;lt;D&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɖ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiced retroflex stop]] (as [[Swedish]] ''nord'')
:&amp;lt;D&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɳ/}} &amp;mdash; [[retroflex nasal]], an [[allophone]] of the above consonant (as Swedish ''Vänern'')
:&amp;lt;n&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/n/}} &amp;mdash; [[alveolar nasal]] (as English ''nun'') 
:&amp;lt;r&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/r/}} &amp;mdash; [[alveolar trill]] (trilled as in [[Spanish Spanish]] ''rojo'')
:&amp;lt;S&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ʂ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiceless retroflex fricative]] (as [[Mandarin]] ''Shànghǎi'')
:&amp;lt;l&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/l/}} &amp;mdash; [[alveolar lateral approximant]] (as English ''lean'', never [[velarization|velarized]] as English ''gull'')
;[[Dorsal consonant|Dorsals]]
:&amp;lt;ng&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ŋ/}} &amp;mdash; [[velar nasal]] (as English ''ring'')
:&amp;lt;H&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/x/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiceless velar fricative]] (as [[Scots language|Scots]] ''loch'')
:&amp;lt;gh&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɣ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiced velar fricative]] (as Arabic ''[[Baghdad]]'')
:&amp;lt;y&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/j/}} &amp;mdash; [[palatal approximant]] (as English ''yes'')
:&amp;lt;w&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/w/}} &amp;mdash; [[labial-velar approximant]] (as English ''wash'')
:&amp;lt;q&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/qʰ/}} &amp;mdash; [[aspiration|aspirated]] [[voiceless uvular stop]] (as [[Arabic]] ''[[Qur'an]]'', but aspirated):&amp;lt
;Q&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/q͡χ/}} &amp;mdash; [[voiceless uvular affricate]] (occurs in [[Nez Percé]], [[Wolof]] and [[Kabardian]])
;[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
:&amp;lt;'&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ʔ/}} &amp;mdash; [[glottal stop]] (as between the English words ''blue arm'', with distinct enunciation)

===Vowels===
In contrast to consonants, Klingon's inventory of vowels is very simple. The two front vowels, &amp;lt;e&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;I&amp;gt;, represent sounds that are generally shorter and more clipped in English than the more sonorant equivalents (as English ''bade'' and ''bead''). This, and the lack of [[diphthong]]s, enhances the sense that Klingon is a clipped and harsh-sounding language.

;[[Vowel]]s
:&amp;lt;a&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɑ/}} &amp;mdash; [[open back unrounded vowel]] (in English ''spa'')
:&amp;lt;e&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɛ/}} &amp;mdash; [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] (in English ''bed'')
:&amp;lt;I&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/ɪ/}} &amp;mdash; [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]] (in English ''bit'')
:&amp;lt;o&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/o/}} &amp;mdash; [[close-mid back rounded vowel]] (in [[French]] ''oiseaux'')
:&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; &amp;mdash; {{IPA|/u/}} &amp;mdash; [[close back rounded vowel]] (in Spanish ''cura'')

===Syllabification===
Klingon [[syllable]] structure is extremely strict: a syllable must start with a consonant (including the glottal stop) followed by one vowel. In prefixes and other more rare syllables, this is enough. More commonly, this consonant-vowel pair is followed by one consonant or one of three biconsonantal codas: /-'''''w' '''-'''y' '''-'''rgh'''''/. Thus, ''ta'' &quot;record&quot;, ''tar'' &quot;poison&quot; and ''targh'' &quot;targ&quot; (a type of animal) are all legal syllable forms, but *''tarD'' and *''ar'' are not. Despite this, there is one suffix that takes the shape vowel+consonant: the endearment suffix -''oy''.

== Grammar ==
Klingon is an [[agglutinative]] language, using mainly affixes in order to alter the function or meaning of words. Some nouns have inherently plural forms: ''jengva&amp;#39;'' &quot;plate&quot; vs. ''ngop'' &quot;plates&quot;, for instance.

Klingon [[noun]]s take suffixes to indicate [[grammatical number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], two levels of [[deixis]], possession and syntactic function. In all, 29 noun suffixes from five classes may be employed: ''jupoypu'na'wI'vaD'' &quot;for my beloved true friends&quot;. Speakers are limited to no more than one suffix from each class to be added to a word, and the classes have a specific order of appearance.

Gender in Klingon does not indicate sex, as in English, or have an arbitrary assignment as in Danish or many other languages. It indicates whether a noun is a body part, a being capable of using language, or neither of these.

[[Verb]]s in Klingon are even more complex, taking a prefix indicating the number and person of the subject and object, plus suffixes from nine ordered classes, plus a special suffix class called ''rovers''. Each of the four known rovers has its own unique rule controlling its position among the suffixes in the verb. Verbs are marked for [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], certainty, predisposition and volition, dynamic, [[causative]], [[Grammatical mood|mode]], [[negation]], and [[honorific]], and the Klingon verb has two moods: [[Grammatical mood|indicative]] and [[imperative]].

The most common [[word order]] in Klingon is [[Object Verb Subject]], and in some cases the word order is the exact reverse of word order in English:
 [[Image:Klingon sentence a.GIF|450px]]
 [[Image:klingonsentence.JPG]]
 ''DaH mojaq.mey.vam DI.vuS.nIS.be' 'e' vI.Har''
 now-ADV suffix. PL.DEM 1pl-3pl.limit.need.not that 1sg-3sg.believe
 &quot;I believe that we do not need to limit these suffixes now&quot;

Klingons apparently dislike redundancy such that, for example, since the ''DI'' prefix in the previous example indicates that the direct object ''mojaq'' is plural, a Klingon speaker will quite typically omit the plural suffix '''mey''' and say:

 ''DaH mojaqvam DI.vuS.nIS.be' 'e' vI.Har''

Unlike most artificial [[Auxiliary language|auxiliary languages]], which seek to either emulate elements of several evolved human languages in order to be easier to learn, or to be more regular with fewer exceptions than is the case in evolved existing languages, the Klingon language tries to break away from the most common features of other languages and embraces the exceptions to its own rules.

== Writing systems==

The official Klingon writing system is the [[Latin alphabet]] as used above, but on the television series, the Klingons use their own alien writing system. In ''The Klingon Dictionary'' this alphabet is named as ''pIqaD'', but no information is given about it. When Klingon symbols are used in Star Trek productions they are merely decorative graphic elements, designed to emulate real [[writing]] and create an appropriate atmosphere.

The Astra Image Corporation designed the symbols (currently used to &quot;write&quot; Klingon) for ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'', although these symbols are often incorrectly attributed to [[Michael Okuda]]. They based the letters on the [[Klingon starships|Klingon battlecruiser]] hull markings (three letters) first created by [[Matt Jeffries]], and on [[Tibetan alphabet|Tibetan]] writing because the script had sharp letter forms &amp;mdash; used as a testament to the Klingons' love for knives and blades. 

=== KLI pIqaD ===
[[Image:Kli piqad.GIF|thumb|The KLI piqaD]]
[[Image:KLI_piqad_text_sample.GIF|thumb|KLI piqaD text sample]]
Although the Latin alphabet is used officially to write Klingon, the speaking community also makes use of an artificial script designed to emulate Klingon writing on the show.  This alphabet was created by an anonymous source at [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], who based their alphabet on letters seen in the show.  This &quot;source&quot; sent in their alphabet to [http://www.kli.org/ KLI (Klingon Language Institute)] and the KLI uploaded it onto their website as the Klingons' way of writing their language.  This alphabet has gained some acceptance within the speaker and fan community although many ''Klingonists'' still prefer the Latin alphabet.

The alphabet is quite simple:  It contains twenty-six letters with a one-to-one ''grapheme-phoneme correspondance'': that is, one letter represents one sound and one sound is written with one letter.  There are also ten numerals in the set.  It is written from left to right, top to bottom like English. There is no actual punctuation, however those that use punctuation with the alphabet, use Skybox punctuation symbols (''see below''). 

In September 1997, [[Michael Everson]] made a proposal for encoding this in [[Unicode]]. The Unicode Technical Committee rejected the Klingon proposal in May 2001 on the grounds that research showed almost no use of the script for communication, and the vast majority of the people who did use Klingon employed the Latin alphabet by preference. Everson created a mapping of pIqaD into the [[Private Use Area]] of [[Unicode]], which he listed in the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]] (U+F8D0 to U+F8FF see [http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/klingon.html here] and [http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Test_Klingon.html here]). Since then several fonts using that encoding have appeared, and software for typing in pIqaD has become available. As a result, blogs in pIqaD have begun to appear, raising the possibility of reapplying for inclusion in Unicode when there is a sufficient corpus. Existing text in [[Romanization]] can easily be converted to pIqaD also.

Michael Okuda, the long standing [[Star Trek]] scenic arts designer, and other Paramount staff have repudiated the mapping.

=== Skybox pIqaD ===
[[Image:Klingonalphabet.GIF|thumb|The Klingon pIqaD according to Skybox]]
[[Image:Klingon-text-sample 2.JPG|thumb|A sample of written Klingon]]
The KLI pIqaD isn't the only mapping of Klingon letters.  The ''Astra Image'' letters were taken and used in the Paramount-endorsed [[Bitstream Inc|Bitstream]] font pack.  They were used to make a font with ten letters of the English alphabet: &quot;e&quot; to &quot;n&quot; being represented by the ten different klingon letters.  This font itself has been used by the Star trek production team when creating Klingon graphics, however it is still used only as random gibberish on the shows.

The trading card company [[SkyBox International|Skybox]] used this font, when they created the Klingon language cards in their ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' trading card collection.  The Klingon cards themselves detail aspects of Klingon culture, and feature pIqaD text, and a transliteration and translation provided by Marc Okrand.  Some of these cards, notably  [http://qurgh.wizage.net/cards/S7.jpg S7], [http://qurgh.wizage.net/cards/S8.jpg S8] and  [http://qurgh.wizage.net/cards/S9.jpg card S9] feature pIqaD, which corresponds to the Latin transcription.
Other known cards include ''s19'' and ''s20'' (which contain belittling references to ''Blockbuster'', probably an allusion to [[Blockbuster Video]]) the season seven card selection ''s37, s38 and s39'' (which featured no actual tlhingan Hol, but only English and on card S39 Latin, written in the Skybox alphabet), and finally, the Checklist cards for each seasons' set of cards had the word ''cards'' written in Klingon on them when listing the above mentioned cards.

The script is written in horizontal lines running from left to right, top to bottom, just like English.  Klingon can be written with spaces between words (a word being defined as any noun, verb or leftover, plus any prefixes and suffixes attached to it) and [[punctuation]]. When this is the case, four punctuation marks are used:
* An &quot;up-turned triangle&quot; with a function similar to a [[comma]], [[semi-colon]] or [[colon (punctuation)|colon]].
* A &quot;down-turned&quot; triangle with a function similar to a [[full stop]], [[question mark]] or [[exclamation mark]].
* A mark similar in appearance to an [[hyphen]] (unknown function).
* A mark similar to an apostrophe (function unknown).

Klingon can also be written with no spaces or punctuation at all; this form is more common on the TV shows.  As in English, Klingon text can be left-justified, center-justified, or right-justified, and written in vertical columns on banners.

Due to its nature, the &quot;Skybox&quot; Alphabet is ill-suited to writing Klingon, in that ambiguity in the alphabet is apparent, so different words are spelled the same way: these are [[homograph]]s. The heartiest commendations and the gravest insults could be written identically, though it should be noted that context would go a long way to disambiguating homographs.

=== Mandel script ===
[[Image:Klinzhai alphabet.GIF|thumb|The Klinzhai alphabet]]
A third script, known as the Klinzhai or Mandel script, was included in ''The U.S.S. Enterprise Officer's Manual'' (1980).  It holds more closely to the D7 battlecruiser hull markings and is also loosely based upon the conceptual art of Matt Jeffries, [[Star Trek: The Original Series|TOS]] set designer. 

Its letters map to various letters and digraphs of English, but they have no relation to Marc Okrand's Klingon language.  Like the other two alphabets, it is probably written in the same direction as English.  
::''Some fans have suggested this alphabet could be used to write [[Klingonaase]] in its native form.''

== Cursing ==
[[Swearing|Cursing]] is considered to be a fine art among Klingons.  That a person swears well is considered something of a compliment in Klingon culture.  Some of the more common curse words include:
:* ''petaQ''&amp;mdash;analogous to excrement.
:* ''toDSaH''&amp;mdash;literally &quot;idiot&quot;, i.e. analogous to &quot;brainless&quot;
:* ''yIntagh''&amp;mdash;reportedly a native Klingon animal on Qo'noS; analogous to &quot;vermin&quot;
:* ''taHqeq''&amp;mdash;a &quot;situation confused by a toDSaH&quot;; analogous roughly to &quot;[[SNAFU]]&quot;.
:* ''Qu'vatlh''&amp;mdash;particularly vulgar term describing an offer by one to be &quot;self-romantic&quot;.
:* ''ghay'cha'''&amp;mdash;related to subservience; see [[Romulan]] term &quot;Veruul.&quot;

Others not strictly part of the ''tlhIngan Hol'' corpus, but attested from other Star Trek sources, are:
:* ''lo'be'voS''&amp;mdash;incorporating  &quot;be'-&quot; female determinative, roughly analogous to term for female Terran canine (i.e. Bitch).
:* ''tha'rav'''&amp;mdash;from Klingonaase, term for lowest of slave population.
:* ''thar'av'vul''&amp;mdash;from Klingonaase, term describing [[Vulcan (Star Trek)|Vulcan]] slaves, slur describing one as an &quot;educated&quot; subservient; literally, &quot;educated idiot&quot;; see also &quot;toDSaH&quot;.
:* ''topaH'''&amp;mdash;usually used in combination with &quot;toDSaH&quot;; analogous to Terran [[Yiddish]] term &quot;schlemiel&quot;; person who does a &quot;toDSaH&quot; thing.
:* ''SlIpaH''&amp;mdash;promiscuous; analogous to Terran [[English_language|English]] term &quot;slut&quot; (said by Worf to Ezri Dax)
:* ''bIr'MIn'' &amp;mdash; from Star Trek fandom, a Klingon-inspired slang term, from the thlIngan Hol ''bIr'' , &quot;Cold,&quot; and '''Min'', &quot;Eye&quot;, or &quot;Cold-eye;&quot; analogous for &quot;someone who is dishonorable, or untrustworthy.&quot; Fans have allegedly coined this term, for its similarity with Star Trek Executive Producer Rick Berman's last name, as a satirical opinion of his perceived tenure as creative head of the franchise. Many other fans disagree with this opinion, referring to such fans as examples of topaHs.

Some of the words are general [[invective]]s, others are personal [[epithet]]s.  Adding the term ''jay''' intensifies the words.
&lt;!--Anyone care to supply the meanings?--&gt;

==Trivia==
* In 1999, [[The Onion]] published a satirical article claiming that the number of Klingon speakers exceeded the number of [[Navajo language|Navajo]] speakers. [http://www.theonion.com/content/node/29426]
 
* The sixth episode of the tenth season of [[Frasier]], &quot;Star-Mitzvah&quot;, which first aired [[November 5]], [[2002]], had Frasier reading a short blessing in Klingon at his son's [[B'nai Mitzvah|Bar Mitzvah]] having been tricked into believing it was [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. (There are more details at [[References to Star Trek#Star_Mitzvah|References to ''Star Trek'']])

== See also ==
* [[Alien language]]
* [[Klingonaase]], an earlier, non-canonical Klingon language put forth by author John M. Ford.
* [[References to Star Trek|References to Star Trek]], which lists some non-Star Trek television series which feature the Klingon language.
*[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Klingon_proverbs Klingon Proverbs] (Wikiquote).
*[[tlh:tlhIngan Hol]]


== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=tlh}}
{{wikibooks|Klingon}}

* [http://www.kli.org/ Klingon Language Institute]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/trek/yensw/ Klingon as linguistic capital] &amp;mdash; a Bachelor's Thesis in [[Sociology]]
* [http://www.klingonska.org/ Klingonska Akademien]
*[http://www.cs.vu.nl/~dick/Summaries/Languages/MutsunKlingonComparison.pdf Is Klingon an Ohlonean language? A comparison of Mutsun and Klingon]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/klingon.htm Omniglot: Klingon Alphabet]
* [http://klingon.dw-world.de/klingon/index.php Deutsche-Welle's Klingon Language Service]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3658310.stm BBC article on Deutsche-Welle's Klingon Language Service]
* [http://qurgh.wizage.net/cards/cards.html information on the Skybox Trading cards, with Klingon writing]
* [http://tlh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ghItlh%27a%27 Klingon Wikipedia]
* [http://www.google.com/intl/xx-klingon/ Google in Klingon]
* [http://www.kosmic-horror.com/ Klingon Rock]

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Klingon language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Writing system</title>
    <id>2122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46611</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:46:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>duplicated material</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''writing system''', also called a '''script''', is a type of [[symbol]]ic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in [[language]].

[[Image:WritingSystemsoftheWorld3.png|400px|thumb|Writing Systems of the World today]]

==General properties==

Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated language in order to successfully read and comprehend the text. Contrast this with other possible symbolic systems such as [[information sign]]s, painting, [[map]]s, and mathematics, which do not necessarily depend upon prior knowledge of a given language in order to extract their meaning.

Every human community possesses language, a feature regarded by many as an innate and defining condition of humankind. However, the development and adoption of writing systems has occurred only sporadically. Once established, writing systems are on the whole modified more slowly than their spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and expressions which are no longer current in the discourse of the speech community. The great benefit conferred by writing systems is their ability to maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act of formulation.

All writing systems require:
:* a set of defined base elements or [[symbol]]s (termed ''characters'' or ''graphemes'');
:* a set of rules and conventions understood and shared by a community, which arbitrarily assign [[meaning]] to the base elements, their ordering, and relations to one another;
:* a language (generally a spoken language) whose constructions are represented and able to be recalled by the interpretation of these elements and rules;
:* some physical means of distinctly representing the symbols by application to a permanent or semi-permanent medium, so that they may be interpreted (usually visually, but tactile systems have also been devised).

==Basic terminology==
The study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines in the examination of individual scripts, and as such the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field. 

The generic term ''[[text]]'' may be used to refer to an individual product of a writing system. The act of composing a text may be referred to as ''[[writing]]'', and the act of interpreting the text as ''[[Reading (activity)|reading]]''. In the study of writing systems, ''[[orthography]]'' refers to the method and rules of observed writing structure (literal meaning, &quot;correct writing&quot;), and in particular for alphabetic systems, includes the concept of ''[[spelling]]''. 

A '''[[grapheme]]''' is the technical term [[neologism|coined]] to refer to the specific base or atomic units of a given writing system. Graphemes are the ''minimally significant'' elements which taken together comprise the set of &quot;building blocks&quot; out of which texts of a given writing system may be constructed, along with rules of correspondence and use. The concept is similar to that of the [[phoneme]] used in the study of spoken languages. For example, in the [[Latin]]-based writing system of standard contemporary English, examples of graphemes include the [[majuscule]] and [[minuscule]] forms of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet (corresponding to various phonemes), marks of [[punctuation]] (mostly non-phonemic), and a few other symbols such as those for [[Arabic numeral|numerals]] (logograms for numbers).

Note that an individual grapheme may be represented in a wide variety of ways, where each variation is visually distinct in some regard, but all are interpreted as representing the &quot;same&quot; grapheme. These individual variations are known as '''[[allograph]]s''' of a grapheme (compare with the term [[allophone]] used in linguistic study). For example, the minuscule letter '''a''' has different allographs when written as a [[cursive]], [[block letters|block]], or [[typeface|typed]] letter. The selection between different allographs may be influenced by the medium used, the writing instrument, the stylistic choice of the writer, and the largely unconscious features of an individual's [[handwriting]]. 

The terms ''[[glyph]]'', ''[[sign (linguistics)|sign]]'' and ''character'' are sometimes used to refer to a grapheme. Common usage varies from discipline to discipline; compare [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform sign]], [[Maya hieroglyphics|Maya glyph]], [[Chinese character]]. The glyphs of most writing systems are made up of lines (or strokes) and are therefore called [[Linear writing|linear]], but there are glyphs in [[Non-linear writing|non-linear writing systems]] made up of other types of marks, such as Cuneiform and [[Braille]]. 

Writing systems are [[conceptual system]]s, as are the languages to which they refer. Writing systems may be regarded as ''complete'' according to the extent to which they are able to represent all that may be expressed in the spoken language.

== History of writing systems ==
{{main|History of writing}}
{{merge|Writing#Writing in Historical Cultures}}
====Proto-writing====
Before there was writing, there was ''proto-''writing. However, few examples survive, and some experts question whether the inscriptions are early writing at all. Some believe them to have been some kind of [[ideogram|ideographic]] and/or early [[mnemonic]] devices that may have been invented by creative [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] individuals. The best known examples are:
* Symbols on [[tortoise]] [[shells]] in [[Jiahu]], ca. [[4600 BC]]
* [[Old European Script|Vinca script]] ([[Tărtăria tablets]]), ca. [[4500 BC]]
* Early [[Indus script]], ca. [[3500 BC]]

====Invention of writing====
The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the [[Bronze Age]] in the late [[Neolithic]] of the late [[4th millennium BC]]. The first writing system is generally believed to have been the [[Sumerian]] script, which developed into [[cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]]. [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], and the undeciphered [[Proto-Elamite script]] and [[Indus script|Indus Valley script]] also date to this era; though a few scholars have questioned the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] script's status as a writing system. 

The [[Chinese script]] may have originated independently of the Middle Eastern scripts, around [[1200 BC]]. The pre-Columbian writing systems of the [[Americas]] (including among others [[Olmec]] and [[Mayan]]) are also generally believed to have had independent origins. 

The first pure [[alphabet]]s emerged around [[2000 BC]] in [[Ancient Egypt]], but by then alphabetic principles had already been inculcated into [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s for a millennium (see [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets]]).

==Types of writing systems==
[[Image:Puyi's schoolbook - Forbidden City.JPG|thumb|right|This textbook for Chinese children shows the English alphabet. Although the English letters run from left to right, the Chinese explanations run from top to bottom, as traditionally written.]]
The oldest-known forms of writing were primarily [[logogram|logographic]] in nature, based on [[pictogram|pictographic]] and [[ideogram|ideographic]] elements. Most writing systems can be broadly divided into three categories: '''logographic''', '''syllabic''' and '''alphabetic''' (or '''segmental'''); however, all three may be found in any given writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to categorise a system uniquely. The term '''complex system''' is sometimes used to describe those where the admixture makes classification problematic. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Type of writing system&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;What each symbol represents&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Example&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Logogram|Logographic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;morpheme&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Chinese ''hanzi''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Syllabary|Syllabic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;syllable&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Japanese ''kana''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Alphabet|Alphabetic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;phoneme (consonant or vowel)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Latin&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Abugida]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;phoneme (consonant+vowel)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Indian ''devanagari''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Abjad]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;phoneme (consonant)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Arabic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Featural&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;phonetic feature&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Korean ''hangul''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

''See also'': [[phonemic orthography|''phonemic'' and ''phonetic'' orthography]].

=== Logographic writing systems ===
''Main article: [[Logogram]]''

A '''logogram''' is a single written character which represents a complete grammatical word. Most [[Chinese character]]s are classified as logograms.

As each character represents a single word (or, more precisely, a [[morpheme]]), many logograms are required to write all the words of language. The vast array of logograms and the memorization of what they mean are the major disadvantage of the logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, since the meaning is inherent to the symbol, the same logographic system can theoretically be used to represent different languages. In practice, this is only true for closely related languages, like the [[Chinese language|Chinese languages]], as syntactical constraints reduce the portability of a given logographic system. Both [[Korean]] and [[Japanese]] use Chinese logograms in their writing systems, with most of the symbols carrying the same or similar meanings. However, the semantics, and especially the grammar, are different enough that a Chinese text is not readily understandable to a Japanese or Korean reader.

While most languages do not use wholly logographic writing systems many languages use some logograms. A good example of modern western logograms are the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] &amp;mdash; everyone who uses those symbols understands what '''1''' means whether he or she calls it ''one'', ''eins'', ''uno'', or ''ichi''. Other western logograms include the [[ampersand]] '''&amp;''', used for ''and'', and the [[at sign]] '''@''' , used in many contexts for ''at''.

Logograms are sometimes called [[ideogram]]s, a word that refers to symbols which graphically represent abstract ideas, but linguists avoid this use, as Chinese characters are often [[semantics|semantic]]&amp;ndash;[[phonetic]] compounds, symbols which include an element that represents the meaning and element that represents the pronunciation.  Some nonlinguists distinguish between [[lexigraphy]] and [[ideography]], where symbols in lexigraphies represent words, and symbols in ideographies represent words or morphemes.

The most important (and, to a degree, the only surviving) modern logographic writing system is the Chinese one, whose characters are used, with varying degrees of modification, in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and other east Asian languages. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics and the Mayan writing system are also systems with certain logographic features, although they have marked phonetic features as well, and are no longer in current use. 

''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of predominantly-logographic writing systems.''

=== Syllabic writing systems ===
''Main article: [[Syllabary]]''

As logographic writing systems use a single symbol for an entire word, a '''syllabary''' is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) [[syllable|syllables]], which make up [[word|words]]. A symbol in a syllabary typically represents a [[consonant]] sound followed by a [[vowel]] sound, or just a vowel alone. In a true syllabary there is no systematic graphic similarity between phonetically related characters (though some do have graphic similarity for the vowels). That is, the characters for &quot;ke&quot;, &quot;ka&quot;, and &quot;ko&quot; have no similarity to indicate their common &quot;k&quot;-ness. Compare [[#Abugidas|abugida]], where each [[grapheme]] typically represents a syllable but where characters representing related sounds are similar graphically (typically, a common consonantal base is annotated in a more or less consistent manner to represent the vowel in the syllable).

Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. The [[English language]], on the other hand, allows complex syllable structures, with a relative large inventory of [[vowel]]s and complex [[consonant cluster]]s, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. To write English using a syllabary, every possible syllable in English would have to have a separate symbol, and whereas the number of possible syllables in Japanese is no more than one hundred or so, in English there are many thousands. 

Other languages that use syllabic writing include [[Mycenae]]an [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[Linear B]]) and [[Native American languages]] such as [[Cherokee]].  Several languages of the [[Ancient Near East]] used forms of [[cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]], which is a syllabary with some non-syllabic elements. 

''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of syllabaries.''

=== Alphabetic writing systems ===
''Main article: [[Alphabet]]''

An '''alphabet''' is a small set of ''letters'' &amp;mdash; basic written symbols &amp;mdash; each of which roughly represents or represented historically a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]]. The word ''alphabet'' is derived from [[alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[beta (letter)|beta]], the first two symbols of the [[Greek alphabet]].

In a perfectly [[phonology|phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. Each language has general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed.

Perfectly phonological alphabets are very easy to use and learn, and languages that have them (for example, Finnish) have much lower barriers to literacy than languages such as English, which has a very complex and irregular spelling system. As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. In modern times, when [[linguist]]s invent a writing system for a language that didn't previously have one, the goal is usually to make perfectly phonological alphabet. An example of such writing systems is the &quot;IPA&quot; ([[International Phonetic Alphabet]]).

''See [[alphabet]] for more information about alphabets.''
''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of alphabetic writing systems.''

====Abjads====
''Main article: [[Abjad]]''

The first type of alphabet that was developed was the '''abjad'''. An abjad is an alphabetic writing system where there is one symbol per consonant. Abjads differ from regular alphabets in that they only have characters for [[consonant]]al sounds. Vowels are not usually marked in abjad. 

All known abjads (except maybe [[Tifinagh]]) belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that [[Semitic languages]] and the related [[Berber languages]] have a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphemic structure]] which makes the denotation of [[vowel]]s redundant in most cases.

Some abjads (like Arabic and Hebrew) have markings for vowels as well, but only use them in special contexts, such as for teaching. Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets, the most famous case being the derivation of the [[Greek alphabet]] from the Phoenician abjad. This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language. 

The term ''abjad'' takes its name from the old order of the [[Arabic alphabet]]'s [[consonant]]s Alif, Bá, Jim, Dál, though the word may have earlier roots in [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] or [[Ugaritic]].

Abjad is still the word for alphabet in [[Arabic]] and [[Indonesian]].

''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of abjad-based writing systems.''

====Abugidas====
''Main article: [[Abugida]]''

An '''abugida''' is an alphabetic writing system whose basic signs denote consonants with an inherent vowel and where consistent modifications of the basic sign indicate other following vowels than the inherent one.

Thus, in an abugida there is no sign for &quot;k&quot;, but instead one for &quot;ka&quot; (if &quot;a&quot; is the inherent vowel), and &quot;ke&quot; is written by modifying the &quot;ka&quot; sign in a way that is consistent with how one would modify &quot;la&quot; to get &quot;le&quot;. In many abugidas the modification is the addition of a vowel sign, but other possibilities are imaginable (and used), such as rotation of the basic sign, addition of diacritical marks, and so on.

The obvious contrast is with [[syllabary|syllabaries]], which have one distinct symbol per possible syllable, and the signs for each syllable have no systematic graphic similarity. The graphic similarity comes from the fact that most abugidas are derived from abjads, and the consonants make up the symbols with the inherent vowel, and the new vowel symbols are markings added on to the base symbol.

The [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ethiopic]] script is an abugida, although the vowel modifications in Ethiopic are not entirely systematic. [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] can be considered abugidas, although they are rarely thought of in those terms. The largest single group of abugidas is the [[Brahmic family]] of scripts, however, which includes nearly all the scripts used in [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]].

The name ''abugida'' is derived from the first four characters of an order of the Ge'ez script used in some religious contexts. The term was coined by [[Peter T. Daniels]].

''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of abugida-based writing systems.''

=== Featural writing systems ===

A '''featural''' script represents finer detail than an alphabet. Here symbols do not represent whole phonemes, but rather the elements (features) that make up the phonemes, such as [[voicing]] or its [[place of articulation]]. Theoretically, each feature could be written with a separate letter; and abjads or abugidas, or indeed syllabaries, could be featural, but the only prominent system of this sort is [[Korean language|Korean]] [[Hangul]]. In Hangul, the featural symbols are combined into alphabetic letters, and these letters are in turn joined into syllabic blocks, so that the system combines three levels of phonological representation. 

''See [[List of writing systems]] for a list of featural writing systems.''

== Directionality ==

Different scripts are written in different directions.  The early alphabet could be written in any direction:  either horizontal (left-to-right or right-to-left) or vertical (up or down).  It could also be written [[boustrophedon]]:  starting horizontally in one direction, then turning at the end of the line and reversing direction. [[Egyptian hieroglyph]] is one such script, where the beginning of a line written horizontally was to be indicated by the direction in which animal and human ideograms are looking. 

The [[Greek alphabet]] and its successors settled on a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of the page.  Other scripts, such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], came to be written right-to-left.  Scripts that incorporate [[Chinese characters]] have traditionally been written vertically (top-to-bottom), from the right to the left of the page, but nowadays are frequently written left-to-right, top-to-bottom, due to [[Western culture|Western]] influences, a growing need to accommodate terms in the [[Roman alphabet]], and technical limitations in popular [[electronic document]] formats.  The [[Mongolian_alphabet#Mongolian_script_proper|Mongolian alphabet]] is unique in being the only script written top-to-bottom, left-to-right; this direction originated from an ancestral Semitic direction by rotating the page 90° counter-clockwise to conform to the appearance of Chinese writing. Scripts with lines written away from the writer, from bottom to top, also exist, such as several used in the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]].

== See also ==
*[[Artificial script]]
*[[Calligraphy]]
*[[Genealogy of scripts derived from Proto-Sinaitic]]
*[[ISO 15924]] - list of &quot;codes for the representation of names of scripts&quot;
*[[List of writing systems]]
*[[List of inventors of writing systems]]
*[[Majuscule]]
*[[Minuscule]]
*''[[Nü Shu]]''
*[[Official script]]
*[[Orthography]]
*[[Pasigraphy]]
*[[Penmanship]]
*[[Shorthand]]
*[[Spelling]]
*[[Transliteration]]
*[[Written language]]

In computers and telecommunication systems, graphemes and other grapheme-like units required for text processing are represented by &quot;[[character (computing)|character]]s&quot; that typically manifest in [[character encoding|encoded]] form. For technical aspects of computer support for various writing systems, see the articles [[CJK]] (Chinese, Japanese, Korean) and [[Bi-directional text]], as well as [[:Category:Character encoding]].

== External links ==
* About African writing systems by the [[John Henrik Clarke Africana Library]] at [[Cornell University]]:
** http://www.library.cornell.edu/africana/Writing_Systems/Welcome.html
* General about writing systems
** [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/alphabets.htm Omniglot]

* [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm Alphabetic Writing Systems]
* [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe]
* The [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode Consortium]
* [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/ATypographicOutcry A Typographic Outcry]: a curious perspective

== References ==
* Coulmas, Florian. 1996. ''The Blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems''. Oxford: Blackwell.
* [[Peter T. Daniels|Daniels, Peter T.]], and William Bright, eds. 1996. The world's writing systems. ISBN 0-19-507-993-0.
* DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy.  Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824810686
* Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 082481892X (paperback); ISBN 0824818423 (hardcover)
* Rogers, Henry. 2005. Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-23463-2 (hardcover); ISBN 0-631-23464-0 (paperback)
* Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing Systems. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1756-7 (paper), ISBN 0-8047-1254-9 (cloth).
* Smalley, W.A. (ed.) 1964. Orthography studies: articles on new writing systems, United Bible Society, London.

[[Category:Scripts|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Word order in Latin</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Latin]] differs from languages like [[English language|English]] in that it uses many [[noun case]]s which are [[declension|declined]] in such a way that they are nearly all different from each other, and even [[proper noun]]s such as [[name]]s are declined.

For example, the ending of the common [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name ''Marcus'' is different in each of the following sentences due to the different cases in which it is used (the name ''Cornelia'' remains undeclined):

*'''Marcus''' hits Cornelia. (Subject-Verb-Object, the most common permutation of expression in English)
*Cornelia hits '''Marcum'''. (SVO)
*Cornelia gives '''Marco''' a present. (Subject, Verb, [indirect object], [direct] Object, so SVO as well.)
*Cornelia shouts: &quot;'''Marce''', '''Marce''', come! It's time for your difficult language homework.&quot; (SVO)

Declension by case means that word order can be more variable in Latin than in English and other languages&amp;mdash;because a reader or listener can discern the case of a word, it is not necessary to adhere to a strictly defined order.

The ordering in the following sentences would be perfectly correct in Latin and no doubt understood with clarity, despite the fact that in English they're awkward at best and senseless at worst:

*Cornelia hits '''Marcus'''. (OVS)
**But which means: '''Marcus''' hits Cornelia.
*'''Marcum''' hits Cornelia. (OVS)
**But which means: Cornelia hits '''Marcum'''.
*'''Marcum''' Cornelia hits. (OSV)
**But which means: Cornelia hits '''Marcum'''.
*'''Marco''' gives Cornelia a present. ([indirect object], Verb, Subject, [direct] Object, so VSO)
**But which means: Cornelia gives '''Marco''' a present.

Nonetheless, the SOV permutation was the most frequent in Classical Latin, except where&amp;mdash;in [[poetry]], for example&amp;mdash;the ordering was often changed for the sake of rhythm or emphasis.  Ordinary prose, however, tended to follow the pattern of Subject, Indirect Object, Direct Object, Adverbial Words or Phrases, Verb.  Adjectives usually directly followed nouns, unless they were nouns of beauty, size, goodness, or truth, in which case they preceded the noun being modified.

However, some Latin writers use word order to add emphasis to certain words in a statement.  In [[Virgil|Virgil's]] ''[[Eclogues]]'', for example, he writes, &quot;''Omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori!''&quot;. (''Love'' conqueres ''all'', let us yield to ''love!'')

It is possible to construct a poem with a completely regular rhythm of [[lexical stress|stressed]] and unstressed [[syllable]]s through careful arrangement of the right words in the right order, a feat rendered virtually impossible in English. An example of this form of poetry is the [[dactylic hexameter]].

It should not be believed, however, that Latin word order is completely free.  The Romans never wrote in such a free manner.  In fact, the placement of words within a sentence, particularly in writing, would have significant meaning.  Unfortunately, many students of Latin are never taught this distinction, and instead, they follow the ill-founded idea that word order does not matter.  This has led many, including people who should know better, to misunderstand (or be unable to read) many famous examples of Latin.

Many [[Slavic language]]s, such as [[Russian]] and [[Polish]]&amp;mdash;though not [[Bulgarian]]&amp;mdash;also have many noun cases, making variable word order possible as in Latin.

==See also==

* [[Word order]]
* [[Linguistic typology]]

[[Category:Latin]]


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  <page>
    <title>Russian</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Russian''' (Russian: русский язык, ''russkiy yazyk'', {{IPA|['ru.skʲɪj jɪ.'zɨk]}}) is the most widely spoken language of Eurasia and the most widespread of the [[Slavic languages]].

Russian belongs to the family of [[Indo-European languages]]. Within the Slavic family, Russian is one of the three [[East Slavic languages]], the other two being [[Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian]]. 

Written examples of East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onwards. While Russian preserves much of East Slavonic synthetic-inflexional structure and a [[Common Slavonic]] word base, modern Russian exhibits a large stock of borrowed international vocabulary for politics, science, and technology. A language of great political importance in the 20th century, Russian is one of the official languages of the United Nations.

&lt;small&gt;'''NOTE'''. Russian is written in a non-Latin script. All examples below are in the [[Cyrillic]] alphabet, with transcriptions in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].&lt;/small&gt;

==Classification==

Russian is a [[Slavic language]] in the Indo-European family. From the point of view of the [[spoken language]], its closest relatives are [[Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian]], the other two national languages in the [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]] group. In many places in [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]], these languages are spoken interchangeably. 

The basic vocabulary, principles of word-formation, and, to some extent, inflexions and literary style of Russian have been heavily influenced by [[Church Slavonic]], a developed and partly adopted form of the [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] [[Old Church Slavonic]] language used by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. Many words in modern literary Russian are closer in form to the modern [[Bulgarian]] language than to [[Ukrainian]] or [[Belarusian]]. However, the [[East Slavic]] forms have tended to remain in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the [[East Slavic]] and the [[Church Slavonic]] forms are in use, with slightly different meanings. For details, see [[Russian phonetics#Historical Sound Changes|Historical Sound Changes]] and [[History of the Russian language]].

Outside the Slavic languages, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have been greatly influenced by [[Greek]], [[Latin]], [[French]], [[German]], and [[English]].

==Geographic distribution==

Russian is primarily spoken in [[Russia]] and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].  Until [[1917]], it was the sole official language of the [[Russian Empire]]. During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian. Following the break-up of [[1991]], several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national intercourse throughout the region has continued.

In [[Latvia]], notably, its official recognition and legality in the classroom have been a topic of considerable debate in a country where more than one-third of the population is Russian-speaking, consisting mostly of post-[[World War II]] immigrants from Russia and other parts of the former [[USSR]] (Belarus, Ukraine). Similarly, in [[Estonia]], the Soviet-era immigrants and their Russian-speaking descendants constitute about one quarter of the country's current population.

A much smaller Russian-speaking minority in [[Lithuania]] has largely been assimilated during the decade of independence and currently represent less than 1/10 of the country's overall population.

In the twentieth century it was widely taught in the schools of the members of the old [[Warsaw Pact]] and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR, especially in [[Poland]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Yugoslavia]], and [[Czechoslovakia]]. However, younger generations are usually not fluent in it, because Russian is no longer mandatory in the school system. It was, and still is, to a lesser extent, widely taught in Asian countries such as Laos, [[Vietnam]] and [[Mongolia]] due to Soviet influence, and is still used as a [[lingua franca]] in [[Afghanistan]] by various tribes.

Russian is also spoken in [[Israel]] by at least 750,000 ethnic [[Jew|Jewish]] immigrants from the former [[Soviet Union]] (1999 census). The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian.

Sizeable Russian-speaking communities also exist in [[North America]] (especially in large urban centers of the [[US]] and [[Canada]] such as [[New York]], [[Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco]], [[Toronto]], [[Miami]], and [[Chicago]]). In the first two of them, Russian-speaking groups total over half a million. In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in their self-sufficient neighborhoods (especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early sixties). It is important to note, however, that only about a quarter of them are ethnic Russians.

Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the overwhelming majority were Russian-speaking [[Jews]]. Afterwards the influx from the countries of the former [[Soviet Union]] changed the statistics somewhat. According to the [[United States 2000 Census]], Russian was reported as language spoken at home by 1.50% of population, or about 4.2 million, placing it as #10 language in the [[United States]].
 
Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the twentieth century, each with its own flavour of language. [[Germany]], [[Britain]], [[Spain]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], and [[Greece]] have significant Russian-speaking communities totaling 3 million people.

Two thirds of them are actually Russian-speaking descendants of [[Germans]], [[Greeks]], [[Jews]], [[Armenians]], or [[Ukrainians]] who either repatriated after the [[USSR]] collapsed or are just looking for temporary employment. But many are well-off Russian families acquiring property and getting education. 

Earlier, the descendants of the Russian émigrés tended to lose the tongue of their ancestors by the third generation. Now, when the border is more open, Russian is likely to survive longer, especially when many of the emigrants visit their homelands at least once a year and also have access to Russian websites and TV channels.

Recent estimates of the total number of speakers of Russian:

{| align=center cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 border=0
|-
!Source||Native speakers||Native Rank||Total speakers||Total rank
|-
|G. Weber, &quot;Top Languages&quot;,&lt;br&gt;''Language Monthly'',&lt;br&gt;3: 12-18, 1997, ISSN 1369-9733||160,000,000||8||285,000,000||5
|-
|World Almanac (1999)||145,000,000||8&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(2005)||275,000,000||5 
|-
|SIL (2000 WCD)||145,000,000||8||255,000,000||5-6 (tied with Arabic)
|-
|CIA World Factbook (2005)||160,000,000||8||
|}

===Official status===
Russian is the official language of [[Russia]], and an official language of [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], the [[Autonomous Republic of Crimea]] ([[Ukraine]]) and the [[List of unrecognized countries|unrecognized]] [[Moldovan Republic of Transnistria]]. It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.
Education in Russian is still a popular choice for many of the both native and RSL (Russian as a second language) speakers in Russia and many of the former Soviet republics.

97% of the public school students of Russia, 75% in Belarus, 41% in Kazakhstan, 24% in [[Ukraine]], 23% in Kyrgyzstan, 21% in [[Moldova]], 7% in [[Azerbaijan]], 5% in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] received their education only or mostly in Russian, although the corresponding percentage of ethnic Russians was 80% in [[Russia]], 11% in [[Belarus]], 27% in [[Kazakhstan]], 17% in [[Ukraine]], 9% in [[Kyrgyzstan]], 6% in [[Moldova]], 2% in [[Azerbaijan]], 1.5% in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].

===Dialects===
Despite levelling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary, a large number of dialects exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of the Russian language into two primary regional groupings, &quot;Northern&quot; and &quot;Southern&quot;, with [[Moscow]] lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern, Central and Southern, with [[Moscow]] lying in the Central region. [[Dialectology]] within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants.

The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language. Also cf. [[Moscow]] pronunciation of &quot;-чн-&quot;, e.g. &quot;булошная&quot; (''buloshnaya'' - bakery) instead of &quot;булочная&quot; (''bulochnaya'').

The northern dialects typically pronounce unstressed {{IPA|/o/}} clearly (the phenomenon called okanye ''оканье''); the southern palatalize the final {{IPA|/t/}} and [[aspirate]] the {{IPA|/ɡ/}} into {{IPA|/h/}}. It should be noted that some of these features are also present in modern [[Ukrainian]], indicating a linguistic continuum or strong influence one way or the other.

Among the first to study Russian dialects was [[Mikhail Lomonosov|Lomonosov]] in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth, [[Vladimir Dal|Vladimir Dal]] compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the twentieth century. In modern times, the monumental ''Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language'' (''Диалектологический атлас русского языка'' {{IPA|/dʲəʌˈlʲektəlʌˈɡʲiʨəskʲəj ˈatləs ˈruskəvə jəzɨˈka/}}), was published in 3 folio volumes 1986-1989, after four decades of preparatory work.

The ''standard language'' is based on the Moscow dialect.

===Derived languages===
*[[Fenia]] or [[Fenka]], a criminal [[lingo]] of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary.
* [[Surzhyk]] is a Ukrainian-Russian pidgin spoken in some rural areas of Ukraine
* [[Trasianka]] is a Belarusian-Russian mix (sort of [[pidgin]]) used by a large portion of the rural population in [[Belarus]].
*[[Russenorsk]] is an extinct [[pidgin]] language with Russian vocabulary and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] grammar, used for communication between [[Russians]] and [[Norwegians]] in [[Svalbard]] and [[Kola Peninsula]].
* [[Runglish]]: Russian-English pidgin.

==Writing system==

===Alphabet===
[[Image:Meletius Smotrisky Cyrillic Alphabet.PNG|thumb|[[Meletius Smotrytsky]] presented the Cyrillic alphabet in this [[1619]] publication describing the &quot;Slavonic&quot; language.]]
{{main|Russian alphabet}}
Russian is written using a modified version of the [[Cyrillic|Cyrillic (кириллица)]] alphabet, consisting of 33 letters.

The following table gives their upper case forms, along with [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values for each letter's typical sound:

{| align=center cellpadding=4 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
|[[A (Cyrillic)|А]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/a/}}||[[Be (Cyrillic)|Б]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/b/}}||[[Ve (Cyrillic)|В]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/v/}}||[[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɡ/}}||[[De (Cyrillic)|Д]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/d/}}||[[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/jɛ/}}||[[Yo (Cyrillic)|Ё]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/jo/}}||[[Zhe (Cyrillic)|Ж]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʐ/}}||[[Ze (Cyrillic)|З]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/z/}}||[[I (Cyrillic)|И]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/i/}}||[[Short I|Й]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/j/}}
|-
|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|К]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/k/}}||[[El (Cyrillic)|Л]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/l/}}||[[Em (Cyrillic)|М]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/m/}}||[[En (Cyrillic)|Н]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/n/}}||[[O (Cyrillic)|О]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/o/}}||[[Pe (Cyrillic)|П]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/p/}}||[[Er (Cyrillic)|Р]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/r/}}||[[Es (Cyrillic)|С]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/s/}}||[[Te (Cyrillic)|Т]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/t/}}||[[U (Cyrillic)|У]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/u/}}||[[Ef (Cyrillic)|Ф]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/f/}}
|-
|[[Kha (Cyrillic)|Х]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/x/}}||[[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʦ/}}||[[Che (Cyrillic)|Ч]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʨ/}}||[[Sha|Ш]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʂ/}}||[[Shcha|Щ]] &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɕː/}}||[[Hard sign|Ъ]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/◌ˠ/}}||[[Yery|Ы]]&lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/ɨ/}}||[[Soft sign|Ь]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/◌ʲ/}}||[[E (Cyrillic)|Э]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɛ/}}||[[Yu (Cyrillic)|Ю]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ju/}}||[[Ya (letter)|Я]]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ja/}}
|}

Old letters that have been abolished at one time or another but occur in this and related articles include {{Unicode |'''ѣ'''}} {{IPA|/ie/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}, '''і''' {{IPA|/i/}}, and {{Unicode |'''ѧ'''}} {{IPA|/ja/}}. The [[Yer|yers]] '''ъ''' and '''ь''' were originally pronounced as ''ultra-short'' or ''reduced'' {{IPA|/ŭ/}}, {{IPA|/ĭ/}}.

For information on an informal approach on transliterating Russian into English, see the article [[Romanization of Russian|Transliteration of Russian into English]].

===Orthography===
{{main|Russian orthography}}

Russian spelling is reasonably phonetic in practice. It is in fact a balance among phonetics, morphology, etymology, and grammar, and, like that of most living languages, has its share of inconsistencies and controversial points.

The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990's has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted.
 
The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reformulated on the French and German models.

==Sounds==
{{main|Russian phonology}}

The phonological system of Russian is inherited from [[Common Slavonic]], but underwent considerable modification in the early historical period, before being largely settled by about 1400. 

The language possesses five vowels, which are written with different letters depending on whether or not the preceding consonant is [[palatalization|palatalized]].  The consonants typically come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called ''hard'' and ''soft.'' (The 'hard' consonants are often [[velarization|velarized]], some dialects only velarize /l/ in such positions). The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat lengthened, while unstressed vowels (except {{IPA|/u/}}) tend to be reduced to an unclear [[schwa]].

The Russian [[syllable]] structure can be quite complex with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to 4 consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant the structure can be described as follows:

(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; line-height: 1.2em; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-family: Doulos SIL, GentiumAlt,  Lucida Sans Unicode, Gentium, Code2000, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Bitstream Cyberbit, Bitstream Vera, Arial Unicode MS, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Lucida Grande; font-family /**/:inherit; font-size: 110%; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid;&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 80%;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] &amp;&lt;br&gt;[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br&gt;alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Plosive]]s
| {{IPA|p&lt;br&gt;pʲ}}
| {{IPA|b&lt;br&gt;bʲ}}
| {{IPA|t&lt;br&gt;tʲ}}
| {{IPA|d&lt;br&gt;dʲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|
| {{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|ɡ}}
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Affricate]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʦ&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;ʨ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Fricative]]s
| {{IPA|f&lt;br&gt;fʲ}}
| {{IPA|v&lt;br&gt;vʲ}}
| {{IPA|s&lt;br&gt;sʲ}}
| {{IPA|z&lt;br&gt;zʲ}}
| {{IPA|ʂ&lt;br&gt;ɕ}}
| {{IPA|ʐ&lt;br&gt;ʑ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|x}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Nasal]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|m&lt;br&gt;mʲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|n&lt;br&gt;nʲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Trill]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|r&lt;br&gt;rʲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: 80%; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Approximant]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ɫ&lt;br&gt;lʲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|j}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}

Russian is notable for its distinction based on [[palatalization]] of most of the consonants. While /k/, /g/, /x/ do have palatalized [[allophone]]s {{IPA|[kʲ, gʲ, xʲ]}}, only {{IPA|/kʲ/}} might be considered a phoneme, though it is marginal and generally not considered distinctive. Palatalization means that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of {{IPA|/tʲ/ and /dʲ/}}, the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds). {{IPA|/t, d, ʦ, s, z, n and r/)}} are [[dental consonant|dental]], that is pronounced with the tongue against the teeth rather than against the [[alveolar ridge]].

==Grammar==
{{main|Russian grammar}}

Russian has preserved an [[Indo-European]] [[Synthetic language|synthetic]]-[[inflection|inflexional]] structure, although considerable levelling has taken place.

Russian grammar encompasses
* a highly [[Synthetic language|synthetic]] '''morphology'''
* a '''syntax''' that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:
** a polished [[vernacular]] foundation;
** a [[Church Slavonic]] inheritance;
** a [[Western Europe]]an style.

The spoken language has been influenced by the literary, but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.

==Vocabulary==
[[Image:1694 Russian ABC book page.GIF|thumb|This page from an &quot;ABC&quot; book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter '''П'''.]]

See [[History of the Russian language]] for an account of the successive foreign influences on the Russian language.

The total number of words in Russian is difficult to reckon because of the ability to agglutinate and create manifold compounds, diminutives, etc. (see [[Russian grammar#Word Formation|Word Formation]] under [[Russian grammar]]).

The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the last two centuries, and the total vocabulary of [[Pushkin]] (who is credited with greatly augmenting and codifying literary Russian), are as follows:

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot;
|-
! Work||Year||Words||Notes
|-
|Academic dictionary, I Ed.||1789-1794||43,257||Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary
|-
|Academic dictionary, II Ed||1806-1822||51,388||Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary
|-
|Pushkin opus||1810-1837||21,197||-
|-
|Academic dictionary, III Ed.||1847||114,749||Russian and Church Slavonic with Old Russian vocabulary
|-
|Dahl's dictionary||1880-1882||195,844||44,000 entries lexically grouped; attempt to catalogue the full vernacular language, includes some properly Ukrainian and Belarusian words
|-
|Ushakov's dictionary||1934-1940||85,289||Current language with some archaisms
|-
|Academic dictionary||1950-1965||120,480||full dictionary of the &quot;Modern language&quot;
|-
|Ozhegov's dictionary||1991||61,458||More or less then-current language
|-
|Lopatin's dictionary||2000||c.160,000||Orthographic, current language
|}

Philologists have estimated that the language today may contain as many as 350,000 to 500,000 words.

(As a historical aside, [[Vladimir Ivanovich Dal|Dahl]] was, in the second half of the nineteenth century, still insisting that the proper spelling of the adjective ''русский'', which was at that time applied uniformly to all the Orthodox Eastern Slavic subjects of the Empire, as well as to its one official language, be spelled ''руский'' with one s, in accordance with ancient tradition and what he termed the &quot;spirit of the language&quot;. He was contradicted by the philologist Grot, who distinctly heard the s lengthened or doubled).

===The language of abuse and invective===
''Main article'': '''''[[Mat (language)]]'''''

Apparently, the ability to curse effectively has always been recognized as a form of art not only in certain quarters of society, but even by the more conservative-minded literati. For example, as far back as in the nineteenth-century naval yarns of [[Staniukovich]], &quot;artistic invective&quot; (''артистическая ругань'' {{IPA|/ər.t&amp;#690;&amp;#618;.&amp;#712;s&amp;#690;t&amp;#690;i.&amp;#680;ə.skə.jə &amp;#712;ru.ɡən&amp;#690;/}}) keeps coming out of the sailors' mouths, though it is never spelled out.
The ability to agglutinate has produced the so-called &quot;three-decker curse&quot; (''трёхэтажный мат'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;tr&amp;#690;o.x&amp;#603;&amp;#712;ta.ʐnəj &amp;#712;mat/}}).

===Proverbs and sayings ===
''Main article'': '''''[[Russian proverbs]], [[Russian sayings]]'''''

Russian language is replete with many hundreds of proverbs (''пословица'' {{IPA|/p&amp;#652;.'slo.v&amp;#690;i.&amp;#678;ə/}}) and sayings  (''поговоркa'' {{IPA|/pə.ɡ&amp;#652;.'vo.rkə/}}). These were already tabulated by the seventeenth century, and collected and studied in the nineteenth and twentieth, with the folk-tales being an especially fertile source.

==History and examples==
{{main|History of the Russian language}}
''See also'': [[Reforms of Russian orthography]]

The history of Russian language may be divided into the following periods.

*[[History of Russian language#Origins|Origins]]
*[[History of Russian language#The Kievan period (9th-11th centuries)|The Kievan period (9th-11th centuries)]]
*[[History of Russian language#Feudal breakup (12th-14th centuries) |Feudal breakup (12th-14th centuries)]]
*[[History of Russian language#The Moscovite period (15th-17th centuries) |The Moscovite period (15th-17th centuries)]]
*[[History of Russian language#Empire (18th-19th centuries) |Empire (18th-19th centuries)]]
*[[History of Russian language#Soviet period and beyond (20th century) |Soviet period and beyond (20th century)]]

''See also:''
*[[History of Russian language#Examples |Examples of literary language (12-20th century)]]

Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Belarus]] was the Eastern branch of the [[Slavs]], speaking a closely related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into [[Kievan Rus]], from which both modern Russia and Ukraine trace their origins, was soon followed by the adoption of [[Christianity]] in 988-9 and the establishment of [[Old Church Slavonic]] as the liturgical and literary language. Borrowings and calques from Byzantine [[Greek]] began to enter the vernacular at this time, and simultaneously the literary language began to be modified in its turn to become more nearly Eastern Slavic.

Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100, and the Mongol conquest of the thirteenth century. After the disestablishment of the &quot;Tartar yoke&quot; in the late fourteenth century, both the political centre and the predominant dialect in European Russia came to be based in [[Moscow]]. There is some consensus that Russian and Ukrainian can be considered distinct languages from this period ''at the latest''. The official language remained a kind of Church Slavonic until the close of the seventeenth century, but, despite attempts at standardization, as by [[Meletius Smotrytsky]] c.&amp;nbsp;1620, its purity was by then strongly compromised by an incipient secular literature.

The political reforms of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By [[1800]], a significant portion of the gentry spoke [[French]], less often [[German]], on an everyday basis. The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of [[Alexander Pushkin]] in the first third of the nineteenth century.

{{Listen|filename=Ru-Zimniy vecher.ogg|title=Winter Evening|description=Reading of excerpt of Pushkin's &quot;Winter Evening&quot; (Зимний вечер), 1825.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

The political upheavals of the early twentieth century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a world-wide if occasionally grudging prestige, especially during the middle third of the twentieth century.

Since the collapse of 1990-91, fashion for ways and things Western, economic uncertainties and difficulties within the educational system have made for inevitable rapid change in the language. Russian today is a tongue in great flux.

==References==  
The following serve as references for both this article and the related articles listed below that describe the Russian language:

===In English===
* {{cite book|title= Introduction to the Phonological History of the Slavic Languages|author=Carleton, T.R.|year=1991|publisher=Slavica Press|location= Columbus, Ohio |}}
* {{cite book|author=Comrie, B., G. Stone, M. Polinsky|title=The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century|edition=2nd ed.|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1996|}}
*{{cite book|title= The Sounds of the World's Languages|author= [[Peter Ladefoged|Ladefoged, Peter]] and [[Ian Maddieson|Maddieson, Ian]]|year=1996|publisher= Blackwell Publishers |}}
* {{cite book|author=Matthews, W.K.|title=Russian Historical Grammar|location=London|publisher=University of London, Athlone Press|year=1960}}
* {{cite book|author=Stender-Petersen, A.|title=Anthology of old Russian literature|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1954|}}

===In Russian===

* Жуковская Л.П., отв. ред. Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому. М., «Наука», 1987.
* Иванов В.В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. М., «Просвещение», 1990.
* Михельсон Т.Н. Рассказы русских летописей XV&amp;ndash;XVII веков. М., 1978.
* Цыганенко Г.П. Этимологический словарь русского языка, Киев, 1970.
* Шанский Н.М., Иванов В.В., Шанская Т.В. Краткий этимологический словарь русского языка. М. 1961. 
* Шицгал А., Русский гражданский шрифт, М., «Исскуство», 1958, 2-e изд. 1983.


Many further references are listed in the books above.

==See also==

=== Language description ===

* [[Russian alphabet]]
* [[Russian grammar]]
* [[Russian orthography]]
* [[Russian phonology]]
* [[History of the Russian language]]

=== Related languages ===

* [[East Slavic languages]]
* [[Church Slavonic]]
* [[Old Church Slavonic]]
* [[Old Russian]]

===Other===
*[[List of Russian language topics]]
*[[List of English words of Russian origin]] &lt;!-- let it live here while non-empty --&gt;
*[[Russian literature]]
*[[Russian humour]]
*[[Russian proverbs]]
*[[Reforms of Russian orthography]]
*[[Transliteration of Russian into English]]
*[[Volapuk encoding]]
*[[Non-native pronunciations of English#Russian|Non-native pronunciations of English]]
*[[List of commonly confused homonyms#Russian|List of commonly confused homonyms in Russian]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages]]
*[[Runglish]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ru}}
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/ Free online Russian lessons]
* [http://www.masterrussian.com/ Russian language lessons, dictionaries, alphabet, pronunciation, grammar.]
* [http://www.speakrus.ru/dict/ Free downloadable vocabularies of the Russian language]
* [http://RusWin.net Cyrillization of PCs (Russian)]
* [http://www.masterrussian.net/ Russian Langauge Forum]
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=/usr/local/share/starling/morpho&amp;morpho=1&amp;basename=\usr\local\share\starling\morpho\vasmer\vasmer Vasmer's Etymological Dictionary of Russian language]
* [http://www.gramota.ru &quot;GRAMOTA&quot;. An educational/reference site on the Russian language, supported by the Russian government. (In Russian)]
* [http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/language/ Reference Grammar]
* [http://www.andaman.org/book/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm G. Weber, &quot;Top Languages&quot;]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=rus SIL Ethnologue Report for Russian]
* [http://dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Indo-European/Slavic/Russian/ ODP Russian Language category]
* [http://www.orlandorussians.com/ Russian Language Groups in America]
* [http://www.russki-mat.net/ Multilingual Russian slang dictionaries]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Russian-english/  Russian English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/tanooshka/tanooshka-bin.zip?download Free Open Source Software for Learning Russian]

{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Russian language]]

[[Category:Slavic natlangs]]
[[Category:Real Language background pages]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Word order</title>
    <id>2126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46602</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T10:09:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>links to &quot;XX Language&quot; &gt; &quot;XX&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Word order''', in [[linguistic typology]], refers to the order in which words appear in sentences across different languages. In many languages, changes in word order occur due to topicalization or in questions. However, most languages are generally assumed to have a basic word order. That word order is '''unmarked'''. That is, it contains no extra information to the listener. For example, [[English]] is SVO (subject-verb-object), as in ''I don't know this'' but OSV is also possible: ''This I don't know''. This process is called '''[[topic-prominent language|topic-fronting]]''' (also '''topicalization''') and is extremely common. OSV in English is a '''marked''' word order because it emphasises the object.

An example of OSV being used for emphasis:
:'''A''': ''I can't see Alice.''
:'''B''': ''What about Bill?''
:'''A''': ''Bill I can see.'' (rather than ''I can see Bill'')

===Sentence word orders===

These are all possible word orders for the subject, verb, and object in the order of most common to rarest:
*[[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] languages include the prototypical [[Japanese]], [[Turkish]] and [[Korean]], as well as many others using this most common word order. Some, like [[Persian]], have SOV normal word order but conform less to the general tendencies of other such languages.
:*[[V2 word order|Verb-second]], or V2, languages, such as [[Dutch]], [[German]], [[Swedish]] and [[Norwegian]] have SOV characteristics in subordinate clauses.
*[[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] languages include [[English]], [[French]] and [[Kiswahili]].
:*[[Chinese]], while appearing to be an SVO language, has a [[topic-comment]]-based structure.
*[[Verb Subject Object|VSO]] languages include [[Classical Arabic]], the [[Insular Celtic languages]] and [[Hawai'ian]].
*[[Verb Object Subject|VOS]] languages include [[Fijian]] and [[Malagasy]].
*[[Object Subject Verb|OSV]] languages include [[Xavante]].
*[[Object Verb Subject|OVS]] languages include [[Hixkaryana]].
*Others, such as [[Latin]] and [[Finnish]] have no &quot;standard&quot; word order (although in the case of both languages SOV is the most frequent word order), meaning that the sentence structure is extremely flexible.

It is not understood why word orders with the subject before the object are much more common than word orders with the object before the subject. It must be noted that in most languages there is the tendency to identify the subject with the [[topic (linguistics)|topic]] (who or what is being talked about) and to place the topic at the beginning of the sentence so as to establish the context quickly.

Some languages can be said to have more than one basic word order. French is SVO, but it incorporates or [[clitic]]izes objective pronouns before the verb. This makes French SOV in some sentences. However, speaking of a language having a given word order is generally understood as a reference to the basic, unmarked, non-emphatic word order for sentences with constituents expressed by full nouns or noun phrases.

===Phrase word orders and branching===
{{main|Branching (linguistics)}}

There are several common correlations between sentence-level word order and phrase-level constituent order. For example, SOV languages generally put [[modifier]]s ([[adjective]]s and [[adverb]]s) before what they modify (nouns and verbs), and use [[postposition]]s. VSO languages tend to place modifiers after their heads, and use [[preposition]]s. For SVO languages, either order is possible.

For example, French (SVO) uses prepositions (''dans la voiture'', ''à gauche''), and places adjectives after (''une voiture grande''). However, a small class of adjectives generally go before their heads. On the other hand, in English (also SVO) adjectives always go before nouns (''a big car''), and adverbs can go either way, but initially is more common (''greatly improved'').

==Further Reading==
*[http://www.exc.com/JoelHoffman/Publications/JMH-Thesis.pdf Syntactic and Paratactic Word Order Effects] ([[PDF]]) Analysis of different types of word order variations across languages.  Technical, but contains non-technical appendix.
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0060958332 The Language Instinct] - Good general introduction to linguistics.

[[Category:Syntax]]

{{wikipedia}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Slavic languages</title>
    <id>2127</id>
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        <username>Tropylium</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Differentiation of Slavic languages */ rm redlinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Slavic languages''' (also called '''Slavonic languages'''), a group of closely related [[language|languages]] of the [[Slavic peoples]] and a subgroup of [[Indo-European languages]], have speakers in most of [[Eastern Europe]], in much of the [[Balkans]], in parts of [[Central Europe]], and in the northern part of [[Asia]]. 

==Branches==
Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three main branches, some of which feature sub-branches:

* '''[[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]''', including [[Russian]], [[Ukrainian]], [[Belarusian]], [[Rusyn]]
* '''[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]''', which further subdivide into:
** [[Czech]] and [[Slovak]],
** [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper]] and [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower]] [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] (minority languages in [[Germany]]),
** [[Lechitic languages]]: [[Polish]], [[Pomeranian]]/[[Kashubian]] and extinct [[Polabian]].
* '''[[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]''', which further subdivide into:
** Western subgroup composed of [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Serbian]], [[Croatian]] and [[Bosnian]]. Slavicists often group the latter three together as the [[Serbo-Croatian language]].
** Eastern subgroup composed of [[Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian]]. (Some slavicists, especially those in Bulgaria and Greece, regard Macedonian as a &quot;regional norm&quot; of the Bulgarian language rather than as a separate language.)

Some scientists postulate that a '''[[North Slavic languages|North Slavic]]''' branch has existed as well; the [[Old Novgorod dialect]] would be a remnant of it.{{fact}} On the other hand, the term &quot;North Slavic&quot; is also used sometimes to combine the West and East Slavic languages into one group, in opposition to the South Slavic languages.

The oldest Slavic [[literary language]] was [[Old Church Slavonic]], which later evolved into [[Church Slavonic]].

&lt;table align=center class=&quot;wikitable&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Slavic_languages.jpg|Distribution of Slavic languages]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;Map of Slavic languages in Europe&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken [[dialect]]s of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages.

Enough differences exist between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between speakers of different Slavic languages difficult. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, as those of Slovenian. Modern mass media, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the Slavic languages. Note too that historical inter-Slav cultural currents, such as the influence of South Slavic Old Church Slavonic and of South Slavic scholars on Russian, have exercised some re-unifying influence.

==History==

===Common roots and ancestry===
All Slavic languages are descendants of [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]], their [[parent language]]. 

According to some [[historical linguistics]] theories, Proto-Slavic in turn developed from the [[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] language, a common ancestor of [[Proto-Baltic]], the parent of the Baltic languages. According to this theory, the &quot;[[Urheimat]]&quot; of Proto-Balto-Slavic lay in the territories surrounding today's [[Lithuania]] at some time after the Indo-European language community had separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC). Slavic and Baltic speakers share at least 289 words which could have come from that hypothetical language. According to some linguists the process of separation of Proto-Slavic speakers from Proto-Baltic speakers presumably occurred around 1000 BC. 

Some linguists maintain however, that the Slavic group of languages differs more radically from the neighboring Baltic group ([[Lithuanian]], [[Latvian]], and the now-extinct [[Old Prussian]]). The Baltic language speakers once lived in a much larger area along the [[Baltic Sea]] and south. Starting by AD 600 Slavic language speakers gradually spread and took over large areas of Baltic settlements. (At the same time records note them taking over portions of [[Greece]].) (The first documented attempt at conquest of Baltic speakers by Slavic speakers comes from Adalbert of Prague in the year AD 997.) This group of linguists explain Baltic/Slavic similarities in grammar and vocabulary as a result of this Slav migration into the Baltic-speaking areas and the subsequent proximity of the two groups. 

A minority of linguists, spurred by the idea of &quot;[[geolinguistics]]&quot;, view the southern branch of the Slavic languages as possibly [[autochthonous]] to the Balkans.

===Differentiation of Slavic languages===

In the opinion of [[linguist]]s, probably even in the 10th&amp;ndash;12th centuries all Slavs spoke generally the same language, with recognizable regional differences. 

Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over large territory - which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries already have some local linguistic features. For example the [[Freising monuments]] show a language which contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian dialects (e.g. [[rhotacism]], the word ''krilatec'').

===Separation of South and West Slavs===
The movement of Slavic-speakers into the [[Balkans]] in the declining centuries of the [[Byzantine empire]] expanded the area of Slavic speech, but pre-existing languages (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in [[Pannonia]] in the [[9th century]] interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. [[Franks|Frankish]] conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, severing the connection between Slavs in [[Lower Austria]] ([[Moravians]]) from those in present-day [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[East Tyrol]], ancestors of present-day [[Slovenians]].

===Slavic-speaking populations under foreign rule===
Political situations have also affected the use and scope of the Slavic languages. In the course of their history, many Slavic-speaking communities came under foreign rule for longer or shorter periods. [[Poland]] underwent partition, [[German language |German-speaking]] empires appeared to absorb the [[Czech people|Czechs]] for many centuries, and the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] in their hey-day dominated the [[Balkan]] Slavs. Even the [[Eastern Slavs]] had to submit to the [[Tatar yoke]] after the [[Mongol invasion of Rus]].

The largest geographical extent of Slavic population, which in the [[Middle Ages]] included the majority of the present-day [[Germany|German]] lands of [[Brandenburg]] and [[Pomerania]], diminished in the course of the German ''[[Drang nach Osten]]''.

[[Ottoman Empire|Turk]]ish incursions suppressed the regional hegemonies of Bulgarian and Serbian speakers; Poland suffered decline, partition and extinction as a separate national state in the 18th century. Until the 20th century, certain speech-groups (such as speakers of Slovenian) lacked the resources to establish their own distinctive independent nation-states. Other communities (speakers of [[Sorbian]] or of [[Kashubian]], for example) remain as minorities in the current system of nation-states.  

Some speech-communities have long stood under the influence of others -- even other Slavs: speakers of Ukrainian and Belarusian came under Polish and/or Russian rule; German-speaking overlords have long dominated the Sorbian-speakers. In the case of Czech- and  Slovak-speakers, originally kindred languages diverged when the former came under German rule, the latter under Hungarian. The same division marks the now well-established border between the Slovenian and Croatian language areas, even if some bordering dialects of the two languages indicate an almost smooth transition.

Despite their frequent lack of political power, speakers of Slavic languages demonstrated resilience, sometimes culturally taking over foreign political rulers, as in [[Bulgaria]], where [[Bulgar]] overlords became Slavicized. Similarly, in the [[Republic of Dubrovnik]] [[Croatian language|Croatian]] became an official language in parallel to [[Dalmatian language|Ragusan Dalmatian]] and [[Latin]]. Even under the [[Ottoman Empire]], south-eastern Europe, except for [[Greece]] proper and [[Albania]]n, Romanian and Hungarian areas, remained Slavic speaking.

==Slavic influence on neighboring languages==
The [[Romanian]] and [[Hungarian]] languages witness the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in the vocabulary pertaining to crafts and trade; the major cultural innovations at times when few long-range cultural contacts took place.

Despite a comparable extent of historical proximity, the [[Germanic languages]] show no significant Slavic influence, one notable exception being the word for &quot;border&quot;, modern [[German]] ''Grenze'', [[Dutch]] &quot;grens&quot; from the Common Slavic ''*granĭca''.

==Detailed list with ISO 639 and SIL codes==

The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the [[Ethnologue]] report for Slavic languages[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90673]. It includes the [[SIL code|SIL]], [[ISO 639-1]] and [[ISO 639-2]] codes where available. ISO 639-2 uses the code '''sla''' in a general way for Slavic languages not included in one of the other codes.

'''[[East Slavic languages]]:'''
* [[Belarusian]] (alternatively Belarusan, Belarussian, Belorussian) - (SIL code: '''bel'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''be'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''bel''')
* [[Ukrainian]] - (SIL code: '''ukr'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''uk'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''ukr''')
* [[Russian]] - (SIL code: '''rus'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''ru'''; ISO 639-2 code, '''rus''')
* [[Rusyn]] - (SIL code: '''rue'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''sla''')

'''[[West Slavic languages]]:'''
*[[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]] section (also known as [[Wendish]]) - ISO 639-2 code: '''wen'''
**[[Lower Sorbian]] (also known as '''''Lusatian''''') - (SIL code: '''dsb'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''dsb''')
**[[Upper Sorbian]] - (SIL code: '''hsb'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''hsb''')
*[[Lechitic]] section 
** [[Polish]] - (SIL code: '''pol'''; ISO 639-1 code, '''pl'''; ISO 639-2 code, '''pol''')
** [[Pomeranian]]
*** [[Kashubian]] - (SIL code: '''csb'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''csb''')
*** [[Slovincian]] - extinct
** [[Polabian]] - extinct - (SIL code: '''pox'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''sla''')
*Czech-Slovak section
** [[Czech]] - (SIL code: '''ces'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''cs'''; ISO 639-2(B) code, '''cze'''; ISO 639-2(T) code: '''ces''')
** [[Knaanic]] or Judeo Slavic - extinct - (SIL code: '''czk'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''sla''')
** [[Slovak]] - (SIL code: '''slk'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''sk'''; ISO 639-2(B) code: '''slo'''; ISO 639-2(T) code: '''slk''')

'''[[South Slavic languages]]:'''
*Western Section
** [[Slovenian]] - (SIL code: '''slv'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''sl'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''slv''')
** [[Croatian]] (SIL code: '''hrv'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''hr'''; ISO 639-2/3 code: '''hrv''')
** [[Bosnian]] (SIL code: '''bos'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''bs'''; ISO 639-2/3 code: '''bos''')
** [[Serbian]] (SIL code: '''srp'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''sr'''; ISO 639-2/3 code: '''srp''')
*Eastern Section
** [[Macedonian]] - (SIL code: '''mkd'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''mk'''; ISO 639-2(B) code: '''mac'''; ISO 639-2(T) code: '''mkd''')
** [[Bulgarian]] - (SIL code: '''bul'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''bg'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''bul''')
** [[Old Church Slavonic]] - extinct (SIL code: '''chu'''; ISO 639-1 code: '''cu'''; ISO 639-2 code: '''chu''')

Note that Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian previously formed a unitary [[Serbo-Croatian]] (SIL 14th ed. code: ''SRC''; ISO 639-1 code: ''sh''; ISO 639-2(B) codes: ''scr'' and ''scc''). See also: [[Differences in official languages in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia]].

'''Para- and supranational languages'''
*[[Church Slavonic]], derived from Old Church Slavonic, but with significant replacement of the original vocabulary by forms from the [[Old Russian language]] and other regional forms. The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] continue to use Church Slavonic as a [[liturgical language]]. While not used in modern times, the text of a Church Slavonic mass survives in the [[Czech Republic]], which is best known through Janacek's musical setting of it (the ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'').

A [[planned language]] called [[Slovio]] also exists: constructed on the basis of Slavic languages, and intended to facilitate intercommunication between people each of whom already speak at least one Slavic language.

==See also==
* [[Slavistics]]
* [[Language families and languages]]

== External links ==
*[http://forum.wordreference.com/forumdisplay.php?f=44 WordReference - a moderated forum of Slavic languages]
*[http://www.continuitas.com/interdisciplinary.pdf Ethnic continuity and Slavic ethnogenesis]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90673 Ethnologue report on Slavic languages]
*[http://miejipang.homestead.com/untitled1.html Let's try Slavic languages!]
*[http://www.uni-bonn.de/~dbuncic/fauxamis/biling_un.htm Bilingual lists of Slavic false friends]

[[Category:Slavic languages|*]]
[[Category:Language families]]

{{wikipedia}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tolkāppiyam</title>
    <id>2128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46658</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T12:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Tolkāppiyam''' (''தொல்காப்பியம்'' in Tamil) is a work on the [[grammar]] of the [[Tamil]] language. Written in the form of poems(or short hymns), around 200 BC by [[Tolkāppiyar]], is said to be the world's oldest surviving grammar for any language.

All the words, poems and literature that came in Tamil language after that followed the grammar as explained by Tolkāppiyam. The name Tolkāppiyam can be split as  Tolkāppiyam = Tonmai + kāppiyam. Tonmai means archeologically old and Kappiam is a literature master piece or epic.

Over the centuries, many books came interpreting and clarifying Tolkāppiyam. Some of which where the ones written by &quot;Ilampooranar&quot;, &quot;Deivachilaiyaaar&quot;, &quot;Natchinaarciniyar&quot; etc. They were called as &quot;Urai-asiriyargal&quot;or equivalently explanatory commentators.These commentators explained Tolkāppiyam in their own view and expressed their opinions on the subjects dealt by Tolkāppiyam, in their own times. Many grammar works came in Tamil after Tolkāppiyam, based on that.However,One that is most popular and used in place of Tolkāppiyam now is &quot;Nannūl&quot; written by &quot;Pavananti Munivar&quot;.

The Tolkāppiyam  classifies the Tamil language into &quot;senthamil&quot; and &quot;kotunthamil&quot;. The former refers to the classical Tamil used exclusively in literary works and the latter refers to the colloquial Tamil, spoken by the people. The book is based on the analysis of both spoken and written Tamil.
[[Image:TolkaappiyamExcerpt.png|thumb|275px|Excerpt from the Tolkāppiyam showing the style of narration]]

== Scientific treatment to Natural Language Grammar ==
The classification of the alphabet into consonants and vowels by splitting the conso-vowels was a scientific breakthrough. Grammatising this phenomenon was also an achievement of that time. The Tolkāppiyam starts by defining the alphabet for optimal writing, grammatises the use of words and syntaxes and moves into higher modes of language analysis. The style and structure of narration of these rules is similar to that of the [[Backus-Naur form]], which was formalised only as recently as [[1963]]. The Tolkāppiyam formulated thirty characters and three diacritic like symbols for Tamil.  The 12 vowels combine with the 18 consonants bringing the total tally of characters to &lt;math&gt;247 (12 +18 + (12 x 18) + 1 = 247)&lt;/math&gt;. The alphabet has evolved since then. For a detailed treatment of the alphabet see ''[[Tamil alphabet]]''. Though the alphabet has evolved largely, the language as such has remained mostly intact earning the ''[[sobriquet]]'', ''kannith thamil'', which can mean ''ever-young Tamil'' or &quot;virgin Tamil&quot;.

== Chapters ==
The Tolkāppiyam is organised into the following three chapters each of which is sub divided into 9 sections.

1. Ezhuththathikaaram

2. Sollathikaaram

3. PoruLathikaaram

=== Ezhuththathikaaram ===
Ezhuththathikaaram is further subdivided into the following 9 sections.

1. Nuul Marabu

2. Mozhi Marabu

3. PiRappiyal

4. PuNaRiyal

5. Thokai Marabu

6. Urubiyal

7. Uyir Mayangial

8. PuLLi Mayangial

9. KutriyalukarappunaRiyal

==== Nuul Marabu ====
This section enumerates the characters of the language, organises them into consonants, vowels and diacritic symbols. The vowels are sub classified into short and long vowels based on duration of pronunciation. Similarly, the consonants are sub classified into three categories based on the stress.

==== Mozhi Marabu ====
This section defines rules which specify where in  a word can a letter not occur and which letter can not come after a particular letter. 

It also describes [[elision]], which is the reduction in the duration of sound of a [[phoneme]] when preceded by or followed by certain other sounds. The rules are well-defined and unambiguous. They are categorised into 5 classes based on the phoneme which undergoes elision.
# Kutriyalukaram - the (lip unrounded) vowel sound ''u''
# Kutriyalikaram - the vowel sound ''i''(as the vowel in 'lip')
# Aiykaarakkurukkam - the [[diphthong]] ''ai''
# Oukaarakkurukkam - the diphthong ''au''
# Aaythakkurukkam - the special character  (''aaytham'')

==== PiRappiyal ====
[[Image:TolkaappiyamExcerptArticulatoryPhonetics.png|thumb|right|275px|Excerpt from the Tolkāppiyam on [[articulatory phonetics]]]]
This is a section on [[articulatory phonetics]]. It talks about pronunciation methods of the [[phoneme]]s at the level of [[diaphragm]], [[larynx]], jaws, tongue position, teeth, lips and nose.

Also, the visual representation of the letters is explained.

==== PuNaRiyal ====
This section talks about the changes to words due to the following word i.e. it specifies rules that govern the transformations on the last phonem of a word (''nilaimozhi iiRu'') because of the first phonem of the following word (''varumozhi muthal'') when used in a sentence.

==== Thokai Marabu ====
{{stubsection}}

==== Urubiyal ====
{{stubsection}}
This section talks about the word modifiers that are added at the end of nouns and pronouns when they are used as an object as opposed to when they are used as subjects.

==== Uyir Mayangial ====
{{stubsection}}

==== PuLLi Mayangial ====
{{stubsection}}

==== KutriyalukarappunaRiyal ====
{{stubsection}}

===  Sollathikaaram ===
Sollathikaaram deals with words and [[parts of speech]]. It classifies Tamil words into four categories -

1. iyar chol - Words in common usage

2. thiri chol - Words used in Tamil literature

3. vata chol - Words borrowed from Sanskrit

4. thisai chol - Words borrowed from Other Languages

There are certain rules to be adhered to in borrowing words from Sanskrit. The borrowed words need to strictly conform to the Tamil phonetic system and be written in the Tamil script.

The chapter Sollathikaaram is sub divided into the following 9 sections.

1. KiLaviyaakkam

2. VEtRumaiyiyal

3. VEtrumaimayangial

4. ViLimaRabu

5. Peyariyal

6. Vinaiyiyal

7. Idaiyiyal

8. Uriyiyal

9. Echchaviyal

==== KiLaviyaakkam ====
KiLaviyaakkam literally translates to ''word formation''. This section deals with [[gender]], [[number]], [[person]] etc.

==== VEtRumaiyiyal ====

==== VEtrumaimayangial ====

==== ViLimaRabu ====

==== Peyariyal ====
This section deals with [[noun]]s.

==== Vinaiyiyal ====
This section deals with [[verb]]s.

==== Idaiyiyal ====

==== Uriyiyal ====
This literally translates to ''the nature or science of qualifiers'' and deals with [[adjective]]s and [[adverb]]s.

==== Echchaviyal ====

=== PoruLathikaaram ===
The Tolkāppiyam is possibly the only book on grammar that describes a ''grammar for [[life]]''. PoruLathikaaram gives the classification of land types, and seasons and defines modes of life for each of the combinations of land types and seasons for different kinds of people. This chapter is subdivided into the following 9 sections.
1. AkaththiNaiyiyal
2. PuRaththiNaiyiyal
3. KaLaviyal
4. KaRpiyal
5. PoruLiyal
6. Meyppaattiyal
7. Uvamayiyal
8. SeyyuLiyal
9. Marabiyal

==== AkaththiNaiyiyal ====
This section defines the modes of personal life i.e. life of couples.

==== PuRaththiNaiyiyal ====
This section defines the modes of one's public life.

==== KaLaviyal ====

==== KaRpiyal ====

==== PoruLiyal ====

==== Meyppaattiyal ====

==== Uvamayiyal ====
The name ''Uvamayiyal'' literally translates to ''the nature or science of [[metaphor]]s''.

==== SeyyuLiyal ====
This interesting section deals with a grammar for classical [[Tamil Poetry]] based on principles of [[prosody]].

==== Marabiyal ====

== External links==

* [http://www.tamil.net/projectmadurai/pub/pm0100/tolkap.pdf Tolkāppiyam Complete]
* [http://arutkural.tripod.com/tolcampus/akam.htm Tolkāppiyam PoruLatikaaram]
* [http://www.araichchi.com/Learn/eng-tolkaapiyam.htm Tolkāppiyam partial list]
* [http://tamilnation.org/literature/grammar/tolkappiyam.htm Tolkāppiyar's Literary Theory] - Research paper (1996)


{{wikipedia}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Topic-prominent language</title>
    <id>2129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46623</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T11:17:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''topic-prominent language''' is one that organizes its [[syntax]] so that [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s have a topic-comment (or theme-rheme) structure, where the [[topic (linguistics)|topic]] is the thing being talked about (predicated) and the comment is what is said about the topic. This structure is independent of the [[word order|syntactic ordering]] of [[subject (grammar)|subject]], [[verb]] and [[object (grammar)|object]], and may be marked by word order (typically mentioning the topic first thing in the sentence, and then the comment), or by explicit [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (as in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] with the [[clitic]] particle ''wa'').

The difference between topic-prominent languages and non-topic-prominent languages is that topic marking is done systematically in the former, while the latter resort to various idiosyncratic means for topicalization.

Examples of topic-prominent languages are [[East Asian language]]s such as the [[Chinese language]]s, [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean]], [[Vietnamese]], [[Malay]], [[Indonesian]], [[Singaporean English]] and [[Malaysian English]], as well as the African [[Somali]].

==Common features of topic-prominent languages==

*They tend to downplay the role of the passive voice, if a passive construction exists at all, since the main idea of passivization is to turn an object into a subject in languages where the subject is understood to be the topic by default. The Japanese passive voice has a specific connotation that restricts its use.
*They usually don't have &quot;dummy subjects&quot; ([[dummy pronoun|pleonastic pronoun]]s) like English ''it'' in ''It's raining''. Since topic-prominent languages do not consider the subject, but the topic, to be the most important part of the sentence, it may not matter if there is no apparent subject (see also [[null subject language]], [[pro-drop language]]).
*They often have sentences with so-called &quot;double subjects&quot;, actually a topic plus a subject, for example: ''Sono yashi wa happa ga ookii'' (Japanese) &amp;mdash; &quot;That palm tree ''(topic)'', leaves ''(subject)'' are big&quot;.

==Examples==

===Chinese===
{|
| || &amp;#24373;&amp;#19977; || &amp;#25105; || &amp;#24050;&amp;#32147; || &amp;#35211;&amp;#36942; || &amp;#20102;&amp;#12290;
|-
| Transcription: || ''Zh&amp;#257;ng S&amp;#257;n'' || ''w&amp;#466;'' || ''y&amp;#464;j&amp;#299;ng'' || ''jiànguò'' || ''le.''
|-
| Gloss: || Zhang San || I || already || see-&lt;small&gt;EXPERIENCE&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;NEWSTATE&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=3| (As for) Zhang San, I've seen (him) already.
|}

{|
| || &amp;#36889;&amp;#26869; || &amp;#27193; || &amp;#33865;&amp;#23376; || &amp;#24456; || &amp;#22823;&amp;#12290;
|-
| Transcription: || ''Zhè kè'' || ''shù'' || ''yèzi'' || ''h&amp;#283;n'' || ''dà.''
|-
| Gloss: || this-&lt;small&gt;MEASURE&lt;/small&gt; || tree || leaf || very || big
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=3| This tree has big leaves.
|}

===Japanese===
{|
| || &amp;#39770;&amp;#12399; || &amp;#39899;&amp;#12364; || &amp;#32654;&amp;#21619;&amp;#12375;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12290;
|-
| Transcription: || ''Sakana-wa'' || ''tai-ga'' || ''oishi-i.''
|-
| Gloss: || &quot;fish&quot;-&lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; || &quot;red snapper&quot;-&lt;small&gt;SUBJECT&lt;/small&gt; || &quot;be delicious&quot;-&lt;small&gt;NONPAST&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Translation: ||colspan=3| As for fish, red snapper is delicious.
|}

===[[American Sign Language]] (ASL)===

The topic of the sentence, that is the focus of the sentence, is put at the beginning.  For example, in translating the English phrase &quot;We are going to the store tomorrow&quot;, some possible ASL sentences, literally translated, could be:
*&quot;WE GO STORE TOMORROW.&quot;
*&quot;TOMORROW, STORE WE GO.&quot; (Topicalization, TOMORROW is the focus) 
*&quot;STORE, WE GO TOMORROW.&quot; (Topicalization, STORE is the focus)(Proper ASL structure, though, uses the time indicator first, so the proper ASL form would be the second one:  &quot;TOMORROW, STORE WE GO.&quot;)

[[Category:Linguistic typology]]

{{wikipedia}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Morphology</title>
    <id>2130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48201</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T23:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Morphological typology */ linkfixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Morphology''' is a sub discipline of [[linguistics]] that studies word structure.  While words are generally accepted as being the smallest units of [[syntax]], it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other words by rules.  For example, any English speaker can see that the words ''dog'', ''dogs'' and ''dog-catcher'' are closely related.  English speakers can also recognize that these relations can be formulated as rules that can apply to many, many other pairs of words.  ''Dog'' is to ''dogs'' just as ''cat'' is to ''cats'', or ''[[encyclopædia]]'' is to ''[[encyclopædia]]s''; ''dog'' is to ''dog-catcher'' as ''dish'' is to ''dishwasher''.  The rule in the first case is plural formation;  in the second case, a [[transitive verb]] and a noun playing the role of its object can form a word.  Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies such rules across and within languages.

The term was coined by [[August Schleicher]] in [[1859]]: ''Für die Lehre von der Wortform wähle ich das Wort &quot;Morphologie&quot;'' (&quot;for the science of word formation, I choose the term 'morphology'&quot;, ''Mémoires Acad. Impériale'' 7/1/7, 35).

== Important concepts ==

=== Lexemes and word forms ===

The word &quot;word&quot; is ambiguous in common usage.  To take up again the example of ''dog'' vs. ''dogs'', there is one sense in which these two are the same &quot;word&quot; (they are both nouns that refer to the same kind of animal, differing only in number), and another sense in which they are different words (they can't generally be used in the same sentences without altering other words to fit; for example, the verbs ''is'' and ''are'' in ''The dog is happy'' and ''The dogs are happy'').

The distinction between these two senses of &quot;word&quot; is probably the most important one in morphology.  The first sense of &quot;word,&quot; the one in which ''dog'' and ''dogs'' are &quot;the same word,&quot; is called '''[[lexeme]]'''.  The second sense is called '''word form'''.  We thus say that ''dog'' and ''dogs'' are different forms of the same lexeme.  ''Dog'' and ''dog-catcher'', on the other hand, are different lexemes; for example, they refer to two different kinds of entities. The form of a word that is chosen conventionally to represent the canonical form of a word is called a [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] or '''citation form'''.

=== Inflection vs. word-formation ===

Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules.  Some morphological rules relate different forms of the same lexeme; while other rules relate two different lexemes.  Rules of the first kind are called '''[[Inflection|inflectional rules]]''', while those of the second kind are called '''[[word-formation]]'''.  The English plural, as illustrated by ''dog'' and ''dogs'', is an inflectional rule; compounds like ''dog-catcher'' or ''dishwasher'' are an example of a word-formation rule.  Informally, word-formation forms &quot;new words&quot; (that is, lexemes), while inflection gives you more forms of the &quot;same&quot; word (lexeme). 

There is a further distinction between two kinds of word-formation: [[Derivation (linguistics)| derivation]] and [[Compound verb| compounding]].  Compounding is a kind of word-formation which involves combining complete word forms into a '''compound'''; ''dog-catcher'' is a compound, because both ''dog'' and ''catcher'' are words.  Derivation involves suffixes or prefixes that are not independent words; the word ''independent'' is derived from the word ''dependent'' by prefixing it with the derivational prefix ''in-'', and ''dependent'' itself is derived from the verb ''depend''.

The distinction between inflection and word-formation is not at all clear-cut.  There are many examples where linguists fail to agree whether a given rule is inflection or word-formation.  However, the next section will clarify this distinction further.

=== Paradigms and morphosyntax ===

The notion of a '''paradigm''' is closely related to that of inflection.  The paradigm of a lexeme is the set of all of its word forms, organized by their grammatical categories.  The familiar examples of paradigms are the [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugations]] of verbs, and the [[Declension|declensions]] of nouns.  The word forms of a lexeme can usually be arranged into tables, by classifying them by shared features such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender or case.  For example, the personal pronouns in English can be organized into tables, using the categories of [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]] and [[grammatical case|case]].

The categories used to group word forms into paradigms cannot be chosen arbitrarily; they must be categories that are relevant to stating the [[syntax|syntactic rules]] of the language.  For example, person and number are categories that can be used to define paradigms in English, because English has [[grammatical agreement]] rules that require the verb in a sentence to appear in an inflectional form that matches the person and number of the subject.  In other words, the syntactic rules of English care about the difference between ''dog'' and ''dogs'', because it determines which form of the verb must be used; but in contrast, no syntactic rule of English cares about the difference between ''dog'' and ''dog-catcher'', or ''dependent'' and ''independent''.  The first two are just nouns, and the second two just adjectives, and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves.

The major difference between inflection and word formation is that inflectional forms of lexemes are organized into paradigms, which are defined by the requirements of syntactic rules.  The part of morphology that covers the relationship between [[syntax]] and morphology is called [[morphosyntax]], and it concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, but not with word-formation or compounding.

=== Allomorphy and morphophonology ===

In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies between word forms: ''dog'' is to ''dogs'' as ''cat'' is to ''cats'', and as ''dish'' is to ''dishes''.  In this case, the analogy applies both to the meaning of the words and to their forms: in each pair, the word in the left always means &quot;one of X&quot; and the one on the right &quot;many of X&quot;, and at the distinction is always signaled by having the plural form have an ''-s'' at the end, which the singular does not have.

One of the largest sources of complexity in morphology is that this sort of one-to-one correspondence between meaning and form hardly ever holds.  In English, we have word form pairs like ''ox/oxen'', ''goose/geese'', and ''sheep/sheep'', where the difference between the singular and the plural is signaled in a different way from the regular pattern, or not signalled at all.  Even the case we consider &quot;regular&quot;, with the final ''-s'', is not quite that simple; the ''-s'' in ''dogs'' is not pronounced the same way as the ''-s'' in ''cats'', and in a plural like ''dishes'', we have an &quot;extra&quot; vowel before the ''-s''.  These cases, where the same distinction is effected by different changes of form for different lexemes, are called '''[[allomorph|allomorphy]]'''.

There are several kinds of allomorphy.  One is pure allomorphy, where the allomorphs are just arbitrary.  The most extreme cases here are called [[Suppletion|suppletion]], where two forms related by a morphological rule are just arbitrarily different: for example, the past of ''go'' is ''went'', which is a suppletive form.

On the other hand, other kinds of allomorphy are due to interaction between morphology and [[phonology]]. Phonological rules constrain which sounds can appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules, by resulting in impossible sound sequences.  For example, if we were to try to form the plural of ''dish'' by just putting a ''-s'' at the end, we'd get ''*dishs'', which is not permitted by the phonology; to &quot;rescue&quot; the word, we put a vowel sound in between, and get ''dishes''.  Similar rules apply to the pronunciation of the ''-s'' in ''dogs'' and ''cats'': it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the preceding [[phoneme]].

The study of allomorphy that results from the interaction of morphology and [[phonology]] is called [[morphophonology]].  Many morphophonological rules fall under the category of [[sandhi]].

=== Lexical morphology ===

[[Lexical morphology]] is the branch of morphology that deals with the [[lexicon]], which, morphologically conceived, is the collection of [[lexeme|lexemes]] in a language.  As such, it concerns itself primarily with word-formation: derivation and compounding.

== Models of morphology ==

There are three major families of approaches to morphology, which try to capture the distinctions above in different ways.  These are:
* [[Morpheme-based morphology]], which makes use of an [[Item-and-Arrangment (Morphology)|Item-and-Arrangement]] approach.
* [[Lexeme-based morphology]], which normally makes use of an [[Item-and-Process (Morphology)|Item-and-Process]] approach.  
* [[Word-based morphology]], which normally makes use of a [[Word-and-Paradigm (Morphology)|Word-and-Paradigm]] approach.
Please note that while the associations indicated between the concepts in each item in that list is very strong, it is not absolute.

=== Morpheme-based morphology ===

In [[morpheme-based morphology]], word forms are analyzed as sequences of [[morpheme]]s.  A '''morpheme''' is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a language.  In a word like ''independently'', we say that the morphemes are ''in-'', ''depend'', ''-ent'', and ''ly''; ''depend'' is the '''root''' and the other morphemes are, in this case, derivational affixes.{{ref|depend-root}}  In a word like ''dogs'', we say that ''dog'' is the root, and that ''-s'' is an inflectional morpheme.  This way of analyzing word forms as if they were made of morphemes put after each other like beads on a string, is called [[Item-and-Arrangment (Morphology)|Item-and-Arrangement]].

The morpheme-based approach is the first one that beginners to morphology usually think of, and which laymen tend to find the most obvious.  This is so to such an extent that very often beginners think that morphemes are an inevitable, fundamental notion of morphology; and many five-minute explanations of morphology are, in fact, five-minute explanations of morpheme-based morphology.  This is, however, not so; the fundamental idea of morphology is that the words of a language are related to each other by different kinds of rules.  Analyzing words as sequences of morphemes is a way of describing these relations, but is not the only way.  In actual academic linguistics, morpheme-based morphology certainly has many adherents, but is by no means absolutely dominant.

Applying a morpheme-based model strictly quickly leads to complications when one tries to analyze many forms of allomorphy.  For example, it's easy to think that in ''dogs'', we have the root ''dog'', followed by the plural morpheme ''-s''; the same sort of analysis is also straightforward for ''oxen'', with the stem ''ox'', and a [[suppletion|suppletive]] plural morpheme ''-en''.  But then, how do we &quot;split up&quot; the word ''geese'' into root + plural morpheme?  How do we do so for ''sheep''?

Theorists who wish to maintain a strict morpheme-based approach often preserve the idea in cases like these by saying that ''geese'' is ''goose'' followed by a '''[[null morpheme]]''' (a morpheme that has no phonological content), and that the vowel change in the stem is a morphophonological rule.  It is also common for morpheme-based analyses to posit null morphemes even in the absence of any allomorphy.  For example, if the plural noun ''dogs'' is analyzed as a root ''dog'' followed by a plural morpheme ''-s'', then one might analyze the singular ''dog'' as the root ''dog'' followed by a null morpheme for the singular.

=== Lexeme-based morphology ===

[[Lexeme-based morphology]] is (usually) an [[Item-and-Process (Morphology)|Item-and-Process]] approach.  Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence, we think of a word form as the result of applying rules that ''alter'' a word form or stems, to produce a new one.  An inflectional rule takes a stem, does some changes to it, and outputs a word-form; a derivational rule takes a stem, and outputs a derived stem; a compounding rule takes word-forms, and outputs a compound stem.

The Item-and-Process approach bypasses the difficulty described above for Item-and-Arrangement approaches.  Faced with a plural like ''geese'', we don't have to assume there is a zero-morph; all we say is that while the plural of ''dog'' is formed by adding an ''-s'' to the end, the plural of ''goose'' is formed by changing the vowel in the stem.

=== Word-based morphology ===

[[Word-based morphology]] is a (usually) [[Word-and-Paradigm (Morphology)|Word-and-Paradigm]] approach.  This kind of theory takes paradigms as a central notion.  Instead of stating rules to combine morphemes into word forms, or to generate word-forms from stems, word-based morphology states generalizations that hold between the forms of inflectional paradigms.  The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations are hard to state with either of the other approaches.  The examples are usually drawn from [[Fusional language|fusional languages]], where a given &quot;piece&quot; of a word, which a morpheme-based theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, &quot;third person plural.&quot;  Morpheme-based theories usually have no problems with this situation, since one just says that a given morpheme has two categories.  Item-and-Process theories, on the other hand, often break down in cases like these, because they all too often assume that there will be two separate rules here, one for third person, and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. Word-and-Paradigm approaches treat these as whole words that are related to each other by [[analogy|analogical]] rules. Words can be categorized based on the pattern that they fit into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones. Application of a different pattern than the one that was used historically can give rise to a new word, such as ''older'' replacing ''elder'' (where ''older'' follows the normal pattern of [[adjective|adjectival]] [[superlative]]s) and ''cows'' replacing ''kine'' (where ''cows'' fits the regular pattern of plural formation). While a Word-and-Paradigm approach can explain this easily, other approaches have difficulty with phenomena such as this.

== Morphological typology ==

''See the main article, [[morphological typology]]''

In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages in terms of their morphology.  According to this typology, some languages are [[isolating language|isolating]], and have little or no morphology; others are [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]], and their words tend to have lots of easily-separable morphemes; while yet others are [[fusional language|fusional]], because their inflectional morphemes are said to be &quot;fused&quot; together.  The classic example of an isolating language is [[Chinese]]; the classic example of an agglutinative language is [[Turkish]]; both [[Latin]] and [[Greek]] are classic examples of fusional languages.

When one considers the variability of the world's languages, it becomes clear that this classification is not at all clear-cut, and many languages don't neatly fit any one of these types.  However, examined against the light of the three general models of morphology described above, it is also clear that the classification is very much biased towards a morpheme-based conception of morphology.  It makes direct use of the notion of morpheme in the definition of agglutinative and fusional languages.  It describes the latter as having separate morphemes &quot;fused&quot; together (which often does correspond to the history of the language, but not to its [[descriptive linguistics|synchronic]] reality).

The three models of morphology stem from attempts to analyze languages that more or less match different categories in this typology.  The Item-and-Arrangement approach fits very naturally with agglutinative languages; while the Item-and-Process and Word-and-Paradigm approaches usually address fusional languages.

The reader should also note that the classical typology also mostly applies to inflectional morphology.  There is very little fusion going on with word-formation.  Languages may be classified as synthetic or analytic in their word formation, depending on the preferred way of expressing notions that are not inflectional: either by using word-formation (synthetic), or by using syntactic phrases (analytic).

==Footnotes==

# {{note|depend-root}} The existence of words like ''appendix'' and ''pending'' in English does not mean that the English word ''depend'' is analyzed into a derivational prefix ''de-'' and a root ''pend''.  While all those were indeed once related to each other by morphological rules, this was so only ''in Latin'', not in English.  English borrowed the words from French and Latin, but not the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine ''de-'' and the verb ''pendere'' 'hang' into the derivative ''dependere''.

==See also==
*[[affixation]]
*[[bound morpheme]]
*[[dependent-marking language]]
*[[head-marking language]]
*[[inflected language]]
*[[morphological typology]]
*[[noun case]]
*[[root morpheme]]
*[[syntactic hierarchy]]
*[[uninflected word]]
*[[distributed morphology]]
*[[nonconcatenative morphology]]
*[[unpaired word]]

==Bibliography==

* Bauer, Laurie. (2003). ''Introducing linguistic morphology'' (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-878-40343-4.
* Bauer, Laurie. (2004). ''A glossary of morphology''. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
* Bubenik, Vit. (1999). ''An introduction to the study of morphology''. LINCON coursebooks in linguistics, 07. Muenchen: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-570-2.
* Haspelmath, Martin. (2002). ''Understanding morphology''. London: Arnold (co-published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 0-340-76025-7 (hb); ISBN 0-340-76206-5 (pbk).
* Katamba, Francis. (1993). ''Morphology''. Modern linguistics series. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-10101-5 (hb). ISBN 0-312-10356-5 (pbk).
* Matthews, Peter. (1991). ''Morphology'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41043-6 (hb). ISBN 0-521-42256-6 (pbk).
* Singh, Rajendra and Stanley Starosta (eds). (2003). ''Explorations in Seamless Morphology''. SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-761-99594-3 (hb).
* Spencer, Andrew.  (1991).  ''Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar''.  No. 2 in Blackwell textbooks in linguistics.  Oxford: Blackwell.   ISBN 0-631-16143-0 (hb); ISBN 0-631-16144-9 (pb)
* Spencer, Andrew, &amp; Zwicky, Arnold M. (Eds.)  (1998).  ''The handbook of morphology''.  Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18544-5.
* Stump, Gregory T. (2001).  ''Inflectional morphology: a theory of paradigm structure''.  No. 93 in Cambridge studies in linguistics.  Cambridge: CUP. ISBN 0-521-78047-0 (hb).

[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology|*]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Linguistics]] is the scientific study of human [[language]], and someone who engages in this study is called a '''[[linguist]]''' or '''[[linguistician]]'''.  

== Dichotomies and language ==
The study of linguistics can be thought of along three major axes, the endpoints of which are described below:
* '''Synchronic''' vs '''Diachronic''': [[descriptive linguistics|Synchronic  (descriptive) linguistics]] is concerned with the form of a language at a given moment; [[historical linguistics|diachronic (historical) linguistics]] studies the changes that occurred in a language or family of languages over time. 
* '''Theoretical''' vs '''Applied''': [[Theoretical linguistics|Theoretical (or general) linguistics]] is concerned with frameworks for describing individual languages and theories about universal aspects of language; [[applied linguistics]] applies these theories to other fields.
* '''Contextual''' vs '''Autonomous''': Contextual linguistics is concerned with how language fits into the world: its social function, how it is acquired, how it is produced and perceived. Autonomous or Independent linguistics considers languages for their own sake, aside from the externalities related to a language.  Sometimes the terms '''macrolinguistics''' and '''microlinguistics''' are used for the corresponding terms of this dichotomy. 

Given these dichotomies, scholars who call themselves simply ''linguists'' or ''theoretical linguists'', with no further qualification, tend to be concerned with autonomous, theoretical synchronic linguistics, which is acknowledged as the core of the discipline. 

Linguistic [[research|inquiry]] is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in harmonious agreement; as [[Russ Rymer]] flamboyantly puts it:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Linguistics is arguably the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It is soaked with the blood of [[poet]]s, [[theology|theologian]]s, [[philosopher]]s, [[philology|philologist]]s, [[psychologist]]s, [[biologist]]s, and [[neurology|neurologist]]s, along with whatever blood can be got out of [[grammarian]]s.&quot;  [[Linguistics#References|1]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Levels of theoretical linguistics ==
[[Theoretical linguistics]] is often divided into a number of separate areas, to be studied more or less independently. The following divisions are currently widely acknowledged:

* [[Phonetics]], the study of the sounds of human language
* [[Phonology]] (or phonemics), the study of patterns of a language's basic sounds
* [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]], the study of the internal structure of words
* [[Syntax]], the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
* [[Semantics]], the study of the meaning of words ([[lexical semantics]]), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
* [[Pragmatics]], the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts
* [[Historical linguistics]], the study of languages whose historical relations are recognizable through similarities in vocabulary, word formation, and syntax
* [[Linguistic typology]], the study of the grammatical features that are employed across all human languages
* [[Stylistics (linguistics)|Stylistics]], the study of style in languages
* [[Discourse analysis]], the study of sentences organised into texts

The independent significance of each of these areas is not universally acknowledged, however, and nearly all linguists would agree that the divisions overlap considerably. Nevertheless, each area has core concepts that foster significant scholarly inquiry and research.

== Diachronic linguistics ==
Whereas the core of theoretical linguistics is concerned with studying languages at a particular point in time (usually the present), diachronic linguistics examines how language changes through time, sometimes over centuries. Historical linguistics enjoys both a rich history (the study of linguistics grew out of historical linguistics) and a strong theoretical foundation for the study of [[language change]].

In American universities, the non-historic perspective seems to have the upper hand. Many introductory linguistics classes, for example, cover historical linguistics only cursorily. The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussure]] and became predominant with [[Noam Chomsky]].

Explicitly historical perspectives include [[historical-comparative linguistics]] and [[etymology]].

== Applied linguistics ==
Whereas theoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and [[descriptive linguistics|describing]] generalities both within particular languages and among all languages, [[applied linguistics]] takes the results of those findings and ''applies'' them to other areas. Often ''applied linguistics'' refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but results of linguistic research are used in many other areas, as well.

Many areas of applied linguistics today involve the explicit use of computers. [[Speech synthesis]] and [[speech recognition]] use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of [[computational linguistics]] in [[machine translation]], [[computer-assisted translation]], and [[natural language processing]] are extremely fruitful areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront in recent years with increasing computing power. Their influence has had a great effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modelling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constrains the theories to [[computation theory (computation)|computable]] operations and provides a more rigorous mathematical basis.

== Contextual linguistics ==
Contextual linguistics is where the discipline of linguistics interacts with other academic disciplines. Whereas in core theoretical linguistics language is studied for its own sake, the interdisciplinary areas of linguistics consider how language interacts with the rest of the world.

[[Sociolinguistics]], [[anthropological linguistics]], and [[linguistic anthropology]] are social sciences that consider the interactions between linguistics and society as a whole.

[[Critical discourse analysis]] is where [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]] interact with linguistics.

[[Psycholinguistics]] and [[neurolinguistics]] combine [[medical science]] and linguistics. 

Other cross-disciplinary areas of linguistics include [[language acquisition]], [[evolutionary linguistics]], [[computational linguistics]] and [[cognitive science]].

== Individual speakers, language communities, and linguistic universals ==
Linguists also differ in how broad a group of language users they study. Some analyze a given speaker's language (idiolect) or [[language development]] in great detail. Some study language pertaining to a whole [[speech community]], such as the [[dialect]] of those who speak [[African American Vernacular English|African American Vernacular English]] (&quot;[[Ebonics]]&quot;). Others try to find [[linguistic universals]] that apply, at some abstract level, to all users of [[human language]] everywhere. This latter project has been most famously advocated by [[Noam Chomsky]], and it interests many people in [[psycholinguistics]] and [[cognitive science]]. It is thought that universals in human language may reveal important insight into universals about the [[human mind]].

== Prescription and description ==
:''Main article: [[Prescription and description]].''

Research currently performed under the name &quot;linguistics&quot; is purely ''descriptive''; linguists seek to clarify the nature of language without passing value judgments or trying to chart future language directions. Nonetheless, there are many professionals and amateurs who also ''prescribe'' rules of language, holding a particular standard out for all to follow.

Prescriptivists tend to be found among the ranks of language educators and journalists, and not in the actual academic discipline of linguistics. They hold clear notions of what is right and wrong, and may assign themselves the responsibility of ensuring that the next generation use the variety of language that is most likely to lead to &quot;success,&quot; often the [[acrolect]] of a particular language. The reasons for their intolerance of &quot;incorrect usage&quot; may include distrust of [[neologism]]s, connections to socially-disapproved dialects (i.e., [[basilect]]s), or simple conflicts with pet theories. An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, whose personal mission is to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.

Descriptivists, on the other hand, do not accept the prescriptivists' notion of &quot;incorrect usage.&quot; They might describe the usages the other has in mind simply as &quot;idiosyncratic,&quot; or they may discover a regularity (a ''rule'') that the usage in question follows (in contrast to the common prescriptive assumption that &quot;bad&quot; usage is unsystematic). Within the context of [[fieldwork]], [[descriptive linguistics]] refers to the study of language using a descriptivist approach. Descriptivist methodology more closely resembles scientific methodology in other disciplines.

== Speech versus writing ==
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that [[spoken language]] is more fundamental, and thus more important to study than [[written language]]. Reasons for this perspective include:
* Speech appears to be a human universal, whereas there have been many [[culture]]s and speech communities that lack written communication;
* People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing; 
* A number of [[cognitive science|cognitive scientists]] argue that the [[brain]] has an innate &quot;[[language module]]&quot;, [[knowledge]] of which is thought to come more from studying speech than writing, particularly since language as speech is held to be an evolutionary adaptation, whereas writing is a comparatively recent invention.

Of course, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For linguistic research that uses the methods of [[corpus linguistics]] and [[computational linguistics]], written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically [[transcription (linguistics)|transcribed]] and written.

The study of [[writing systems]] themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.

== Research areas of linguistics ==
* [[Etymology]]
* [[Historical-comparative linguistics]]
* [[Integrational linguistics]]
* [[Lexicography]]
* [[Lexicology]]
* [[Phonetics]]
* [[Phonology]]
* [[Pragmatics]]
* [[Semantics]]
* [[Syntax]]
* [[Theoretical linguistics]]
* [[Computational linguistics]]
* [[Corpus linguistics]]
* [[Descriptive linguistics]]
* [[Linguistic typology]]
* [[Semiotics]]

== Interdisciplinary linguistic research ==
* [[Anthropological linguistics]]
* [[Applied linguistics]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Historical linguistics|Comparative linguistics]]
* [[Computational linguistics]]
** [[Natural language processing]]
** [[Speaker recognition]] (authentication)
** [[Speech processing]]
** [[Speech recognition]]
** [[Speech synthesis]]
* [[Critical discourse analysis]]
* [[Cryptanalysis]]
* [[Decipherment]]
* [[Ecolinguistics]]
* [[Evolutionary linguistics]]
* [[Forensic linguistics]]
* [[Glottometrics]]
* [[Historical linguistics]]
* [[Language acquisition]]
* [[Language engineering]]
* [[Neurolinguistics]]
* [[Orthography]]
* [[Psycholinguistics]]
* [[Second language acquisition]]
* [[Sociolinguistics]]
* [[Stratificational linguistics]]
* [[Text linguistics]]
* [[Writing system]]s

== Important linguists and schools of thought ==
Early [[scholar]]s of linguistics include [[Jakob Grimm]], who devised the principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation known as [[Grimm's Law]] in 1822, [[Karl Verner]], who discovered [[Verner's Law]], [[August Schleicher]] who created the &quot;Stammbaumtheorie&quot; and [[Johannes Schmidt (linguist)|Johannes Schmidt]] who developed the &quot;Wellentheorie&quot; (&quot;wave model&quot;) in 1872. [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] was the founder of modern structural linguistics. [[Edward Sapir]], a leader in American structural linguistics, was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology. His methodology had strong influence on all his successors. [[Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky's]] formal model of language, [[transformational-generative grammar]], developed under the influence of his teacher [[Zellig Harris]], who was in turn strongly influenced by [[Leonard Bloomfield]], has been the dominant one from the [[1960s]].

Other important linguists and [[school]]s include [[Michael Halliday]], whose [[systemic functional grammar]] is pursued widely in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]; [[Dell Hymes]], who developed a pragmatic approach called The Ethnography of Speaking; [[George Lakoff]], [[Leonard Talmy]], and [[Ronald Langacker]], who were pioneers in [[cognitive linguistics]]; [[Charles J. Fillmore|Charles Fillmore]] and [[Adele Goldberg (linguist)|Adele Goldberg]], who are associated with [[construction grammar]]; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call [[Functionalism (linguistics)|functional grammar]], including [[Leonard Talmy]], [[Talmy Givon]] and [[Robert Van Valin, Jr.]].

== Representation of speech ==
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), a system used to write down and reproduce the [[sound]]s of [[human speech]].
* [[SAMPA]], an [[ASCII]]-only transcription for the IPA used by some authors. See also [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm the SAMPA home page].

== Narrower conceptions of &quot;linguistics&quot; ==
&quot;Linguistics&quot; and &quot;[[linguist]]&quot; may not always be meant to apply as broadly as above. In some contexts, the best [[definition]]s may be &quot;what is studied in a typical university's department of linguistics&quot;, and &quot;one who is a [[professor]] in such a department.&quot; Linguistics in this narrow sense usually does not refer to learning to speak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to craft formal models of language.) It does not include [[literary analysis]]. Only sometimes does it include study of things such as [[metaphor]]. It probably does not apply to those engaged in such prescriptive efforts as found in [[William Strunk Jr.|Strunk]] and [[E. B. White|White]]'s ''[[The Elements of Style]]''; &quot;linguists&quot; usually seek to study what people do, not what they ''should'' do. One could probably argue for a long while about who is and who is not a &quot;linguist&quot;.

== See also ==
{{commonscat}}
* [[History of linguistics]]
* [[List of basic linguistic topics]], a page designed to organize information about linguistics on Wikipedia
* [[List of linguistic topics]]
* [[List of linguists]]
* [[Philology]], the study of [[ancient text]]s and languages
* [[Structuralism]]

== References ==
=== Textbooks ===
* '''Aitchison''', Jean (1995)  Linguistics: An Introduction. London: Hodder &amp; Stoughton; London: Hodder Headline, 1999, 2nd Edition.
* &lt;b&gt;Akmajian, Adrian &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/b&gt; (2001), &lt;i&gt;Linguistics&lt;/i&gt;, 5th ed., MIT Press. (ISBN 0262511231)
* '''Hudson''', G. (2000)  ''Essential Introductory Linguistics''. Oxford: Blackwell.
* &lt;b&gt;Lyons, John&lt;/b&gt; (1995), &lt;i&gt;Linguistic Semantics&lt;/i&gt;, Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0521438772)
* '''Napoli''', Donna J. (2003) ''Language Matters. A Guide to Everyday Questions about Language''. Oxford University Press.
* &lt;b&gt;O'Grady, William D., Michael Dobrovolsky &amp; Francis Katamba [eds.]&lt;/b&gt; (2001), &lt;i&gt;Contemporary Linguistics&lt;/i&gt;, Longman. (ISBN 0582246911) - Lower Level
* &lt;b&gt;Taylor, John R.&lt;/b&gt; (2003), &lt;i&gt;Cognitive Grammar&lt;/i&gt;, Oxford University Press. (ISBN 0198700334)
* '''Trask''', R. L. (1995)  ''Language: The Basics''. London: Routledge.
* &lt;b&gt;Ungerer, Friedrich &amp; Hans-Jorg Schmid&lt;/b&gt; (1996), &lt;i&gt;An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics&lt;/i&gt;, Longman. (ISBN 0582239664)

=== Academic works ===
* &lt;b&gt;[[Gilles Fauconnier|Fauconnier, Gilles]]&lt;/b&gt;
** (1995), &lt;i&gt;Mental Spaces&lt;/i&gt;, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0521449499)
** (1997), &lt;i&gt;Mappings in Thought and Language&lt;/i&gt;, Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0521599539)
** &lt;b&gt;&amp; [[Mark Turner (cognitive scientist)|Mark Turner]]&lt;/b&gt; (2003), &lt;i&gt;The Way We Think&lt;/i&gt;, Basic Books. (ISBN 0465087868)
*** Rymer, p. 48, quoted in Fauconnier and Turner, p. 353
* &lt;b&gt;[[Geoffrey Sampson|Sampson, Geoffrey]] &lt;/b&gt; (1982), &lt;i&gt;Schools of Linguistics&lt;/i&gt;, Stanford University Press. (ISBN 0804711259)
* &lt;b&gt;Sweetser, Eve&lt;/b&gt; (1992), &lt;i&gt;From Etymology to Pragmatics&lt;/i&gt;, repr ed., Cambridge University Press. (ISBN 0521424429)

=== Popular works ===
* '''Bloomfield, Leonard'''. ''Language''.
*'''[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]]'''
** (1964), ''[[Language Made Plain]]
** (1992), ''[[A Mouthful of Air]]
* '''Deacon, Terrence''' (1998), ''The Symbolic Species'', WW Norton &amp; Co. (ISBN 0393317544)
* '''Deutscher, Guy, Dr.''' (2005), ''The Unfolding of Language'', Metropolitan Books (ISBN 0805079076) (ISBN 9780805079074)
* '''Hayakawa, Alan R &amp; S. I.''' (1990), ''Language in Thought and Action'', Harvest. (ISBN 0156482401)
* '''[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]'''
** (2000), ''[[The Language Instinct]]'', repr ed., Perennial. (ISBN 0060958332)
** (2000), ''Words and Rules'', Perennial. (ISBN 0060958405)
* '''Rymer, Russ''' (1992), ''Annals of Science'' in &quot;[http://newyorker.com/ The New Yorker]&quot;, 13th April
* '''Sapir, Edward'''. ''Language''.
* '''Saussure, Ferdinand de'''. ''Cours de linguistique générale'' [''Course in general linguistics''].

=== Reference books ===
* '''Aronoff, Mark &amp; Janie Rees-Miller''' (Eds.) (2003) ''The Handbook of Linguistics''. Blackwell Publishers. (ISBN 1405102527)
* '''Asher''', R. (Ed.) (1993) ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics''. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 10 vols.
* '''Bright''', William (Ed) (1992)  ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics''. Oxford University Press. 4 Vols.
* '''Brown''', Keith R. (Ed.) (2005) ''Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'' (2nd ed.). Elsevier. 14 vols.
* '''Bussmann''', H. (1996)  ''Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics''. Routledge (translated from German).
* '''Crystal''', David
** (1987) ''The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language''.  Cambridge University Press.
** (1991) ''A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics''. Blackwell.  (ISBN: 0-631-17871-6)
** (1992) ''An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Language and Languages''.   Oxford: Blackwell.
* '''Frawley''', William (Ed.) (2003) ''International Encyclopedia of Linguistics'' (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
* '''Malmkjaer''', Kirsten (1991) ''The Linguistics Encyclopaedia''. Routledge (ISBN 0415222109)
* '''Trask''', R. L.
**  (1993) ''A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics''.   Routledge.  (ISBN 0-415-08628-0)
**  (1996) ''Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology''. Routledge.
** (1997) ''A student's dictionary of language and linguistics''.
** (1999) ''Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics''. London: Routledge.

== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Linguistics}}
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/index.htm Glossary of linguistic terms] and [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/glossary_fe/ French&lt;-&gt;English glossary] at [[SIL International]]
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html &quot;Linguistics&quot; section] of A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain)
* [http://www.royharrisonline.com/ Integrational Linguistics]
* [http://www.specgram.com/CL.1/06.schadenpoodle.guide1.html A Preliminary Field Guide to Linguists, Part One]: A humorous overview of the various branches of linguistics and their practitioners. There is also a [http://www.specgram.com/CL.2/05.schadenpoodle.guide2.html Part Two].
* [http://www.linguistlist.org The Linguist List]
* [http://lingformant.vertebratesilence.com Lingformant: The Science of Linguistics in the News]
* [http://www2.let.uu.nl/UiL-OTS/Lexicon/ Lexicon of Linguistics created by Johan Kerstens, Eddy Ruys and Joost Zwarts at the Utrecht institute of Linguistics OTS, university of Utrecht]


{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Linguistics]]

[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Syntax</title>
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        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
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      <comment>copy from Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Syntax''', originating from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words &amp;#963;&amp;#965;&amp;#957; (''syn'', meaning &quot;co-&quot; or &quot;together&quot;) and τάξις (''táxis'', meaning &quot;sequence, order, arrangement&quot;), can in linguistics be described as the study of the rules, or &quot;patterned relations&quot; that govern the way the words in a sentence come together. It concerns how different words (which, going back to [[Dionysios Thrax]], are categorized as [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[verb]]s, etc.) are combined into [[clause]]s, which, in turn, are combined into sentences.

There exist innumerable theories of ''formal syntax'' &amp;mdash; theories that have in time risen or fallen in influence. All theories of syntax at least share two commonalities: First, they hierarchically group subunits into constituent units (phrases). Second, they provide some system of rules to explain patterns of acceptability/grammaticality and unacceptability/ungrammaticality. Most formal theories of syntax offer explanations of the systematic relationships between syntactic form and [[semantic]] meaning. The earliest framework of [[semiotics]] was established by [[Charles W. Morris]] in his [[1938]] book ''Foundations of the Theory of Signs''. Syntax is defined, within the study of signs, as the first of its three subfields (the study of the interrelation of the signs). The second subfield is [[semantics]] (the study of the relation between the signs and the objects to which they apply), and the third is [[pragmatics]] (the relationship between the sign system and the user).

In the framework of [[transformational-generative grammar]] (of which ''[[Government and binding|Government and Binding Theory]]'' and ''Minimalism'' are recent developments), the structure of a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] is represented by ''phrase structure trees'', otherwise known as ''phrase markers'' or ''tree diagrams''. Such trees provide information about the sentences they represent by showing how, starting from an initial category ''S'' (or, for [[ID/LP grammar]], ''Z''), the various [[syntactic categories]] (e.g. [[noun phrase]], [[verb phrase]], etc.) are formed.

There are various theories as to how best to make grammars such that by systematic application of the rules, one can arrive at every phrase marker in a language (and hence every sentence in the language). The most common are [[Phrase structure grammar]]s and [[ID/LP grammar]]s, the latter having a slight explanatory advantage over the former.{{citation needed}}

[[Dependency grammar]] is a class of syntactic theories separate from generative grammar in which structure is determined by the relation between a word (a head) and its dependents.  One difference from phrase structure grammar is that dependency grammar does not have phrasal categories.  [[Algebraic syntax]] is a type of dependency grammar.

A modern approach to combining accurate descriptions of the grammatical patterns of
language with their function in context is that of [[systemic functional grammar]], an approach originally developed by Michael A.K. Halliday in the 1960s and now pursued actively in all continents. Systemic-functional grammar is related both to feature-based approaches such as Head-driven phrase structure grammar and to the older functional traditions of European schools of linguistics such as British Contextualism and the Prague School.

[[Tree adjoining grammar]] is a grammar formalism which has been used as the basis for a number of syntactic theories.

==''Syntax'' in computer science==
Another meaning of the term '''syntax''' has been evolved in the field of [[computer science]], especially in the subfield of [[programming languages]], where the set of allowed [[reserved word]]s and their parameters and the correct ''word order'' in the [[expression]] is called the syntax of language. This application of the word can apply to natural languages, as well, as through Latin's inflectional case endings. 

In computer languages, syntax can be extremely rigid, as in the case of most assembler languages, or less rigid, as in languages that make use of &quot;keyword&quot; parameters that can be stated in any order. The syntax of expressions can be specified with parse trees. The analysis of [[programming language]] syntax usually entails the transformation of a linear sequence of ''tokens'' (a token is akin to an individual word or punctuation mark in a natural language) into a hierarchical ''syntax tree'' ([[abstract syntax tree|abstract syntax trees]] are one convenient form of syntax tree). 

This process, called ''[[parsing]]'', is in some respects ''analogous to'' syntactic analysis in [[linguistics]]; in fact, certain concepts, such as the [[Chomsky hierarchy]] and [[context-free grammar|context-free grammars]], are common to the study of syntax in both linguistics and computer science.

==See also==
*[[Phrase]]
*[[Phrase structure rules]]
*[[x-bar syntax]]
*[[Syntactic categories]]
*[[Grammar]]
*[[Algebraic syntax]]

[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Semiotics]]
[[Category:Syntax|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Greek</title>
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        <username>Tropylium</username>
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      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Consonants */ link concentration</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Greek''' (Greek Ελληνικά, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[e̞ˌliniˈka]}} — &quot;Hellenic&quot;) is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]], the former Yugoslavia, particularly the former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Albania]] and [[Turkey]]. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] which has the third largest urban Greek population of any city in the world, after [[Athens]] and [[Thessaloniki]].

Greek has been written in the [[Greek alphabet]], the first true [[alphabet]], since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in [[Linear B]] and the [[Cypriot syllabary|Cypriot]] syllabaries.

[[Greek literature]] has a long and rich tradition.

==History==
{{main|History of the Greek language}}
''This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on [[Proto-Greek language]].''

Greek has been spoken in the [[Balkan]] Peninsula since the 2nd millennium BC. The earliest evidence of this is found in the [[Linear B]] tablets dating from 1500 BC. The later [[Greek alphabet]] (''q.v.'') is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]] ([[abjad]]); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:

*'''[[Mycenean language|Mycenean Greek]]''': the language of the [[Mycenean civilisation]]. It is recorded in the [[Linear B]] script on tablets dating from the 16th century BC onwards.

*'''[[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]]''' (also known as [[Ancient Greek]]): In its various dialects was the language of the [[Archaic]] and [[Classical]] periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], but remained known in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and was reintroduced to the rest of [[Europe]] with the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and Greek migration to [[Italy]]. 

*'''[[Hellenistic Greek]]''' (also known as [[Koine Greek]]): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with [[Attic Greek|Attic]] (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first '''common''' Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. [[Koine Greek]] can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of [[Alexander the Great]], but after the [[Hellenistic]] colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from [[Egypt]] to the fringes of [[India]]. After the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of [[Rome]] and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the [[Roman Empire]]. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of [[Christianity]], as the Apostles used it to preach in [[Greece]] and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the '''Alexandrian dialect''', '''Post-Classical Greek''' or even '''New Testament Greek''' (after its most famous work of literature).

*'''[[Medieval Greek]]''': The continuation of [[Hellenistic Greek]] during medieval [[Greek history]] as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the [[Byzantine Empire]], and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the 15th century. Also known as '''Byzantine Greek'''.

*'''[[Modern Greek]]''': Stemming independently from [[Koine Greek]], '''Modern Greek''' usages can be traced in the late [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period (as early as 11th century).[[Image:Codex alexandrinus.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A section of the [[Codex Alexandrinus]]. This section contains Luke 12:54-13:4.
Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: [[Modern Greek|Dhimotikí]] (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and [[Katharevousa|Katharévousa]] (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today.

It has been claimed that an &quot;educated&quot; speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē {{IPA|/ciˈni/}}, the version of Greek used to write the New Testament and the Septuagint, is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers.

Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: ''astronomy'', ''democracy'', ''philosophy'', ''thespian'', etc.  Moreover, Greek words and [[morpheme|word elements]] continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: ''anthropology'', ''photography'', ''isomer'', ''biomechanics'' etc. and form, with [[Latin]] words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary.  See ''[[English words of Greek origin]]'', and ''[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]''.

==Classification==
Greek is an independent branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]].  The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, [[Ancient Macedonian language]] (which may have been a [[dialect]] of Greek) and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, [[Armenian language|Armenian]] seems to be the most closely related to it.

==Geographic distribution==
Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]. There are also Greek-speaking populations in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Albania]], [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Southern Italy]]. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including [[Armenia]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]].

==Official status==
Greek is the [[official language]] of [[Greece]] where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside [[Turkish]], the official language of [[Cyprus]]. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the [[languages of the European Union#official languages of the European Union|20 official languages]] of the [[European Union]].

==Phonology==
This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language.

:''All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]''

===Vowel sounds===
Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Front vowel|Front]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Back vowel|Back]]&lt;/th&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Close vowel|Close]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|i}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|u}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[mid vowel|Mid]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|e̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close-mid back rounded vowel#mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|o̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
   &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Open vowel|Open]]&lt;/th&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|a}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
|}

Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης {{IPA|/ˈfasis/}} → {{IPA|/ˈfasi̥s/}} (→ {{IPA|/fasː/}}) = &quot;of phase&quot; ([[genitive case]])].

===Consonants===

Greek has a repertoire of 29 consonant sounds.  The number of phonemes depends on the analysis, but may be as few as 15, assuming for example that the sound [b] is represented in the underlying form as /mp/, which is also its standard orthographic representation.  (cf. Newton)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! width=&quot;100px&quot;|
! [[bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[labiodental|Labiodental]]
! [[dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Plosive]]s
| [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]]
|
| 
| [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]]
| [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]] {{IPA|[[Voiced palatal stop|ɟ]]}}
| [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] {{IPA|[[Voiced velar stop|g]]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Nasal]]s
| [[Bilabial nasal|m]]
| {{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}
| 
| [[Alveolar nasal|n]]
| {{IPA|[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]}}
| {{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Trill]]
|
|
|
| {{IPA|[[Alveolar trill|r]]}}
|
|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Fricative]]s
|  
| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
| {{IPA|[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] [[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]}}
| [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]] [[Voiced alveolar sibilant|z]]
| {{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]]}}
| [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] {{IPA|[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Affricate]]s
| 
| 
|
| {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦ]] [[Voiced alveolar affricate|ʣ]]}}
|
|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Approximant]]s
|
|
|
| 
| [[Palatal approximant|j]]
|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[Lateral approximant]]s
|
|
|
| [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]]
| {{IPA|[[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]}}
|
|}

Greek /p/, /t/ and /k/ are not [[aspiration|aspirated]] as they are in English. They tend to be voiced to /b/, /d/ and /g/ in Cretan and Cypriot dialects. The letter &lt;ρ&gt; is generally pronounced /r/, but tends to be pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in intervocalic position.

Standard Modern Greek does not have double consonants within words, although some dialects (notably Cypriot) do.

===Sandhi rules===

Greek has certain [[sandhi]] rules, some represented in the orthography, some not.

/n/ before bilabials and [[Velar consonant|velars]] becomes /m/ and /{{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}/ respectively, and is written &lt;μ&gt; (συμπάθεια, &quot;sympathy&quot;) and &lt;γ&gt; (συγκρητισμός, &quot;syncretism&quot;). Before the labiodental fricatives &lt;φ&gt; and &lt;β&gt;, it is also written &lt;μ&gt;, but pronounced /{{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}/ (συμφωνία, &quot;symphony&quot;).

The combination &lt;μπ&gt; is pronounced /mb/ after vowels (but often reduced to /b/), else /b/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /mp/.

The combinations &lt;γγ&gt; and &lt;γκ&gt; are pronounced /ŋg/ or /{{IPA|ŋɟ}}/ after vowels, else /g/ or /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. An exception to this rule is the word &lt;συγγνώμη&gt; (freely translated &quot;I'm sorry&quot;) in which /n/ is phonetically dropped and the word is pronounced /{{IPA|siˈŋgnomi}}/ (this is actually an older form of the word, the current orthography is &lt;συγνώμη&gt;, pronounced /{{IPA|siˈγnomi}}/, in which /n/ is dropped both phonetically and literally).

The combination &lt;ντ&gt; is pronounced /nd/ after vowels (but often reduced to /d/), else /d/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /nt/.

The sounds /k/ and /g/, before the front vowels /{{IPA|[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|e̞]]}}/ and /i/, are palatalized, becoming /{{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]]}}/ and /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. In some dialects, notably in Crete, they become [{{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|ʨ]]}}] and [{{IPA|[[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|ʥ]]}}].

The word {{polytonic|ἐστὶ}} (estí, IPA /{{IPA|e̞sˈti}}/), which means &quot;is&quot; in Ancient Greek (q.v. Modern Greek είναι), gains a &quot;''euphonic''&quot; n. in Modern Greek, the negative adverb δεν and the accusative articles τον and την  lose the final /n/, depending on the beginning letter of the next word (if it's a consonant, /n/ is usually dropped). In the phrase δεν πειράζει, which means &quot;it doesn't matter&quot;, instead of being dropped, n is assimilated into the second word and, following the example above, np is pronounced /mp/ in Northern Greece and /mb/ in Southern Greece, thus producing the sound /ðempirázi/ or /ðembirázi/.

Some of these rules are optional, and reflect the formality of speech. While everyday spoken Greek sounds artificial if the sandhi rules are ''not'' used, a formal or official speech may sound equally awkward if sandhi rules ''are'' used.

===Orthography===

The Greek vowel letters with their pronunciation are: &lt;α&gt; {{IPA|/a/}}, &lt;ε&gt; {{IPA|/e̞/}}, &lt;η&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ο&gt; {{IPA|/o̞/}}, &lt;υ&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ω&gt; {{IPA|/o̞/}}. There are also vowel digraphs, called &quot;double-digit vowels&quot; which are phonetically monophthongal: &lt;αι&gt; {{IPA|/e̞/}}, &lt;ει&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;οι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ου&gt; {{IPA|/u/}}, &lt;υι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}. The three digraphs &lt;αυ&gt;, &lt;ευ&gt; and &lt;ηυ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/av/}}, {{IPA|/e̞v/}} and {{IPA|/iv/}} except when followed by unvoiced consonants, in which case they are pronounced {{IPA|/af/}}, {{IPA|/e̞f/}} and {{IPA|/if/}}.

Modern Greek has also four diphthongs: &lt;αη&gt; (or &lt;άη&gt;) {{IPA|/aj/}}, &lt;αϊ&gt; (or &lt;άι&gt;) {{IPA|/aj/}}, &lt;οη&gt; (or &lt;όη&gt;) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} and &lt;οϊ&gt; (or &lt;όι&gt;) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} (diphthongs can better be transcribed using the IPA non-syllabic diacritic under {{IPA|/i/}} instead of the approximant {{IPA|/j/}}).

The Greek letters &lt;β&gt; and &lt;δ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} respectively. The letter &lt;γ&gt; is generally pronounced {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, but before the mid or close front vowels, it is pronounced {{IPA|/ʝ/}}.

The letters &lt;θ&gt;, &lt;φ&gt; and &lt;χ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/θ/}}, {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}. The letter &lt;χ&gt;, before mid or close front vowels, is pronounced {{IPA|/ç/}}. The letter &lt;ξ&gt; stands for {{IPA|/k͡s/}} and &lt;ψ&gt; stands for {{IPA|/p͡s/}} (the tie bar is used to indicate that, in Modern Greek, &lt;ξ&gt; and &lt;ψ&gt; should be considered sibilant affricates). The digraphs &lt;γγ&gt; and &lt;γκ&gt; are generally pronounced {{IPA|/g/}}, but are pronounced {{IPA|/ɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels. When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced {{IPA|/ŋg/}}  ({{IPA|/ŋɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels). The digraph &lt;γγ&gt; may be pronounced {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} in some words ({{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}) before mid or close front vowels). It is better to use a tie bar above {{IPA|/ŋg/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɟ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}, when used for Greek words, to indicate the simultaneous articulation.

===Historical sound changes===

See: [[History of the Greek language]], [[Ancient Greek pronunciation]]

==Grammar==
Modern Greek is still largely a [[synthetic language]]. It is one of the few Indo-European languages that has retained a synthetic [[passive voice|passive]]. Noticeable changes in its grammar (compared to Classical Greek) include the loss of the [[dative]], the [[optative mood]], the [[infinitive]] the [[dual number]], and the [[participle]]s (except the past participle); the adoption of the [[gerund]]; the reduction in the number of noun [[declension]]s, and the number of distinct forms in each declension; the adoption of the [[modal particle]] ''θα'' (a corruption of ''{{Polytonic|ἐθέλω ἵνα}}'' &gt; ''θέλω να'' &gt; ''θε' να'' &gt; ''θα'') to denote future and conditional tenses; the introduction of [[auxiliary verb]] forms for certain tenses; the extension to the future tense of the aspectual distinction between present/imperfect and aorist; the loss of the third person imperative,  and the simplification of the system of grammatical prefixes, such as [[augment (linguistics)|augmentation]] and [[reduplication]]. Some of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see [[Balkan linguistic union]]).

[[Archaism|Archaic]] forms are still used in formal writing and in a few expressions like εντάξει (entáxei /{{IPA|ɛnˈdaˌksi}}/), which means &quot;OK&quot; (literally: &quot;in order&quot;) or ''ζήτω!'' ('long live!');

==Writing system==
{{Table_Greekletters}}
{{sectstub}}
Modern Greek is written in the late [[Ionic]] variant of the [[Greek alphabet]], the oldest discovered inscriptions of which date to the 8th or 9th Century BC, assumed its final form in 403 BC, and displaced other regional variants due to its use for the [[Attic]] ''[[Koine]]'' dialect during the [[Hellenistic]] era.

The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form: 
[[Alpha (letter)|Α α]],
[[Beta (letter)|Β β]],
[[Gamma|Γ γ]],
[[Delta (letter)|Δ δ]],
[[Epsilon|Ε ε]],
[[Zeta (letter)|Ζ ζ]],
[[Eta (letter)|Η η]],
[[Theta|Θ θ]],
[[Iota|Ι ι]],
[[Kappa (letter)|Κ κ]],
[[Lambda|Λ λ]],
[[Mu (letter)|Μ μ]],
[[Nu (letter)|Ν ν]],
[[Xi|Ξ ξ]],
[[Omicron|Ο ο]],
[[Pi (letter)|Π π]],
[[Rho (letter)|Ρ ρ]],
[[Sigma (letter)|Σ σ ς (word-final form)]],
[[Tau|Τ τ]],
[[Upsilon|Υ υ]],
[[Phi (letter)|Φ φ]],
[[Chi (letter)|Χ χ]],
[[Psi (letter)|Ψ ψ]],
[[Omega|Ω ω]].

In addition to the letters of the alphabet, Greek has a number of diacritical signs, most of which were eliminated from official use in Greece in 1982 as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. See [[Monotonic orthography]] for the simplified modern set, and [[Polytonic orthography]] for the traditional set.

==Examples==
===Some common words and phrases===
*Greek (man): Έλληνας, IPA /{{IPA|ˈe̞liˌnas}}/
*Greek (woman): Ελληνίδα /{{IPA|ˌe̞liˈniða}}/
*Greek (language): Ελληνικά /{{IPA|e̞ˌliniˈka}}/
*hello: γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal, literally &quot;health&quot;),  you say this only to people that you know well. When you address a stranger you should use the more formal &quot;good morning&quot;: καλημέρα /{{IPA|ˌkaliˈmɛɾa}}/
*good-bye: αντίο /{{IPA|aˈdiˌo̞}}/ (formal), γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal)
*please: παρακαλώ /{{IPA|paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*I would like ____ please: θα ήθελα ____ παρακαλώ /{{IPA|θa ˈiθe̞ˌla ____ paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*sorry: συγγνώμη /{{IPA|ˌsiˈɣno̞mi}}/
*thank you: ευχαριστώ /{{IPA|e̞ˌfxaɾiˈsto̞}}/
*that/this: αυτό /{{IPA|ˌaˈfto̞}}/
*how much?: πόσο; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞}}/
*how much does it cost?: πόσο κοστίζει; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞ ˌko̞ˈstizi}}/
*yes: ναι /{{IPA|ne̞}}/
*no: όχι /{{IPA|ˈo̞ˌçi}}/
*I don't understand: δεν καταλαβαίνω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ gaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ kaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/
*I don't know: δεν ξέρω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈgze̞ˌɾo̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈkse̞ˌɾo̞}}/
*where's the bathroom?: πού είναι η τουαλέτα; /{{IPA|pu ˈiˌne̞ i ˌtuaˈlɛta}}/
*generic toast: εις υγείαν! /{{IPA|is iˈʝiˌan}}/
*juice: χυμός /{{IPA|ˌçiˈmo̞s}}/
*water: νερό /{{IPA|ˌne̞ˈɾo̞}}/
*wine: κρασί /{{IPA|ˌkɾaˈsi}}/
*beer: μπύρα /{{IPA|ˈbiˌɾa}}/
*milk: γάλα /{{IPA|ˈɣaˌla}}/
*Do you speak English?: Μιλάτε Αγγλικά; /{{IPA|miˈlaˌte̞ ˌaŋgliˈka}}/
*I love you: σ’ αγαπώ /{{IPA|ˌsaɣaˈpo̞}}/
*Help!: Βοήθεια! /{{IPA|vo̞ˈiθiˌa}}/

==References==
*Herbert Weir Smyth, ''Greek Grammar'', Harvard University Press, 1956 (revised edition), ISBN 0674362500.  The standard grammar of ''classical'' Greek.
*W. Sidney Allen, ''Vox Graeca - a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek''. Cambridge University Press, 1968-74. ISBN 052120626X
*Geoffrey Horrocks, ''Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers'' (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0582307090.  From Mycenean to modern.
*Robert Browning, ''Medieval and Modern Greek'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 1983, ISBN: 0521299780.
*Brian Newton, ''The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology'', Cambridge University Press, 1972, ISBN 0521084970.
*Crosby and Schaeffer, ''An Introduction to Greek'', Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1928. A school grammar of anchient Greek
*David Holton ''et al.'', ''Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN: 041510002X.  A reference grammar of ''modern'' Greek.
*Dionysius of Thrace, [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html &quot;Art of Grammar&quot;], &quot;Τέχνη γραμματική&quot;, c.100 BC

==See also==
*[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]
*[[Greek dialects]]
*[[Greeklish]]

==External links==
===General background===
{{InterWiki|code=el}}
{{Wikibookspar||Modern Greek}}
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gmodern.htm Modern Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm Ancient Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/gr/Greeklan.html Greek Language], Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
*[http://greek-language.com The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway] Useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.

===Language learning===
*[http://zeus.pi-schools.gr/dimotiko/ Online pdf versions of the books used in Elementary School. Useful for beginners]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-numbers.htm Learn how to count in Greek]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/Greek-Alphabet.htm Flash presentation with the sound of the letters of the Greek Alphabet]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/gr.htm Free online resources for learners (both Ancient and Modern Greek)]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-language.htm Learn basic Greek words and phrases] and the speeches of Xenophon Zolotas, Dr. Soukakos, Athnassopoulos and Kalaras
*[http://www.xanthi.ilsp.gr/filog/ Learn Greek - Official site of the Greek Institute of language and speech processing]
*[http://didymos.kypros.org/LearnGreek/ Learn Greek Online], free modern Greek course with realaudio files.
*[http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/greek.php Greek courses]
*[http://www.textkit.com/ Learn Ancient Greek] at Textkit.  Free downloadable Ancient Greek grammars and readers.

==Literature==
*[http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/NewLiteratur/Literature.htm Page about modern Greek Literature]

===Typography===
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/help.htm#english Athena], [[public domain]] [[Polytonic orthography|polytonic]] Greek [[typeface|font]]
*[http://www.sil.org/~gaultney/gentium/ Gentium &amp;mdash; a typeface for the nations], a freely available font including polytonic Greek support
*[http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_greek Generator for Greek typographical filler text]

===Lexica===
*[http://www.translatum.gr Translatum - The Greek Translation Vortal]. An extended list of searchable and downloadable Greek dictionaries.
*[http://www.kypros.org/cgi-bin/lexicon Modern Greek&amp;ndash;English, English&amp;ndash;Modern Greek dictionary]. (Basic dictionary) 
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform Ancient Greek Dictionary], the complete Liddell-Scott dictionary, including search within English definitions.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Greek-english/ Greek&amp;ndash;English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition. 
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/Woodhouse/ Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary], scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary. 
 
===Spell checkers===
*[http://www.phigita.net/spell-check/ Greek Spell Checker] helps ensure correct spelling.

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  <page>
    <title>Historical linguistics</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historical linguistics''' (also '''diachronic linguistics''' or '''comparative linguistics''') is primarily the study of the ways in which languages change over time. It is opposed to [[descriptive linguistics|descriptive (synchronic) linguistics]], which studies the state of a language at a certain point.

The main tools of historical linguistics are the analysis of historical records, and the comparison of internal features — [[vocabulary]], [[morphology (linguistics)|word formation]], and [[syntax]] — of current and extinct languages. The goal is to trace the development and genetic affiliations of the world languages, and understand the process of language evolution.  A classification of all languages into [[language family|family tree]]s is both a major result and a necessary tool of this effort.

Modern historical linguistics grew out of the earlier discipline of [[philology]], the study of ancient texts and documents. In its early years, historical linguistics focused on the well-known [[Indo-European languages]]; but since then, significant comparative linguistic work has been done on the [[Uralic languages]], [[Austronesian languages]] and various families of [[Native American languages]], among many others.

== Language evolution and the comparative method==

Languages change over time. What were once dialects of the same language may eventually diverge enough that they are no longer mutually intelligible and can be considered separate languages.

One method to illustrate the relationship between such divergent yet related languages is to construct family trees, an idea pioneered by the 19th century historical linguist [[August Schleicher]]. The basis for the trees is the [[comparative method]]:  languages presumed to be related are compared with one another, and linguists look for regular sound correspondences based on what is generally known about how languages can change, and use them to reconstruct the best hypothesis about the nature of the common ancestor language from which the attested languages are descended.

Use of the comparative method is validated by its application to languages whose common ancestor is known.  Thus, when the method is applied to the [[Romance languages]] (which include [[French]], [[Spanish]], [[Portuguese]], [[Italian]], and [[Romanian]]), the reconstructed common ancestor language comes out rather similar to [[Latin]] — not the classical Latin of Horace and Cicero, but [[Vulgar Latin]], the colloquial Latin spoken in various dialects in the late [[Roman Empire]].

The comparative method can be used to reconstruct languages for which no written records exist, either because none have been preserved or because the speakers were illiterate.  Thus, the [[Germanic languages]] (which include [[High German]], [[Dutch]], [[English]], [[Norwegian]], [[Swedish]], [[Danish]], [[Faroese]], [[Icelandic]], [[Yiddish]], and the extinct [[Gothic]]) can be compared to reconstruct Proto-Germanic, a language that was probably contemporaneous with Latin and for which no records are preserved.  

Germanic and Latin (more precisely, [[Italic languages|Proto-Italic]], the ancestor of Latin and a few of its neighbors) are themselves related, being both descended from [[Proto-Indo-European]], spoken perhaps 5000 years ago.  Scholars have reconstructed a Proto-Indo-European languae on the basis of data from its nine surviving daughter branches, which are:  Germanic, Italic, [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek]], [[Baltic languages|Baltic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Albanian]], [[Armenian]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]], and from the two dead branches [[Tocharian]] and [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]].  

The comparative method aims to distinguish so-called ''genetic'' linguistic descent — that is, the passing of a language from parents to children, down through the generations — from resemblances that are due to cultural contact between contemporary languages.

For example, about 30% of the vocabulary of [[Persian]] is taken from [[Arabic]], as a result of the Arab conquest of Iran in the 8th century and much subsequent cultural contact.  Yet Persian is considered to be a member of the Indo-European language family — because of its ''core'' vocabulary, which generally has Indo-European [[cognate]]s (as in ''mâdar'' = &quot;mother&quot;), and of many characteristically Indo-European features of its grammar (as in ''bûd'' = &quot;was&quot;, formed from a root related to English &quot;be&quot; and a suffix related to the English past tense ending &quot;-ed&quot;.)

Once the various changes in the daughter branches have been worked out, and a fair amount of the core vocabulary and grammar of the protolanguage are understood, then scholars will quite generally agree that a relationship of genetic relatedness has been proven.

== Non-comparative method theories ==

Much more controversial are hypotheses about relatedness which are ''not'' supported by application of the comparative method.  Scholars who attempt to probe deeper than the comparative method supports (for example, by tabulating similarities found by [[mass lexical comparison]] without setting up sound correspondences) are often accused of scholarly wishful thinking.  The problem is that any two languages have a huge number of opportunities to resemble one another just by accident, so merely pointing out isolated resemblances has little evidentiary value.  A famous example is the Persian word for &quot;bad&quot;, which is pronounced (more or less) just like English &quot;bad&quot;.  It can be shown that the resemblance between these two words is completely accidental, and has nothing to do with the (rather remote) genetic connection between English and Persian.  
For further examples, see [[False cognate]]. The idea is that this linguistic &quot;noise&quot; may be reduced  by comparing large amounts of words, which is exactly the point of mass lexical comparison. However, by ignoring known historical changes in the languages, mass lexical comparison incorporates known randomness, and therefore its conclusions are inherently inaccurate to an extent that is impossible to assess.

Since supporting distant genetic relationships is so difficult, and the method for finding and proving such relationships is not well established (in the way that the comparative method is), the field of locating remote relationships is riven with scholarly controversy.  Nevertheless, the temptation to pursue remote relationships remains a powerful lure to many scholars-- after all, Proto-Indo-European must have seemed a rather wild hypothesis to many when it was first proposed.

This uncertainty also relates to estimates of how long it would take for languages to diverge completely. One commonly cited opinion is that if a group of people were sent to a distant galaxy, after 10,000 years they would be speaking a language that would be no more similar to their native language than any other language selected at random.  This figure is based on [[glottochronology]], using a simplified assumption of a constant 14% loss rate each millennium and a chance similarity rate of 5%.  However, other work by [[Isidore Dyen]][http://www.ntu.edu.au/education/langs/ielex/IE-RATE1] and [[Sergei Starostin]] indicates that in fact words have wildly differing expected life spans; thus, for instance, a specialized word like &quot;goshawk&quot; might on average last a mere millennium or two, whereas extremely common words like &quot;I&quot; and &quot;you&quot; often last so long that it is not possible to even estimate their life span without reconstructions going further back in time than those that are universally accepted.

The ultimate in remote reconstruction is the recovery of a [[Proto-World language]].  Not all scholars believe that such a language even necessarily existed, since some models of human evolution may allow the independent appearance of human speech in several parts of the world, resulting in several linguistic families with no common ancestral language. Nevertheless, [[Joseph Greenberg]] suggested that Proto-World was the language of people coming out of northeast Africa around 50,000 BC.  On the other hand, according to current archaeological evidence, the native languages of South America must have been isolated from those of the Old World for 10,000 years or more; and those of Australia may have split off from the putative world language tree even earlier than that.  Therefore, if one accepts the estimate that no relationships would be recognizable after 10,000 years, then we stand little chance of demonstrating a common origin for all the world languages — unless, against current expectations, they all had a common ancestor within that time span.  

[[Dene-Caucasian languages|Den&amp;eacute;-Caucasian]] has also been postulated to include [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]] (North America), [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], Ket (Siberia), [[Burushaski]] (Pakistan), [[North-East Caucasian languages|North-East Caucasian]] (Chechen and the Dagestan languages), and [[Basque]]. This language family is extremely hypothetical.

The [[Nostratic]] hypothesis was proposed by a Dane named [[Holger Pedersen]], in [[1903]].  The hypothesis claims that the Nostratic grouping includes such widely ranging language families as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic, Altaic, Sumerian, Elamo-Dravidian, and Kartvelian. Others claim other sets of languages. Some have speculated that the Nostratics were refugees from a [[Black Sea Flood]] of around 5600 BC, and some think this is the origin of Noah's Flood  from the [[Bible]]. However, linguists have reached no firm conclusion about the validity of the Nostratic hypothesis.  Its proponents, unlike Greenberg, use the traditional [[comparative method]]; however, their comparisons are often accused of being far-fetched or involving too many semantic shifts, while some also accuse them of simply grouping together the language families most familiar to them and neglecting to compare each of them to language families further afield.

==See also==
*[[Language change]]
*[[Glottochronology]]
**[[Swadesh list]]
*[[Proto-language]]
*[[Comparative method]]
*Comparative word lists: [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Swadesh list]], [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Basic English Word List]]

==Bibliography==
* [[August Schleicher]]: ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.'' (Kurzer Abriss der indogermanischen Ursprache, des Altindischen, Altiranischen, Altgriechischen, Altitalischen, Altkeltischen, Altslawischen, Litauischen und Altdeutschen.) (2 vols.) Weimar, H. Boehlau (1861/62); reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, ISBN 3810210714
*[[Karl Brugmann]], [[Berthold Delbrück]], ''[[Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen]]'' (1886-1916).

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    <title>International Phonetic Alphabet</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is a system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds ([[phone]]s or [[phoneme]]s) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the [[Phoneme|phonemic]] and  [[Phonetics|phonetic]] representation of all spoken languages.

For a treatment of the [[English language]] using the IPA, see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]; for a brief chart, see [[IPA chart for English]].
[[Image:IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|400px|The International Phonetic Alphabet.]]
==History==
{{main |History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}

==Description==
The general principle of the IPA is to provide a separate symbol for each [[speech segment]], avoiding letter combinations ([[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s) such as ''[[sh (digraph)|sh]]'' and ''[[th (digraph)|th]]'' in [[English orthography]], and avoiding ambiguity such as that of [[Pronunciation of English c|''c'' in English]].

===The principle of formation===
The IPA is what MacMahon (1996) has termed a &quot;selective&quot; phonetic alphabet. It aims to provide a separate symbol for every ''contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonemic]]'') sound occurring in human language. For instance, a [[flap consonant|flap]] and a tap are two different articulations, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a phonemic distinction between them, the IPA does not provide them with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol,&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɾ}}, that covers both. For ''non-contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonetic]]'' or ''subphonemic'') details of these sounds, the IPA relies on [[diacritic]]s, which are optional. Thus there is a certain level of flexibility in representing a language with the IPA. 

===Principles behind the symbols===
The letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop {{IPA|ʔ}} (originally an [[apostrophe (mark)|apostrophe]], but later given the form of a &quot;gelded&quot; [[question mark]] to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, {{IPA|ʕ}}, although Latin in form, was inspired by [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] letter &lt;ﻉ&gt; ''`ain''. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the [[click consonant|click]]s have been abandoned in favor of iconic [[Khoisan languages|Khoisanist]] symbols such as {{IPA|ǁ}}. 

The sound-values of the [[consonant]]s taken from the [[Latin alphabet]] correspond to usage in French and Italian, and are close to those of most other European languages as well: {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, {{IPA|[k]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[p]}}, (unvoiced) {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[v]}}, {{IPA|[z]}}. English values are used for {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}.

The [[vowel]]s from the Latin alphabet ({{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[o]}}, {{IPA|[u]}}) correspond to the vowels of [[Spanish]] and are similar to [[Italian language|Italian]]. {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''piece'', {{IPA|[u]}} like ''rule'', etc.

The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, {{IPA|[c]}}, {{IPA|[j]}}, {{IPA|[q]}}, {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[x]}}, and {{IPA|[y]}}, correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. {{IPA|[j]}} has the Slavic and Germanic value of &lt;j&gt;, that of English ''y'' in ''yoke'';
{{IPA|[y]}} has the [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] and [[Old English]] value: [[Finnish]] ''y'', [[German]] ''y'' or ''ü'', [[French]] ''u'', [[Dutch]] ''u''. 

Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the [[retroflex consonant]]s have the same symbol as the equivalent [[alveolar consonant]], with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom. Although there is some correspondence between modified letters, generally the IPA symbols do not have a systematic [[distinctive feature|featural]] relationship between shape and articulation. For instance, there is not a consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all [[labial consonant]]s linked through a common design.

[[Diacritic mark]]s can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified [[phonetic]] values or [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for [[suprasegmental feature]]s such as [[stress]] and [[tone]].

===Types of transcriptions===
The [[International Phonetic Association]] recommends that a [[phonetics|phonetic]] transcription should be enclosed in [[bracket|square brackets]] &quot;[&amp;nbsp;]&quot;. A transcription that specifically denotes only [[phonology|phonological]] contrasts may be enclosed in [[slash (punctuation)|slash]]es &quot;/&amp;nbsp;/&quot; instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for by setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is [[phoneme|phonemic]]ally contrastive for the language being transcribed. 

Phonetic transcriptions try to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word, whereas phonemic transcriptions are model dependent. For example, [[Noam Chomsky]] transcribed the English word ''night'' phonemically as /nixt/. In his model, the phoneme /x/ is often silent, but shows its presence by “lengthening” the preceding vowel. The preceding vowel in this case is the phoneme /i/, which is pronounced [aj] when long. So phonemic /nixt/ is equivalent to phonetic [najt], but only if you share Chomsky's belief that historical sounds such as the ''gh'' in ''night'' may remain in a word long after they have ceased to be pronounced.  

For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a &quot;broad transcription&quot;; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a &quot;narrow transcription&quot;. These are not binary choices, but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. 

For example, in some dialects the English word ''pretzel'' in a narrow transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹ̥ʷɛʔt.sɫ̩]}}, which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broader transcription is {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹɛt.sɫ̩]}}, which only indicates some of the easier to hear features. A yet broader transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛtsl]}}. Here every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound, but without making any claims as to their status in the language. 

There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe this word phonemically, but here the differences are generally not of precision, but of analysis. For example, ''pretzel'' could be {{IPA|/ˈprɛtsl/}} or {{IPA|/ˈpretsəl/}}. The special symbol for English ''r'' is not used, for it is not meaningful to distinguish it from a rolled ''r''. The differences in the letter ''e'' reflect claims as to what the essential difference is between the vowels of ''pretzel'' and ''pray''; there are half a dozen ideas in the literature as to what this may be. The second transcription claims that there are two vowels in the word, even if they can't both be heard, while the first claims there is only one. 

However, phonemic transcriptions may also be broad or narrow, or perhaps it would be better to say abstract vs. concrete. They may show a fair amount of phonetic detail, usually of a phoneme's most common allophone, but because they are abstract symbols they do not need to directly resemble any sound at all. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the [[ASCII]] symbols of a typical keyboard. For example, the English word ''church'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/tʃɚtʃ/}}, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as {{IPA|/crc/}} (three phonemes, three symbols), which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be explained, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as {{IPA|/crc/}}.  

Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in [[pipe]]s (&quot;| |&quot;). This goes beyond phonology into [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] analysis. For example, the words ''pets'' and ''beds'' could be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɛʔts]}} and {{IPA|[b̥ɛdz]}} (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as {{IPA|/pets/}} and {{IPA|/bedz/}}. Because /s/ and /z/ are separate [[phoneme]]s in English (unlike Spanish, for example), they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, you probably recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If you believe the plural ending is essentially an ''s'', as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|pets|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|beds|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}. If, as most linguists would probably suggest, it is essentially a ''z'', these would be {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|petz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|bedz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}.

To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word ''jet'' is not read as &quot;yet&quot;. This is done with [[Bracket|angle brackets]] or ''chevrons'': {{Unicode|〈jet〉}}. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English [[transliteration]].

The Extended IPA for [[speech pathology]] has added additional bracket notations. Parentheses are used to indicate ''mouthing'' (silent articulation), as in {{IPA|(ʃːː)}}, a silent sign to hush; parentheses are also used to indicate silent pauses, for example (...). Double parentheses indicate obscured or unintelligible sound, as in ((2 syll.)), two audible but unidentifiable syllables. Curly brackets with Italian musical terms are used to mark prosodic notation, such as {{IPA|[{&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; hɛlp &lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;}]}}.

== Consonants (pulmonic) ==
===Single articulation===
[[Media:IPA consonants 2005.png|Closeup of the main pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]]

The [[pulmonic egressive|pulmonic]] consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]] and columns that designate [[place of articulation]]. The main chart only includes consonants with a single place of articulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Place of articulation]] →
! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=4 | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan=4 | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! colspan=4 | [[Radical consonant|Radical]]
! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|(none)]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Manner of articulation]] ↓
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Bilabial consonant|Bi&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;bial]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Labiodental consonant|La&amp;shy;bio&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;den&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Dental consonant|Den&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Retroflex consonant|Re&amp;shy;tro&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;flex]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Pa&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Ve&amp;shy;lar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Uvular consonant|Uvu&amp;shy;lar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pha&amp;shy;ryn&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;geal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Epiglottal consonant|Epi&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;glot&amp;shy;tal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glot&amp;shy;tal]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Nasal]]s
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental nasal|{{IPA|ɱ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex nasal|{{IPA|ɳ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal nasal|{{IPA|ɲ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]]&lt;/span&gt;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular nasal|{{IPA|ɴ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Plosive]]s
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless bilabial stop|{{IPA|p}}]] [[voiced bilabial stop|{{IPA|b}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless labiodental stop|*]] [[voiced labiodental stop|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[voiceless alveolar stop|{{IPA|t}}]] [[voiced alveolar stop|{{IPA|d}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex stop|{{IPA|ʈ}}]] [[voiced retroflex stop|{{IPA|ɖ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal stop|{{IPA|c}}]] [[voiced palatal stop|{{IPA|ɟ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar stop|{{IPA|k}}]] [[voiced velar stop|{{IPA|ɡ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiceless uvular stop|{{IPA|q}}]] [[voiced uvular stop|{{IPA|ɢ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[epiglottal stop|{{IPA|ʡ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[glottal stop|{{IPA|ʔ}}]]
| style=&quot;width: 1em; background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Fricative]]s
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless bilabial fricative|{{IPA|ɸ}}]] [[voiced bilabial fricative|{{IPA|β}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] [[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless dental fricative|{{IPA|θ}}]] [[voiced dental fricative|{{IPA|ð}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar sibilant|{{IPA|s}}]] [[voiced alveolar sibilant|{{IPA|z}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʂ}}]] [[voiced retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʐ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|ç}}]] [[voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʝ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|ɣ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless uvular fricative|{{IPA|χ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|ʁ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ħ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʕ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʜ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʢ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]] [[voiced glottal fricative|{{IPA|ɦ}}]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Approximant]]s
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial approximant|{{IPA|β̞}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental approximant|{{IPA|ʋ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar approximant|{{IPA|ɹ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex approximant|{{IPA|ɻ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar approximant|{{IPA|ɰ}}]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Trill]]s
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial trill|{{IPA|ʙ}}]]
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar trill|{{IPA|r}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex trill|{{IPA|*}}]]
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular trill|{{IPA|ʀ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[epiglottal trill|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Flap consonant|Tap or Flap]]
|  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Image:Labiodental flap (Gentium).png|10px|Labiodental flap]][[labiodental flap|&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar tap|{{IPA|ɾ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex flap|{{IPA|ɽ}}]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[epiglottal flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Fricative]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɬ}}]] [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɮ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Approx&amp;shy;imant]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɭ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʎ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʟ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp; 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | 
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Flap]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=3 | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar lateral flap|{{IPA|ɺ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}

Notes:
* Asterisks (*) mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the articles for ''ad hoc'' symbols found in the literature. 
* Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official [[Unicode]] support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the [[labiodental flap]], symbolized by a right-hook ''v'': [[Image:Labiodental flap (Gentium).png|20px|Labiodental flap]] ([http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2945.pdf Proposal to add this symbol to Unicode])
* In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the symbol to the right represents a [[voiced consonant]] (except for [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}). However, {{IPA|[ʔ]}} cannot be voiced. In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
* Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, ''etc.'', as appropriate for that language. 
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The symbols {{IPA|[ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} represent either voiced fricatives or approximants. 
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. 
* The labiodental nasal {{IPA|[ɱ]}} is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.

===Coarticulation===
[[media:IPA co-articulated 2005.png|Closeup of the co-articulated consonant section of the IPA chart]]&lt;br&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot;  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;| [[voiceless labial-velar fricative|{{IPA|ʍ}}]]
| Voiceless labialized velar approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[labial-velar approximant|{{IPA|w}}]]
| Voiced labialized velar approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[labial-palatal approximant|{{IPA|ɥ}}]]
| Voiced labialized palatal approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ɕ}}]]
| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʑ}}]]
| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|{{IPA|ɧ}}]]
| Voiceless &quot;palatal-velar&quot; fricative
|}

Notes:
*{{IPA|[ɧ]}} is described as a &quot;simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}&quot;. However, this analysis is disputed. See the [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|article]] for discussion.

== Consonants (non-pulmonic) ==
[[media:IPA non-pulmonic 2005.png|Closeup of the non-pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- valign=top
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Click consonant|Click releases]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Implosive consonant|Implosives]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Ejective consonant|Ejectives]]
|- valign=top  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[bilabial click|{{IPA|ʘ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[voiced bilabial implosive|{{IPA|ɓ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|ʼ}} 
| ''For example:''
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[dental click|{{IPA|ǀ}}]]
| Laminal alveolar (&quot;dental&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolar implosive|{{IPA|ɗ}}]]
| Alveolar
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bilabial ejective|{{IPA|pʼ}}]]
| Bilabial
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[postalveolar click|{{IPA|ǃ}}]]
| Apical (post-) alveolar (&quot;retroflex&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced palatal implosive|{{IPA|ʄ}}]]
| Palatal
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar ejective|{{IPA|tʼ}}]]
| Alveolar
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[palatal click|{{IPA|ǂ}}]]
| Laminal postalveolar (&quot;palatal&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced velar implosive|{{IPA|ɠ}}]]
| Velar
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[velar ejective|{{IPA|kʼ}}]]
| Velar
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar lateral click|{{IPA|ǁ}}]]
| Lateral coronal (&quot;lateral&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced uvular implosive|{{IPA|ʛ}}]]
| Uvular
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar ejective fricative|{{IPA|sʼ}}]]
| Alveolar fricative
|}

Notes: 
* All clicks are doubly articulated and require two symbols: a velar or uvular stop, plus a symbol for the anterior release: {{IPA|[k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ]}} ''etc.'', or {{IPA|[ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]}}. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a {{IPA|[k]}} may usually be assumed. 
* Symbols for the [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] implosives {{IPA|[ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ]}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{IPA|[ɓ̥, ʛ̥]}}, ''etc''. 
* Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not &quot;explicitly recognized&quot; by the IPA, a [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], &lt;span title=&quot;U+1D91&quot;&gt;{{Unicode|[&amp;#7569;]}}&lt;/span&gt;, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite {{IPA|[ɗ̢]}}.
* The ejective symbol is often seen for [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mʼ], [lʼ], [wʼ], [aʼ]}}, but these are more properly transcribed as creaky ({{IPA|[m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰]}}).

== Vowels ==
[[media:IPA vowel chart 2005.png|Closeup of the vowel chart of the IPA]]
{{CSS IPA vowel chart}}

Notes:
*Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel, as does {{IPA|[ʊ]}} (at least prototypically). All others are unrounded.
*{{IPA|[ɶ]}} is not confirmed as a distinct phoneme in any language.
*{{IPA|[a]}} is officially a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and {{IPA|[a]}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.

==Affricates and double articulation==

'''[[Affricate]]s''' and '''[[Doubly articulated consonant|doubly articulated]] stops''' are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example {{IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|t​͡s}}, paralleling {{IPA|kˣ}} ~ {{IPA|k͡x}}. The symbols for the palatal plosives, {{IPA|&lt;c ɟ&gt;,}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t​͡ʃ d͡ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. 

[[Media:Affricate ligatures.png|Image of the six common affricate ligatures and their official IPA equivalents]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Tie bar
! Ligature
! Description
|-  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡s}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʦ}}]]
| voiceless alveolar affricate
|-  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡z}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʣ}}]]
| voiced alveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡ʃ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʧ}}]]
| voiceless postalveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡ʒ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʤ}}]]
| voiced postalveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡ɕ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʨ}}]]
| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡ʑ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʥ}}]]
| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|{{IPA|t​͡ɬ}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|k͡p}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiceless labial-velar plosive
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|ɡ͡b}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiced labial-velar plosive
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[labial-velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ͡m}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| labial-velar nasal stop
|}

Note:
* If your browser uses ''Arial Unicode MS'' to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font:  {{IPA|ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡}}.

==Extended IPA==
The '''Extended IPA''' was designed for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. However, some of the symbols (especially diacritics, below) are occasionally used for transcribing normal speech as well. 

View a pdf file [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ExtIPAChart97.pdf here].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[velopharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʩ}}]]
|Velopharyngeal fricative (often occurs with a [[cleft palate]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[lateralized s|{{IPA|ʪ}}]]
|Voiceless central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɬ͡s]}} (a [[lisp (speech)|lisp]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[lateralized z|{{IPA|ʫ}}]]
|Voiced central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɮ͡z]}} (a lisp)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bilabial percussive|{{IPA|ʬ}}]]
|Bilabial percussive (smacking lips)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bidental percussive|{{IPA|ʭ}}]]
|Bidental percussive (gnashing teeth)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[sublaminal lower alveolar click|{{IPA|¡}}]]
|[[Sub-apical consonant|Sublaminal lower alveolar]] click (sucking tongue)
|}

The last symbol may be used with the alveolar click for {{IPA|[ǃ¡]}}, a combined alveolar and sublaminal click or &quot;cluck-click&quot;.

==Suprasegmentals==
[[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|Closeup of the suprasegmental section of the IPA chart]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|ˈ}}
| Primary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˌ}}
| Secondary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ː}}
| [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or [[Gemination|geminate consonant]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˑ}}
| Half-long
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˘}}
| [[Extra-short (phonetics)|Extra-short]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|.}}
| [[Syllable]] break
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|‿}}
| [[Liaison|Linking (absence of a break)]]
|}

=== [[Intonation (linguistics)|Intonation]] ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Minor (foot) break]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|‖}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Major (intonation) break]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↗}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global rise]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↘}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global fall]]
|}

=== [[Tonal language|Tone]] ===
IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|e̋ or ˥}}
| Extra high
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|é or ˦}}
| High
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ē or ˧}}
| Mid
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|è or ˨}}
| Low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȅ or ˩}}
| Extra low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ě}}
| Rise
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ê}}
| Fall
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|↓}}&lt;/sup&gt;e
| [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|↑}}&lt;/sup&gt;e
| [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]]
|}
Note:
*With regard to tone diacritics, Unicode encodes marks for some contour tones, but not all. In Unicode version 4.1, only hacek (rising) and circumflex (falling) diacritics were encoded. Subsequent versions may also include six additional diacritics for contour tones, such as the macron-acute and the grave-acute-grave ligatures. (See an image [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|here]].) Note that contour tone diacritics are not encoded as sequences of level tone diacritics in Unicode.
*With regard to tone letters, Unicode does not have separate encodings for contour tones. Instead, sequences of level tone letters are used, with proper display dependent on the font, usually by means of OpenType font rendition: {{IPA|[˥˩]}} or {{IPA|[˦˥˧]}}. (These are probably not displaying correctly in your browser. See the [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|image]] for a sample of how they should appear.) Since few fonts support combination tone letters (see the external links for one that is free), a common solution is to use the old system of superscript numerals from '1' to '5', for example [e&lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;, e&lt;sup&gt;312&lt;/sup&gt;]. However, this depends on local linguistic tradition, with '5' generally being high and '1' being low for Asian languages, but '1' being high and '5' low for African languages. An old IPA convention sometimes still seen is to use sub-diacritics for low contour tones: {{IPA|[e̖, e̗]}} for ''low-falling'' and ''low-rising''. 
*The upstep and downstep modifiers are superscript arrows. Unicode version 4.1 does not encode these, though subsequent versions will. The arrows for upstep and downstep should not be confused with the full-height arrows, which are used to indicate airflow direction.

== Diacritics ==
[[media:IPA diacritics 2005.png|Closeup of the diacritic section of the IPA chart]]&lt;br&gt;
Sub-diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, i.e. {{IPA|ŋ̊}}. The dotless i, &lt;ı&gt;, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: {{IPA|tˢ}} (fricative release), {{IPA|bʱ}} (breathy voice), {{IPA|ˀa}} (glottal onset), {{Unicode|ᵊ}} (epenthetic schwa), o&lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|ʊ}}&lt;/sup&gt; (diphthongization).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=4|Syllabicity diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}}
| [[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̯ ʊ̯}}
| [[Non-syllabic vowel|Non-syllabic]]
|-
! colspan=4|Consonant-release diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʰ dʰ}}
| [[Aspiration|Aspirated]] {{footnote|2}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d̚}}
| [[Unreleased stop|No audible release]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|dⁿ}}
| [[Nasal release]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|dˡ}}
| [[Lateral release]]
|-
! colspan=4|Phonation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|n̥ d̥}}
| [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s̬ t̬}}
| [[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|b̤ a̤}}
| [[Breathy voice]]d {{footnote|1}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|b̰ a̰}}
| [[Creaky voice]]d
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|t̪ d̪}}
| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̼ d̼}}
| [[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̺ d̺}}
| [[Apical consonant|Apical]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̻ d̻}}
| [[Laminal consonant|Laminal]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|u̟ t̟}}
| [[Advanced]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|i̠ t̠}}
| [[Retracted]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ë ä}}
| [[Centralization (phonetics)|Centralized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}}
| [[Mid-centralized vowel|Mid-centralized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̝ ɹ̝ ˔}}
| colspan=3 | [[Raised]] ('''{{IPA|ɹ̝}}''' = [[Voiced alveolar fricative#The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative|voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̞ β̞ ˕}}
| colspan=3 | [[Lowered]] ('''{{IPA|β̞}}''' = [[bilabial approximant]])
|-
! colspan=4|Co-articulation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}}
| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ̜ x̜ʷ}}
| Less [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʷ dʷ}}
| [[Labialization|Labialized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʲ dʲ}}
| [[Palatalization|Palatalized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tˠ dˠ}}
| [[Velarization|Velarized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tˁ dˁ}}
| [[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɫ}}]] {{IPA|z̴}}
| colspan=3 | Velarized ''or'' pharyngealized
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̘ o̘}}
| [[Advanced tongue root]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̙ o̙}}
| [[Retracted tongue root]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ẽ z̃}}
| [[Nasalization|Nasalized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɚ ɝ}}
| [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]]
|}

Notes:
#Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as {{IPA|bʱ}}.
#With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice. 

The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis [[phonation]] are: 

{|
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|[t]}}
| [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̤]}}
| [[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̥]}}
| [[slack voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d]}}
| [[Voiced consonant|modal voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̬]}}
| [[stiff voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̰]}}
| [[creaky voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}}
| glottal closure
|}

===Extended IPA diacritics===
[[Media:ExtIPA.png|The letters and diacritics of the ExtIPA]]

The ExtIPA has widened the use of some of the regular IPA symbols, such as {{IPA|ʰp}} for pre-aspiration, {{IPA|tʶ}} for uvularization, or {{IPA|s̼}} for a linguolabial sibilant, as well as adding some new ones. Some of the ExtIPA diacritics are occasionally used for non-disordered speech, for example for the unusual airstream mechanisms of [[Damin]].  

One modification is the use of subscript parentheses around the [[phonation]] diacritics to indicate partial phonation; a single parenthesis at the left or right of the voicing indicates that it is partially phonated at the beginning or end of the segment. For example, {{IPA|₍s̬₎}} is a partially voiced [s], {{IPA|₍s̬}} shows partial initial voicing, and {{IPA|s̬₎}} partial final voicing; also {{IPA|₍z̥₎}} is a partially devoiced [z], {{IPA|₍z̥}} shows partial initial devoicing, and {{IPA|z̥₎}}
partial final devoicing. These conventions may be convenient for representing various [[voice onset time]]s.

Phonation diacritics may also be prefixed or suffixed rather than placed directly under the segment to represent relative timing. For instance, {{IPA|&amp;nbsp;̬z}} is a [[Pre-voicing (phonetics)|pre-voiced]] [z], {{IPA|z&amp;nbsp;̬}}
a post-voiced [z], and {{IPA|a&amp;nbsp;̰}} is an [a] with a [[creaky voice|creaky]] offglide.  

Other ExtIPA diacritics are,

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=4|Airstream mechanism
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p↓}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Ingressive airflow]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|!↑}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Egressive airflow]]
|-
!colspan=4|Phonation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p⁼}}
| [[Aspiration|Unaspirated]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ạ}}
| [[Whispering|Whispery]] phonation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;Ħ&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[Faucalized voice]] (stretched pharynx,&lt;br&gt;as in a yawn)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a!
|[[Harsh voice]], ('pressed voice'; involves the&lt;br&gt;false vocal cords, as when lifting a load)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʰp}} 
| Pre-aspiration
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a‼
| Ventricular vibration
|-
!colspan=4|Nasalization
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|n͋&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v͋}}
| [[nasalization|Nasal fricative]] or frication
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|m͊}}
| [[Denasal]] (as with a headcold)
|-
! colspan=4|Articulatory strength
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|f͈}}
| [[Fortis#Tenseness|Strong articulation]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|v͉}}
| [[Fortis#Tenseness|Weak articulation]]
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|v͆}}
| [[dentolabial consonant|Dentolabial]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|n̪͆&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;h̪͆}}
| [[Interdental consonant|Interdental]] or [[bidental consonant|bidental]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͇&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f͇}}
| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar(ized)]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͎}}
| [[Whistling|Whistled]] articulation
|-
! colspan=4|Secondary articulation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|s͍}}
| Labial spreading (see [[rounded vowel]])
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|ʒ}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;{{IPA|œ}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|Open-rounded labialization
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | k&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;{{IPA|ʋ}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|Labiodentalized
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͌}}
| [[Velopharyngeal]] friction
|-
! colspan=4|Timing
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͢θ}}
| Slurred/sliding articulation
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p\p\p}}
| [[Stutter]] (reiterated articulation)
|}

In addition to these symbols, a subscript &lt; or &gt; indicates that an articulation is laterally offset to the left or right. 

====Prosodic notation====
The ExtIPA also makes use of Italian musical notation for the [[tempo]] and [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] of connected speech. These are subscripted on the insides of a {brace} notation that indicates that they are comments on the [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]]. 

Pauses are indicated with periods or numbers inside parentheses. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|(.)||Short pause||(..)||Medium pause||(...)||Long pause||(1.2)||1.2-second pause
|-
|''f''||Loud speech&lt;br&gt;('forte')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|lɑʊd}}&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''ff''||Louder speech&lt;br&gt;('fortissimo')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''ff''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|lɑʊdɚ}} &lt;sub&gt;''ff''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|''p''||Quiet speech&lt;br&gt;('piano')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|kwaɪət}} &lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''pp''||Quieter speech&lt;br&gt;('pianissimo')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''pp''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|kwaɪətɚ}} &lt;sub&gt;''pp''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|''allegro''||Fast speech||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''allegro''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|fɑːst}} &lt;sub&gt;''allegro''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''lento''||Slow speech||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''lento''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|sloʊ}} &lt;sub&gt;''lento''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|colspan=8|''crescendo, rallentando,'' and other musical terms may also be used.
|}

==Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants==
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|ɷ}} for standard {{IPA|ʊ}}. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|zʷ}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} has been dropped. 

There are also unsupported symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as {{IPA|ƛ}}. 

While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters (the ones that look like capitals are actually small capitals), many languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is [[Kabye language|Kabye]] of northern [[Togo]], which has {{unicode|Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ}} (capital {{IPA|ʃ}}). Other pseudo-IPA capitals supported by unicode are {{unicode|Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ}}.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɩ}} || Iota, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɷ}} || Closed omega, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʚ}} || Closed epsilon, a mistake for {{IPA|[ɞ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɼ}} || Long-leg R, voiced strident apico-alveolar trill (Czech ''ř''), withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[r̝]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɿ}} || Reversed fishhook R / turned iota, apical dental unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʅ}} || Squat reversed esh (actually {{IPA|ɿ}} with retroflex tail), apical retroflex unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʮ}} || turned h with fishhook, apical dental rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʯ}} || turned h with fishhook and tail, apical retroflex rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȶ}} || t with curl, voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȡ}} || d with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȵ}} || n with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) nasal, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;A&lt;/small&gt; || small capital A, open central vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[ɑ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;E&lt;/small&gt; || small capital E, mid front unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʆ}} || Curly-tail esh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʃʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʓ}} || Curly-tail ezh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʒʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƫ}} || Left-hook T, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[tʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d̡}} ''etc.'' || Subscript left hook, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[dʲ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|σ}} || = {{IPA|[θʷ, sʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƍ}} || = {{IPA|[ðʷ, zʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƪ}} || = {{IPA|[ʃʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƺ}} || = {{IPA|[ʒʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|k̫}} ''etc.'' || Subscript w, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[kʷ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɑ̢}} ''etc.'' || = {{IPA|[ɑ˞]}} ''etc.'' (&quot;retroflex&quot; or [[r-colored vowel]]s)
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʇ}} || Turned T, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǀ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʖ}} || Inverted glottal stop, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǁ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʗ}} || Stretched C, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʞ}} || Proposed symbol for velar click, withdrawn 1970
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} || Hooktop P, T, C, K, Q, withdrawn 1993, =  {{IPA|[ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̥ ɠ̥ ʛ̥]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƞ}} || Right-leg N, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[n̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|š}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ž}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|č}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ǰ, ǧ, ǯ}} || Americanist, Slavicist ''etc.'' usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƛ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|λ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ɮ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƾ}} || Withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[t͡s]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƻ}} || Barred two, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[d͡z]}}
|}

===How to transcribe sounds that don't have symbols in the IPA charts===
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, {{IPA|[β̞]}}. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}. A few languages such as [[Banda language|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[v̛̟]}}. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Palatal and uvular taps, if they exist, and the epiglottal tap could be written as extra-short plosives, {{IPA|[ɟ˘ ɢ˘ ʡ˘]}}. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.

The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}}. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä]}} are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The vowels that aren't representable in this scheme are the [[rounded vowel|compressed]] vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic.

==Names of the symbols==
It is often desirable to distinguish an IPA symbol from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not a one-to-one correspondance between symbol and sound in broad transcription. The symbol's names and phonetic descriptions are described in the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association''. The symbols also have nonce names in the [[Unicode]] standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ}} &quot;epsilon&quot;, but Unicode calls it &quot;small letter open E&quot;.

===The letters===
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. 

Examples:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | p || (lower-case) P || [[voiceless bilabial stop]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER P
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | x || (lower-case) X || [[voiceless velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER X
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | r || (lower-case) R || [[alveolar trill|coronal trill]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER R
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|β}} || [[beta]] || [[voiced bilabial fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[epsilon]] || [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN E
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɣ}} || [[gamma]] || [[voiced velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER GAMMA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|θ}} || [[theta]] || [[voiceless dental fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|χ}} || [[Chi (letter)|chi]] || [[voiceless uvular fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɸ}} || [[phi]] || [[voiceless bilabial fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER PHI
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʊ}} || upsilon {{footnote|1}} || [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER UPSILON
|-
|}

'''Note'''
#The Latin &quot;[[upsilon]]&quot; is frequently called &quot;[[horseshoe|horseshoe u]]&quot; in order to distinguish it from the Greek upsilon. Historically, it derives from a Latin small capital &lt;tt&gt;U&lt;/tt&gt;.

The IPA standard includes some small capital letters, such as {{IPA|ʀ}}, although it is common to refer to these symbols as simply &quot;capital&quot; or &quot;cap&quot; letters, because the IPA standard does not include any full-size capital letters.

A few letters have the forms of cursive or script letters. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɑ}} || script A || [[open back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER ALPHA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɡ}} || opentail G {{footnote|1}} || [[voiced velar stop]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT G
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʋ}} || cursive V {{footnote|2}} || [[labiodental approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH HOOK
|}
'''Note'''
#The &quot;looptail G&quot; [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10 px]] is not strictly an IPA character, but is an acceptable alternative.
#In form and origin, but not in name, this is the Greek upsilon.

Ligatures are called precisely that, although some have alternate names. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|œ}} || (lower-case) o-e ligature || [[open-mid front rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LIGATURE OE
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɮ}} || L-Ezh ligature || [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|voiced coronal lateral fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER LEZH
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|æ}} || [[Ash (letter)|ash]]; (lower-case) a-e ligature || [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER AE
|}

Many letters are ''turned'', or rotated 180 degrees. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʎ}} || turned Y || [[palatal lateral approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED Y
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɥ}} || turned H || [[labial-palatal approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED H
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɒ}} || turned script A || [[open back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED ALPHA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʌ}} || turned V || [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL TURNED V
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ}} || open O || [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O
|}

The symbol {{IPA|ɔ}} can be described as a ''turned cee'', but it is almost always referred to as ''open o'', which described both its articulation and its shape. The symbol {{IPA|ʌ}} is often also called &quot;[[caret]]&quot; or &quot;wedge&quot; for it similarity to that diacritic.

A few letters are ''reversed'' (flipped on a vertical axis): '''{{IPA|ɘ}}''' ''reversed E'', '''{{IPA|ɜ}}''' ''reversed epsilon'', '''{{IPA|ʕ}}''' ''reversed glottal stop'' [often called by its Arabic name, ''[[ayin]]'']. 

One letter is ''inverted'' (flipped on a horizontal axis): '''{{IPA|ʁ}}''' ''inverted R''. ('''{{IPA|ʍ}}''' could also be called an ''inverted double-u'', but ''turned double-u'' is more common.)

When a horizontal stroke is added, it is called a ''bar'': '''{{IPA|ħ}}''' ''barred H'', '''{{IPA|ɵ}}''' ''barred o'', '''{{IPA|ʢ}}''' ''reversed barred glottal stop'' or ''barred ayin'', '''{{IPA|ɟ}}''' ''barred dotless J'' or ''barred gelded J'' [apparently never 'turned F'], '''{{IPA|ǂ}}''' ''double-barred pipe'', etc.

One letter instead has a ''slash'' through it: '''{{IPA|ø}}''' ''slashed O''.

The implosives have ''hook'' tops: '''{{IPA|ɓ}}''' ''hook-top B'', as does '''{{IPA|ɦ}}''' ''hook-top H''.

Such an extension at the bottom of a letter is called a ''tail''. It may be specified as ''left'' or ''right'' depending on which direction it turns: '''{{IPA|ɳ}}''' ''right-tail N'', '''{{IPA|ɻ}}''' ''right-tail turned R'', '''{{IPA|ɲ}}''' ''left-tail N'' [note that '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' has its own traditional name, ''[[engma]]''], '''{{IPA|ɱ}}''' ''left-tail em'', '''{{IPA|ʐ}}''' ''tail Z'' [or just ''retroflex Z''], etc.

When the tail loops over itself, it's called ''curly'': '''{{IPA|ʝ}}''' ''curly-tail jay'', '''{{IPA|ɕ}}''' ''curly-tail C''. 

There are also a few unique modifications: '''{{IPA|ɬ}}''' ''belted L'', '''{{IPA|ɞ}}''' ''closed reversed epsilon'' [there was once also a '''{{IPA|ɷ}}''' ''closed omega''], '''{{IPA|ɰ}}''' ''right-leg turned M'', '''{{IPA|ɺ}}''' ''turned long-leg R'' [there was once also a ''long-leg R''], '''{{IPA|ǁ}}''' ''double pipe'', and the obsolete '''{{IPA|ʗ}}''' ''stretched C''.

Several non-English letters have traditional names: '''{{IPA|ç}}''' ''C [[cedilla]]'', '''{{IPA|ð}}''' ''[[Eth (letter)|eth]]'' (also spelled ''edh''), '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' ''[[engma]]'', '''{{IPA|ə}}''' ''[[schwa]]'', '''{{IPA|ǃ}}''' ''exclamation mark'', '''{{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;ǀ&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}''' ''pipe''.

Other symbols are unique to the IPA, and have developed their own quirky names: '''{{IPA|ɾ}}''' ''fish-hook R'', '''{{IPA|ɤ}}''' ''[[ram's horns]]'', '''{{IPA|ʘ}}''' ''[[bull's eye]]'', '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' ''[[esh (letter)|esh]]'' [apparently never 'stretched ess'], '''{{IPA|ʒ}}''' ''[[ezh]]'' [sometimes also ''[[yogh]]''], '''{{IPA|ɧ}}''' ''hook-top heng''. 

The '''{{IPA|ʔ}}''' is usually called by the sound it represents, ''glottal stop''. This is not normally a problem, because this symbol is seldom used to represent anything else. However, to specify the symbol itself, it is sometimes called a ''gelded question mark''.

===The diacritic marks===
Diacritics with traditional names: 

:'''{{IPA|é}}''' ''[[Acute accent|acute]]'', '''{{IPA|ē}}''' ''[[macron]]'', '''{{IPA|è}}''' ''[[Grave accent|grave]]'', '''{{IPA|ê}}''' ''[[circumflex]]'', '''{{IPA|ě}}''' ''[[caron]], [[wedge]],'' or ''[[háček]]'', '''{{IPA|ë}}''' ''[[diaeresis]]'' or ''[[umlaut]]'', '''{{IPA|ĕ}}''' ''[[breve]]'', '''{{IPA|ẽ}}''' ''(superscript) [[tilde]]'', plus variants such as '''{{IPA|ḛ}}''' ''subscript tilde'', '''{{IPA|ɫ}}''' ''superimposed tilde'', etc. 

Non-traditional diacritics: 

:'''{{IPA|d̼}}''' ''seagull'', '''{{IPA|e˞}}''' ''hook'', '''{{IPA|e̽}}''' ''over-cross'', '''{{IPA|d ̚}}''' ''corner'', '''{{IPA|d̪}}''' ''bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̺}}''' ''inverted bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̻}}''' ''square'', '''{{IPA|e̥}}''' ''under-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̊}}''' ''over-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̜}}''' ''left half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̹}}''' ''right half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̟}}''' ''plus'', '''{{IPA|e̠}}''' ''under-bar'', '''{{IPA|e̯}}''' ''arch'', '''{{IPA|d̬}}''' ''subscript wedge'', '''{{IPA|e̝}}''' ''up tack'', '''{{IPA|e̞}}''' ''down tack'', '''{{IPA|e̘}}''' ''left tack'', '''{{IPA|e̙}}''' ''right tack'', '''{{IPA|d͡z}}''' ''tie bar'', '''{{IPA|ẹ}}''' ''under-dot'', '''{{IPA|n̩}}''' ''under-stroke''.

Diacritics are alternately named after their function: The bridge is also called the ''dental sign,'' the under-stroke the ''syllabicity sign,'' etc.

==Comparison to other phonetic notation==
The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the [[Americanist phonetic notation]], devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternate to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Indic languages|Indic]], [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], and [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]] linguistics, as well as other regional specialies. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs. 

Other alphabets, such as [[Hangul]], may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as [[Alexander Bell]]'s [[Visible Speech]] and its derivatives. 

There is an extended version of the IPA for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]] (extIPA), which has been included in this article, and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as [[#External links|Luciano Canepari's ''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;can&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;IPA'']].

Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [[ASCII]] character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Two notable systems are [[Kirshenbaum]] and [[SAMPA]] (or [[X-SAMPA]]). These systems are often used in electronic media, although their usage has been declining with the development of computer technology, specifically because of spreading support for [[Unicode]].

See also: [[Unicode and HTML]]

==See also==
{{Commons|{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] explains those IPA symbols used to represent the phonemes of English.
* [[IPA chart for English]]: simplifed version.
* [[Pronunciation respelling for English]]: overview of several pronunciation guide systems used in English dictionaries.
* [[Tipa|TIPA]] provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]].
* [[SAMPA]], [[X-SAMPA]] and [[Kirshenbaum]] are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [[ASCII]].
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA)

==External links==
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html Official home page of the IPA]
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/phon/learnipa.html Learning the IPA for English]
* [http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-ipa-french.htm French IPA characters]
===Free IPA font downloads===
*[http://scripts.sil.org/FontDownloadsGentium Gentium], a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL], a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL], a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
*[http://webmasterei.com/en/ipa/index SIL93] the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
*[http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Test_IPA.html Test page] for installed fonts. Includes alternate variants and tone letters.

===Keyboards===
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/keyboard/ Online keyboard]
* [http://webmasterei.com/en/tools/ipa Online keyboard] and machine pronunciation
*[http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&amp;item_id=ipa-sil_keyboard Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X] for [[Unicode]] IPA input
* [http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex#Tipa WikiTeX] supports editing IPA sequences directly in Wiki articles.

===Sound files===
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/index.html Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)]
**[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/chapter1.html  Pronounceable IPA chart]
*[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/contents.html An introduction to the sounds of languages]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm IPA Lab] Chart with sound files at [[University of Victoria]].  (Works with [[QuickTime]].)
*[http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples]
*[http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/ipa/full/ Another set of IPA sound samples]

===Charts===
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html IPA chart source]
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/ IPA Chart] in Unicode and XHTML/CSS

----
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf IPA number chart], at University of Victoria.
===Unicode===
Official Unicode PDF files:
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf Unicode chart for main IPA letters]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U02B0.pdf Unicode chart for IPA modifier letters]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0300.pdf Unicode chart including IPA diacritics]
----
*[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode]
*[http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/ipachart.html Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols:]  Tables of symbol names and HTML codes at [[Pennsylvania State University|PennState]].

===Personal extensions of the IPA===
* [http://venus.unive.it/canipa/ ''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;can&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;IPA''] : Luciano Canepari's system (500 base symbols)

==References==
* Albright, Robert W. (1958). ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development''. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
* Ball, Martin J.; Esling, John H.; &amp; Dickson, B. Craig. (1995). The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet'', ''25'' (2), 71-80.
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005a). &quot;A Handbook of Phonetics: ‹Natural› Phonetics.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 518. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-8958-480-3] (hb).
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005b) &quot;A Handbook of Pronunciation: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 436. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-89586-481-1] (hb).
* Duckworth, M.; Allen, G.; Hardcastle, W.; &amp; Ball, M. J. (1990). Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech. ''Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics'', ''4'', 273-280.
* Ellis, Alexander J. (1869-1889). ''On early English pronunciation'' (Parts 1 &amp; 5). London: Philological Society by Asher &amp; Co.; London: Trübner &amp; Co.
* Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of ''Phonetic symbol guide'' by G. K. Pullum &amp; W. Ladusaw]. ''Language'', ''64'' (1), 143-144.
* Hultzen, Lee S. (1958). [Review of ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its backgrounds and development'' by R. W. Albright]. ''Language'', ''34'' (3), 438-442.
* International Phonetic Association. (1949). ''The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages''. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
* International Phonetic Association. (1989). Report on the 1989 Kiel convention. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''19'' (2), 67-80.
* International Phonetic Association. (1999). ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb).
* Jespersen, Otto. (1889). ''The articulations of speech sounds represented by means of analphabetic symbols''. Marburg: Elwert.
* Jones, Daniel. (1989). ''English pronouncing dictionary'' (14 ed.). London: Dent.
* Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 alphabet: An episode of phonotypy. In R. E. Asher &amp; E. J. A. Henderson (Eds.), ''Towards a history of phonetics''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
* Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher &amp; J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'' (Vol. 6, pp. 3040-3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
* Ladefoged, Peter. (1990). The revised International Phonetic Alphabet.  ''Language'', ''66'' (3), 550-552.
* Ladefoged, Peter; &amp; Halle, Morris. (1988). Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet. ''Language'', ''64'' (3), 577-582.
* MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels &amp; W. Bright (Ed.), ''The world's writing systems'' (pp. 821-846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
* Passy, Paul. (1888). Our revised alphabet. ''The Phonetic Teacher'', 57-60.
* Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). ''Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* [[Geoffrey Pullum|Pullum, Geoffrey K.]]; &amp; Laduslaw, William A. (1986). ''Phonetic symbol guide''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
* Sweet, Henry. (1880-1881). Sound notation. ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', 177-235.
* Sweet, Henry. (1971). ''The indispensable foundation: A selection from the writings of Henry Sweet''. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and language learning 28. London: Oxford University Press.
* Wells, John C. (1987). Computer-coded phonetic transcription. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''17'', 94-114.

&lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate metadata&quot; style=&quot;font-size:smaller; background-color:#f3f9ff; padding:0 1em; border:1px solid #aaa;&quot;&gt;
==Technical note==
Most IPA symbols are not included in [[Times New Roman]], the default font for Latin scripts in [[Internet Explorer]] for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in Internet Explorer for Windows, you must set your browser font to a typeface that includes the IPA extensions, such as [[Lucida Sans Unicode]], which comes with Windows XP; [[Gentium]], [[Charis (SIL)]], and [[Doulos (SIL)]], which are freely available (see links above); or [[Arial Unicode MS]], which comes with Microsoft Office. Alternatively, the style sheet could try using unicode-range specifications to note the gaps where Times does not have glyphs for IPA, Hawaiian [[Okina|‘okina]] (glottal stop), etc. and thus hopefully force the browser to check further down the list of fonts.

On this page, we have forced the browser to use such a font, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using [[meta:Help:Special characters|special symbols]].  Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as &quot;蚟&quot; in  articles.

Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera, Safari and most other recent browsers.
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]
{{wikipedia|International Phonetic Alphabet}}</text>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>(Wikipedia)</comment>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Denihilonihil</title>
    <id>2147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:36:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">One thing you might want to be aware of in copying material from Wikipedia is that a link to the original Wikipedia article is required [I notice you neglecting this, it should go just after &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{wikipedia}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;], e.g.:

:{{wikipedia}} [[Wikipedia:Subject Object Verb]]

Another thing (as I mentioned [[User talk:Spelldown|to someone else]] awhile back) is that this information will likely go stale here, where there are fewer people working, compared to Wikipedia which has more working on keeping it fresh.  It might be a better practice, overall, to write a short stub ''here'' (which will be under [[FrathWiki:Copyrights|our license]] rather than [[FrathWiki:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|theirs]], helping to keep things simple) along with a [[Help:Editing#Interwiki links|link to Wikipedia]], if you find their information to be useful.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 04:40, 4 March 2006 (PST)

==Category deletion==
Deleting a category description page is done in the same way as deleting an ordinary page.  However if there are articles ''in'' the category they will still be listed, whether the category has a description page or not (and if there are no pages, it will still have the &quot;There are 0 articles in this category&quot; message).  But not being a sysop here probably prevents you from actually deleting, as opposed to blanking, any page or category.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 23:36, 24 November 2006 (PST)</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Loran berOnge</title>
    <id>2148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-06T23:28:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>categ lein saga</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lein Loran berOnge, the Civil Emperor''' is the fourth Emperor of the [[Lein Empire|Lein]], and the first of the [[Four Great Emperors]]. Ruling for 26 years from the 59th to the 85th year of the dynasty, Loran's reign was most significant as a period during which the Empire recovered and eventually emerged stronger after the tyranny and misrule of [[Lein Onge berKasan]], the Deposed.

[[Category:Lein Saga]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auxlang</title>
    <id>2150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-06T12:25:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[International auxiliary language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International auxiliary language</title>
    <id>2151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46339</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T11:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''international auxiliary language''' (sometimes abbreviated as '''IAL''' or '''auxlang''') is a language used (or to be used in the future) for communication between people from different nations who do not share a common native language.  The term is used especially for conlangs created for this purpose, such as [[Wikipedia:Esperanto|Esperanto]].

[[Category:Types of conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Legendarium</title>
    <id>2152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7804</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-06T12:41:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''legendarium''' refers to a mesh of tales that lay out the history and mythology of a [[conworld]].  The term was used by J. R. R. Tolkien to describe his Middle-earth related writings, and has since been used for similar works of imagination.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Erelion12</title>
    <id>2153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23977</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-27T17:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi, I don't know about any special kind of formatting I could add to your Silindion page, it seems fine to me as it stands.  I will say that we probably don't need both [[SILINDION]] and [[Silindion]].  You could probably merge the former into the latter, or move the former to something like [[Grammar of Silindion]]. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:17, 9 March 2006 (PST)

Can I just say that your Silindion grammar page is looking amazing. So comprehensive in its layout. Such an inspiration! [[User:Pisceesumsprecan]]</text>
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    <title>File:Fenix-hr1.png</title>
    <id>2154</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-10T18:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Human Rights (Art. 1) in Fenix script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Human Rights (Art. 1) in Fenix script</text>
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    <title>File:Khaful-hr1.png</title>
    <id>2155</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Human Rights (Art. 1) in Khaful script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Human Rights (Art. 1) in Khaful script</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Human Rights (Art. 1) in Tifet script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Human Rights (Art. 1) in Tifet script</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:Zhen Lin</title>
    <id>2157</id>
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      <id>7922</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Template:Fn ==

How does Template:Fn work? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:49, 15 March 2006 (PST)

In conjunction with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{fnb}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, of course.

This statement is true.{{fn|footnote-id}}

{{fnb|footnote-id}} Actually false.</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Khepidjemwa'atnefru</title>
    <id>2158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-19T08:03:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khepidjemwa'atnefru</username>
        <id>162</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Lue-Yee [  ]''' = '''Epeuthutebetes'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| 曾履義&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Conflag_med.png]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| 02 Dec 1988; [[Wikipedia:Opelika,_Alabama|Opelika, Alabama]], United States
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Student
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| Cantonese, English, Mandarin Chinese, Latin, French
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| creating [[Silendion]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| [[Wikipedia:Quenya|Quenya]], [[Wikipedia:Sindarin|Sindarin]], [[Old Albic]], [[Wikipedia:Brithenig|Brithenig]], etc.
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Conlanging, of course! Linguistics, ancient history, calligraphy, mythology, random trivia, etc.
|-
|valign=top|'''More information:'''
|| 
* '''Sex''': Male
* '''Email''': lueyee@berkeley.edu
* '''Location''': [[Wikipedia:Berkeley,_CA|Berkeley, CA]] 94720
|}


==Education==
===Secondary===
* [[Wikipedia:Lake Braddock Secondary School|Lake Braddock Secondary School]] (7-11)
** [skipped senior year] (c.f. [[Wikipedia:Early_college_entrance_program|early college entrance programs]])

===Tertiary===
* [http://www.berkeley.edu UC Berkeley] (class of 2009)
** Intended [[Wikipedia:Academic_major|Major]]: [[Wikipedia:Cognitive_Science|Cognitive Science]] ([[Wikipedia:B.A.|B.A.]] in 3 years?), [[Wikipedia:Linguistics|Linguistics]] ([[Wikipedia:Master_of_Arts_(postgraduate)|M.A.]] in 4.5 years?)
** Possible Minor: [[Wikipedia:Chinese_language|Chinese]]</text>
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    <title>Silendion</title>
    <id>2159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29240</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T10:36:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Workinprogress}}&lt;br&gt;
{{Infobox|name=Silendion|pronounce=[silɛndiɔn]|tu=c. 1300 B.C. - 400 B.C.|species=human|in=Hesperidia|no=extinct|script=Alphabetic, similar to Mongolian|tree=[[Wikipedia:Mixed_language|Mixed Language]] (Minoan-Chrysaeglian)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Silendic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Classical Silendion'''|morph=agglutinative &gt; fusional|ms=[[Fluid-S]]|wo=SOV, free|creator=Epeuthutēbetēs|date=late 2003-}}

'''Classical Silendion''', also known as Hesperidian, is an extinct, non-Indo-European language believed to have been spoken in the Azores and the Madeira Islands from approximately the time of the Trojan War until shortly before the time of Herodotus. Greek texts from the Alexandrian library that have since disappeared tell us that the small descendant community living in Carthage and on the Purple Islands believed that their ancestors had lived on an island outside the gates of Heracles that had since sunken beneath the waves. The size of the island is unclear, since some said it was the size of Sicily, while others claimed it was as large as Iberia or even Gaul.

Scholars believe that the indigenous people were perhaps distantly related to the Basques. Later on, a group of Eteocretan-speaking proto-Minoans migrated for still unknown reasons, bringing their early Cretan civilization with them and strongly influencing the existing culture; at this time, cities started to emerge on the island, and a [[Wikipedia:mixed_language|mixed language]] arose from the bilingualism of the two populations. After the Trojan War, Mycenaean-Greek-speaking Salaminians and Aegeans who had been driven to the island by stormy weather on the seas settled and culturally assimilated to the native population but left a clear mark on parts of the verbal morphology.

==General Characteristics==

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
====Vowel System====
Classical Silendion had at least six short vowel phonemes and five long vowel phonemes.
&lt;br/&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Short Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || || ({{IPA|æ}})
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

Long vowels are indicated by double writing, also called plene writing, for example in Hittite: da-a-at-ti [dāti] 'you take', pe-e-da-as [pēdas] '(s)he took away', or i-it [īd] 'go!'.
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Long Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|iː}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|uː}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|eː}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|oː}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|aː}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

====Diphthongs====
There are several diphthongs, although the exact number is under dispute. [āi], [ēi] and [ōi] were probably long diphthongs, from several sources. There were also three corresponding short diphthongs [ai], [ei] and [oi]. There were probably also at least five other diphthongs: [au], [eu], possibly [ou], [iu] and [ui].

===Consonants===
====Stops====
There were ten stops, and there is no evidence to indicate that their distribution was affected by sound change.

&lt;center&gt; 

{|style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Labial
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Alveolar
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Palatalized Alveolar
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Velar
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Labiovelar
|-
|[p]
|[t]
|[tʲ]
|[k]
|[kʷ]
|-
|[b]
|[d]
|[dʲ]
|[g]
|[gʷ]
|}

&lt;/center&gt; 

Silendion also had true geminate, or doubled, stops, for example ''atta'' 'father' [atta].

====Glides, Nasals and Liquids====
There were two glides, a palatal [j] and a labial [w]. There were also at least three nasal phonemes [n], [m] and [ŋ] and two liquid phonemes [l] and [r]. Liquids and two of the nasals are written double in a number of contexts, and the evidence suggests that [n], [m], [l], and [r] were opposed to geminate, or doubled, nasals and liquids. In some cases a clear contrast is made, indicating that the difference was phonemic. The nasal [n] and the liquids [l] and [r] also appeared contrastively in palatalized forms [nʲ], [lʲ] and [rʲ], respectively.

====Fricatives and Affricates====
Silendion had at least one voiceless alveolar fricative [s], which contrasted with a geminate [ss]. The existence of corresponding voiced [z] and [zz] was rhotacized early on to [r] and [rr], respectively. Silendion also had the following fricatives that did not appear in geminate form:
&lt;center&gt; 

{|style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Labial
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Dental
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Velar
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Labiovelar
|-
|[f]
|[þ]
|[h]
|[hʷ]
|-
|[v]
|[ð]
|[ɣ] = ∅
|[ɣʷ] = [w]
|}

&lt;/center&gt;

There was one affricate, [ts], which surfaced only as an allophone of [s].

===Phonotactics===
====Morphophonemics====

===Word Stress===

==Person==

==Nominal System==

===Nouns===
====Gender and Animacy====
====[[Wikipedia: Suffixaufnahme|Suffixaufnahme]]====

===Adjectives===
Words with adjectival meaning are either nouns with suffixaufnahme or derived from verbs, often from perfect-stative forms. Attributive adjectives agree with their head nouns in case, gender and number (not necessarily in declensional suffix!). Animate adjectives take the declensional suffixes of first-declension nouns in ''a'', while neuters take second-declension neuter suffixes in declension.

Substantively used adjectives can take any declensional suffix that nouns can take.

====Predicative Verbs====
Adjectives are inflected as verbs when used as predicates. There is evidence indicating that adjectives in all their uses are actually thought of as a special kind of verb.
{{Seealso|#Stative Verbs}}

====Comparison====
====Adverbs====
Adverbs do not exist separately but only as adjectives or nouns declined in the adverbial case.

===Personal Pronouns and Determiners===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px gray solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; vertical-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 style=&quot;background:white;border-top:2px white solid;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:2px white solid;&quot;|
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Number'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Singular'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Paucal'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Plural'''''
|-
| rowspan=5 style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Person'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''First'''''
|min
|mokiar ''(inclusive)''
momiar ''(exclusive)''
|mokir ''(inclusive)''
momir ''(exclusive)''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Second'''''
|kin
|kiar
|kir
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Third Proximate'''''
|tin
|tiar
|tir
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Third Obviative'''''
|sin ''(anim.)''
son ''(neut.)''
|siar ''(anim.)''
soin ''(neut.)''
|sir ''(anim.)''
sa ''(neut.)''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Indefinite Generic'''''
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; | [null] = ∅
|}

In Silendion, there are fourteen pronouns. It has two first person plural pronouns (&quot;we&quot;, in English). One is called the inclusive, which is used when the speaker wishes to include in &quot;we&quot; the person to whom he or she is speaking (&quot;we and you&quot;). The other form is called the exclusive, which is used when the addressee is excluded (&quot;we without you&quot;). Animate personal pronouns are declined like animate nouns of the fourth declension, while neuter personal pronouns are declined like such nouns of the second declension.

Unlike nouns, pronouns are [[Wikipedia: nominative-accusative language|nominative-accusative]] in morphosyntactic alignment: with regard to the semantic distribution of agent, patient and experiencer between these two cases, the nominative case is used with subjects of transitive and of intransitive verbs, while the accusative case is used only with direct objects. The nominative and accusative forms of personal pronouns are used only for emphasis of these arguments of the verb.

====Spatial and Discourse Deixis====
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px gray solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; vertical-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=1 rowspan=2 style=&quot;background:white;border-top:2px white solid;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:2px white solid;&quot;|
| colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Animate'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Neuter'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Proximate'''''
| colspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Obviative'''''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Proximal (Here)'''''
|aumin
|auminun
|aumon
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Distal (There)'''''
|aukin
|aukinun
|aukon
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Remote (Yonder)'''''
|autin
|autinun
|auton
|}

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

==Adpositions==
In Silendion, [[Wikipedia: adposition|adposition]]s can be placed either postpositionally or prepositionally ([[Wikipedia: adposition|ambiposition]]s), but it is more common to see them used as postpositions. All or nearly all adpositions in Silendion have meanings that depend on the case taken by their objects.

===With Nominal Objects (Noun-Headed Cliticization)===
There are more differences between the two than just placement with respect to the object(s) of an adposition. With prepositions, their object noun phrases are marked with the appropriate nominal inflections. With postpositions, however, while the structure in older Silendion was the same, in classical Silendion the inflectional suffixes migrated from the nouns to the adpositions in a shift from independent marking to head marking, with a [[Wikipedia: paragoge|paragogic]] vowel after the noun phrase's head noun. After this, the adpositions fused with the nouns as enclitics.
&lt;pre&gt;
P (DET) N-CASE.NUMBER
(DET) N-P-CASE.NUMBER
&lt;/pre&gt;
(&quot;N&quot; = noun, &quot;P&quot; = postposition or adposition, &quot;DET&quot; = determiner)

===With Pronominal Objects (Adposition-Headed Amalgamation)===
When an adposition has a first- or second-person object or a pronominal third-person object, another construction is used. The adposition is inflected for person, then declined with adjectival suffixes.
&lt;pre&gt;
P-POSS.PERSON-CASE.NUMBER
&lt;/pre&gt;

==Conjunctions==

==Verbal System==

===Tense-Aspect Systems===
====Imperfective System====

====Aorist (Perfective) System====

====Perfect-Stative System====

===Voices===

===Moods===
====Indicative====
====Imperative====
====Subjunctive====
====Optative====
====Conditional====
====Potential====

===Non-finite Forms===
====Infinitives====
====Participles====
====Converbs====
====Supines====

===Present System Conjugation===
The paradigm of ''lerdeina'', 'make, do', is given below.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px gray solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; vertical-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:white;border-top:2px solid gray;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:2px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''ACTIVE VOICE'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Singular'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Paucal'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Plural'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Indicative'''''
|lerdō
|lerdeis
|lerdei
|lerdosse
|lerdekse
|lerdepse
|lerdolen
|lerdete
|lerdor
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Imperative'''''
|
|lerde
|lerdes
|
|lerdek
|lerdep
|
|lerdete
|lerdorte
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Non-Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Infinitive'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | lerdeina
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Participle'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | lerdontos, lerdontē, lerdonton
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''[Gerund]'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | [lerdond-]
|-
| colspan=11 rowspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:solid gray;border-top:1px solid gray;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:1px solid gray;&quot;| 
|-
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:white;border-top:2px solid gray;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:2px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''MIDDLE VOICE'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Singular'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Paucal'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Plural'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Indicative'''''
|lerdomes
|lerdesai
|lerdetai
|lerdosso
|lerdekso
|lerdepso
|lerdomela
|lerdesþe
|lerdontai
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Imperative'''''
|
|lerdeso
|lerdero
|
|lerdeko
|lerdepo
|
|lerdesþe
|lerdoste
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Non-Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Infinitive'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | lerdeþai
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Participle'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | lerdampos, lerdampē, lerdampon
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''[Gerund]'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | [lerdamb-]
|}
Conjunct-order moods, the remaining finite moods, (subjunctive, optative, conditional) are formed by agglutinative suffixes placed immediately before the indicative personal endings:
:*Subjunctive: -eina + personal ending
:*Optative: -oi + personal ending
:*Conditional: -ith + [subjnc. (non-past) or opt. (past)] + [personal ending]
The gerund is never used by itself but only as a form for generating converbs and supines. The paucal forms of the verb are a comparatively recent innovation of poetic origin.

The following inflections are not for subject marking but are used as object markers preceding the main subject agreement markers showing voice and mood. They are labeled 'accusative' rather than 'passive' because object agreement markers are not inflected for either voice or mood. Accusative markers having developed from a true passive during the earlier accusative-aligned stages of Silendion, however, the formerly passive endings for the conjunct-order moods were completely lost in the standard mesolect, while the other moods as well as non-finite forms were retained, though the non-finite forms are not semantically distinct from their middle counterparts, being used mainly as stylistic variants more common in some dialects. In some dialects, though, the old passive shifted in its use to an antipassive in which the agent takes the agentive case and the patient is absent. In poetic usage, the tension between these dialectal variants and passive archaisms can be manipulated in transitive sentences for ambiguity.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px gray solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; vertical-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=2 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:white;border-top:2px solid gray;border-right:1px solid gray;border-bottom:1px solid gray;border-left:2px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''ACCUSATIVE'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Singular'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Paucal'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Plural'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''1'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''2'''''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''3'''''
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=2 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Indicative'''''
|lerdomas
|lerdesi
|lerdeti
|lerdossi
|lerdeksi
|lerdepsi
|lerdomeni
|lerdetis
|lerdonte
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Imperative'''''
|
|lerdesa
|lerdera
|
|lerdeki
|lerdepi
|
|lerdetis
|lerdote
|-
| colspan=1 rowspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#9FB6CD;&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Non-Finite'''&lt;/big&gt;
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Infinitive'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | [lerdesu]
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''Participle'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | [lerdankos, lerdankē, lerdankon]
|-
| colspan=1 align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#B9D3EE&quot;|'''''[Gerund]'''''
| colspan=9 align=&quot;left&quot; | [lerdang-]
|}

====Consonant Stem Conjugation====
====High Vowel Stem Conjugation====
====Contract Conjugations in ''a'', ''e'' and ''o''====

===Stative Verbs===
Stative verbs are conjugated in the perfect-stative aspect, either as forms of existing verbs or as defective verbs. Since there are no lexically separate adjectives in Silendion, the equivalent to what English expresses as an adjective is a stative verb with nominal instead of verbal morphology, i.e. instead of being conjugated, the stative verb is declined.

===Polypersonalism===

===Negation of Verbs===

===Interrogatives===
Interrogative enclitics index the speaker's gender.

==Numbers==

==Syntax==

===Noun Phrases===

===Clauses===
====Converbal Clauses====
====Complement Clauses====
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:TOCright</title>
    <id>2160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-16T13:20:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 style=&quot;clear:right; margin-bottom: .5em; float: right; padding: .5em 0 .8em 1.4em;&quot;
|
__TOC__
|}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Fn</title>
    <id>2161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-18T13:30:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Usage notes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">How does Template:Fn work? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:49, 15 March 2006 (PST)

In conjunction with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{fnb}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, of course.

This statement is true.{{fn|footnote-id}}

{{fnb|footnote-id}} Actually false.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>File:Eiglyph.gif</title>
    <id>2162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-18T21:13:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Alternative /ei/ glyph for [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:CanjoBR</title>
    <id>2163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>7995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-20T02:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanjoBR</username>
        <id>163</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Vrne tartal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vrne tartal</title>
    <id>2164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-20T03:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanjoBR</username>
        <id>163</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Vrne Tartal''' (VT: The Green language), called Eylastal after passing out of common usage, is my language; it's both an artistic and personal constructed language. It is an inflected fusional language with two grammatical genders and 

It is based on no other language, but it is nonetheless mostly conventional.

==Phonology==
IPA equivalents are given here for letters in the most common writing system I use. There is theoretically an independent writing system for Eylastal but I haven't had any success in making it; this is all romanization nonetheless and as such I may spell inconsistently. 

===Vowels===
{| border=1
!Vowel||[[IPA]]
|-
|a||{{IPA|[a, ə]}}
|-
|e||{{IPA|[&amp;#x025B;]}}
|-
|ê||{{IPA|[eɪ, e]}}
|-
|i||[i]
|-
|o||{{IPA|[&amp;#x0254;]}}
|-
|ô||{{IPA|[oʊ]}}
|-
|u||[u]
|}

* At the end of a word, r can also serve as a vowel.
* When two vowels are juxtaposed, o = ô and e = ê. Hence ear [eɪ.ar]
* er = [er], not [ɜr]

===Diphthongs===
{| border=1
!Diphthong||[[IPA]]
|-
|ay||{{IPA|[aɪ]}}
|-
|oy||{{IPA|[ɔɪ]}}
|-
|uy||[uɪ]
|-
|aw||{{IPA|[aʊ]}}
|-
|ew||{{IPA|[eʊ]}}
|}

===Consonants===
{| border=1
!Consonant||[[IPA]]
|-
|b||[b]
|-
|c||[k]
|-
|ch||[{{IPA|ʧ}}]
|-
|d||[d]
|-
|dh||[&amp;eth;]
|-
|f||[f]
|-
|g||[g]
|-
|h||[h]
|-
|k||[x]
|-
|l||[l]
|-
|m||[m]
|-
|n||[n]
|-
|ng||[&amp;#x014B;]
|-
|p||[p]
|-
|r||[r]
|-
|s||[s]
|-
|sh||{{IPA|[&amp;#x0283;]}}
|-
|t||[t]
|-
|th||[&amp;theta;]
|-
|v||[v]
|-
|w||[w]
|-
|x||[ks]
|-
|y||[j]
|-
|z||[z]
|}

At the end of a word, o is pronounced as ô and e as ê.


===Stress===
Stress falls on the first syllable unless there is an accented vowel:
* a -&gt; á
* e -&gt; é
* ê -&gt; è
* o -&gt; ò
* ô -&gt; ó
* u -&gt; ú

which, naturally, takes the stress. Also, any diphthong automatically takes the stress, including the &quot;diphthongs&quot; ar, er, ir, or, and ur, unless there is an accent mark, which always overrides it; however, stress cannot fall on the last syllable unless there is an accent written. Thus, &quot;sathay&quot; is pronounced ['saθaɪ] whereas &quot;satháy&quot; is pronounced [saθ'aɪ].  


===Syllable rules===
Where C represents any consonant above and V any vowel, generally:

Word-initially, a syllable may take the form CCVC;
Medially, a syllable may take the form CVC;
Word-finally, a syllable may take the form CVC.

This boils down to a word structure of CCVCCVCCVCCVC, at most. In other words, you can never have more than two consonants next to each other, including liquids. 

Some exceptions: 
* If the last consonant is a spirant (denoted as s) [s] or [z], the final syllable can take the form CVCs.

* When the last consonant is r functioning as a vowel, the cluster can end in CCVCr or even theoretically CCVCsr. For example, &quot;tiryatr&quot; (to the kingdom), &quot;èmatr&quot; (to the animal), &quot;cutsr&quot; (to the cube).
 

When a voiced consonant comes in contact with an unvoiced consonant, the whole consonant cluster becomes voiced. Thus,
satha (white) + varósa (clothed) = sadhvarósa (white-clothed)

Two plosives can never be juxtaposed. When there is a consonant cluster of the form PP (where P is a plosive), it will become FP, where F is the fricative equivalent according to the following rule:

* p -&gt; f
* b -&gt; v
* t -&gt; th
* d -&gt; dh
* ch -&gt; sh
* c -&gt; k
* g -&gt; g

The resultant is then voiced if necessary; since there is no voiced equivalent of k, it simply disappears.

The following clusters will change as follows, where P is any plosive, V any vowel, and F any fricative, N any nasal and P(n) that nasal's plosive equivalent, and L any approximant or fricative:

* PvV -&gt; PwV
* PgV -&gt; PyV
* kyV -&gt; shV
* hLV -&gt; cLV
* NN  -&gt; P(n)N

This transformations are performed before applying the two-consonant rule to reduce clusters. Hence, nelki (to hate) + ya (3rd person singular present) = nelsha

==Grammar==
===Nouns===
Eylastali nouns have the following properties:
* Two genders: masculine and feminine;
* Two numbers: singular and plural. Gender is lost in the plural.
* Six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative, and vocative;
* Two &quot;aspects&quot;: definite and indefinite;
* Two &quot;verities&quot;: positive and negative.

I can't figure out how to do a fancy table so bear with me here:

For the prototypical masculine noun I here use &quot;neldas&quot; (the nose), for the prototypical feminine &quot;etwês&quot; (the star).

Not all nouns are regular; many nouns end simply in a consonant rather than the -a or -e gender ending. These words must simply be memorized along with their gender (normally denoted by the nominative pronoun they take, &quot;ga&quot; (masculine) or &quot;e&quot; (feminine)).

====Regular masculine paradigm====
* Nominative positive: nelda (a nose), neldas (the nose)
* Nominative negative: nelday (not a nose), neldays (not the nose)

* Accusative positive: neldo (a nose), neldos (the nose)
* Accusative negative: neldoy (not a nose), neldoys (not the nose)

* Genitive positive: nelden (a/the nose's)
* Genitive negative: neldedmá (not a/the nose's)

* Dative positive: neldar (to a/the nose)
* Dative negative: neldamá (not to the nose)

* Locative positive: neldov (at the nose)
* Locative negative: neldoyv (not at the nose)

* Vocative positive: neldat (O nose!)
* Vocative negative: neldayt (O non-nose!)

====Regular feminine paradigm====
* Nominative positive: etwe (a star), etwês (the star)
* Nominative negative: etweya (not a star), etwêsmá (not the star)

* Accusative positive: etwo (a star), etwôs (the star)
* Accusative negative: etwoy (not a star), etwôsmá (not the star)

* Genitive positive: etwin (a/the star's)
* Genitive negative: etwidmá (not a/the star's)

* Dative positive: etwiz (to a/the star)
* Dative negative: etwemá (not to the star)

* Locative positive: etwon (at the star)
* Locative negative: etwoyn (not at the star)

* Vocative positive: etwêt (O star!)
* Vocative negative: etwêtmá (O non-star!)

====Regular plural paradigm====
* Nominative positive: etwi (stars), etwis (the stars)
* Nominative negative: etwiya (not stars), etwismá (not the stars)

* Accusative positive: etwu (stars), etwus (the stars)
* Accusative negative: etwuy (not stars), etwusmá (not the stars)

* Genitive positive: etwanir (the stars')
* Genitive negative: etwadmá (not the stars')

* Dative positive: etwalir (to the stars)
* Dative negative: etwalmá (not to the stars)

* Locative positive: etwanon (among the stars)
* Locative negative: etwanoyn (not among the stars)

* Vocative positive: etwit (O stars!)
* Vocative negative: etwitmá (O non-stars!)

===Pronouns===
Eylastali pronouns serve either as placeholders for nouns or as focus markers. More on this distinction in the sentence structure section.

Singular pronouns:
{| border=1
!English (nominative) || Nominative || Accusative || Genitive || Dative || Locative
|-
|I||nwa*||(h)om||men||omr||mov
|-
|thou&lt;br&gt;you||sha||(h)eth||thay||the||thov
|-
|he&lt;br&gt;it||ga||ta||tay||tar||tov
|-
|she&lt;br&gt;it||e||te||teya||tiz||ton
|}

Plural pronouns:
{| border=1
!English (nominative) || Nominative || Accusative || Genitive || Dative || Locative
|-
|we||amen&lt;br&gt;amel**||(h)imu&lt;br&gt;(h)imlu||imir||imlir||ibnon
|-
|ye&lt;br&gt;you||sfia||(h)ivu||ivir||ivlir||ivnon
|-
|they||kay||ihu||ihir||iclir||icnon
|}

There is also the pronoun &quot;a&quot;, which is the indefinite&lt;br&gt;passive pronoun, roughly equivalent to the &quot;there&quot; in &quot;there are clouds outside.&quot; Verbs with it as subject always take the second person ending.

The initial h on the accusative pronouns only comes into play when the pronoun comes after a vowel. Ie:

* Nweri sarim ''eth''. (I want to see you.) &lt;br&gt;
vs.
* Ga nerya sarya ''heth''. (He wants to see you.) &lt;br&gt;

Nwa is rarely used as a pronoun in its own right, except as a focus marker or relative pronoun.
Amel refers to we as in &quot;someone else and I&quot; ie it is exclusive; amen refers to we as in &quot;you and I&quot; ie it is inclusive.

Pronouns are negated by the suffix -má. 

===Adjectives===
Adjectives are inflected to agree with the ending of the noun they modify, including negative endings.

Positive endings:
{| border=1
! ||Nominative || Accusative || Genitive || Dative || Locative || Vocative
|-
|Masc. || -a || -o || -an || -ar || -ov || -(th)a
|-
|Fem. || -e || -o || -en || -er || -on || -(th)e
|-
|Plu. || -i || -u || -(n)ir || -(l)ir || -(n)on || -(th)i
|}

Positive endings:
{| border=1
! ||Nominative || Accusative || Genitive || Dative || Locative || Vocative
|-
|Masc. || -ay || -oy || -ayn || -admá || -oyv || -(th)ay
|-
|Fem. || -eya || -oy || -êdmá || -edmá || -oyn || -(th)eya
|-
|Plu. || -iya || -uy || -(n)idmá || -(l)idmá || -(n)oyn || -(th)iya
|}


The consonants in parentheses only appear when the adjective root ends in a vowel.

A negative noun always takes a negative adjective, but a positive noun may take a negative adjective if that adjective is to be negated. Ie:

* &quot;Efiya garismá&quot; = the old not-men &lt;br&gt;
vs.&lt;br&gt;
* &quot;Efiya garis&quot; = the not-old men

===Verbs and Meaningless Particles===
====Conjugation====
Verbs are conjugated in two tenses according to the subject. Verbs have no infinitive form, but are referred to for convenience by their second-person singular form.

The regular present-tense pattern is as follows, using the verb &quot;tari&quot;, to talk:
{| border=1
|I talk || twari |||| we talk || amen taru
|-
|you talk || sha tari |||| you(pl) talk || sfia tari
|-
|he talks || ga tarya |||| they talk || kay taru
|-
|she talks || e tarya |||| there is talking || a tari
|}

And past tense:
{| border=1
|I talked || twaro |||| we talked || amen taru
|-
|you talked || sha taro |||| you(pl) talked || sfia taro
|-
|he talked || ga taryo |||| they talked || kay taru
|-
|she talked || e taryo |||| there was talking || a tari
|}

The first person conjugation here is the most interesting. The pronoun &quot;nwa&quot; is subsumed into the verb and manifested as an infixed &quot;w&quot;. When the two-consonant rule prohibits such infixion, it is simply not done; when a word begins in a vowel, either the &quot;w&quot; is infixed in the syllable carrying primary stress, or the word begins with &quot;nw-&quot;. Ie:

* ''Atwari'' ta sca. = I represent him. (using verb atari = to represent)
* ''Nwari'' heth sca. = I see you. (using verb ari = to see)

Since verbs have no infinitive, they are always conjugated for subject, even when it seems redundant. However, while the pronoun may be repeated in such situations, it is not required. Thus:

* Ga nerya ''tirya'' egmo scaya. = He wants to rule the world., literally &quot;he wants rules a world.&quot;
* Sha trefi ''layli'' laylo. = You try to sing a song., literally &quot;you try sing a song.&quot;

Note that the pronoun &quot;nwa&quot;, when appearing after a verb in such a situation, appears as the suffix &quot;-m.&quot; It is required to be present. Thus,

* Trefo ''tarôm'' the scaya, cha swescoy. = I tried to talk to you but couldn't., literally &quot;I tried talked I to you, but I couldn't.&quot;
* Swek ''cóclim'' vecu fuylu. = I can buy two spoons., literally &quot;I can buy I two spoons.&quot;
* Èn sa ek ''sarim'' eth. = It is good to see you., literally &quot;Good is, that see I you.&quot;

Suffixes can also be attached to verbs to signify future or distant past events. These do not count as separate tenses. The future suffix is -ví and the past suffix is -mó.

====Meaningless Particles====
The meaningless particles, while originally conceived as truly meaningless, have grown to actually mean something: they are the difference between a general action and a specific action, the difference between &quot;I eat rabbits&quot; (Shwumi féfaru) and &quot;I am eating rabbits&quot; (Shwumi féfaru sca). Every verb takes one of six such M.P.s, the distribution being largely arbitrary, although there are some general guidelines. The M.P.s are furthermore inflected for tense and mood, and have some special forms. M.P.s can exist without a verb to modify, in which case they imply the presence of a verb, one which would agree with the M.P.

* '''sa''' is mostly used for intransitive verbs lacking motion; used for location, temporary states of being, stationary activities, etc.
* '''ha''' is mostly used for intransitive verbs of motion.
* '''sca''' is used for transitive verbs. It tends to be used with verbs involving a clear object and subject, and involving dynamic physical motion.
* '''la''' is used to imply suddenness and surprise. It is the least common M.P.
* '''na''' is used often for transitive and intransitive verbs involving emotion or intimate personal states. 
* '''fa''' is mostly indistinguishable from &quot;sca&quot;, but it is used for verbs involving a change of state. You can usually guess which M.P. a verb takes but there's no discernable rule distinguishing sca and fa for all verbs involving them, so it must simply be memorized.

The M.P.s have the following forms for tense&lt;br&gt;mood&lt;br&gt;verity:

{| border=1
|present positive || sa || ha || sca || na || la || fa
|-
|past positive || so || ko || sco || no || lo || fo
|-
|subjunctive || saya || haya || scaya || naya || laya || faya
|-
|present negative || soy || hoy || scoy || noy || loy || foy
|-
|past negative || si || ki || shi || mi || li || fi
|}

The subjunctive is used when the veracity of a verb is in question; it is used when asking questions, in uncertain subordinate clauses, and for conditional statements.

The negative M.P.s are the only way to negate a verb; even in cases where a verb would not carry an M.P. in the positive, it must carry one in the negative. 

The M.P.s also have certain special forms:
* '''asi, ahi, ash, ani, ali, afi; asaya; asoy''': Used much like the present subjunctive in German journalism. When a verb carries an M.P. in one of these forms, it represents something according to someone else without casting too much doubt on the veracity of the verb. It is also used to head off the &quot;if&quot; part of if-then statements.
* '''isi, ihi, ish(i), ini, ili, ifi; isaya; isoy''' are sort of diminuative forms implying smallness or motion toward the speaker.  
In these forms the tense distinction is lost.


 ok I'm tired; going to bed


==An unfinished text in Vrne Tartal==

Urov swa Driov

Aharo cwi aványir adzelir                   &lt;br&gt;
swa sewlir sadhalir kay egmov so,           &lt;br&gt;
cyat nwa voydhósa laylim ivlir te           &lt;br&gt;
ti ecyo aynon sunanon efró.                &lt;br&gt;
A sadhar so ek Uren tartebla,               &lt;br&gt;
ol èov tiryo Dria egmôs sco,                &lt;br&gt;
agáhte Uras agadríabla,                     &lt;br&gt;
ga nelsho glarion ta tiryatôs.             &lt;br&gt;

Ga onlo Uras genwon Driathon,               &lt;br&gt;
e naryo norov opyês egmien,                 &lt;br&gt;
swa onlu fehi engei ton so,                 &lt;br&gt;
shta edzu asi kay mot áveken;             &lt;br&gt;
cha'y naru prôvilúlis evrulon,              &lt;br&gt;
swa genulnon athorin Driathen,              &lt;br&gt;
swa'y obnu Fortesmo, ga bliov sa,           &lt;br&gt;
cha'y gyaru Driar fi mot zahus men.       &lt;br&gt;

Niy aysho adzel Rahas Uzar ko               &lt;br&gt;
swa tasco &quot;Urat lei nari sha,               &lt;br&gt;
ti trefi bladhi gyatsu athelon,             &lt;br&gt;
è semza ga, ta nelki, cetson sa?          &lt;br&gt;
Heth twari bladhim athriôs nwa fo           &lt;br&gt;
am adri engi adzelis selát;                 &lt;br&gt;
te bladhu amel fo el roy swa cwar           &lt;br&gt;
swa shtendi vekti; nol anari sha.&quot;        &lt;br&gt;

Agáhte sfetyo Uras adzelar,&lt;br&gt;
&quot;Shtalá cyatari sha tor athron men?&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Swa tar côcharya Rahas, &quot;Tiryaví&lt;br&gt;
sca sha aványa Driacétsien!&quot;        &lt;br&gt;  
Cha tasco Uras, &quot;asi tirim shwi,&lt;br&gt;
shtalá nwa cetson si ef aprien?&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Niy cyuriécyo Rahas sadhazar,&lt;br&gt;
rwa tasco &quot;Charismá to malpien!  &lt;br&gt;    

Sha karaví athoriz niyov ha,&lt;br&gt;
swa ihu prôvilúlus tólki fa,&lt;br&gt;
rwa harbi sfia ta swa metri ta,&lt;br&gt;
ga semza cetson scaya tira sa;     &lt;br&gt;            
cha adzelbúloy ceri sfia noy,&lt;br&gt;
cay Urat ti achari adzel sha,&lt;br&gt;
swa asi scoy ek tarim ivlir sco,&lt;br&gt;
sha voydhi saya nume vanyêsmá.&quot;     &lt;br&gt;

Ga shwendo Rahas Uren swa niylá,&lt;br&gt;
ga aysho Driar cetson genwon lo,&lt;br&gt;
swa taryo sfeto &quot;Driel driathon,&lt;br&gt;
heth twas ga hagya Urel curo fo     &lt;br&gt;  
amétra heth swa prôvilúla sa,&lt;br&gt;
swa trefya gyatsu harba tiryatôs.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&quot;Sa zweri mo!&quot; tas Dria pelion,&lt;br&gt;
shta peliécyo 'haryo ágano.        &lt;br&gt;     

Ol evrulon tiz vwecyo Uras ko,&lt;br&gt;
kay fefmu sheflis nubnon shtecanon&lt;br&gt;
swa'y eliu ayni etwis tôvaltá;&lt;br&gt;
ga hokto Uras saknon bednanon.    &lt;br&gt;    
Rwa haryo haru, beldatúus vef,&lt;br&gt;
scay garis pómdon evron calanon,&lt;br&gt;
swa te byo Uras froyo shtahte lo,&lt;br&gt;
cur desfr samu kay ol eyanon.        &lt;br&gt;   
             
Sadhari naru samu kay amtá,&lt;br&gt;
sarlúlis so, swa elitsus bu kay,&lt;br&gt;
kay eliálu monyu capsius&lt;br&gt;
cha evriul swa omris eliáy. &lt;br&gt;          
&quot;Sarlúlit cay!&quot; tas Uras pelion,&lt;br&gt;
&quot;Vwex nari sfia engi vodhi say'!&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Cha tar côcharya mona &quot;Asi soy;&lt;br&gt;
ca aydhu amel sta swa driôráy.&quot;    &lt;br&gt;           

Niy thesis corvu Uzar swa niylá,&lt;br&gt;
kay aniarlu tar el enlias:          &lt;br&gt;              
ga Mawgras, Ublas, Bednas swa selát,&lt;br&gt;
ga Shakas, Hèas, Genas, Eshentas;      &lt;br&gt;
cha Sarlas monya naryo nei si,&lt;br&gt;
shtalá ektaryo Genas swa ga tas   &lt;br&gt;          
&quot;Ga trefya halya Eriádnôs sca,&lt;br&gt;
te hagya ga niy engov, Saralas.&quot;&lt;br&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kijeb (Sohlob)</title>
    <id>2165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46901</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:32:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Sohlob]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Kijeb]]
[[Category:Conlangs by Melroch]]

'''Kijeb pages:'''
&lt;DPL&gt;
category=Kijeb
&lt;/DPL&gt;

{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid !important; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fc9&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Kijeb'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
|| Dlofiçtir Mountains
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
|| [[Sohlodar]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
|| Unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
|| [[Sohlob]] languages&lt;br&gt;
&lt;!--  Branch&lt;br&gt;
  Subbranch&lt;br&gt; --&gt;
'''Kijeb'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
|| SOV
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
|| Agglutinating, with mild fusion due to sandhi
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
|| Nominative-accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fc9&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|| [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]] || 2001—2006
|}
= Introduction =

'''Kijeb''' {{IPA|[cidʑɨb̥]}} 'the ancient language' is the oldest attested [[Sohlob]] language, and regarded by the [[Sohlosjan|native]] grammatical tradition as the mother language of the [[Sohlob languages|later languages or dialects]] Classical Sohlob, Heleb, Kidilib and Linjeb.  In fact Kijeb may be the direct ancestor only of Kidilib, while Classical Sohlob, Heleb and Linjeb may be descended from other closely related dialects — dialects which in any case cannot have been very much different, given the great similarity between Classical Sohlob, Heleb and Kidilib, and the relatively long time (above a thousand years) which is estimated to separate Kijeb from the beginning of the [[Sohlosjan|Sohloçan]] grammatical tradition.

It is not known what the speakers of Kijeb called themselves or their language.  The name '''Kijeb''' is a Classical Sohlob term, although its phonetic form has evidently been influenced by its unrecorded Kidilib cognate.  It is in any case not likely that the speakers of Kijeb called their own contemporary language ''*kidipa'' 'ancient language'.

Kijeb is attested in the form of mostly short formal religious, commemorative, dedicative and funerary inscriptions on stone and metal written in [[Kijeb writing|a syllabic script]].  There is evidence that there existed other writings in Kijeb language and script, since Sohloçan grammarians mention finds of pottery with Kijeb inscriptions in ancient graves.  It seems clear however that with few exceptions the preserved Kijeb texts derive from the area where Kidilib was spoken in classical times.

Despite the written attestation Kijeb is largely a reconstructed language, since the Kijeb syllabary is partly  defective, ignoring the distinction between voiced and voiceless stops, partly between stops and fricatives, and in the oldest inscriptions also between palatalized and unpalatalized consonants, and between velar and labiovelar consonants, and since the vocabulary of the inscriptions is limited.  The reconstruction of Kijeb was made by Sohloçan priest grammarians striving to understand ancient religious inscriptions in the hope of improving their theology and the wording of their liturgical texts.  Fortunately some of them got hooked on the study of language and language history in its own right and delved deeper in the history of their languages than those who were merely motivated by religious conservatism and purism.

__TOC__

= Kijeb (Proto-Sohlob) grammar =
== Sound system ==
=== Vowels ===

{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
! || Front || Central || Back
|-
! High 
| ''i'' 
| 
| ''u''
|-
! Low 
| 
| ''a'' 
|
|}

=== Consonants ===

{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
! || Labial || Dental&lt;br&gt;or Alveolar || Palatal || Velar || Labiovelar
|-
! Voiceless stops
| ''p py'' 
| ''t ty'' 
| ''ky'' 
| ''k'' 
| ''kw''
|-
! Voiced stops
| ''b by '' 
| ''d dy'' 
| ''gy'' 
| ''g'' 
| ''gw''
|-
! Voiceless fricatives
| ''f fy'' 
| ''s sy'' 
| ''xy'' 
| ''x''
|
|-
! Nasals
| ''m my'' 
| ''n ny'' {{IPA|[nʲ]}} 
| (''ŋy'' {{IPA|[ɲ]}})
| ''ŋ''
| ''ŋw''
|-
! Liquids
| 
| ''r ry'' 
|
|
|-
! Semivowels
|  
| 
| ''y'' {{IPA|[j]}}
|
| ''w wy''
|}


The absence of ''**xw'' is somewhat remarkable.  Some Sohloçan grammarians note that Heleb and Kidilib '''x''' was in fact redundantly labialized, and suppose that this was the case also in Kijeb.  Others propose a Pre-Kijeb merger with ''f''; there are however no homonyms with ''f'' to support this theory.

The cardinal palatal nasal ''ŋy'' {{IPA|[ɲ]}} does not contrast with the dental/alveolar ''ny'' {{IPA|[nʲ]}} in roots, but appears in inflexion and derivation.  This is shown by the fact that its reflex in the daughter languages is {{IPA|[j]}}, e.g. ''tataŋya'' &gt; CS: '''taday''' 'my own', while the reflex of ''ny'' is {{IPA|[ɲ]}}, ''brunya'' &gt; CS: '''brony''' {{IPA|[brɒɲ]}} 'hatchet'.

==== Palatalization ====

An ''y'' after a consonant or cluster is realized as palatalization of the consonant, or all consonants throughout the cluster.

==== Assimilation and dissimilation ====

There were some assimilatory and dissimilatory changes that probably applied synchronically in Kijeb:

{{GMPtable|Underlying}}
|-
| ''t'' || before voiced stops and nasals || ''d'' || 
''kitbyu &gt; *xidbyu'' &gt; CS: '''xefd''', K: '''sijd''', L: '''xirz''';&lt;br&gt;
''yatgi &gt; *yadgi'' &gt; CS: '''yæqd''', K: '''yejd''', L: '''ierg''';&lt;br&gt;
''*atmi &gt; *admi'' &gt; CS: '''æzam''', K: '''ezany''', L: '''erm''';&lt;br&gt;
''gitnu &gt; *gidnu'' &gt; CS: '''gezen''', K: '''dizin''', L: '''girn''';&lt;br&gt;
''fitŋi &gt; *fidŋi'' &gt; CS: '''fizen''', K: '''siziny''', L: '''fid'''.
|-
| ''y'' || between a vowel and an ''i'' || g
|-
| ''y'' || between an ''i'' and an ''a'' or ''u'' || ''gy''
|-
| ''w'' || between a vowel and an ''u'' || ''b''
|-
| ''w'' || between an ''u'' and an ''a'' or ''i'' || ''gw''
|-
| ''n'' || before ''p, b, f, m'' || ''m''
|-
| ''n'' || before ''k, g, x, ŋ'' || ''ŋ''
|-
| ''mm'' || in inflection || ''mb''
|-
| ''nn'' || in inflection || ''nd''
|-
| ''ŋŋ'' || in inflection || ''ŋg''
|-
| ''rr'' || in inflection || ''dr''
|-
| ''m, n, ŋ'' || between a ''t, d'' or ''s'' and a consonant other than ''r, w, y'' || deletes
|-
| ''tt, dd'' || in inflection || ''st, [z]d''
|-
| ''r'' || between an ''s'' and a consonant other than ''r, w, y'' || ''ir''
|-
| ''s'' || before voiced stops || [z] || ''sasbinta &gt; *sazbinta'' &gt; CS: '''hæzbænd''', K: '''hejdehn''', L: '''hezbent'''.
|}

The ''*rr &gt; dr'' and ''*dd &gt; zd'' rules conspire to produce ''*drr &gt; zdr''.

__TOC__
=== Sandhi ===

The very restricted range of consonant clusters in Kijeb arose through sweeping sandhi changes.  Most of these changes were assimilatory, like the pervasive regressive voicing assimilation, but some were dissimilatory, like the change of geminate nasals into nasal + homorganic voiced stop. In the table below the first ('leftmost') consonants of input clusters are shown in the leftmost column, while the second ('rightmost') consonants of input clusters are shown in the top row. Outputs are shown in the intersecting cells.  Where convenient mergers have been indicated with merged cells, and unchanged outputs are indicated with bold type. Character values are as IPA, except that ''kw, gw, ñw'' are probably true labiovelars, ''y'' is {{IPA|/j/}} and consonant + ''y'' are realized as palatalized consonants.  For ''ky, gy, ŋy, xy'' this probably means they were realized as {{IPA|[c, ɟ, ɲ, ç]}}.

Labiovelars as the first element of an underlying cluster behave like velars, and palatalized sounds as the first element of an underlying cluster behave like their non-palatalized counterparts. Second elements retain their palatalization, and non-palatalized second elements don't get palatalized by palatalized first elements, i.e. palatalization is subject to regressive assimilation, just as voice.

Maybe I could have a distinction so that labiovelars behave like labials before non-palatalized sounds but like velars before palatalized sounds, but I doubt there is any sound phonetic basis for that.  Maybe a dialectal difference between labiovelar first element &gt; velar and labiovelar first element &gt; labial?

I'm not sure what happens to underlying combinations of palatalized velar + labial (''*ky+p'' etc.), velar + palatalized labial (''*k+py'' etc.) and palatalized velar + palatalized labial (''*ky+py'' etc.), but my hunch is that at least the two latter become palatalized velars (''ky'' etc.)


==== Sandhi table ====

{| class=&quot;gridtable&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: middle; font-style: italic; text-align: center; width: 100%;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! 
! p
! b
! m
! f
! w
! t
! d
! n
! s
! r
! k
! g
! ŋ
! x
! y
! #
|- 
! p
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-p&quot; | f
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-b&quot; | b
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-m&quot; | mb
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-f&quot; | f
| title=&quot;p-w&quot; | p
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-t&quot; | pr
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-d&quot; | br
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-n&quot; | br
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-s&quot; | sp
| title=&quot;p-r&quot; | '''pr'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-k&quot; | kw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-g&quot; | gw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-ng&quot; | ŋgw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;pb-x&quot; | f
| title=&quot;p-y&quot; | '''py'''
| | &amp;Oslash;
|- 
! b
| title=&quot;b-w&quot; | b
| title=&quot;b-r&quot; | '''br'''
| title=&quot;b-y&quot; | '''by'''
| | u{{ref|final-y-u}}
|- 
! m
| title=&quot;m-p&quot; | mp
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;m-b,m-m&quot; | mb
| title=&quot;m-f&quot; | '''mf'''
| title=&quot;m-w&quot; | m
| title=&quot;m-t&quot; | nt
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;m-d&quot; | nd
| title=&quot;m-s&quot; | ns
| title=&quot;m-r&quot; | '''mr'''
| title=&quot;m-k&quot; | ŋk
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;m-g&quot; | ŋg
| title=&quot;m-x&quot; | ŋx
| title=&quot;m-y&quot; | '''my'''
| | n
|- 
! f
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-p&quot; | p
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-b&quot; | b
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-m&quot; | m
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-f&quot; | f
| title=&quot;f-w&quot; | f
| title=&quot;f-t&quot; | fr
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;f-d&quot; | wr
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-s&quot; | sf
| title=&quot;f-r&quot; | '''fr'''
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-k&quot; | kw
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-g&quot; | gw
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-ng&quot; | ŋw
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;f-x&quot; | f
| title=&quot;f-y&quot; | '''fy'''
| | &amp;Oslash;
|- 
! w
| title=&quot;w-w&quot; | gw/b{{ref|w-w}}
| title=&quot;w-t&quot; | tw
| title=&quot;w-d&quot; | dw
| title=&quot;w-n&quot; | nw
| title=&quot;w-r&quot; | '''wr'''
| title=&quot;w-y&quot; | '''wy'''
| | u{{ref_label|final-y-u|1|}}
|- 
! t
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-p&quot; | tp
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-b&quot; | db
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-m&quot; | dm
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-f&quot; | tf
| title=&quot;t-w&quot; | '''tw'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-t&quot; | st
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-d&quot; | zd
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-n&quot; | dn
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-s&quot; | ts
| title=&quot;t-r&quot; | '''tr'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-k&quot; | tk
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-g&quot; | dg
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-ng&quot; | dŋ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;td-x&quot; | tx
| title=&quot;t-y&quot; | '''ty'''
| | '''t'''
|- 
! d
| title=&quot;d-w&quot; | '''dw'''
| title=&quot;d-r&quot; | '''dr'''
| title=&quot;d-y&quot; | '''dy'''
| | r
|- 
! n
| title=&quot;n-p&quot; | mp
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;n-b&quot; | mb
| title=&quot;n-f&quot; | mf
| title=&quot;n-w&quot; | '''nw'''
| title=&quot;n-t&quot; | '''nt'''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;n-d&quot; | nd
| title=&quot;n-s&quot; | '''ns'''
| title=&quot;n-r&quot; | '''nr'''
| title=&quot;n-k&quot; | ŋk
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;n-g&quot; | ŋg
| title=&quot;n-x&quot; | ŋx
| title=&quot;n-y&quot; | '''ny'''
| | '''n'''
|- 
! s
| title=&quot;s-p&quot; | '''sp'''
| title=&quot;s-b&quot; | zb
| title=&quot;s-m&quot; | '''sm'''
| title=&quot;s-f&quot; | '''sf'''
| title=&quot;s-w&quot; | '''sw'''
| title=&quot;s-t&quot; | '''st'''
| title=&quot;s-d&quot; | zd
| title=&quot;s-n&quot; | '''sn'''
| title=&quot;s-s&quot; | s
| title=&quot;s-r&quot; | '''sr'''
| title=&quot;s-k&quot; | '''sk'''
| title=&quot;s-g&quot; | zg
| title=&quot;s-ng&quot; | '''sŋ'''
| title=&quot;s-x&quot; | '''sx'''
| title=&quot;s-y&quot; | '''sy'''
| | '''s'''
|- 
! '''r'''
| title=&quot;r-p&quot; | '''rp'''
| title=&quot;r-b&quot; | '''rb'''
| title=&quot;r-m&quot; | '''rm'''
| title=&quot;r-f&quot; | '''rf'''
| title=&quot;r-w&quot; | '''rw'''
| title=&quot;r-t&quot; | '''rt'''
| title=&quot;r-d&quot; | '''rd'''
| title=&quot;r-n&quot; | '''rn'''
| title=&quot;r-s&quot; | '''rs'''
| title=&quot;r-r&quot; | dr
| title=&quot;r-k&quot; | '''rk'''
| title=&quot;r-g&quot; | '''rg'''
| title=&quot;r-ng&quot; | '''rŋ'''
| title=&quot;r-x&quot; | '''rx'''
| title=&quot;r-y&quot; | '''ry'''
| | '''r'''
|- 
! k
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-p&quot; | kw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-b&quot; | gw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-m&quot; | gw
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-f&quot; | kw
| title=&quot;k-w&quot; | '''kw'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-t&quot; | kr
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-d&quot; | gr
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-n&quot; | gr
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-s&quot; | sk
| title=&quot;k-r&quot; | '''kr'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-k&quot; | x
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-g&quot; | g
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-ng&quot; | ŋg
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; title=&quot;kg-x&quot; | x
| title=&quot;k-y&quot; | '''ky'''
| | t
|- 
! g
| title=&quot;g-w&quot; | '''gw'''
| title=&quot;g-r&quot; | '''gr'''
| title=&quot;g-y&quot; | '''gy'''
| | &amp;Oslash;{{ref_label|final-y-u|1|}}
|- 
! ŋ
| title=&quot;ng-p&quot; | mp
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;ng-b&quot; | mb
| title=&quot;ng-f&quot; | mf
| title=&quot;ng-w&quot; | '''ŋw'''
| title=&quot;ng-t&quot; | nt
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;ng-d&quot; | nd
| title=&quot;ng-s&quot; | ns
| title=&quot;ng-r&quot; | '''ŋr'''
| title=&quot;ng-k&quot; | '''ŋk'''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;ng-g&quot; | ŋg
| title=&quot;ng-x&quot; | '''ŋx'''
| title=&quot;ng-y&quot; | ny
| | n
|- 
! x
| title=&quot;x-p&quot; | f
| title=&quot;x-b&quot; | w
| title=&quot;x-m&quot; | ŋw
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;x-f&quot; | f
| title=&quot;x-t&quot; | xr
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; title=&quot;x-d&quot; | r
| title=&quot;x-s&quot; | x
| title=&quot;x-r&quot; | '''xr'''
| title=&quot;x-k&quot; | k
| title=&quot;x-g&quot; | g
| title=&quot;x-ng&quot; | ŋ
| title=&quot;x-x&quot; | x
| title=&quot;x-y&quot; | '''xy'''
| | &amp;Oslash;
|- 
! y
| title=&quot;y-p&quot; | py
| title=&quot;y-b&quot; | by
| title=&quot;y-m&quot; | my
| title=&quot;y-f&quot; | fy
| title=&quot;y-w&quot; | wy
| title=&quot;y-t&quot; | ty
| title=&quot;y-d&quot; | dy
| title=&quot;y-n&quot; | ny
| title=&quot;y-s&quot; | sy
| title=&quot;y-r&quot; | ry
| title=&quot;y-k&quot; | ky
| title=&quot;y-g&quot; | gy
| title=&quot;y-ng&quot; | ny
| title=&quot;y-x&quot; | xy
| title=&quot;y-y&quot; | gy
| | i{{ref_label|final-y-u|1|}}
|}

* {{note|final-y-u}} Whenever final ''**y'' or ''**w'' arose it colored a preceding ''**a'' to ''**i'' or ''u'' before disappearing itself. ''**-uy'' and ''**-iw'' both resulted in ''*i'', possibly via {{IPA|[y]}}.
* {{note|w-w}} Pre-Kijeb ''*ww'' possibly gives '''b''' in [[Linjeb]]. Alternatively or simultaneously it is possible that underlying ''*uwwV/*wwuV'' give ''ugV/Vgu'' while ''*uwV/*Vwu'' give ''ubV/Vbu''.

== Root structure ==

A Kijeb nominal or verbal root has the following structure:

: {{big| (''s'') (C) (''r'') (''y'') V (D) C (''r'') (''y'') }}

where

: slots in parentheses are optional
: '''V''' is any vowel (''a, i, u'')
: '''C''' is any consonant
: '''D''' is any dental (''t/d, n, s, r'')

There are some restrictions on possible phoneme sequences, including:

* [[Wikipedia:Gemination|Geminate]]s do not occur.  Thus e.g. if there is an ''s'' in a '''C''' slot there can be no ''s'' in the preceding '''s''' or '''D''' slot, resulting in an ''*ss'', and similarly no ''*rr, *ww, *yy, *tt. *dd, *nn''.
* ''n'' + a nasal does not occur (no ''*nn, *nm, *nŋ'').
* Labial + ''w'' does not occur.
* None of ''*yi, *iy, *wu, *uw'' can occur.
* Palatalization or ''y'' may occur either in the consonant(s) before the '''V''' or in the consonant(s) after the '''V''' or not at all, but not both before and after the '''V'''.  
* A cluster is either palatalized throughout or not at all.
* In nominal and verbal roots
:the same consonant may not occur twice, 
:no two stops or fricatives (other than ''s'') at the same point of articulation may occur within a single root,
:no two nasals may occur within a single root.
::The nominal stems ''mama'' 'mother' and ''papa'' 'father' are the only known exceptions to these restrictions among nominal and verbal roots.  In pronoun and determiner stems, on the other hand, shapes like ''tat, kak, nan, sas'' are allowed and even favored. (There is also the numeral stem ''sas'' 'one', but this may be a determiner in origin.)  It may be that these stems were originally '''CV''' stems that became reduplicated.
* Roots consisting only of '''VC''' are extremely rare.
* Roots with a heavy cluster both before and after the '''V''' are rare.

In order to function as a [[Wikipedia:Word stem|stem]] such a root must be followed by a vowel.  In nouns (including adjectives) this second vowel is a random extension, while in verbs it is an inflectional morpheme.

== Morphology ==

Unlike the daughter languages, which are [[Wikipedia:Split ergativity|split-ergative]], Kijeb is entirely [[Wikipedia:Nominative-accusative language|nominative-accusative]].

=== Nominal morphology === 

==== Grammatical cases ====
{{Bordertable|#fff}}
! || Singular || Animate plural || Inanimate plural
|-
! Nominative 
| -Ø {{small|(unmarked)}} || ''-n'' || ''-r''
|-
! Accusative 
| ''-s'' || ''-ns'' || ''-rs''
|-
! Dative 
| ''-t'' || ''-nt'' || ''-rt''
|}

(In the daughter languages the accusative is derived from ''*-si'' and the dative from ''*-tu''.)

It is not certain that the inanimate plural accusative and dative were distinguished from the singular.  In any case the [[Kijeb writing|Kijeb syllabary]] could not distinguish word-final ''-rs, -rt'' from word-final ''-s, -t'', while in the animate plural the diacritic for syllable-final ''-n'' could be added to ''CVs'' and ''CVt'' characters to indicate word-final ''-ns, -nt''.

==== Semantic cases ====

{{Sectionrewrite|User:Melroch/Kijeb cases}}

{{Bordertable|#fff}}
! || Singular || Animate plural || Inanimate plural
|-
! Locative 
| ''-tyu'' || ''-ntyu'' || ''-rtyu''
|-
! Allative 
| ''-sya'' || ''-nsya'' || ''-rsya''
|-
! Ablative
| ''-yu'' || ''-nyu'' || ''-ryu''
|-
! Instrumental 
| ''-ri'' || ''-nri'' || ''-dri''
|}

The ergative of the daughter languages derives from ''*-rya'' and is certainly derived from the instrumental.

=== Adverbs ===

==== Local adverbs ====

Local adverbs are formed by adding local case endings to the three deictic roots proximal ''*i'' 'this', medial ''*a'' 'that' and  distal ''*u'' 'yon'.

{{Bordertable|#fff}}
| ''ityu'' || 'here' || ''atyu'' || 'there' || ''utyu'' || 'yonder'
|-
| ''isya'' || 'to here' || ''asya'' || 'to there' || ''usya'' || 'to yonder'
|-
| ''igyu'' || 'from here' || ''ayu'' || 'from there' || ''uyu'' || 'from yonder'
|}

=== Pronouns ===

Kijeb pronouns have several unique morphological characteristics.  Most basic pronoun roots have the shape '''CV'''.  Such a root cannot stand on its own, but attaches clitically to a noun or verb stem.  A clitic pronoun functions as a possessive marker when attached to a noun and as a person agreement marker when attached to a verb.

Free standing pronouns are emphatic, and are formed by reduplicating the '''CV''' root.

Plural pronouns are formed either [[Wikipedia:Suppletion|suppletively]] or by [[Wikipedia:Infixation#Linguistics|infixation]] of the plural marker ''-n'' or ''-r'' between the syllables of the reduplicated '''CV''' root.  For this reason plural emphatic pronouns take simple case markers ''-s, -t'' etc., thus the accusative of ''anda'' is ''andas'' rather than ''**anans'' or ''**andans''.

==== Personal and demonstrative pronouns ====

=====First and second person pronouns=====
{{Bordertable|#fff}}
! ||colspan=3| Singular ||colspan=3| Plural (animate)
|-
! || Clitic || Emphatic || || Clitic || Emphatic ||
|-
! First person 
| ''-ta'' || ''tata'' || 'I' || ''-di'' || ''didi'' || 'we (exclusive)'
|-
|colspan=4| || ''-pu'' || ''pupu'' || 'we (inclusive)'
|-
! Second person 
| ''-ba'' || ''baba'' || 'thou' || ''-gi'' || ''gigi'' || 'you (pl.)'
|}

=====Third person clitic pronouns=====
{{Bordertable|#fff}}
!&amp;nbsp; || colspan=2| Singular ||colspan=2| Plural
|-
! Masculine 
| ''-na'' || 'he'
| ''-nda''|| 'they (males)'
|-
! Feminine 
| ''-mi'' || 'she'
| ''-mbi'' || 'they (females)'
|-
! Rational 
| colspan=2| &amp;nbsp; || ''-ŋka'' 
| 'they (mixed male and female)'
|-
! Irrational 
| ''-ŋu'' || 'it (living)'
| ''-ŋgu'' || 'they'
|-
! Inanimate 
| ''-ru/-ur'' || 'it (not living'
| ''-dru'' || 'they'
|}

=====Third person emphatic pronouns=====

These are formed by compounding three deictic roots — proximal ''*i'' 'this', medial ''*a'' 'that' and  distal ''*u'' 'yon' — with the third person pronominal stems.  These deictic roots do not occur independently, although they are also used in [[Kijeb#Local_adverbs|local adverbs]], and neither are there any non-clitic third person pronouns not including these deictic stems.  The plural forms are most readily explained as the result of reduplication of the root followed by [[wikipedia:syncope|syncope]] of the vowel of the second syllable and then [[wikipedia:dissimilation|dissimilation]] of the resulting geminate according to regular Kijeb [[Kijeb#Sandhi|sandhi]], e.g.:

:''*ina &gt; *inana &gt; *in'na &gt; inda'', ''*aru &gt; *aruru &gt; *ar'ru &gt; adru''.


{{Bordertable|#fff}}
! || Proximal 
| 'this/these'
! Medial
| 'that/those'
! Distal
| 'yon'
|-
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! Masculine 
| ''ina'' || ''inda'' || ''ana'' || ''anda'' || ''una'' || ''unda''
|-
! Feminine 
| ''imi'' || ''imbi'' || ''ami'' || ''ambi'' || ''umi'' || ''umbi''
|-
! Rational 
| || ''iŋka'' || || ''aŋka'' || || ''uŋka''
|-
! Irrational 
| ''iŋu'' || ''iŋgu'' || ''aŋu'' || ''aŋgu'' || ''uŋu'' || ''uŋgu''
|-
! Inanimate 
| ''iru'' || ''idru'' || ''aru'' || ''adru'' || ''uru'' || ''udru''
|}

==== Possessive pronouns ====

There are no special clitic forms for possessive pronouns.  The clitics listed above have a possessive meaning when attached to nouns.

'''{{sans|First and second person emphatic}}'''
{{Bordertable|#fff}}
| ||colspan=2| Singular ||colspan=2| Plural (animate)
|-
| First person || ''tatya'' || 'my, mine' || ''didya'' || 'our (exclusive)'
|-
|colspan=3| || ''pupa'' || 'our (inclusive)'
|-
| Second person || ''babya'' || 'thy, thine' || ''gigya'' || 'your (pl.)'
|}

'''{{sans|Third person emphatic}}'''
{{Bordertable|#fff}}
| ||colspan=2| Proximal 'of this' ||colspan=2| Medial 'of that' ||colspan=2| Distal 'of yon'
|-
| || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
| Masculine || ''inya'' || ''indya'' || ''anya'' || ''andya'' || ''unya'' || ''undya''
|-
| Feminine || ''imya'' || ''imbya'' || ''amya'' || ''ambya'' || ''umya'' || ''umbya''
|-
| Rational || || ''iŋkya'' || || ''aŋkya'' || || ''uŋkya''
|-
| Irrational || ''iŋwa'' || ''iŋgwa'' 
|| ''aŋwa'' || ''aŋgwa''
|| ''uŋwa'' || ''uŋgwa''
|-
| Inanimate || ''irwa'' || ''idrwa'' || ''arwa'' || ''adrwa'' || ''urwa'' || ''udrwa''
|}

==== Reflexive pronouns ====

Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding the clitic ''-ŋi'' to the personal and demonstrative pronouns, e.g. ''tataŋi'' 'myself' ''anaŋi'' 'himself'. There is also a possessive version ''-ŋya'', e.g. ''tataŋya'' 'my own', ''anaŋya'' 'his own'.  These clitics can also be attached to nouns, e.g. ''snupuŋi'' 'the man himself', ''snupuŋya'' 'the man's own'.

'Each other' is ''-ŋgi'' and 'each other's' is ''-ŋgya''.

==== Interrogative pronouns ====

{{Bordertable|#fff}}
|colspan=2| ||colspan=3| Basic ||colspan=2| Possessive

|-
|colspan=2| || Emphatic || Clitic || || Emphatic || Clitic ||
|-
| Animate || singular || ''gwigwi'' || ''-gwi'' ||'who?' || ''gwigwa'' || ''-gwa'' || &quot;of whom?''
|-
| || plural || ''gwiŋgwi'' || ''-ŋgwi'' || || ''gwiŋgwa'' || ''-ŋgwa''
|-
| Inanimate || singular || ''gugu'' || ''-gu'' || 'what?, which?' || ''gugwa'' || ''-gwa'' || 'of what?, of which?'
|-
| || plural || ''gurgu'' || ''-rgu'' || || ''gurgwa'' || ''-rgwa''
|}

Note that the clitic singular possessive is the same for animate and inanimate.  There is no trace of them ever having been differentiated.

==== Indefinite pronouns ====

Indefinite pronouns are formed by adding the clitic ''-fu'' to the interrogatives: ''gwigifu'' 'someone' ''gugufu'' 'something'. This clitic can also be attached to nouns, e.g. ''snupufu'' 'some man'.

=== Verbs ===

{{Section wip}}

&lt;span class=&quot;red sans&quot;&gt;This entire section needs reworking in view of my improved understanding of inverse marking and hierarchical alignment.  In the meantime the following is largely obsolete!&lt;/span&gt;

==== Finite verb forms ====

Verbs are inflected for [[Wikipedia:Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[Wikipedia:Direct-inverse language|direct-inverse]], [[Wikipedia:Grammatical tense|tense]], [[Wikipedia:Grammatical mood|mood]] or [[Wikipedia:Grammatical voice|voice]] and [[Wikipedia:Grammatical person|person]], all of which are expressed as suffixes to the verb root.  The buildup of the verb word is:

: {{big|root - aspect - (direct-inverse) -  (tense/mood/voice) - subject}}

Items in parentheses meqn that that marker may be empty. In those cases the absence of a marker functions as a marker in itself.

==== Aspect ====

There are two aspects in Kijeb, viz. [[Wikipedia:Perfective aspect|perfective]], marked by ''-u-'', and [[Wikipedia:imperfective aspect|imperfective]] or non-perfective, marked by ''-i-''.

==== Inverseness ====

The inverse marker ''-s-/-z-'' signals that the subject of the verb is lower on the [[animacy hierarchy]] than the direct object.  A verb that is not inverse is said to be direct, but there is no overt directness marker in Kijeb.

==== Tense and mood and voice ====

There are two tenses, present and past, and three moods, realis and [[Wikipedia:Irrealis moods|irrealis]] and imperative.  However marking of tense and mood overlap, so that any given verb form is marked either for present tense ''-n-/-na-'', past tense ''-r-/-ri-'' or irrealis mood ''-t-/-s-/-z-''.  

A verb form marked for tense cannot be marked for mood, but is always realis, and a verb form marked for irrealis mood cannot be marked for tense, but can function as any tense.  The irrealis performs such functions as future, subjunctive, optative and hortative.

The only voice distinction in Kijeb is between non-imperative and imperative.  The imperative is signalled by the absence of inverseness and tense/mood markers, and that the only person marking is an animate plural marker ''-n'' if the injunction is adressed to a group.  An imperative can only be addressed to animate adressees.  To express a 'command' or wish concerning inanimates the irrealis must be used.
&lt;!--
Examples:
:{| border=&quot;0&quot; 
| (1) || ''sab'' || ''-u'' || ''-Ø'' || ''-r'' || ''-na'' || ''-ru'' || ''-mi''
|-
| || give || -PERF || -DIR || -PAST || -3.sg.masc. || -3.sg.inan. || -3.sg.fem.
|-
| ||colspan=8| ''saburnarumi''&lt;br&gt;'He had given it to her'
|}

:{| border=&quot;0&quot;
| (2) || ''sazb'' || ''-i'' || ''-Ø'' || ''-n'' || ''-ta'' || ''-ŋka''
|-
| || see || -IMPF || -DIR || -PRES  || -1.sg. || -3.pl.rat.
|-
| ||colspan=6| ''sazbintaŋka''&lt;br&gt;'I see/am seeing them'
|}

:{| border=&quot;0&quot;
| (3) || ''pant'' || ''-i'' || ''-s'' || ''-n'' || ''-ur'' || ''-ba''
|-
| || hit || -IMPF || -INV || -PRES || -3.sg.inan. || -2.sg.
|-
| ||colspan=6| ''pantisnurba''&lt;br&gt;'It hits you'
|}

:{| border=&quot;0&quot;
| (4) || ''dirn'' || ''-u'' || ''-Ø'' || ''-t'' || ''-ur''
|-
| || fall down || -PERF || -DIR || -IRREALIS || -3.sg.inan.
|-
| ||colspan=5| ''dirnutur''&lt;br&gt;'It will/might/should have fallen down'
|}

:{| border=&quot;0&quot;
| (5) || ''basn'' || ''-u'' || ''-Ø'' || ''-Ø'' || ''-n''
|-
| || go out || -PERF || -DIR || -IMP || -PL
|-
| ||colspan=5| ''basnugi''&lt;br&gt;'Go out, you all!'
|}

The only constituents that are really 'optional' are object markers.  The absence of the inversion marker is best seen as the presence of a zero directness marker, and the absence of a tense/mood marker is best seen as the presence of a zero imperative marker.

Note that the third person singular inanimate ending takes the allomorph ''-ur'' when in subject position, except before plural agreement markers beginning in two consonants.

==== Sandhi in verb forms ====

The sequence of morphemes is often obscured by sandhi, giving rise to [[Wikipedia:Portmanteau#Portmanteau_morphemes|portmanteau morphemes]], e.g. 

{|border=1 cellpadding=6 class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
!| Underlying form || Surface form || Gloss
|-
| ''**pant-i-s-r-ru-n-ka'' || ''pantizdruŋka'' || 'It hit them'
|-
| ''**pant-i-s-r-r-ru-n-ka'' || ''pantisridruŋka'' || 'They (inanimate) hit (past) them'
|-
| ''**pant-i-s-n-r-ru-n-ka'' || ''pantizdruŋka'' || 'They (inanimate) hit (present) them'
|-
|''**sasb-i-Ø-t-n-na-ta'' || ''sazbizdata'' || 'the men will see me'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-t-ta'' || ''sazbista'' || 'I will/should/would/might/ see'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-na'' || ''sazbinda'' || 'He sees'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-n-na'' || ''sazbinanda'' || 'The men see'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-mi'' || ''sazbimbi'' || 'She sees'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-n-mi'' || ''sazbinambi'' || 'The women see'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-ŋu'' || ''sazbiŋgu'' || 'It (animate) sees'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-n-n-ŋu'' || ''sazbinaŋgu'' || 'They (animate) see'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-n-n-ka'' || ''sazbiŋka'' || 'The men and women see'
|-
| ''**sasb-i-Ø-r-n-na'' || ''sazbirda'' || 'The men saw'
|}

The past tense allomorph ''-ri-'' arises as a sandhi phenomenon when the past tense morpheme ''-r-'' is preceded by the inverseness marker ''-s-'' and followed by the inanimate plural subject marker ''-dru-'' (itself ultimately a sandhi of ''*-r-ru-'').  Apparently the past-tense ''-r-'' which had come to stand between the two non-sonorant consonants ''s'' and  ''d'' became realized as a syllabic {{IPA|[r̩]}} which then in turn resolved into {{IPA|[ri]}}.

The ''-na-'' allomorph of the present tense morpheme on the other hand defies a purely phonetic explanation.  It is clear however that it arises in order to prevent present forms with animate plural suffixes from becoming identical to present forms with animate singular suffixes.

The irrealis allomorphs ''-s-'' and ''-z-'' arise when the irrealis marker is followed by a subject marker beginning in a dental stop (''**-t-t- &gt; -s-t-'' and ''**-t-d- &gt; **-d-d- &gt; -z-d-'').  It is not really possible to confuse them with the inverseness marker, since the latter always takes inanimate subject markers.
--&gt;

=== Infinite verb forms ===

==== The infinitive or gerund ====

There is also an [[Wikipedia:Infinitive|infinitive]] or [[Wikipedia:Gerund|gerund]] stem formed by adding ''-a-'' to the verb root.  By taking different case endings this stem can express various infinite functions. The infinitive/gerund marker itself is in complementary distribution with the aspect markers, but by adding case endings aspect relative to the main verb may be expressed.

==== Participles ====

Participles are verb forms inflected for aspect and tense/mood, but which take nominal number and case endings rather than person suffixes.  Pariciples are used chiefly to form relative clauses, as there are no relative pronouns in Kijeb, and each sentence may have only one finite verb.  Examples are ''sabura'' 'Having given', ''pantina'' 'hitting' and ''basnura'' 'gone out'.

== Syntax ==

(Scattered notes so far)

Word order is SOV, with everything that entails.

The 'rational' plural gender is used for mixed masculine/feminine
groups.  The reason it isn't called 'human' is that it is used for gods, ghosts, demons and the like as well as for humans.  Besides I'm not sure yet if the Sohloçan are human!

There is no genitive case.  The possessive construction is like this:

:''giwri-t tyazgu-na-n'' king-DAT elephant-his-PL 'The king's elephants'.

Negation is made with the auxiliary ''paxya'' 'not do', e.g.
''sazba paxintaŋka'' 'I don't see them'.  This is quite possibly the main use of the infinitive/gerund!

Do predicate nominals/adjectives require a copular verb or not?
:If not will the verb ''una'' only mean 'be' or also 'exist', or not exist! {{-)}}  It will probably be needed for other aspects/tenses than imperfective present.
:Note the conflict with the pronoun ''una''! 
:Will ''ufa'' 'not be' be in complementary or partially alternating distribution with ''paxya'' 'not do'?

[[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Bordertable</title>
    <id>2166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20126</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-15T08:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Upgraded to use class=&quot;bordertable&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;background: {{{1}}};&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Bordertable</title>
    <id>2167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-20T21:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bordertable|#ccc}}
| a || b || c
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:RHaden</title>
    <id>2169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-23T15:54:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RHaden</username>
        <id>164</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Thalassan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Thalassan</title>
    <id>2170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-15T13:54:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#0000CC&quot; color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Thalassan'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Balkan Peninsula, Greece, Aegean Islands, Crete, Western Anatolia
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||ca. 4500 - 3500 B.C.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||~ 1 million
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Old European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;South European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Thalassan'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SOV/head-final, free
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Agglutinating
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Nominative-accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#0000CC&quot; color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[User:RHaden|Rob Haden]] ||2004-
|}

Describe your language here

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=16 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: 95%; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=3| Bilabial ||colspan=1| Labiod. ||colspan=3| Dental ||colspan=1| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=3| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|pʼ}} || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|tʰ}} || {{IPA|tʼ}} || || {{IPA|c}} || {{IPA|cʼ}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|kʰ}} || {{IPA|kʼ}} || {{IPA|q}} || {{IPA|qʼ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || || {{IPA|v}} || || || || {{IPA|s}} || || || || {{IPA|x}} || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Emindahken</title>
    <id>2171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-18T18:43:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emindahken</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A few trivial bits about me:

*Name: James W.
*Location: Texas, USA
*Vocation: University Library
*Avocation: Composer
*Other: husband, father of 3

*Languages in varying stages of incompleteness: [[ýýlheema'ék]], [[Orēlynna]], [[emindahken]] (where the nickname comes from), [[āseka‘eni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ýýlheema'ék</title>
    <id>2172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8513</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-18T18:45:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emindahken</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The language is called '''ýýlheema‘ék''', which translates to ('I travel'). The language is part of a story idea I'm working on. It is only known in the following incantation, which must be spoken before traveling to another world. (That's why it's only known as 'I travel'.)
{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Language'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||variable
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||An ancient language created on earth, but known on at least 2 planets.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||5 known
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Isolate
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SOV
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Agglutinating
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
|| ??
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[User:Emindahken|James W.]] ||early 2006-
|}
&lt;br/&gt;

== Phonology ==
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=19 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}} || {{IPA|q}} || {{IPA|ɢ}} || {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || || || || || || || || {{IPA|χ}} || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Fricative || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɬ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Tap or Flap || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɾ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || {{IPA|ɪ}} || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
The following vowels also have phonemic length: {{IPA|a}}, {{IPA|e}}, {{IPA|i}}, {{IPA|o}}
&lt;br/&gt;
There are two tones: high--marked with acute accent in the orthography; low--unmarked.
&lt;br/&gt;

== Orthography ==
The native orthography is not known. At some point, the incantation was written down (not on Earth) and analyzed giving us the basis of the known grammar. The orthography ''I'' use is mainly for my own convenience. It is fairly straightforward for those who speak a language that uses the Latin alphabet. The following are the exceptions:&lt;br/&gt;
{| border =&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
! IPA !! Orthography
|-
| {{IPA|ɬ}} || lh
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || y
|-
| {{IPA|ɪ}} || i
|-
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || ng
|-
| {{IPA|χ}} || x
|-
| {{IPA|θ}} || þ
|-
| {{IPA|ð}} || ð
|-
| {{IPA|ɢ}} || ğ
|-
| {{IPA|ʔ}} || ‘
|}
&lt;br/&gt;

== Sentence Structure ==
*verb is always last in the clause
*focus comes first
*adjectives follow nouns
*adverbs follow what they modify
*adpositions follow their noun/phrase
*relative clauses follow head clauses 
*relationals come before the noun/phrase they refer to
&lt;br/&gt;

== Nouns ==
*There are no cases. Syntactic function is determined by position in the clause (see Sentence Structure).
*Plurals are formed by the prefix '''yl-'''.
*Possessives are suffixed to the noun they relate refer to:&lt;br/&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''-es''' || 1S.POSS
|-
| ''' -‘ang''' || 2S.POSS
|}
&lt;br/&gt;

== Verbs ==
*Verbs must contain at least a subject-referent pronoun affix.
*Morphology: subject-refernt pronoun comes first, patient second, oblique third. Normally, if there is an object noun in the clause, the patient pronoun affix is absent. In this case, any second pronoun affix on the verb is understood to be oblique.&lt;br/&gt;
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''alhu-‘ék-aan'''
|-
| give-1SG-2SG
|}
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
'I give [to] you'
|}
*Copula: a circumfix, '''qu- -kaa''', around the predicate nominative.
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''qu-vyyd-kaa'''
|- COP-noble-COP
|}
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
'[is/are] noble'
|}
&lt;br/&gt;

== Only Known Text ==
'''elhee lhyréé kíru vó sóóru‘aang rékaa ýýlheema‘ék.'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''qáá elhee páá yllaaqes quvyydkaa ngee‘es xu.'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''qáá elhee páá ylþáángu yliğá‘es eng qu’éélhkaa.'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''ngyylý alhu‘ékaan lhamaa‘es uðo yğ xóóka‘aan yno qáá elhee eng.'''&lt;br/&gt;
'''qáá elhee vó sóóru‘aang rékaa ýýlheema‘ék.'''&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;br/&gt;
=== Interlinear ===
{|
| '''elhee''' || '''lhyréé''' || '''kíru''' || '''vó''' || '''sóóru-‘aang''' || '''rékaa''' || '''ýýlheema-‘ék'''
|-
| land || distant || far || to || grace-2POSS || by.means.of || travel-1SG
|}
{|
| '''qáá''' || '''elhee''' || '''páá''' || '''yl-laaq-es''' || '''qu-vyyd-kaa''' || '''ngee-‘es''' || '''xu'''
|-
| this || land || in || PL-purpose-1POSS || COP-noble-COP || life-1POSS || on
|}
{|
| '''qáá''' || '''elhee''' || '''páá''' || '''yl-þáángu''' || '''yl-iğá-‘es''' || '''eng''' || '''qu-‘éélh-kaa'''
|-
| this || land || in || PL-consequence || PL-action-1POSS || of || COP-mine-COP
|}
{|
| '''ngyylý''' || '''alhu-‘ék-aan''' || '''lhamaa-‘es''' || '''uðo''' || '''yğ''' || '''xóóka-‘aan''' || '''yno''' || '''qáá''' || '''elhee''' || '''eng'''
|-
| permission || give-1SG-2SG || body-1POSS || soil || from || create-2SG || again || this || land || of
|}
{|
| '''qáá''' || '''elhee''' || '''vó''' || '''sóóru-‘aang''' || '''rékaa''' || '''ýýlheema-‘ék'''
|-
| this || land || to || grace-2POSS || by.means.of || travel-1SG
|}
&lt;br/&gt;
=== Smooth Gloss ===
‘By your grace I travel to a far distant land.’&lt;br/&gt;
‘On my life my purposes are noble in this land.’&lt;br/&gt;
‘The consequences of my actions are mine in this land.’&lt;br/&gt;
‘I give you permission to recreate my body from the soil of this land.’&lt;br/&gt;
‘By your grace I travel to this land.’&lt;br/&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlob historical phonology</title>
    <id>2173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46885</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:26:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redirect fixer</username>
        <id>1248</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Kijeb]] has been moved, it is now a redirect to [[Kijeb (Sohlob)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Kijeb (Sohlob)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maerik grammar outline</title>
    <id>2175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46857</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redirect fixer</username>
        <id>1248</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Maerik/grammar]] has been moved, it is now a redirect to [[Maerik grammar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Maerik grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Lensman</title>
    <id>2176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T09:57:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lensman</username>
        <id>167</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Articles: */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Mike the Lensman'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| Biographical Stuffs :)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Lensmanicon.png|this should be a pic of me.]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| 17 Oct 1981&lt;br /&gt;  Nuremburg, Germany Citezenship: US(Natural)
|-
|valign=top|'''Conlanging Purpose:'''
|| Literative/Table Top RPG's 
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| English (American), German (Am. Highschool level)
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| Two Works in Progress 
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| Klingon (baby's first words level) , Interested in Tolkien's langs.
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Computer Graphics, Music, Worldbuilding, Theology, Conlangs, TTRPG's, Literature, Poetry.
|-

|}

Langs and articles will fill this space.

'''
== Articles: ==
'''
[[Comentary Conlanging]]: Metaphor becomes meaning.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lensmanicon.png</title>
    <id>2177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T09:34:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lensman</username>
        <id>167</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This is my user pic!!! - Lensman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is my user pic!!! - Lensman</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comentary Conlanging</title>
    <id>2178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47538</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T10:58:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{stub}}


In the processes of creating a conlang, some people have difficulty attaching meanings to the [[phonemes]] that they have crafted. Comentary Conlanging is a game to help with situations like this. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;'''Disclaimer: The words chosen and their meanings are in the view of the author and are by no means reflective on frathwiki, conlangers, or humanity as a whole.  
'''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;This game has some fairly simple steps.
# Note which phonemes are acceptible within your conlang.
# Create a list of no more than ten words, names or [[acronyms]].
# Come up with a metaphoric discription, or commentary on each of the words.
# Break the words up into [[syllables]] according to the way you personally pronounce them.
# Transcribe the syllables according to the [[phonolgy]] of your conlang.
# ''Optional'' apply sound changes to the new words to further them from the words you based them on.


== Examples ==

In the following examples I will skip step one, which can be inferred from my results if someone is interested.&lt;br /&gt;
My list will be:
*computer
*nerd
*enterprise
*laser
*FEMA
*IRS

Starting with computer. The definition of this particular device is obvious to you the reader(which is not the point of this game), but let's instead suppose someone thought it to mean, &quot; Living Book&quot;. I pronounce computer,  kəm-pu-tər.
So then I would transcribe this as kumi-piu-tir, and in my suppossed conlang adjectives come after nouns so, kumi means &quot;book&quot;, and piu means &quot;to live&quot; with tir turning the verb into an adjective.

Polysyllabic words are fairly easy, but what do you do when the word has only one syllable as in &quot;nerd&quot;. Well here you have a couple of options. You could look at the [[etymology]] of the word (knurd), treat it as an acronym (see below), or try to come up with a synonym that is also a single word. For nerd we will use knurd and I will define it as “overqualified for life”. I would pronounce it as kə-nərd and thus transcribe it as ki-nur-id. We already have life so we don't have to worry about that and you can just drop articles, so you are left with &quot;overqualified&quot;. From there you have &quot;ki-&quot;: over, and &quot;nurid&quot; qualified.

Enterprise or In-it-irip-riash, means &quot;a nerd's heaven&quot;. All we will use here is &quot;riash&quot; to mean heaven. But wait isn't nerd's heaven, &quot;kinuridiriash&quot; and not &quot;initiripriash&quot;? Yes and from this we can see a neat feature of this game. Your derived words should never naturally become the words they are derived from.

On to acronyms, two are pronouncable like words (Yes, laser is an acronym.) and one that is only pronounable when the letters are said phoenetically. With acronyms you have an option when it can be said without phonetically saying its letters and that is to treat it as a word. The other is to treat the phoenetic letter as a syllable.

[[Category:Conlanging culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animacy Hierarchy</title>
    <id>2179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24427</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-11T15:16:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Animacy Hierarchy''' or '''Nominal Hierarchy''' is a scale of [[Wikipedia:Noun phrase|noun phrase]]s' relative [[Wikipedia:Animacy|animacy]] or capability to function as [[Wikipedia:Agent (grammar)|agent]] of a sentence.  Categories higher in the hierarchy are more animate/agental and categories lower in the hierarchy are less animate/agental:

:   first person, second person
:   third person
:   personal name/kin term
:   human
:   animate
:   inanimate

In languages with split ergativity categories towards the top of the hierarchy are most likely to have nominative- accusative case marking while items towards the bottom are most likely to have ergative-absolutive case marking. Again there are no known languages that violate the hierarchy, i.e. having ergative-absolutive marking on first/secondperson pronouns and nominative- accusative marking on inanimates.  Languages differ with regard to where in the hierarchy they draw the border, but they do not violate the hierarchy.

[[Category:Grammar]]

{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Comentary Conlanging</title>
    <id>2181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48697</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-29T10:08:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pronunciation of computer */ new section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Isn't it Com'''m'''entary?

:So I thought as well. Either that or it's an invented word :)  Mike, does this page need moving?  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 05:46, 25 March 2006 (PST)

== Pronunciation of ''computer'' ==

You really pronounce ''computer'' as {{IPA|/kəmˈputər/}} and not {{IPA|/kəmˈpjutər/}},
i.e. as if it was spelled ''compooter''? [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:08, 29 August 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Exolangs</title>
    <id>2182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:46:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
Category of [[exolang]]s.

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Funlangs</title>
    <id>2183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:46:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for [[funlang]]s.

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ibran</title>
    <id>2184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:47:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for pages concerning [[Ibran]].

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ill Bethisad</title>
    <id>2185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for topics in [[Ill Bethisad]].

For much more, see the Ill Bethisad Wiki at [[IBWiki:Main Page]].

[[Category:Conworlds]]
[[Category:Collaborations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Indo-European languages</title>
    <id>2186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Category:Language families]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for Indo-European languages.  

[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Khoisan languages</title>
    <id>2187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:52:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for Khoisan languages.

[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kythish</title>
    <id>2188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-25T21:53:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>descr.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Category for pages concerning [[Kythish]].

[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Language families</title>
    <id>2189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40188</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-26T01:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Azirian numbers</title>
    <id>2190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-26T10:11:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>On IPA template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I added the IPA template to your transcriptions, so that they will be visible in Internet Explorer (nine curses on Internet explorer! :-).  It's a good idea to use the IPA template for characters in the Latin Extended-B and Latin Extended Additional ranges too, since Times New Roman support is flaky in those ranges.  What the template does is to force the browser to use a reasonably complete Unicode font. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 02:11, 26 March 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Smiley</title>
    <id>2191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21371</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T12:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Template:-)]] moved to [[Template:Smiley]]: More descriptive name.  Old name should remain as redirect/alternative syntax.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large&quot;&gt;☺&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Frown</title>
    <id>2192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21367</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T12:49:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Template:-(]] moved to [[Template:Frown]]: Descriptive name.  Old page should remain as redirect/alternative syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:large&quot;&gt;☹&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Frowney</title>
    <id>2194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-31T11:30:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhen Lin</username>
        <id>6</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template:Frowney moved to Template::-(: Something more memorable.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Template::-(]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Frown</title>
    <id>2195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21369</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T12:49:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Template talk:-(]] moved to [[Template talk:Frown]]: Descriptive name.  Old page should remain as redirect/alternative syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I didn't know template names could be non-alphabetic!  Anyway the redirect doesn't seem to work... [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 10:50, 31 March 2006 (PST)

Actually, I just realised a problem with the title - &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{:-)}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; would actually include [[-)]], not [[Template::-)]]... - [[User:Zhen Lin|振霖]]&lt;sub&gt;[[User talk:Zhen Lin|T]]&lt;/sub&gt; 08:09, 3 April 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template::-)</title>
    <id>2196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-31T18:55:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template::-) moved to Template:-): It doesn't seem to work when it begins with a colon...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Template:-)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template::-(</title>
    <id>2197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-31T18:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template::-( moved to Template:-(: It doesn't work with a name beginning in a colon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Template:-(]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk::-(</title>
    <id>2198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-31T18:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template talk::-( moved to Template talk:-(: It doesn't work with a name beginning in a colon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Template talk:-(]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohloçan (Sohlodar)</title>
    <id>2199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46914</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:42:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Sohloçan]] moved to [[Sohloçan (Sohlodar)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sohloçan''' {{IPA|[sɒɬɒɕan]}}: The Classical [[Sohlob]] word for an inhabitant of [[Sohlodar]].

[[Category:Sohlodar]]
[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlosjan</title>
    <id>2200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46916</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:42:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redirect fixer</username>
        <id>1248</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Sohloçan]] has been moved, it is now a redirect to [[Sohloçan (Sohlodar)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Sohloçan (Sohlodar)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sohlodar (Sohlob)</title>
    <id>2201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46930</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T15:14:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sohlodar''' {{IPA|[sɒɬɒdar]}} The lands where the [[Sohlob]] langauages are spoken

The Sohloçan cardinal compass directions are actually rotated 45 degrees eastward compared to the English/Terran compass points. However the Sohlob terms for the compass points are usually translated with their closest functional English equivalents, so that '''kember''' which is actually north-east is usually translated as 'north' and so on.
&lt;!--
=== The rejected set of terms ===

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 15%;&quot;&gt;Kijeb&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 16%;&quot;&gt;Sohlob&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 16%;&quot;&gt;English&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 10%;&quot;&gt;Direction&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;kimra&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;kember&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'north'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;NE&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;yasa&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;yah&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'east'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;SE&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;stirkyu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;istirdj&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'south'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;SW&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;styungwa&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;aesjtong&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'west'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;NW&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

--&gt;
=== The Sohlob terms for compass directions ===

&lt;table class=&quot;gridtable&quot; style=&quot;width: 50%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 15%;&quot;&gt;Kijeb&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 16%;&quot;&gt;Sohlob&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 16%;&quot;&gt;English&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;width: 10%;&quot;&gt;Direction&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;''*kimra''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''kember'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'north'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;NE&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;''*styungwa''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''æçtong'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'east'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;SE&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;''yasa''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''yah'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'south'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;SW&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;''*ringyu''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''linj'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'west'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;NW&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Category:Sohlodar]] 
[[Category:Sohlob]] 
[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kijebsyllabary.gif</title>
    <id>2202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-02T16:14:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kijeb syllabary table</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kijeb syllabary table</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kijeb writing (Sohlob)</title>
    <id>2203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46926</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:52:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kijebsyllabary.svg|thumb|350px|right|The Kijeb syllabary.  Click [[Kijeb writing/syllabary|here]] to see it enlarged.]]

[[Kijeb]] is attested in the form of mostly short formal religious, commemorative, dedicative and funerary inscriptions on stone and metal written in a mainly [[Wikipedia:Syllabary|syllabic script]], but with two [[Wikipedia:Logogram|logograms]] used for the words ''*duzba'' &quot;sun&quot; and ''*giwri'' &quot;king&quot;, which had special religious and social significance.  There is evidence that there existed other writings in Kijeb language and script, since [[Sohlosjan|Sohloçan]] grammarians mention finds of pottery with Kijeb inscriptions in ancient graves.  It seems clear however that with few exceptions the preserved Kijeb texts derive from the area where [[Sohlob languages|Kidilib]] was spoken in classical times.

[[Image:Kijeblogograms.gif|thumb|100px|left|The two logograms used in Kijeb writing]]

The Kijeb syllabary is partly  defective in that it ignores the distinction between voiced and voiceless stops, between the stops /p/ and /k/ and their fricative counterparts /f/ and /x/, and in the oldest inscriptions also the distinction between palatalized and unpalatalized consonants, and between velar and labiovelar consonants.  Because of these traits it has been argued that the syllabary was originally devised for some other language.

== The Duzbaximu inscription ==

{| width=500 style=&quot;clear: right;&quot;
|colspan=2 align=center| [[Image:Duzbaximu.gif]]
|-
|colspan=2| King Duzbaximu's inscription runs in lines from right to left and from top to bottom. It is given here in transliteration (left) and transcription (right). Go [[Kijeb texts#Duzbaximu|here]] for a grammatical analysis.
|-
| 
'''i-mi-u.ta-ta.GIWRI.DUZBA.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''ki-mu.GIWRI.kut-na.ki-mut.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''mi-ri-su-na.pan-tin-ta-ru.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''ku-is-ti-u.ki-pa-ta-ti-u.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''i-{{IPA|ŋ}}u.na-ta-ra-yu.u-{{IPA|ŋ}}u.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''na-ta-ra-si-a.GIWRI.u-ni-ra.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''ti-a.i-ru.pit-ni-as.ti-'''&lt;br&gt;
'''us-pir-ta-ru.i-pi.GIWRI-it.'''&lt;br&gt;
'''nit-pi.ti-as-ku-nan.pit-ni-'''&lt;br&gt;
'''as.ku-is-pi-rit.is-ti-ri-pu-'''&lt;br&gt;
'''ru-si-a.ku-ir-tir-ku-ru.'''&lt;br&gt;
|| 
''imyu tata giwri duzba-''&lt;br&gt;
''ximu, giwri kudna-ximut''&lt;br&gt;
''mrisuna, fandintaru:''&lt;br&gt;
''kwizdyu kibatatyu''&lt;br&gt;
''i{{IPA|ŋ}}u natrayu u{{IPA|ŋ}}u''&lt;br&gt;
''natrasya giwri unira-''&lt;br&gt;
''dya, iru fidnyas dy-''&lt;br&gt;
''usfirtaru. Ifi giwrit''&lt;br&gt;
''nitpi tyazgunan fidny-''&lt;br&gt;
''as gwisprit stripu-''&lt;br&gt;
''rusya gwirdirguru.''&lt;br&gt;
|}
[[Category:Kijeb]]
[[Category:Sohlob]]
[[Category:Sohlob writing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kijeblogograms.gif</title>
    <id>2205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-06T13:09:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The (two) logograms used in Kijeb script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The (two) logograms used in Kijeb script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esperanto v. 2</title>
    <id>2206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13719</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-13T23:28:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevo</username>
        <id>233</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terms of the sentences - Termos da Oração */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Translation=
You can help us by translating this page into English. Please keep the Portuguese text also.

=Introduction - Introdução=

Esperanto V.2 (This name may change) is a project to create a new language for global communication. It is a language constructed by many people from all around the world.

This is a project in progress. Join us at orkut: http://www.orkut.com/Community.aspx?cmm=9744132 !

''Esperanto V.2 (Este nome pode mudar) é um projeto para criar uma nova lingua para comunicação global. É uma língua construida por muitas pessoas em todo o mundo.''

''Este é um projeto em construção. Junte-se a nós no orkut : http://www.orkut.com/Community.aspx?cmm=9744132 !''

=Alphabet - Alfabeto=

Esperanto V.2 has:

''Esperanto V.2 tem:''

5 vowels: a, e, i, o, u

''5 vogals: a, e, i, o, u''

13 Consonants: f, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x, y.

''13 Consoants: f, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, w, x, y.''

Their sounds are like in Esperanto, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc.

''Seus sons são como no esperanto, português, espanhol, italiano, etc.''

Names of the Letters:

''Nome das letras'' 

A, a - a

E, e - e

F, f - ef

H, h - ihi

I, i - i

K, k - ka

L, l - el

M, m - em

N, n - en

O, o - o

P, p - pe

R, r - re (rrre)

S, s - es

T, t - te

U, u - u

W, w - wa

X, x - xe

Y, y - ya

=Word stress - Tonicidade das palavras=

The same system will be used as for Esperanto; that is, the stress will always be on the penultimate syllable, without exception.

''Será utilizado o mesmo sistema do esperanto; ou seja a tonicidade será sempre na penúltima silaba sem exceções.''

=Sentence Terms - Termos da Oração=
Esp.V.2 will use sentences terms (subject, verb, and object) in two orders:

SVO (without particle) and SOV (with particle)

This arrangement embraces 90% of the world population. VOS will not be used in order to avoid complication.

When one wants to use SOV he/she needs to use the particle ''wa'' after the subject.

Ex:

SVO - The boy saw the duck 

SOV - The boy ''wa'' the duck saw

Both are correct.

''O esp.v.2 usará os termos da oração (Sujeito, verbo e objeto) dispostos em duas formas:''

''O SVO (sem particula) e SOV (Com partícula).''

''Pelo motivo que; a ulilização destes dois sistema abrange em torno de 90% da população mundial e diminui a complexidade de uso de particulas utilizando outros sistemas como o VOS.''

''O SOV utiliza a partícula wa após o sujeito para indica-lo.''

Assim, temos como exemplo:

SVO –  O menino viu o pato

SOV -  O menino wa o pato viu

=Article - Artigo=

There will be no article.

See the Russian language, for instance, or Chinese. Both have no article. So we can communicate without articles too, and remain understandable. Using articles is a habit which we have from our native language. It is part of the linguistic structures which we consider essential just because we are used to them, but if we think better we will see that we don't need them.

''Artigo é dispensável.''

''Veja em língua russa ou em língua chinesa. Ambas dispensam uso de artigo. E nós podemos nos comunicar sem usar nenhum artigo também, continuando inteligíveis. Usar artigo é hábito que temos por falarmos português. Faz parte de estruturas linguísticas que consideramos essenciais apenas porque nos acostumamos a elas. Mas, se analisarmos friamente, são dispensáveis.''

=Noun - Substantivo=

The noun is not inflected for gender or number. 

•	For some concepts we can have different words differing between genders, such as Father and Mother. These concepts are primitive (not derived from more fundamental ones).

•	Nevertheless, to differentiate between a male professor and a female professor with the use of inflexion is superfluous.  See English - it's just &quot;teacher&quot;.

•	Words for things do not need to have gender.  Table, house, moon, lake, sun, bank - don't need to be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

•	The genders should be neutral when they are not necessary for the topic.  An ending indicating gender is added for these.

O substantivo não se flexiona nem em gênero nem em número.

•	Para alguns conceitos podemos ter palavras diferentes diferindo entre gêneros, como Pai e Mãe. Esses conceitos são primitivos (no sentido de mais fundamentais).

•	No entanto, diferenciar entre professor e professora com o uso de flexão é supérfluo. Veja o inglês - é tudo &quot;teacher&quot;.

•	As coisas não precisam ter sexo. Mesa, casa, lua, lago, sol, banco - não precisam ser palavras masculinas, nem femininas e nem neutras.

•	Os gêneros devem ser neutros a não ser que eles sejam necessários para o assunto. Ai se coloca uma terminação indicativa de sexo.

=Adjective - Adjetivo=

Adjectives are invariable; in other words, they do not inflect for gender or number.

São invariáveis, ou seja, não se flexionam nem em gênero nem em número.


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx translation until here xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

=Bibliografia=

Esperanto – www.lernu.org

IDO - www.idolinguo.com

Phonology - Designing an Artificial Language - Copyright © 1991, 1994, 1998 by Richard A. Morneau,  published in the September 1991 issue of the Linguica APA - http://www.eskimo.com/~ram/phonology.html
The Language Construction Kit - http://www.zompist.com/kit.html


=Phonology=
==Phonemes==
==Phonotactics==
(sequences of phonemes permitted)
=Syntax=
=Vocabulary=

Choose a radical for this meaning. Write your name or nickname next to it. This will be the first English-Esperanto2 dictionary.

Remember opost meanings don't need a new radical because there will be a prefix to opost meaning.

Ex: if good is bon, bad can be fusbon.

Go on! You can edit this site.

If you know a more international word for one that has already been chosen, put your choice next to the first one. It will be decided by vote.

A

• a = on (Avestrux)

• able = abil (Avestrux)

• about = circal (Avestrux)

• account = aconta (Avestrux)

• acid 

• across 

• act = acto (Avestrux)

• addition = adito (Avestrux)

• adjustment = ajustamento (Avestrux)

• advertisement = propaganda (Avestrux)

• agreement 

• after 

• again 

• against 

• air 

• all 

• almost 

• among 

• amount 

• amusement 

• and 

• angle 

• angry 

• animal 

• answer 

• ant 

• any 

• apparatus 

• apple 

• approval 

• arch 

• argument 

• arm 

• army 

• art 

• as 

• at 

• attack 

• attempt 

• attention 

• attraction 

• authority 

• automatic 

• awake


B

baby • back • bad • bag • balance • ball • band • base • basin • basket • bath • be • beautiful • because • bed • bee • before • behavior • belief • bell • bent • berry • between • bird • birth • bit • bite • bitter • black • blade • blood • blow • blue • board • boat • body • boiling • bone • book • boot • bottle • box • boy • brain • brake • branch • brass • bread • breath • brick • bridge • bright • broken • brother • brown • brush • bucket • building • bulb • burn • burst • business • but • butter • button • by

C

cake • camera • canvas • card • care • carriage • cart • cat • cause • certain • chain • chalk • chance • change • cheap • cheese • chemical • chest • chief • chin • church • circle • clean • clear • clock • cloth • cloud • coal • coat • cold • collar • color • comb • come • comfort • committee • common • company • comparison • competition • complete • complex • condition • connection • conscious • control • cook • copper • copy • cord • cork • cotton • cough • country • cover • cow • crack • credit • crime • cruel • crush • cry • cup • current • curtain • curve • cushion • cut

D

damage • danger • dark • daughter • day • dead • dear • death • debt • decision • deep • degree • delicate • dependent • design • desire • destruction • detail • development • different • digestion • direction • dirty • discovery • discussion • disease • disgust • distance • distribution • division • do • dog • door • down • doubt • drain • drawer • dress • drink • driving • drop • dry • dust

E

ear • early • earth • east • edge • education • effect • egg • elastic • electric • end • engine • enough • equal • error • even • event • ever • every • example • exchange • existence • expansion • experience • expert • eye

F

face • fact • fall • false • family • far • farm • fat • father • fear • feather • feeble • feeling • female • fertile • fiction • field • fight • finger • fire • first • fish • fixed • flag • flame • flat • flight • floor • flower • fly • fold • food • foolish • foot • for • force • fork • form • forward • fowl • frame • free • frequent • friend • from • front • fruit • full • future

G

garden • general • get • girl • give • glass • glove • go • goat • gold • good • government • grain • grass • great • green • grey/gray • grip • group • growth • guide • gun

H

hair • hammer • hand • hanging • happy • harbor • hard • harmony • hat • hate • have • he • head • healthy • hearing • heart • heat • help • here • high • history • hole • hollow • hook • hope • horn • horse • hospital • hour • house • how • humor

I

I • ice • idea • if • ill • important • impulse • in • increase • industry • ink • insect • instrument • insurance • interest • invention • iron • island

J

jelly • jewel • join • journey • judge • jump

K

keep • kettle • key • kick • kind • kiss • knee • knife • knot • knowledge

L

land • language • last • late • laugh • law • lead • leaf • learning • leather • left • leg • let • letter • level • library • lift • light • like • limit • line • linen • lip • liquid • list • little (less, least) • living • lock • long • look • loose • loss • loud • love • low

M

machine • make • male • man • manager • map • mark • market • married • match • material • mass • may • meal • measure • meat • medical • meeting • memory • metal • middle • military • milk • mind • mine • minute • mist • mixed • money • monkey • month • moon • morning • mother • motion • mountain • mouth • move • much (more, most) • muscle • music

N

nail • name • narrow • nation • natural • near • necessary • neck • need • needle • nerve • net • new • news • night • no • noise • normal • north • nose • not • note • now • number • nut

O

observation • of • off • offer • office • oil • old • on • only • open • operation • opposite • opinion • other • or • orange • order • organization • ornament • out • oven • over • owner

P

page • pain • paint • paper • parallel • parcel • part • past • paste • payment • peace • pen • pencil • person • physical • picture • pig • pin • pipe • place • plane • plant • plate • play • please • pleasure • plough/plow • pocket • point • poison • polish • political • poor • porter • position • possible • pot • potato • powder • power • present • price • print • prison • private • probable • process • produce • profit • property • prose • protest • public • pull • pump • punishment • purpose • push • put

Q

quality • question • quick • quiet • quite

R

rail • rain • range • rat • rate • ray • reaction • red • reading • ready • reason • receipt • record • regret • regular • relation • religion • representative • request • respect • responsible • rest • reward • rhythm • rice • right • ring • river • road • rod • roll • roof • room • root • rough • round • rub • rule • run

S

sad • safe • sail • salt • same • sand • say • scale • school • science • scissors • screw • sea • seat • second • secret • secretary • see • seed • selection • self • send • seem • sense • separate • serious • servant • sex • shade • shake • shame • sharp • sheep • shelf • ship • shirt • shock • shoe • short • shut • side • sign • silk • silver • simple • sister • size • skin • skirt • sky • sleep • slip • slope • slow • small • smash • smell • smile • smoke • smooth • snake • sneeze • snow • so • soap • society • sock • soft • solid • some • son • song • sort • sound • south • soup • space • spade • special • sponge • spoon • spring • square • stamp • stage • star • start • statement • station • steam • stem • steel • step • stick • still • stitch • stocking • stomach • stone • stop • store • story • strange • street • stretch • sticky • stiff • straight • strong • structure • substance • sugar • suggestion • summer • support • surprise • such • sudden • sun • sweet • swim • system

T

table • tail • take • talk • tall • taste • tax • teaching • tendency • test • than • that • the • then • theory • there • thick • thin • thing • this • thought • thread • throat • though • through • thumb • thunder • ticket • tight • tired • till • time • tin • to • toe • together • tomorrow • tongue • tooth • top • touch • town • trade • train • transport • tray • tree • trick • trousers • true • trouble • turn • twist

U

umbrella • under • unit • use • up

V

value • verse • very • vessel • view • violent • voice

W

walk • wall • waiting • war • warm • wash • waste • watch • water • wave • wax • way • weather • week • weight • well • west • wet • wheel • when • where • while • whip • whistle • white • who • why • wide • will • wind • window • wine • wing • winter • wire • wise • with • woman • wood • wool • word • work • worm • wound • writing • wrong

X

(none)

Y

year • yellow • yes • yesterday • you • young

Z

(none)


    * Derivative words considered to be part of the Esperanto V.2 850 list

Retrieved from &quot;http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_English_alphabetical_wordlist&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kijeb texts (Sohlob)</title>
    <id>2207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46889</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:29:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Sohlob/Kijeb/Texts]] moved to [[Kijeb texts (Sohlob)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Duzbaximu ==

This text can be seen in the original script on the [[Kijeb writing#The Duzbaximu inscription|Kijeb writing]] page.

For a grammar overview see the main [[Kijeb]] article.

(1)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''i'' || ''-myu'' || ''tata'' || ''giwri'' || ''Duzba-'' || ''ximu,''
|-
| this || -ADV || I || king || sun- || shield,
|-
|colspan=10| ''imyu tata giwri duzba-ximu, ''
|-
|colspan=10| &quot;Like this king Duzbaximu (Sun-shield),&quot;
|}
----
(2)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
|| ''giwri'' || ''Kudna'' || ''-ximu'' || ''-t'' || ''mrisu'' || ''-na,''
|-
|| king || peace || -shield || -DAT || son || -3.SG.MASC.POSS
|-
|colspan=6| ''giwri kudna-ximut mrisuna, ''
|-
|colspan=6| &quot;king Kudnaximu's (Peace-shield's) son,&quot;
|}
----
(3)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''fand'' || ''-i'' || ''-n'' || ''-ta'' || ''-ru:''
|-
| say || -IPF || -PRES || -1.SG. || -3.SG.INANIM.
|-
|colspan=5| ''fandintaru:''
|-
|colspan=5| &quot;I say:&quot;
|}
----
(4)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''kwizd(y)'' || ''-yu'' || ''kiba'' || ''-ta'' || ''-tyu''
|-
| twelve || -ORDINAL || year || -1.SG.POSS || -LOC
|-
|colspan=5| ''kwizdyu kibatatyu ''
|-
|colspan=5| &quot;in my twelfth year&quot;
|}
----
(5)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''i'' || ''-ŋu'' || ''natra'' || ''-yu'' || ''u'' || ''-ŋu'' || ''natra'' || ''-sya''
|-
| this || -ANIM.SG. || river || -ABL || that (far) || -ANIM.SG. || river || -ALL
|-
|colspan=8| ''iŋu natrayu uŋu natrasya''
|-
|colspan=8| &quot;from this river to yon river&quot;
|}
----
(6)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''giwri'' || ''un'' || ''-i'' || ''-r'' || ''-a'' || ''-dya''
|-
| king || be || -IPF || -PAST || -PTCP || -when (CNJ)
|-
|colspan=6| ''giwri uniradya,''
|-
|colspan=6| &quot;when I was king,&quot;
|}
----
(7)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''i'' || ''-ru'' || ''fidnya'' || ''-s'' || ''dyusf'' || ''-i'' || ''-r'' || ''-ta'' || ''-ru.''
|-
| this || -INANIM.SG || stone || -ACC || make || -IPF || -PAST || -1.SG || -3.SG.INANIM
|-
|colspan=9| ''iru fidnyas dyusfirtaru.''
|-
|colspan=9| &quot;I made this stone.&quot;
|}
----
(8)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''ifi'' || ''giwri'' || ''-t'' || ''nitpi'' || ''tyazgu'' || ''-na'' || ''-n'' || ''fidnya'' || ''-s''
|-
| and || king || -DAT || six || elephant || -3.SG.MASC.POSS || -PLUR || stone || -ACC
|-
|colspan=9| ''Ifi giwrit nitpi tyazgunan fidnyas''
|-
|colspan=9| &quot;And six of the king's elephants (the) stone&quot;
|}
----
(9)
{| border=0 cellspacing=&quot;12&quot;
| ''gwispri'' || ''-t'' || ''stripu'' || ''-ru'' || ''-sya'' || ''gwird'' || ''-i'' || ''-r'' || ''-(ŋ)gu'' || ''-ru.''
|-
| mountain || -DAT || top || -3.SG.INANIM.POSS || -ALL || pull || -IPF || -PAST || -3.PL.ANIM || -3.SG.INANIM
|-
|colspan=10| ''gwisprit stripurusya gwirdirguru.''
|-
|colspan=10| &quot;to the mountain's top they pulled it.&quot;
|}


{|{Bordertable|#fff}}
|''Imyu tata giwri Duzba-ximu, giwri Kudna-ximut mrisuna, fandintaru: kwizdyu kibatatyu iŋu natrayu uŋu natrasya giwri uniradya, iru fidnyas dyusfirtaru. Ifi giwrit nitpi tyazgunan fidnyas gwisprit stripurusya gwirdirguru.''
||&quot;I king Duzbaximu, son of king Kudnaximu say this: In my twelfth year (as king), being king from this river to yon river I made this stone. And six of the king's elephants pulled the stone to the top of the mountain.&quot;
|}
[[Category:Kijeb]]
[[Category:Sohlob]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune</title>
    <id>2208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46388</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T22:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Carune
|pronounce=/karune/
|tu=none
|species=Human
|in=Carune
|no=23 million
|script=Latin
|tree=Indo-European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Italic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Italo-Western&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Italo-Dalmation&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Carune'''
|morph=inflecting, fusional
|ms=Accusative-Dative
|wo=SVO
|creator=Sectori
|date=December 2005}}

Carune was my first, pitiful attempt at a romlang. It has since seen two major revisions. This page reflects the most recent version of Carune starting at the top and moving down as I revise it.

==Phonology==
Carune has seven vowel phonemes and eighteen consonant phonemes.

===Vowels===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || i || || || || || || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || e || || || || || || || o
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || e || || || || || || || o
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || a
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Consonants===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || gn || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || c(h) || g(h)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || f || v || || || s || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || z || || || || || || c(i) || g(i)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || r
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || l || || || || gl
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Notes===
&lt;e&gt; is realized as [{{IPA|e}}] when it descends from Latin &lt;tt&gt;OE Ē I&lt;/tt&gt; and as [{{IPA|ɛ}}] when it descends from Latin &lt;tt&gt;AE E&lt;/tt&gt;. Stressed &lt;e&gt; is [{{IPA|ɛ}}]. &lt;o&gt; is realized as [{{IPA|o}}] when it descends from Latin &lt;tt&gt;AU Ō U&lt;/tt&gt; and as [{{IPA|ɔ}}] when it descends from Latin &lt;tt&gt;O&lt;/tt&gt;. Stressed &lt;o&gt; is [{{IPA|ɔ}}].

&lt;c&gt; is realized as [k] before &lt;a o u&gt;, and as [tʃ] before &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i e&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;. &lt;g&gt; is realized as [g] before &lt;a o u&gt;, and as [dʒ] before &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i e&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;. &lt;ch&gt; is always [k], and &lt;gh&gt; is always [g]. &lt;ci gi&gt; before &lt;a o u&gt; are realized as affricates without pronouncing &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Multiple vowels are usually realized as diphthongs.

===Stress===
Stress in Carune may be unmarked or marked. Marked stress is shown by a grave accent, e.g. '''parlarì''' [parlaˈri]. Unmarked stress falls as follows:

* If the word ends in a vowel or '''n''', stress falls on the penultimate syllable, e.g. '''parlare''' [parˈlare].
* Otherwise, stress falls on the ultimate syllable.

===Allophony===
There are three main allophonic variations that occur in spoken Carune:

* word-final /a/ is realized as [{{IPA|ǝ}}] in polysyllabic words where it is unstressed, e.g. '''vita''' &quot;life&quot; /ˈvita/ realized as [ˈvitǝ]
* intervocalic /s/ is often realized as [z], e.g. '''usare''' &quot;use&quot; /uˈsar{{IPA|ɛ}}/ realized as [uˈzar{{IPA|ɛ}}]
* intervocalic /ts/ is generally realized as [dz], e.g. '''sezi''' &quot;sixteen&quot; /s{{IPA|ɛ}}tsi/ realized as [s{{IPA|ɛ}}dzi]

It should also be noted that word-final -'''e''' often elides when unstressed, especially before a vowel.

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Parseltongue</title>
    <id>2209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-11T10:57:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I must say that this is not the way Parseltongue is characterized in the ''Harry Potter'' books.  As far as I understood it, Parseltongue is a language consisting entirely of the kind of hisses snakes utter naturally, and not phonetically human-like.

--[[User:WeepingElf|WeepingElf]] 09:55, 10 April 2006 (PDT)

:Yes, that is pretty much exactly how it is depicted in the movies. So I don't think 'no known form' is entirely right.  Anyway, since the other language described on this page is ''not'' Parseltongue, it should probably be moved to [[Parseltongue-inspired]] or [[Fispa]].  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 03:57, 11 April 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parseltongue-inspired</title>
    <id>2210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46392</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T22:16:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Example passage */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Parseltongue-inspired (Fispa)|pronounce=ˈfispa:|tu=''Harry Potter'' world|species=Ophidic&lt;br/&gt;(snakes and snake-likes)|in=All over the HP world|no=''unknown''|script=''n.a.''|tree=Isolate|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=July 2005}}

The '''Parseltongue''' referred to in this article refers to '''Parseltongue-inspired''', a hypothetical form of [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Parseltongue]]. Because the tongue has no written form, the text samples appearing hereafter are in romanised form. This language is an inflecting accusative language with a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order.

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

Being a language spoken by snakes and the like, Parseltongue, while having the complete basic plosive repertoire ({{IPA|[p]/[b] [t]/[d], [k]/[g]}}), is rich in sibilants and other fricatives, which occur at a far higher frequency. Plosives also assimilate frequently to neighbouring fricatives or sonorants. 

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left:50px;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=13 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || {{IPA|n}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ʃ}} || || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} || {{IPA|dz}} || || {{IPA|tʃ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || {{IPA|ʍ}} || {{IPA|w}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

====Assimilation====

Due to the inherent tendency of snakes (and hence their human inheritors of Parsetongue) to fricativise sounds, plosives commonly assimilate to neighbouring continuants (including aspirate stops), even across word boundaries, except where plosives are geminate. Regressive assimilation is the most common, and changes of the following types have been observed:

*{{IPA|[p]}} + ''fricative'' = labialised fricative (''e.g.'' '''pf''' = '''f&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;''')
*{{IPA|[b]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[v]}} + voiced fricative (''e.g.'' '''bth''' = '''vð''')
**Occasionally, complete assimilation occurs, e.g. '''vð''' becomes '''ðð'''.
*{{IPA|[t]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate fricative
*{{IPA|[d]}} + ''fricative'' = geminate voice fricative
*{{IPA|[k]}} + ''fricative'' = {{IPA|[x]}} + fricative = geminate fricative in certain cases

When followed by a {{IPA|[h]}}, whether or not separated by a vowel or diphthong, plosives are aspirated, eliding the {{IPA|[h]}}, and in some progressive dialects fricativise.

*E.g. {{IPA|[t]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = {{IPA|[tʰ]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}}

The velar plosives exhibit a slightly irregular pattern of fricativisation, and examples as illustrated below have been noted:

*{{IPA|[k/k]}} (i.e. across word boundaries) = {{IPA|[χ]}}
*{{IPA|[g]}} is frequently elided

With sonorants, devoicing frequently occurs before a fricative:

*{{IPA|[m]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''m'''''
*{{IPA|[r]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''r''''' or {{IPA|[hr]}}
*{{IPA|[l]}} + {{IPA|[h]}} = ''devoiced '''l''''' or {{IPA|[hl]}}
**{{IPA|[l]}} + ''fricative'' sometimes causes the {{IPA|[l]}} to vocalise to an {{IPA|[u]}}

Frequently, intervocalic {{IPA|[h]}} is elided.

In the construction of the past tense (''see also [[#Verbs|Verbs]] below''), assimilation takes place regularly with consonant-stem verbs. In the text example provided [[#Example passage|below]], the past tense of &quot;to like&quot; is ''hinneis''; the stem of the verb is actually ''hil-'', but with the adding of the past tense suffix ''-n-'', the ''-l-'' of the stem completely assimilates, resulting in a geminate ''nn''.

{{Seealso|#Diphthongs}}

===Vowels===

Parseltongue vowels are generally ''voiceless'', unless preceded or followed by a nasal({{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}) or liquid ({{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}). They also have phonemic length, but the distinction is not usually made as speakers generally lengthen and shorten vowels at will, or elide them; only lengthening is substantially common, however, given the tendency of Parseltongue speakers to speak slowly. Occasionally, when two identical vowels occur consecutively (which happens only when they are across a word boundary or when an intermediate consonant, usually {{IPA|[h]}}, has been elided), the resulting sound may be four times as long as normally due to such arbitrary lengthening.

====Monophthongs====

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left:50px;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=9 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

The above table shows the phonemic vowels in Parseltongue. Among them, {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} have allophones of {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} respectively.

====Diphthongs====

Historically, Parseltongue had four diphthongs, {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ao]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}. In modern times, only {{IPA|[ai]}} has remained unchanged over the years, while {{IPA|[ei]}} has become {{IPA|[e:]}}, {{IPA|[au]}} has become {{IPA|[o:]}} and {{IPA|[ao]}} has taken the place of {{IPA|[au]}}, leaving only two.

Diphthongs, like monophthongs, can also be lengthened, albeit in their case only for the first component vowel. For example, when {{IPA|[ai]}} is so lengthened, the resulting sound combination (no longer a diphthong, but two separate syllables) is {{IPA|[a:.i]}}.

Arbitrary lengthening sometimes also alters the quality of Parseltongue diphthongs, when the next vowel (irrespective of whether there is an intervening consonant) is identical to the second component in the diphthong. E.g. ''arsiæ hinneis'' &quot;my sister liked&quot; {{IPA|[ar.si.ˈai ˈhin.ne:s]}} (two words) &gt; {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:i ˈhi.ne:s]}} (two words) &gt; {{IPA|ar.si.ˈa:.hi.ne:s]}} (as though one word).

==Orthography==

===Alphabet===

Parseltongue, having no native script, is romanised with English consonants and Italian vowels.

Vowels that cannot be reduced or elided are marked with an acute accent ( ́), while stress is normally unmarked. In the rare cases where a vowel is prohibited from arbitrary lengthening, a caron (an inverted circumflex) is used to mark the vowel.

The full alphabet of 22 letters used to romanise Parseltongue is as follows (sounds in IPA):

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
! Letter || Sound || Letter || Sound || Digraph || Sound 
|-
| Aa || {{IPA|a}} || Mm || {{IPA|m}} || Ai || {{IPA|ai}}  
|-
| Ææ || {{IPA|ai}} || Nn || {{IPA|n}} || Ao || {{IPA|au}} 
|-
| Bb || {{IPA|b}} || Oo || {{IPA|o}} || Au || {{IPA|o:}} 
|-
| Dd || {{IPA|d}} || Pp || {{IPA|p}} || Br{{footnote|2}} || {{IPA|bɯr}} 
|-
| Ee || {{IPA|e}} || Rr || {{IPA|r}} || Ch || {{IPA|tʃ}} 
|-
| Ff || {{IPA|f}} || Ss || {{IPA|s}} || Ei || {{IPA|e:}} 
|-
| Gg || {{IPA|g}} || Tt || {{IPA|t}} || Hw || {{IPA|ʍ}} 
|-
| Hh || {{IPA|h}} || Uu || {{IPA|u}} || Sh || {{IPA|ʃ}} 
|-
| Ii || {{IPA|i}} || Vv || {{IPA|v}} || Ts || {{IPA|ts}} 
|-
| Kk || {{IPA|k}} || Ww || {{IPA|w}} 
|-
| Ll || {{IPA|l}} || Yy{{footnote|1}} || {{IPA|ɯ}} 
|}
{{footnote|1}} If, when {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides in everyday speech, the preceding plosive is immediately followed by a fricative, assimilation takes place. When voiced plosives are followed by {{IPA|[h]}}, they are aspirated, e.g. ''dy hí'' &quot;and who-ACC&quot; {{IPA|[dɯhi]}} &gt; {{IPA|[dhi]}} &gt; {{IPA|[dʰi]}}.

{{footnote|2}} Historic {{IPA|[r̩]}} unpacked itself to become {{IPA|[ɯr]}}. When followed by a vowel, {{IPA|[ɯ]}} elides and the digraph becomes the consonant cluster {{IPA|[br]}}.

===History===

::''A fictional history involving J. K. Rowling's magical world in the'' Harry Potter ''series''

Romanisation of Parseltongue for writing was first done by English wizards in the 17th century, by the principle of having, as far as possible, one letter to one sound without using letters outside the basic Roman alphabet or extraneous diacritics. There is one odd extra letter, &amp;lt;æ&amp;gt;, adopted from the Icelandic alphabet, to represent the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, but only where it denotes the first person genitive case (e.g. ''arsi'', sister; ''arsiæ'', my sister), the first-person verb ending (''-æ''), or the third-person masculine one (''-æs''). Besides the logically understandable diphthongs, digraphs are historically explicable:

*'''ch''' and '''sh''' were written as in English
*'''ts''' was adopted from romanisation of Greek and Russian

==Grammar==

===Word order===

Basic Parseltongue word order is [[Subject Object Verb]], i.e. ''Sam eats oranges'' would be, literally translated, &quot;Sam oranges eats&quot;, although, unlike most SOV languages, it makes use of pre- instead of postpositions.

Modifiers, including genitives, precede head nouns and verbs; more generally, subordinate clauses precede the particles that mark them, e.g. where English would have ''I thought that he was dead'' Parseltongue would say ''he was-dead that I-thought''. In that same vein, verbs precede their auxiliaries, going by the logic that, for example, the progressive verb &quot;is driving&quot; is a type of progressive aspect ('' to be -ing'') instead of a type of driving, since the verb inflection behaves according to the auxiliary.

===Nouns===

Parseltongue does not mark nouns for gender or number, and, consequently, neither do adjectives, although the historical loss of such inflection has not occurred with pronouns, which survive in fossilised forms today, much as in English ''(see [[#Pronouns]] below)''. Inflection does survive in the case system, however, albeit barely, distinguishing the common, genitive and ablative cases (these latter also undergoing attrition). As with gender and number distinctions, pronouns have fossilised other once-marked cases like the dative (though not the locative) and the accusative.

====Declension====

Historically, Parseltongue had three noun declension systems for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, each of which exhibited a fair degree of variation depending on the ending of the noun stem, through processes such as assimilation to achieve homophony. Later systematic analogical readjustments and phonetic attrition, however, served to level out the differences between the various case endings within genders (including the plural), spreading across genders as well. This resulted in the gradual fudging of the boundaries between different gender categories, culminating in their eventual loss, and the stabilisation of the one remaining declension paradigm today.

=====Common case=====

The common case is used, with the appropriate particles or prepositions in Parseltongue for the nominative, accusative, dative, locative, instrumental and vocative cases (the surviving genitive and ablative cases are discussed below), and is the basic form of the noun. 

=====Genitive case=====

The genitive case marker, originally ''-VtV'', where ''V'' stands for a vowel homophonous in rounding and height with the last or predominant vowel in the stem, has gradually simplified to the near-clitic case marker ''-ti'' widespread today (ignoring subsequent phonological processes that change the ending further). 

=====Ablative case=====

The ablative case has survived in its original form (''-igo'' or ''-ego'' depending on the height of the stem's dominant or last vowel) due to the analogy with the ablative case in the pronouns, although the general tendency is, now, to standardise both to ''-ego''. Besides being used for expressing movement away from and relation to (like the english words &quot;concerning&quot; or &quot;about&quot;), the ablative is also used to mark the standard of comparison with comparative adjectives: &quot;him&quot; in ''taller than him'' is marked ablatively ''(see also [[#Comparative adjectives]] below).

====Pronouns====

=====Personal pronouns=====

As in English, gender in pronouns is only marked with the third-person, but unlike it Parseltongue marks the third-person plural as well, and compounds the gender endings to indicate that a group consists of more than one gender.

(pronoun paradigm here)

=====Demonstrative and relative pronouns=====

The demonstrative and relative pronouns in Parseltongue are relatively simply constructed, inflecting for only 2 cases each, possibly due to the fact that the demonstratives are omitted in most cases where they are concomitant with the noun to which they refer, and the relatives (a relatively modern invention through contact with English, an SVO language) can be omitted as well by placing the modifying verbs before them (e.g. ''shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis'' &quot;that-one whom my-sister liked&quot; is usually said as ''arsiæ hinneis shēsin'' in the mould of other SOV languages.

&lt;br/&gt;

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;&quot;
!colspan=3| Demonstrative Pronouns
|-
!style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot; colspan=2| English ||style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot;| Parseltongue 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| This ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| com.{{footnote|1}} ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Tasin
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| abl.{{footnote|2}} ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Tadego
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| That ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| com. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Shēsin
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| abl. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Shedego
|}

&lt;br/&gt;

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;&quot;
!colspan=3| Relative Pronouns{{footnote|3}}
|-
!style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot; colspan=2| English ||style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot;| Parseltongue 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| Who ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom.{{footnote|4}} ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Takēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc.{{footnote|5}} ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Takím
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| Which ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Nadēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Nadím
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| When ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hásēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hásim
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| Where ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Húdēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Húdim
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| Whose ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hidēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hidím
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; rowspan=2| How ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| nom. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Horēm
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| acc. ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hórim
|}

{{footnote|1}} Common case&lt;br/&gt;
{{footnote|2}} Ablative case&lt;br/&gt;
{{footnote|3}} Relative pronouns, with the exceptions of ''who'' and ''which'', are formed directly from the corresponding interrogatives.&lt;br/&gt;
{{footnote|4}} Nominative case&lt;br/&gt;
{{footnote|5}} Accusative case

&lt;br/&gt;

=====Interrogative pronouns=====

The interrogative pronouns are distinct from the relative pronouns, unlike in English, and, because of their nature as being only interrogative, are invariable. All Parseltongue interrogatives begin with a ''h'' (which in certain dialects has undergone regular fortition to {{IPA|[s]}}).

&lt;br/&gt;

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot;| Parseltongue ||style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 50%&quot;| English
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hí ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Who
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hē ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| What
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hás ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| When
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hán ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Why
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hút ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Where
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hití ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Whose
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Hór ||style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| How
|}

===Adjectives===

===Verbs===
====Aspect, mood and tense====

===Adverbs===

==Example passage==

The following example passage of Parseltongue is a translation of the Parseltongue dialogue between Tom Marvolo Riddle and Morfin, recorded in English in ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', pp.341-2:

{|style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 100%;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%&quot;| English ||style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 35%&quot;| Parseltongue ||style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; width: 30%&quot;| Phonetic transcription
|-
|style=&quot;padding-right: 8px;&quot;| “Stop.”

“You speak it?”

“Yes, I speak it. Where is Marvolo?”

“Dead. Died years ago, didn’t he?”

“Who are you, then?”

“I’m Morfin, ain’t I?”

“Marvolo’s son?”

“’Course I am, then… I thought you was that Muggle. You look mighty like that Muggle.”

“What Muggle?”

“That Muggle what my sister took a fancy to, that Muggle what lives in the big house over the way. You look right like him. Riddle. But he’s older now, i’n ’e? He’s older’n you, now I think on it… He come back, see.”

“Riddle came back?”

“Ar, he left her, and serve her right, marrying filth! Robbed us, mind, before she ran off! Where’s the locket, eh, where’s Slytherin’s locket? Dishonoured us, she did, that little slut! And who’re you, coming here and asking questions about all that? It’s over, innit… it’s over…”
|style=&quot;padding-left: 8px;&quot; valign=top| “Psā!”

“Efe iska?”

“Sā, skæ. Hút fis Marvolo?”

“Tæn. Suōs tænas, au?”

“Simī hí fú?”

“Dē Morfin, au?”

“Tuva Marvolī ?”

“Sasōl, ebei? Shēsin Muggle saum hwinæ. Tōr shēsin Muggle harisa.”

“Hē Muggle?”

“Shēsin takím arsiæ hinneis, shēsin Muggle takēm zi aotī heis pi kæs. Me fua harisa. Riddle. E na kalpa fis, au? Kalpava dēgo, na orilæ. Attas, o.”

&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;“Riddle attanas?”

“Ar, ī stanas, chāsa, spak kastú! Orrē eisnais, ēhī, pabr ītnais! Hút for hívulo, i? Hút for Slǐstrikti hívulo? Orrē aswafanais, paifā! Dy hí fú, bes lālú, mespārú tso hāsla? Pēlos, au, pēlos...”

|valign=top| {{IPA|psa:!}}

{{IPA|efˈfi:ska:?}}

{{IPA|ˈsa:ska:i. ˈhu:ffis marˈvo:lo?}}

{{IPA|ˈta:in. swo:s ˈta:inaza:u?}}

{{IPA|ˈsim̥i:fu:?}}

{{IPA|de: ˈmo:rvina:u?}}

{{IPA|ˈtu:va marˈvo:li:?}}

{{IPA|sa:ˈso: leˈbe:? ˈʃe:sim ˈmʌgl̥ ˈsɔmʍina:i. to:r ˌʃe:siˌmʌgl̥aˈri:sa.}}

{{IPA|ˈhe:mʌgl̥?}}

{{IPA|ˈʃe:sin ˌtakimarsiˈa:hine:s, ˌʃe:siˈmʌgl̥ takɛmziˈzuti: ˈhe:spika:is. mefua:::ˈri:sa. ˈɹɪdl. enaˈka:lpafizza:u? kalˌpa:vaˈde:go:, ˈnaurila:i. ˈatazo:.}}

&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|ˈɹɪdl ˈa:tana:s?}}

{{IPA|ˈa: ri:staˈna:s, ˈtʃa:sa, spaˈka:stu! oˈre:sna:is, e:, pa:ˈbri:tna:is! ˈhu:ffo ˈr̥i:vuli:? ˈhu:ffor slistrikˈtʰi:vulo:? oˈre: asˈwa:fna:is, ˈpʰa:ifa:! ˈdʰi:fu:, bɛsˈla:lu, mɛsˈpa:rutso: ˈha:sla:? ˈpe:loza:u, ˈpe:los...}}

[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fispa</title>
    <id>2211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-12T10:57:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Parseltongue-inspired]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hesperic</title>
    <id>2212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26700</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-11T15:12:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hesperic''' is a language family proposed by [[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]].   It belongs to the [[Europic]] phylum and is distantly related to Indo-European.  The Hesperic languages may have been the source of the &quot;Old European hydronymy&quot;, a network of linguistically uniform river names found all over central and western Europe (there are other theories pertaining to these river names, though).

The [[Albic]] family is a part of Hesperic.

==Classification==

* [[Albic]]
* several branches on the continent, yet unexplored</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Local cases</title>
    <id>2213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20319</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-19T12:26:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Merged into page [[Labels for local cases]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Labels for local cases]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mood</title>
    <id>2215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-14T20:54:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Grammar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:BoArthur</title>
    <id>2217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-15T05:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BoArthur</username>
        <id>172</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A member of [http://ib.frath.net/ Ill Bethisad Wiki] I thought I'd join the FrathWiki as well...</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrathWiki talk:Naming conventions</title>
    <id>2218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-15T13:31:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I like this...the convention we follow on the Althistory wiki is to label them like: 

:Mars
:Mars (Red Mars Trilogy)
:Mars (Kurt Vonnegut)

maybe something like that?  We could then make that similar, thus,

:Mylshaemilür
:Mylshaemilür (Grammar)
:Mylshaemilür (Vocabulary)

Comments? [[User:BoArthur|BoArthur]] 22:18, 14 April 2006 (PDT)

:That is probably better, to use the wiki software's built-in features about parentheses (the &lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;xx (yy)|]] link).  At least, for things like [[Mars (Kurt Vonnegut)]].  But, I am not sure that [[Mylshaemilür (Grammar)]] is in the same spirit. On Wikipedia subtopics like that get ordinary names ([[Spanish grammar]], [[History of Chile]]) which seems to make for more natural linking.  Not sure. —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:31, 15 April 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/alphabetically</title>
    <id>2219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32106</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-31T13:20:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Defining Vocabulary */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

== Defining Vocabulary   ==

# a
# ability
# about
# above AvP
# abroad
# absence
# absent A
# accept
# acceptable
# accident
# accordance
# according
# according to
# account
# ache
# acid
# across
# act
# action N
# active A
# activity
# actor
# actress
# actual
# add
# addition
# address
# adjective
# admiration
# admire
# admit
# admittance
# adult
# advance NV
# advantage
# adventure N
# adverb
# advertise
# advertisement
# advice
# advise
# affair
# afford
# afraid
# after AvCP
# afternoon
# afterwards
# again
# against
# age N
# ago
# agree
# agreement
# ahead
# aim
# air N
# aircraft
# airforce
# airport
# alcohol
# alike
# alive
# all AvDPdPn
# allow
# almost
# alone
# along
# aloud
# alphabet
# already
# also
# although
# altogether Av
# always
# among
# amount N
# amuse
# amusement
# amusing A
# an
# ancient A
# and
# anger N
# angle N
# angry
# animal
# ankle
# annoy
# annoyance
# another
# answer
# ant
# anxiety
# anxious
# any
# anyhow
# anyone
# anything
# anywhere
# apart
# apparatus
# appear
# appearance
# apple
# appoint
# approval
# approve
# arch N
# area
# argue
# argument
# arm
# armor N
# arms
# army
# around
# arrange
# arrangement
# arrival
# arrive
# art
# article
# artificial
# as
# ash
# ashamed
# aside Av
# ask
# asleep
# association
# at
# atom
# attack
# attempt
# attend
# attendance
# attention
# attract
# attractive
# aunt
# autumn
# average AN
# avoid
# awake A
# away Av
# awkward
# baby
# back AAvN
# background
# backward Av
# backwards Av
# bacteria
# bad A
# bag N
# bake
# balance
# ball N
# banana
# band N
# bank N
# bar NV
# bare A
# barrel
# base NV
# basket
# bath N
# bathe V
# battle N
# be
# beak
# beam N
# bean
# bear
# beard N
# beat
# NV
# beautiful
# beauty
# because
# become
# bed N
# bee
# beer
# before
# beg
# begin
# beginning
# behave
# behavior
# behind AvP
# belief
# believe
# bell
# belong
# below
# AvP
# belt N
# bend
# beneath
# berry
# beside
# besides
# best AAvN
# better AAv
# between
# beyond AvP
# bicycle N
# big A
# bill N
# bind V
# bird
# birth
# birthday
# bit
# bite
# bitter A
# black AN
# blade
# blame
# bleed
# bless
# blind
# block
# blood
# N
# blow
# blue
# board N
# boat N
# body
# boil V
# bomb
# bone N
# book N
# boot N
# border
# born
# borrow
# both
# bottle N
# bottom N
# bowels
# bowl
# box
# boy
# brain N
# branch
# brass
# brave A
# bread
# breadth
# break V
# breakfast N
# breast N
# breath
# breathe
# breed
# brick N
# bridge N
# bright A
# bring
# broad A
# broadcast
# brother
# brown AN
# brush
# bucket N
# build V
# building
# bullet
# bunch N
# burial
# burn
# burst
# bury
# bus N
# bush N
# business
# busy
# but C
# butter N
# button N
# buy V
# by
# cage N
# cake N
# calculate
# calculator
# call
# calm A
# camera
# camp NV
# can
# NV
# candle
# cap N
# capital N
# captain N
# car
# card N
# cardboard
# care
# careful
# careless
# carriage
# carry
# cart N
# case N
# castle N
# cat
# catch V
# cattle
# cause
# cell
# cement N
# cent
# center N
# centimeter
# central
# century
# ceremony
# certain AD
# chain
# chair N
# chairperson
# chalk N
# chance N
# change
# character
# charge
# charm
# chase V
# cheap
# cheat
# check [cheque]
# cheek N
# cheer
# cheerful
# cheese
# chemical
# chemistry
# chest
# chicken N
# chief
# child
# childhood
# children
# chimney
# chin
# chocolate
# choice N
# choose
# church N
# cigarette
# cinema
# circle N
# circular A
# citizen
# city
# civilization
# claim
# class N
# clay
# clean AV
# clear AV
# clerk
# clever
# cliff
# climb V
# clock N
# clockwork
# close AAvV
# cloth
# clothes
# clothing
# cloud N
# club N
# coal
# coast N
# coat N
# coffee
# coin N
# cold
# collar N
# collect V
# college
# color
# comb
# combination
# combine V
# come
# comfort
# comfortable
# command
# committee
# common A
# companion
# company
# compare V
# comparison
# compete
# competition
# competitor
# complain
# complaint
# complete
# compound N
# computer
# concern V
# concerning
# concert
# condition N
# confidence
# confident
# confuse
# connect
# conscience
# conscious
# consider
# consist
# consonant N
# contain
# contents N
# continue
# continuous
# contract N
# control
# convenient
# conversation
# cook
# cool A
# copper
# copy
# cord N
# corn
# corner N
# correct A
# cost
# cotton
# cough
# could
# council
# count V
# country N
# courage
# course N
# court N
# cover
# cow N
# coward
# cowardly
# crack NV
# crash NV
# cream N
# creature
# creep V
# cricket
# crime
# criminal
# crop N
# cross NV
# crowd N
# cruel
# cruelty
# crush V
# cry
# cultivate
# cup N
# cupboard
# cure
# curl
# current
# curse
# curtain
# curve
# custom N
# customer
# cut
# cycle V
# daily AAv
# damage
# dance
# danger
# dangerous
# dare V
# daring
# dark
# date N
# daughter
# day
# dead A
# deal
# dear A
# death
# debt
# decay
# deceit
# deceive
# decide
# decimal
# decision
# declaration
# declare
# decorate
# decoration
# decrease
# deep A
# deer
# defeat
# defend
# defense
# degree
# delay
# delicate
# delight
# deliver
# demand
# department
# depend
# dependent
# depth
# descend
# describe
# description
# descriptive
# desert N
# deserve
# desirable
# desire
# desk
# destroy
# destruction
# detail N
# determination
# determined
# develop
# devil N
# diamond
# dictionary
# die V
# difference
# different
# difficult
# difficulty
# dig V
# dinner
# dip V
# direct
# direction
# dirt
# dirty A
# disappoint
# discourage
# discouragement
# discover
# discovery
# dish N
# dismiss
# distance N
# distant
# ditch N
# divide V
# division
# do V
# doctor N
# dog N
# dollar
# door
# doorway
# dot N
# double AAvPdV
# doubt
# down AAvP
# drag V
# draw V
# drawer
# dream
# dress NV
# drink
# drive V
# drop
# drown
# drug N
# drum N
# drunk
# dry
# duck
# N
# dull A
# during
# dust N
# duty
# each
# eager
# ear
# early
# earn
# earth N
# east
# eastern
# easy
# eat
# edge N
# educate
# education
# effect N
# effective
# effort
# egg
# N
# eight
# eighth
# either
# elastic
# elbow N
# elect V
# election
# electric
# electricity
# elephant
# else
# employ V
# employer
# employment
# empty AV
# enclose
# enclosure
# encourage
# encouragement
# end
# enemy
# engine
# engineer N
# English
# enjoy
# enjoyment
# enough
# enter
# entertain
# entertainment
# entrance N
# envelope
# equal ANV
# equality
# escape
# especially
# establish
# establishment
# even AAv
# evening
# event
# ever
# every
# everyone
# everything
# everywhere
# evil
# exact A
# examination
# examine
# example
# excellent
# except CP
# exchange
# excite
# excited
# exciting
# excuse
# exercise
# exist
# existence
# expect
# expensive
# experience
# explain
# explanation
# explode
# explosion
# explosive
# express V
# expression
# extreme
# eye
# eyelid
# face
# fact
# factory
# fail V
# failure
# faint AV
# fair A
# fairy
# faith
# faithful A
# fall
# false A
# fame
# familiar A
# family
# famous
# fancy
# A
# far
# farm
# farmer
# farmyard
# fashion N
# fashionable
# fast AAv
# fasten
# fat
# fate
# father N
# fault
# favor N
# favorable
# favorite A
# fear
# feather N
# feed V
# feel V
# feeling
# feelings
# fellow N
# female
# fence N
# fever
# few
# field N
# fierce
# fifth
# fight
# figure N
# fill V
# film
# find V
# fine A
# finger N
# finish
# fire
# fireplace
# firm AN
# first AvD
# fish
# fisherman
# fit AV
# five
# fix V
# flag
# N
# flame
# flash NV
# flat
# flesh
# flight
# float V
# flood
# floor N
# flour
# flow
# flower N
# fly NV
# fold
# follow
# fond
# food
# fool N
# foolish
# foot N
# football
# footpath
# footstep
# for P
# forbid
# force
# forehead
# foreign
# foreigner
# forest
# forget
# forgive
# fork N
# form
# formal
# former
# formerly
# fort
# fortunate
# fortune
# forward Av
# forwards Av
# four
# fourth
# fox N
# frame N
# free
# freedom
# freeze V
# frequent A
# fresh
# friend
# friendly
# frighten
# frightening
# from
# front AN
# fruit N
# fulfill
# full A
# fun
# funeral
# funny
# fur N
# furnish
# furniture
# further AAv
# future
# gain V
# game N
# garage N
# garden
# garment
# gas
# N
# gasoline [petrol]
# gate N
# gather V
# general
# generous
# gentle
# gentleman
# get
# gift
# girl
# give V
# glad
# glass AN
# glory N
# glue
# go V
# goat
# god
# God
# gold
# golden
# good
# good-bye
# goods
# govern
# government
# grace
# graceful
# gradual
# grain
# gram
# grammar
# grand A
# grandfather
# grandmother
# grass N
# grateful
# grave N
# gray AN
# great
# green
# greet
# greeting
# grief
# grieve
# ground
# N
# group N
# grow
# growth
# guard
# guess
# guest
# guidance
# guide
# guilt
# gun N
# habit
# habitual
# hair
# hairy
# half
# hall
# hammer N
# hand
# handkerchief
# handle
# hang V
# happen V
# happy
# hard
# harden
# hardly
# hardship
# harm
# harmful
# harmless
# hasty
# hat
# hate V
# hatred
# have
# he
# head AN
# health
# healthy
# hear
# heart
# heat
# heaven
# heavy A
# heel
# height
# help
# helpful
# hen
# her
# here
# hers
# herself
# hide V
# high AAv
# hill
# him
# himself
# hire
# his
# historical
# history
# hit
# hold
# holiday
# hollow A
# holy
# home AvN
# honest
# honesty
# honor N
# honorable
# hook N
# hope
# hopeful
# hopeless
# horizon
# horn
# horse N
# hospital
# host N
# hot A
# hotel
# hour
# hourly
# house N
# how Av
# human
# humor
# humorous
# hundred
# hundredth
# hunger N
# hungry
# hunt V
# hurry
# hurt V
# husband N
# hut
# I
# ice N
# icy
# idea
# if
# ill A
# image
# imaginary
# imagination
# imagine
# importance
# important
# improve
# improvement
# in AvP
# include
# including
# income
# increase
# indoor
# indoors
# industrial
# industry
# infect
# infection
# infectious
# influence
# influential
# inform
# information
# ink N
# inner
# inquire
# inquiry
# insect
# inside
# instead
# instruct
# instruction
# instrument
# insurance
# insure
# intend
# intention
# interest
# interesting
# international A
# interrupt
# interruption
# into
# introduce
# introduction
# invent
# invention
# invitation
# invite
# inwards
# iron AN
# island
# it Pn
# its
# itself
# jaw N
# jealous
# jealousy
# jelly
# jewel
# jewelry
# job
# join
# joint
# joke
# journey N
# joy
# judge
# judgment
# juice
# jump
# just
# justice
# keen
# keep V
# key N
# kick
# kill V
# kilo
# kilogram
# kilometer
# kind
# king
# kingdom
# kiss
# kitchen
# knee N
# kneel
# knife N
# knock
# knot
# know V
# knowledge
# labor N
# lack
# ladder N
# lady
# lake
# lamb
# lamp
# land
# language
# large
# last AvDV
# late
# lately
# laugh
# laughter
# law
# lawyer
# lay V
# lazy
# lead
# N
# lead V
# leaf N
# lean V
# learn
# least
# leather
# leave V
# left
# leg N
# legal
# lend
# length
# less AvDPn
# lesson
# let V
# letter
# level AAvN
# library
# lid
# lie
# life
# lift
# light
# lightning
# like PV
# likely
# limb
# limit
# line N
# lion
# lip
# liquid
# list N
# listen V
# liter
# literature
# little
# live V
# load
# loaf N
# local
# A
# lock
# lodging
# lodgings
# log N
# lonely
# long AAv
# look
# loose A
# lord N
# lose
# loss
# lot
# loud
# love
# low A
# lower V
# loyal
# loyalty
# luck N
# lump N
# lung
# machine N
# machinery
# mad
# magazine
# magic
# magician
# mail
# main A
# make
# V
# male
# man N
# manage
# manager
# manner
# many
# map N
# march
# mark
# market N
# marriage
# marry
# mass N
# master N
# mat
# match
# material
# matter
# may V
# me
# meal
# mean V
# meaning N
# means
# measure
# meat
# medical A
# medicine
# meet V
# meeting
# melt
# member
# memory
# mend V
# mention V
# merry
# message
# messenger
# metal N
# meter
# method
# metric
# microscope
# middle AN
# might V
# mile
# military
# A
# milk
# million
# millionth
# mind
# mine NPn
# mineral
# minister N
# minute N
# mirror N
# miss V
# mist N
# mistake
# mix V
# mixture
# model N
# modern A
# moment
# money
# monkey N
# month
# monthly AAv
# moon N
# moral A
# morals
# more
# morning
# most
# mother N
# motor AN
# mountain
# mouse
# mouth N
# move V
# much
# mud
# multiply
# murder
# muscle N
# music
# musician
# must V
# my
# myself
# mysterious
# mystery
# nail
# name
# narrow A
# nasty
# nation
# national A
# nature
# naval
# navy
# near AAvP
# nearly
# neat
# necessary
# neck
# need
# needle N
# neighbor
# neighborhood
# neither
# nerve N
# nervous
# nest N
# net N
# network N
# never
# new
# news
# newspaper
# next
# AAv
# nice
# night
# nine
# ninth
# no AvD
# no one
# noble A
# nobleman
# noise N
# none
# Pn
# nonsense
# nor
# north
# northern
# nose N
# not
# nothing
# notice
# noun
# now
# nowhere
# number N
# nurse
# nut
# nylon
# o'clock
# obedience
# obedient
# obey
# object
# N
# obtain
# occasion N
# ocean
# odd
# of
# off AvP
# offend
# offense
# offensive A
# offer
# office
# officer
# official
# often
# oil
# old
# old-fashioned
# on AvP
# once
# Av
# one
# oneself
# onion
# only
# open AV
# operate
# operation
# opinion
# opponent
# oppose
# opposite
# opposition
# or
# orange
# order
# ordinary
# organ
# organization
# origin
# other
# otherwise
# ought
# our
# ours
# ourselves
# out AAv
# outdoor
# outdoors
# outer
# outside
# over AvP
# owe
# owing to
# own DPnV
# oxygen
# pack V
# packet
# page N
# pain N
# painful
# paint
# painting
# pair N
# palace
# pale A
# pan N
# paper N
# parallel AN
# parcel N
# parent N
# park
# parliament
# part N
# participle
# particular A
# partner N
# party N
# pass V
# passage
# passenger
# past
# pastry
# path
# patience
# patient A
# pattern N
# pause
# pay
# payment
# peace
# peaceful
# pen
# N
# pence
# pencil N
# people N
# pepper N
# per
# perfect A
# perform
# perhaps
# period
# N
# permission
# permit V
# person
# personal
# persuade
# pet N
# photograph
# photography
# phrase N
# physical
# piano N
# pick V
# picture N
# piece N
# pig N
# pile
# pilot
# pin
# pink AN
# pipe N
# pity
# place
# plain AN
# plan
# plane N
# plant
# plastic
# plate N
# play
# pleasant
# please
# pleased
# pleasure N
# plenty Pn
# plural
# pocket N
# poem
# poet
# poetry
# point
# pointed
# poison
# poisonous
# pole N
# police N
# polish
# polite
# political
# politician
# politics
# pool N
# poor
# popular
# popularity
# population
# port N
# position N
# possess
# possession
# possibility
# possible A
# possibly
# post
# pot N
# potato
# pound N
# pour
# powder N
# power N
# powerful
# practical
# practice
# praise
# pray
# prayer
# precious A
# preparation
# prepare
# presence
# present AN
# preserve V
# president
# press V
# pressure N
# pretend
# pretty A
# prevent
# price N
# prickly
# pride N
# priest
# prince
# principle
# print
# prison
# prisoner
# private A
# prize N
# probability
# probable A
# problem
# process N
# procession
# produce V
# product
# production
# profession
# profit N
# promise
# pronounce
# pronunciation
# proof N
# proper
# property
# protect
# protection
# protective
# proud
# prove
# provide
# provision
# provisions
# public
# pull
# pump
# punish
# punishment
# pupil
# pure
# purple
# purpose
# N
# push
# put
# quality
# quantity
# quarrel
# quarter N
# queen N
# question
# quick A
# quiet AN
# quite
# rabbit N
# race
# radio N
# railway
# rain
# raise V
# range N
# rank
# N
# rapid A
# rare
# rat N
# rate N
# rather
# raw A
# reach
# read V
# ready A
# real
# really
# reason
# reasonable
# receive
# recent
# recently
# recognition
# recognize
# record NV
# red
# reduce
# reduction
# refusal
# refuse V
# regard
# regular A
# related
# relation
# relative
# religion
# religious
# remain
# remark N
# remember
# remind
# remove V
# rent
# repair
# repeat V
# reply
# report
# represent
# representative
# republic
# request
# respect
# respectful
# responsible
# rest
# restaurant
# result
# return NV
# reward
# rice
# rich
# rid
# ride
# right ANAv
# ring
# ripe
# rise V
# risk
# river
# road
# rob
# rock N
# rod
# roll V
# roof N
# room N
# root N
# rope N
# rose
# rough A
# round AAvP
# row NV
# royal A
# rub V
# rubber
# rude
# ruin
# rule
# ruler
# run
# rush
# sad
# safe A
# safety
# sail
# sale
# salt AN
# same
# sand N
# satisfaction
# satisfactory
# satisfy
# save V
# say V
# scale N
# scatter V
# scene
# scenery
# school N
# science
# scientific
# scientist
# scissors
# screw
# sea
# search
# season N
# seat
# second AvDNPn
# secrecy
# secret
# secretary
# see V
# seed
# N
# seem
# seize
# sell V
# send
# sensation
# sense N
# senseless
# sensible
# sensitive
# sentence N
# separate AV
# serious
# servant
# serve
# service N
# set NV
# settle V
# seven
# seventh
# several
# severe
# sew
# sex N
# sexual
# shade
# shadow N
# shake
# shall
# shame N
# shape
# share
# sharp A
# she
# sheep
# sheet
# shelf
# shell N
# shelter
# shield N
# shine V
# ship N
# shirt
# shock NV
# shoe N
# shoot V
# shop
# shopkeeper
# shore N
# short A
# shot N
# should
# shoulder N
# shout
# show NV
# shut
# sick A
# side AN
# sideways
# sight N
# sign
# signal
# signature
# silence N
# silent
# silk
# silly A
# silver
# similar
# similarity
# simple
# since
# sincere
# sing
# single
# A
# singular
# sink V
# sister
# sit
# situation
# six
# sixth
# size N
# skill
# skillful
# skin N
# skirt N
# sky N
# slave N
# sleep
# slide V
# slight A
# slip V
# slippery
# slope
# slow
# small
# smell
# smile
# smoke
# smooth A
# snake N
# snow
# so
# soap N
# social A
# society
# sock N
# soft
# soil N
# soldier N
# solemn
# solid
# some
# DPn
# somehow
# someone
# something
# sometimes
# somewhere
# son
# song
# soon
# sore A
# sorrow N
# sorry
# sort N
# soul
# sound NV
# soup
# sour A
# south
# southern
# space N
# spacecraft
# spade
# speak
# spear N
# special A
# specialist
# speech
# speed N
# spell
# V
# spend
# spin V
# spirit N
# spite N
# splendid
# split V
# spoil V
# spoon N
# sport
# N
# spot N
# spread V
# spring
# square AN
# stage N
# stair
# stamp
# stand V
# standard
# star N
# start
# state
# station N
# stay
# steady A
# steal V
# steam N
# steel N
# steep A
# stem N
# step
# stick
# sticky
# stiff A
# still AAv
# sting
# stitch
# stomach N
# stone N
# stop
# store
# storm N
# story
# straight AAv
# strange
# stranger
# stream N
# street
# strength
# stretch
# strike V
# string N
# stroke N
# strong
# structure N
# struggle
# student
# study
# stupid
# style N
# subject N
# substance
# subtract
# succeed
# success
# successful
# such
# suck V
# sudden
# suffer
# sugar N
# suggest
# suit
# suitable
# sum N
# summer N
# sun N
# supper
# supply NV
# support
# suppose
# sure A
# surface N
# surprise
# surround V
# swallow V
# swear
# sweep V
# sweet
# swell V
# swim
# swing
# sword
# sympathetic
# sympathy
# system
# table N
# tail N
# take V
# talk
# tall
# taste
# tax
# taxi N
# tea
# teach
# team N
# tear V
# tear N
# telephone
# television
# tell
# temper N
# temperature
# temple
# tend
# tendency
# tender A
# tennis
# tense N
# tent
# terrible
# terror
# test
# than
# thank
# that CDPn
# the
# theater
# their
# theirs
# them
# themselves
# then Av
# there
# therefore
# these
# they
# thick A
# thief
# thin A
# thing
# think V
# third
# thirst N
# thirsty
# this DPn
# thorough
# those
# though
# thought
# thousand
# thousandth
# thread N
# threat
# threaten
# three
# throat
# through AvP
# throw
# thumb N
# thunder
# thus
# ticket N
# tidy AV
# tie
# tiger
# tight A
# time N
# timetable N
# tin
# tire
# [tyre] N
# tire V
# title N
# to
# tobacco
# today
# toe N
# together
# tomorrow
# tongue
# tonight
# too
# tool N
# tooth
# top AN
# total AN
# touch
# tour
# tourist
# towards
# tower N
# town
# toy N
# track
# trade N
# traffic N
# train
# translate
# transparent
# trap
# travel
# treat V
# treatment
# tree
# tremble V
# tribe
# trick NV
# trip N
# tropical
# trouble
# trousers
# true A
# trunk
# trust
# truth
# try V
# tube
# tune N
# turn
# twice
# twist
# type N
# typical
# ugly
# uncle
# under P
# understand
# undo
# uniform N
# union
# unit
# unite
# universal
# universe
# university
# until
# up
# AAvP
# upper A
# upright AAv
# upset V
# upside down
# upstairs AAv
# urge
# urgent
# us
# use
# useful
# useless
# usual
# valley
# valuable A
# value N
# variety
# various
# vary
# vegetable
# vehicle
# verb
# very Av
# victory
# view N
# village
# violence
# violent
# visit
# voice N
# vote
# vowel
# voyage N
# wages
# waist
# wait V
# waiter
# wake V
# walk
# wall N
# wander
# want V
# war N
# warm AV
# warmth
# warn
# wash
# waste
# watch
# water
# wave
# way
# we
# weak
# wealth
# weapon
# wear V
# weather N
# weave V
# wedding
# week
# weekly AAv
# weigh
# weight N
# welcome
# well AAvN
# west
# western A
# wet A
# what
# whatever
# wheat
# wheel N
# when AvC
# whenever
# where
# whether
# which
# whichever
# while C
# whip
# whisper
# whistle
# white
# who
# whoever
# whole
# why
# wicked
# wide AAv
# widespread
# width
# wife
# wild AAv
# will
# willing
# win V
# wind V
# wind N
# window
# wine N
# wing N
# winter N
# wire N
# wisdom
# wise A
# wish
# with
# within P
# without P
# witness N
# woman
# wonder NV
# wood
# wooden
# wool
# woolen
# word N
# work
# world
# worm N
# worry
# worse
# worship
# worst
# worth
# worthy
# worthy of
# would
# wound
# wrap V
# wreck
# wrist
# write
# wrong AAvN
# wrongdoing
# yard
# year
# yearly
# yellow AN
# yes
# yesterday
# yet
# you
# young
# your
# yours
# yourself
# youth
# zero

=== Prefixes ===

# dis-
# im-
# in-
# ir-
# mid-
# mis-
# non-
# re-
# self-
# un-.

=== Suffixes ===

# -able
# -al
# -an
# -ance
# -ar
# -ate
# -ation
# -ed
# -en
# -ence
# -er
# -ery
# -ess
# -ful
# -ible
# -ic
# -ical
# -ing
# -ion
# -ish
# -ist
# -ity
# -ive
# -ization
# -ize
# -less
# -like
# -ly
# -ment
# -ness
# -or
# -ous
# -ry
# -ship
# -th
# -ward
# -wards
# -work
# -y.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kulumaku</title>
    <id>2220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29131</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:05:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tulumaku is a pidgin conlang with easy phonology and simple grammar. It is designed for ease of use with almost no grammar learning required except that of word learning. The name, Tulumaku is from the Tolomako language, which is supposedly easy to learn from Papua New Guinea.


== Phonology | Ka Ma Tunu  ==


Like many Polynesian languages, Tulumaku follow's a strict (C)(V) structure.


'a 'i 'u

ka ki ku

la li lu

ma mi mu

na ni nu

pa pi pu

ta ti [tsi] tu

wa wi

ya    yu


*a [a]     
*i [i]     
*u [u]


*' [ʔ]     
*k [k]     
*l [l or r]     
*m [m]     
*n [n]     
*p [p]     
*t [t]     
*w [w]     
*y [j]


== Grammar | Ka Wiyalika ==


Tulumaku's grammar is quite easy.


Word order is normally VSO, but can be made as VOS.


&lt;b&gt;`Aluwa ka wana `i laki.&lt;/b&gt;

love - ka woman - 'i man.

The woman loves the man.


Stative nouns usually are preceded with the subject particle '&lt;b&gt;ka&lt;/b&gt;' except with pronouns. Object nouns are shown by '&lt;b&gt;`i&lt;/b&gt;'. Adjectives always follow the noun, and adverbs follow verbs. Tenses do not exist, and instead are modified using adverbs, or by context.


&lt;b&gt;'a&lt;/b&gt; serves as the directive particle, going to something or for something.


&lt;b&gt;nouns and stative sentences&lt;/b&gt;

 The sky is &lt;i&gt;blue&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;Kikulani&lt;/i&gt; ka lani.&lt;/b&gt;


&lt;b&gt;adjectives&lt;/b&gt;

 Love is a &lt;i&gt;holy&lt;/i&gt; way. &lt;b&gt;Wiya &lt;i&gt;tapu&lt;/i&gt; ka `aluwa.&lt;/b&gt;


&lt;b&gt;adverbs&lt;/b&gt;

 I will eat &lt;i&gt;tomorrow&lt;/i&gt;. &lt;b&gt;Kumi &lt;i&gt;mani`a&lt;/i&gt; ku.&lt;/b&gt;


== Pater Noster ==


 Papa maku
 Ki `ula `a lani,
 Tapu ka nama tu.
 Kama ka `ali`iya,
 Tapa pa ka wili tu
 `a lupa ta `a lani.
 Tuna `i pana `alu 'a maku `a `alu ni.
 Patuna `i kalana maku,
 Ta patuna maku `i maya ki patuna 'a maku.
 Ta kiya nu `i maku 'a kalana
 Pilu kiya 'i maku pi mala.
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tulumaku</title>
    <id>2221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-17T01:55:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevynbello</username>
        <id>131</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tulumaku moved to Kulumaku</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Kulumaku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternate Earth</title>
    <id>2222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-17T21:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Alternate Earth, or '''Terra Nuva''' is [[User:Sectori|Sectori]]'s primary conworld. It is home to such familiar places as the United States and the United Kingdom, and new oddities such as [[Khombu (nation)|Khombu]], [[K'uanu]], and [[Futozi (nation)|Futozi]].
==History==
The history of Terra Nova is quite similar to that of our Earth until the mid-1300s. At this point, the Italian states that are in our world called Lombardy, Liguria, Piedmont, and Valle d'Aosta, together with a bit of southern Switzerland and the French province of Rhone-Alps, declared their independence as the sovereign state of [[Carune (nation)|Carune]]. This sparked some difficulties internationally, including a war that briefly distracted Europe from its crusades in the Holy Land. Carune emerged victorious, and that seemed to be the end of that.

The next divergence is in the early 1500s, when European powers began their journeys to colonize Africa and the Americas. Carune, being ambitious, naturally set out to secure colonies in Africa. Traveling around the coast of Africa, Carune explorers reached a small archipelago off the African coast, the [[Futozi (nation)|Futozi islands]], inhabited by a peaceful tribe. It was perfect, and soon a thriving economy grew up around the &quot;capital&quot; village of Miyuzi (Meiuzium, in Carune). This would be Carune's only colony, but it served them well. A small archipelago in the Indian ocean called [[K'uanu]] would be colonized by the British, and these islands would later play an important role in world politics. The nation of [[Khombu (nation)|Khombu]] was never colonized, but gained ties to some of the middle-eastern nations through European influence.

In 1903, as Europe became a battleground, Futozi declared its independence from Carune, and Carune was forced to let it go. However, Futozi remained closely affiliated with Carune, and, when World War I broke out, served as an important staging point for military operations in Africa. When this World War I ended, Carune became the voice of the smaller nations in the council that determined the fate of Germany, earning independence for Saudi Arabia, Khombu, and K'uanu. With these greatful countries as allies, Carune became a powerful voice in the League of Nations.

In 1939, when Germany declared war on Poland, Carune began to fear for itself. Sure enough, the armies of Nazi Germany soon marched into Italy, and Carune's government fled from Torine to Miyuzi. Resistance efforts in Carune were strong, and by the time Allied soldiers arrived in Carune, the Resistatum di Carune had already secured Zergattum, with the help of the Swiss government (who in the end declared war on Germany). A broken Europe after the war needed strong leadership, and as Carune's economy skyrocketed, it soon became a powerful force in its vicinity. Carune became a founding member of the United Nations, and secured a position on the UN Security Council. Futozi, Khombu, and K'uanu set about forming an African model of the United Nations, though the African Union would take a long time to become a full reality.

In 1975, Carune and Futozi co-launched a space station into orbit, and soon began training astronauts from such countries as Rwanda, Khombu, Vietnam, and Bangladesh. This show of international cooperation finally allowed the troubled nation of K'uanu entry into the UN, which it had been denied based on its government.

In 2001, September 11 shocked the international community. Carune and Futozi were some of the few countries to speak out against some of the actions the United States took after that day. In 2002, a Futozi was elected chairman of the African Union. When the United States entered Iraq, Carune, along with France and the African Union, began a trade boycott against it. In 2006, the United States formally declared its withdrawl from the United Nations, claiming that it was no longer bound by international law. International protest was shocking, and some countries, Khombu and China included, even proposed military action against the United States. But this was the last straw for the American people. The President of the United States was impeached and sentenced to a period of jail time, and emergency elections were held, observed by the UN. In 2007, the United States' new government began plans to withdraw from Iraq, and re-entered such important treaties as the United Nations and the Geneva Convention.

==Nations of Alternate Earth==
*[[K'uanu]]: an archipelago that just overthrew a corrupt government.
*[[Khombu (nation)|Khombu]]: a republic with a more militaristic worldview.
*[[Futozi (nation)|Futozi]]: an island nation run by a direct democracy.
*[[Carune (nation)|Carune]]: a European nation run by a parliamentary democracy.

[[Category:Alternate Earth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Alternate Earth</title>
    <id>2223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-17T21:03:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Alternate Earth is [[User:Sectori|Sectori]]'s conworld.

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune (nation)</title>
    <id>2224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-22T06:54:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Carune History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Carune'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| http://img50.imageshack.us/img50/7560/picture19nl.th.gif
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Name:'''
|| Il Republice di Carune
|-
|valign=top|'''Population:'''
|| 20.71 million
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Languages:'''
|| [[Carune]], [[Monzo|Mònzo]] (in Lombardia), Italian (in Liguria), French (in Rhone-Alps), German (in Zergattum)
|-
|valign=top|'''Neighboring States:'''
|| Italy, France, Switzerland
|-
|valign=top|'''Government Type:'''
|| Parliamentary republic
|-
|valign=top|'''Capital:'''
|| Torine
|-
|valign=top|'''Administrative Divisions:'''
|| Lombarde, Zergattum, Alpi Roni, Liguria, Valle di Aosta
|-
|valign=top|'''Constitution:'''
|| Il Constituzione di Carune; June 1891
|-
|valign=top|'''Suffrage:'''
|| 18 years; univeral
|-
|valign=top|'''Executive Branch:'''
|| Head of Government: Prime Minister Michale di Torine, elected to a five year term from each political party's candidate
|-
|valign=top|'''Legislative Branch:'''
|| Elected parliament; party is elected, and gets a certain number of parliamentary seats based on the popular vote
|-
|valign=top|'''Judicial Branch:'''
|| Five member Supreme Court
|-
|valign=top|'''Political Parties and Leaders:'''
|| Il Partide Nazionale (Ione Romane), Il Partide da Muerae (Ofelia Badrassa), Il Partide Liberale (Michale di Torine), Il Partide Sozialiste di Carune (Ronalde Ivvane), Carune Partide Democraze (Rome di Angeli).
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP (PPP):'''
|| $1.3 trillion (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP per capita:'''
|| $32,000 (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Labor Force:'''
|| 15.2 million (includes unemployed) (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Unemployment Rate:'''
|| 3.2% (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Population below poverty line:'''
|| 4.3% (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Major Industries:'''
|| Computers, fashion, tourism
|}
Carune is a nation which is, in our world, northern Italy, a little part of southern France, and some of Switzerland (which annexed part of Austria in the first World War). This nation depends greatly on tourism, especially skiers, as well as on mining and animal herding. However, the capital, Torine (Turin), as well as Milane (Milan) and Monze feature large computer industries, and Milane has become a world fashion center. The southern area of the country is also a haven for archaeologists seeking Roman ruins. Grenobela (Grenoble), in what is in our world France, Torine, Zergattum in our Switzerland, and Genova (Genoa), in our Italy have all hosted Olympic games at one time or another.

The Carune flag has six colors: red, yellow, green, blue, white, and orange. Red and yellow represent Spain; Blue, white, and red represent France; Yellow, blue, and red represent Romania; green and red represent Portugal; and red, green, and white represent Italy, the major areas where Romance languages are spoken. Orange represents the sovereign nation of Carune.

==Carune History==
{{Seealso|Alternate Earth}}
In the mid 1300s, the Italian states that are in our world called Lombardy, Liguria, Piedmont, and Valle d'Aosta, together with a bit of southern Switzerland and the French province of Rhone-Alps, declared their independence as the sovereign state of Carune. This sparked some difficulties internationally, including a war that briefly distracted Europe from its crusades in the Holy Land. Carune emerged victorious, and that seemed to be the end of that.

In the early 1500s, European powers began their journeys to colonize Africa and the Americas. Carune, being ambitious, naturally set out to secure colonies in Africa. Traveling around the coast of Africa, Carune explorers reached a small archipelago off the African coast, the Futozi islands, inhabited by a peaceful tribe. It was perfect, and soon a thriving economy grew up around the &quot;capital&quot; village of Miyuzi (Meiuzium, in Carune). This would be Carune's only colony, but it served them well.

In 1903, as Europe became a battleground, Futozi declared its independence from Carune, and Carune was forced to let it go. However, Futozi remained closely affiliated with Carune, and, when World War I broke out, served as an important staging point for military operations in Africa. When this World War I ended, Carune became the voice of the smaller nations in the council that determined the fate of Germany, earning independence for Saudi Arabia, Khombu, and K'uanu. With these greatful countries as allies, Carune became a powerful voice in the League of Nations.

In 1939, when Germany declared war on Poland, Carune began to fear for itself. Sure enough, the armies of Nazi Germany soon marched into Italy, and Carune's government fled from Torine to Miyuzi. Resistance efforts in Carune were strong, and by the time Allied soldiers arrived in Carune, the Resistatum di Carune had already secured Zergattum, with the help of the Swiss government (who in the end declared war on Germany). A broken Europe after the war needed strong leadership, and as Carune's economy skyrocketed, it soon became a powerful force in its vicinity. Carune became a founding member of the United Nations, and secured a position on the UN Security Council. Futozi, Khombu, and K'uanu set about forming an African model of the United Nations, though the African Union would take a long time to become a full reality.

In 1975, Carune and Futozi co-launched a space station into orbit, and soon began training astronauts from such countries as Rwanda, Khombu, Vietnam, and Bangladesh.

In 2001, September 11 shocked the international community. Carune and Futozi were some of the few countries to speak out against some of the actions the United States took after that day. In 2002, a Futozi was elected chairman of the African Union. When the United States entered Iraq, Carune, along with France and the African Union, began a trade boycott against it.
[[Category:Alternate Earth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjêcas</title>
    <id>2225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-18T22:11:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecas</title>
    <id>2226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43057</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-12T00:35:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Senjecan language]]

[[Senjecan culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan language</title>
    <id>2228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28361</id>
      <timestamp>2008-01-31T15:05:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Adaptation of Latin alphabet to Senjecas]]

[[Senjecan alphabets]]

[[Senjecan dictionaries]]

[[Senjecan grammar]]

[[Senjecan kinship terms]]

[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]

[[Senjecan Swadesh list I]]

[[Senjecan Swadesh list II]]

[[Senjecan translations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan alphabets</title>
    <id>2229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48824</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T18:33:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* weak vowel clan - livſŭevſŭenuĸos - ливсўвсўенукос - λιβσῠηβσῠηνυκως - לִבסוֵבסוֵנֻכֹס */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Notes=
*A [[wikipedia:diacritic|diacritic]] (or its name) shown after a grapheme is put above it.
*A different grapheme for a long vowel is only used with the Devanagari script.  In other scripts the vowel is doubled.
*The following apply to the use of Hebrew graphemes with Senjecas:
**A dot after a Hebrew grapheme indicates the use of the [[wikipedia:dagesh|''dagesh'']].  They are not too clear in this font. When necessary, the ''dagesh'' indicates
***1) the occlusive member of the stop/fricative pairs ''or''
***2) the voiced member of the sonorant pairs.
**The [[wikipedia:niqqud|''niqqud]]im'' are used as follows:
***The ''niqqudim'' for '''a, e, i, å''' and '''u''' are written under the preceding consonant.  With the double or the long vowels, the second ''niqqud'' is written under an ''alef''.
***The ''niqqud'' for '''o''' is written above the preceding consonant.  Note that, in the palatalized vowel table, the ''niqqud'' is to the left of the ''yod''.  It should be above the ''yod''.
**''Vav'' is used as the [[wikipedia:mater lectionis|''mater lectionis'']] for the ''niqqudim'' when the vowel is labialized.
**''Yod'' is used as the ''mater lectionis'' for the ''niqqudim'' when the vowel is palatalized.  Note that there is no difference in spelling between a palatalized vowel and a ''yod'' followed by a vowel.  This causes no confusion as there are no minimal pairs consisting of a palatalized vowel and a consonant followed by a '''ȝ'''.  Thus &lt;font color=brown&gt;מֵניֺס&lt;/font&gt;, mountain range, is &lt;font color=blue&gt;menȝos&lt;/font&gt;, not *&lt;font color=blue&gt;menĭos&lt;/font&gt;.
*The [[wikipedia:tengwar|tengwar]] are analyzed as follows (''taken from volume 3, appendix E, page 494''):
**The first grade (''tyelle'') is used for the labial consonants.
***The normal stem (''telco'') represents the stops.
***The rising stem represents the fricatives.
***The shortened stem represents the sonorants.
***The double bow (''lúva'') indicates voicing.  Thus rows (''témar'') 5 &amp; 6 are reversed.
**The second grade is used for the dental consonants.
**The third grade is used for the alveolar consonants.
**The fourth grade is used for the palatal consonants.
**Those familiar with the tengwar will notice that ''tyeller'' 1 &amp; 2 are interchanged to reflect the Senjecan idea that the labials precede the dentals.
**The tengwar vowels in the table below are shown with Latin letters as carriers.  When necessary, tengwar #30 is used as the carrier.
**Tengwar #35 is used to indicate a palatal vowel and #36 a labial vowel respectively.

=labial clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;lavluĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;лавлукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;λαβλυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;לַבלֻכֺס&lt;/font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| p
|c=02|
|c=03| p
|c=04| p
|c=05| p
|c=06| p
|c=07| п
|c=08| π
|c=09| &amp;#1402;
|c=10| &amp;#2346;
|c=11| &amp;#4318;
|c=12| פ‧
|c=13| 1
|-
|c=01| b
|c=02|
|c=03| b
|c=04| b
|c=05| b
|c=06| b
|c=07| б
|c=08| ϐ
|c=09| &amp;#1378;
|c=10| &amp;#2348;
|c=11| &amp;#4305;
|c=12| ב‧
|c=13| 5
|-
|c=01| f
|c=02|
|c=03| f
|c=04| f
|c=05| φ
|c=06| p\
|c=07| ф
|c=08| φ
|c=09| &amp;#1414;
|c=10| &amp;#2398;
|c=11| &amp;#4342;
|c=12| פ
|c=13| 9
|-
|c=01| v
|c=02|
|c=03| v
|c=04| v
|c=05| β
|c=06| B
|c=07| в
|c=08| β
|c=09| &amp;#1406;
|c=10| &amp;#2357;
|c=11| &amp;#4309;
|c=12| ב
|c=13| 13
|-
|c=01| ɱ 
|c=02|
|c=03| ɱ
|c=04| mh
|c=05| 
|c=06| m_0
|c=07| ӎ
|c=08| μ`
|c=09| &amp;#1396;`
|c=19| &amp;#2350;-nukta
|c=11| &amp;#4339;
|c=12| מ
|c=13| 21
|-
|c=01| m
|c=02|
|c=03| m
|c=04| m
|c=05| m
|c=06| m
|c=07| м
|c=08| μ
|c=09| &amp;#1396;
|c=10| &amp;#2350;
|c=11| &amp;#4315;
|c=12| מ‧
|c=13| 17
|}

=dental clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;źemvuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;ѕемвукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;ϡημβυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;צּמבֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
|c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| t
|c=02|
|c=03| t
|c=04| t
|c=05| t
|c=06| t_d
|c=07| т
|c=08| τ
|c=09| &amp;#1407;
|c=10| &amp;#2340;
|c=11| &amp;#4322;
|c=12| ת‧
|c=13| 2
|-
|c=01| d
|c=02|
|c=03| d
|c=04| d
|c=05| d
|c=06| d_d
|c=07| д
|c=08| δ
|c=09| &amp;#1380;
|c=10| &amp;#2342;
|c=11| &amp;#4307;
|c=12| ד‧
|c=13| 6
|-
|c=01| þ
|c=02|
|c=03| þ
|c=04| þ
|c=05| θ
|c=06| T_d
|c=07| ѳ
|c=08| θ
|c=09| &amp;#1385;
|c=10| &amp;#2341;
|c=11| &amp;#4311;
|c=12| ת
|c=13| 10
|-
|c=01| ð
|c=02|
|c=03| ð
|c=04| ð
|c=05| ð
|c=06| D_d
|c=07| ђ
|c=08| ϑ
|c=09| &amp;#1386;
|c=10| &amp;#2343;
|c=11| &amp;#4311;`
|c=12| ד
|c=13| 14
|-
|c=01| ł
|c=02|
|c=03| ł
|c=04| lh
|c=05| 
|c=06| l_d_0
|c=07| л̀
|c=08| ӆ
|c=09| &amp;#1399;
|c=10| &amp;#2355;
|c=11| &amp;#4314;
|c=12| ש
|c=13| 22

|-
|c=01| l
|c=02|
|c=03| l
|c=04| l
|c=05| l
|c=06| l_d
|c=07| л
|c=08| λ
|c=09| &amp;#1388;
|c=10| &amp;#2354;
|c=11| &amp;#4314;̀
|c=12| ל
|c=13| 18
|}

=alveolar clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;abŭuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;абўукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;αϐῠυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;אַבּוֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| ć
|c=02|
|c=03| ć
|c=04| ts
|c=05| &amp;#678;
|c=06| ts)
|c=07| ц
|c=08| ς
|c=09| &amp;#1390;
|c=10| &amp;#2359;
|c=11| &amp;#4332;
|c=12| צ
|c=13| 3
|-
|c=01| ź
|c=02|
|c=03| ź
|c=04| dz
|c=05| ʒ
|c=06| dz)
|c=07| s
|c=08| Ϡ
|c=09| &amp;#1393;
|c=10| &amp;#2337;
|c=11| &amp;#4331;
|c=12| צ‧
|c=13| 7
|-
|c=01| ſ, s
|c=02|
|c=03| ſ, s
|c=04| s
|c=05| s
|c=06| s
|c=07| c
|c=08| σ, ς
|c=09| &amp;#1405;
|c=10| &amp;#2360;
|c=11| &amp;#4321;
|c=12| ס
|c=13| 11
|-
|c=01| z
|c=02|
|c=03| z
|c=04| z
|c=05| z
|c=06| z
|c=07| з
|c=08| ζ
|c=09| &amp;#1382;
|c=10| &amp;#2395;
|c=11| &amp;#4310;
|c=12| ז
|c=13| 15
|-
|c=01| r
|c=02|
|c=03| r
|c=04| rh
|c=05| ɾ
|c=06| 4_0
|c=07| p
|c=08| ρ
|c=09| &amp;#1404;
|c=10| &amp;#2352;
|c=11| &amp;#4320;
|c=12| ר
|c=13| 23
|-
|c=01| n
|c=02|
|c=03| n
|c=04| n
|c=05| n
|c=06| n
|c=07| н
|c=08| ν
|c=09| &amp;#1398;
|c=10| &amp;#2344;
|c=11| &amp;#4316;
|c=12| נ
|c=13| 19
|}

=palatal clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeemnuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;һеемнукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;ħηημνυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;הֵאֵמנֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| к
|c=02|
|c=03| к
|c=04| k
|c=05| k
|c=06| c
|c=07| к
|c=08| κ
|c=09| &amp;#1391;
|c=10| &amp;#2325;
|c=11| &amp;#4313;
|c=12| כ
|c=13| 4
|-
|c=01| g
|c=02|
|c=03| g
|c=04| g
|c=05| g
|c=06| J\
|c=07| г
|c=08| γ
|c=09| &amp;#1379;
|c=10| &amp;#2327;
|c=11| &amp;#4306;
|c=12| ג‧
|c=13| 8
|-
|c=01| x
|c=02|
|c=03| x
|c=04| x
|c=05| ç
|c=06| C
|c=07| x
|c=08| χ
|c=09| &amp;#1389;
|c=10| &amp;#2326;
|c=11| &amp;#261;
|c=12| ח
|c=13| 12
|-
|c=01| ϙ
|c=02|
|c=03| ϙ
|c=04| q
|c=05| ʝ
|c=06| j\
|c=07| ѓ
|c=08| Ϟ
|c=09| &amp;#1394;
|c=10| &amp;#2328;
|c=11| &amp;#4326;
|c=12| ג
|c=13| 16
|-
|c=01| ħ
|c=02|
|c=03| ħ
|c=04| jh
|c=05| 
|c=06| j_0
|c=07| һ
|c=08| ħ
|c=09| &amp;#1392;
|c=10| &amp;#2361;
|c=11| &amp;#4336;
|c=12| ה
|c=13| 24
|-
|c=01| ȝ
|c=02|
|c=03| ȝ
|c=04| j
|c=05| j
|c=06| j
|c=07| j
|c=08| j
|c=09| &amp;#1397;
|c=10| &amp;#2351;
|c=11| &amp;#4338;
|c=12| י
|c=13| 20
|}

=vowel clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭevſŭenuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;сўевсўенукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;σῠηβσῠηνυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;סוֵבסוֵנֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| i
|c=02|
|c=03| i
|c=04| i
|c=05| i
|c=06| i
|c=07| i
|c=08| и
|c=09| &amp;#1387;
|c=10| &amp;#2311;/&amp;#2312;
|c=11| &amp;#4312;
|c=12| אִ
|c=13| ȯ, ḅ
|-
|c=01| e
|c=02|
|c=03| e
|c=04| e
|c=05| e
|c=06| e
|c=07| e
|c=08| η
|c=09| &amp;#1383;
|c=10| &amp;#2318;/&amp;#2319;
|c=11| &amp;#4337;
|c=12| אֵ
|c=13| ö, b̤
|-
|c=01| a
|c=02|
|c=03| a
|c=04| a
|c=05| a
|c=06| a
|c=07| a
|c=08| α
|c=09| &amp;#1377;
|c=10| &amp;#2309;/&amp;#2310;
|c=11| &amp;#4304;
|c=12| אַ
|c=13| ō, ḇ

|-
|c=01| ø
|c=02|
|c=03| ø
|c=04| ø
|c=05| ɔ
|c=06| O
|c=07| ѫ
|c=08| o
|c=09| &amp;#1400;
|c=10| &amp;#2324;/?
|c=11| &amp;#4341;
|c=12| אָ 
|c=13| õ, ṵ
|-
|c=01| o
|c=02|
|c=03| o
|c=04| o
|c=05| o
|c=06| o
|c=07| o
|c=08| ω
|c=09| &amp;#1413;
|c=10| &amp;#2322;/&amp;#2323;
|c=11| &amp;#4317;
|c=12| אֺ 
|c=13| ȏ, ḓ
|-
|c=01| u
|c=02|
|c=03| u
|c=04| u
|c=05| u
|c=06| u
|c=07| у
|c=08| υ
|c=09| &amp;#1400;&amp;#1410;
|c=10| &amp;#2313;/&amp;#2314;
|c=11| &amp;#4323;
|c=12| אֻ
|c=13| ŏ, ḫ
|}

=palatalized vowel clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeemnëſŭevſŭenuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;һеемнӭсўвсўенукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;ħηημνεσῠηβσῠηνυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;הֵאֵמנְסוֵבסוֵנֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| ĭi
|c=02| ħeemni
|c=03| ĭi
|c=04| yi
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| і
|c=08| ῐι
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יִ
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ĭe
|c=02| ħeemne
|c=03| ĭe
|c=04| ye
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| є
|c=08| ῐη
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יֵ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ĭa
|c=02| ħeemna
|c=03| ĭa
|c=04| ya
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| я
|c=08| ῐα
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יַ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ĭø
|c=02| ħeemnå
|c=03| ĭø
|c=04| yø
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ѭ
|c=08| ῐο
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יָ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ĭo
|c=02| ħeemno
|c=03| ĭo
|c=04| yo
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ё
|c=08| ῐω
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יֹ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ĭu
|c=02| ħeemnu
|c=03| ĭu
|c=04| yu
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ю
|c=08| ῐυ
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| יֻ 
|c=13| 
|}

=labialized vowel clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;lavlëſŭevſŭenuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;лaвлӭсўвсўенукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;λαβλεσῠηβσῠηνυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;לַבלְסוֵבסוֵנֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| ŭi
|c=02| lavli
|c=03| ŭi
|c=04| wi
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўі
|c=08| ῠι
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וִ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ŭe
|c=02| lavle
|c=03| ŭe
|c=04| we
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўе
|c=08| ῠη
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וֵ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ŭa
|c=02| lavla
|c=03| ŭa
|c=04| wa
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўа
|c=08| ῠα
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וַ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ŭø
|c=02| lavlå
|c=03| ŭø
|c=04| wø
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўѧ
|c=08| ῠο
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וָ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ŭo
|c=02| lavlo
|c=03| ŭo
|c=04| wo
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўо
|c=08| ῠω
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וֹ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ŭu
|c=02| luvlu
|c=03| ŭu
|c=04| wu
|c=05| 
|c=06| 
|c=07| ўу
|c=08| ῠυ
|c=09| 
|c=10| 
|c=11| 
|c=12| וֻ 
|c=13| 
|}

=weak vowel clan - &lt;font color=blue&gt;livſŭevſŭenuĸos&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=red&gt;ливсўвсўенукос&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=green&gt;λιβσῠηβσῠηνυκως&lt;/font&gt; - &lt;font color=brown&gt;לִבסוֵבסוֵנֻכֹס&lt;font&gt;=
{| border=1
!c=01|  Word
!c=02|  Name
!c=03|  Frath
!c=04|  Conl
!c=05|  IPA
!c=06|  X-S
!c=07|  Cyr
!c=08|  Grk
!c=09|  Arm
!c=10|  Dev
!c=11|  Geo
!c=12|  Heb
!c=13|  Teng
|-
|c=01| ï
|c=02| livi
|c=03| ï
|c=04| ï
|c=05| I
|c=06| I
|c=07| ї
|c=08| ϊ
|c=09| &amp;#1387;`
|c=10| &amp;#2367;
|c=11| &amp;#4312;◌̈
|c=12| אֶ
|c=13|  
|-
|c=01| ë
|c=02| live
|c=03| ë
|c=04| ë
|c=05| ε
|c=06| E
|c=07| ӭ
|c=08| ε
|c=09| &amp;#1381;
|c=10| &amp;#2374;
|c=11| &amp;#4308;
|c=12| אְ 
|c=13| 
|-
|c=01| ü
|c=02| livu
|c=03| ü
|c=04| ü
|c=05| ʊ
|c=06| U
|c=07| ӱ
|c=08| ϋ
|c=09| &amp;#1384;
|c=10| &amp;#2369;
|c=11| &amp;#4323;◌̈
|c=12| אֽ 
|c=13| 
|-</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Swadesh list</title>
    <id>2230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-21T16:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan grammar</title>
    <id>2231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20993</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-04T14:07:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Introduction to Senjecan Grammar]]

[[Senjecan Phonology]]

[[Senjecan Inflection]]

[[Senjecan Word Formation]]

[[Senjecan Syntax I]]

[[Senjecan Syntax II]]

[[Senjecan Syntax III]]

[[List of Senjecan Postpositions]]

[[Senjecan Table of Correlatives]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Introduction to Senjecan Grammar</title>
    <id>2232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48769</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-31T23:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Language'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||worldwide
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||world during last Ice Age&lt;br&gt;c.14,000 B.P.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||unknown
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||pre-PIE&lt;br&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SOV
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||analytic with synthetic nouns
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Nominative-Accusative&lt;br&gt;[[wikipedia:milewski's typology|Milewski]] Class I
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||Charlie Brickner ||date c.1995+
|}

=INTRODUCTION &lt;font color=blue&gt;tŭîvas&lt;/font&gt;=

Senjecas (Ancient-Speech) is the name given to the language that was first spoken by loquent beings.  It was implanted by Senesantus in the Children of Air, the [[Senjecan_anatomy_and_physiology#The_Ethrans|Ethrans]] (the mages), the first created of the Six Loquent Peoples when s/he sang their unique song into their ears, and subsequently s/he sang their unique songs into the ears of the other loquent peoples as they were created.  It remained the only language spoken by the Six Loquent Peoples until the Great Sundering.  After this, differences between the Peoples and regional differences within each People arose which led to the development of diverse languages, many of which became mutually unintelligible.  The ability to speak Senjecas had never been lost by the Children of Wood, the [[Senjecan_anatomy_and_physiology#The_Xylans|Xylans]] (the giants), who had been unaffected by the Great Sundering, and the Ethrans.  In the renascence that began after the Children of Earth (the humans) recovered from the Great Sundering, Senjecas was restored as the medium of communication among the Six Loquent Peoples.

The language is an [[Wikipedia:analytic language|isolating (analytic) language]] with only a very few [[wikipedia:inflection|inflections]], although compounding is common.  It is a Type A [[wikipedia:tone (linguistics)|tonal]] language (register system) with an absence of [[wikipedia:velar|velar]] and [[wikipedia:uvular|uvular]] sounds and limited [[wikipedia:consonant|consonant]] clusters.  It is classed as a [[wikipedia:nominative-accusative|nominative-accusative]] language.

This grammar is divided into four sections.  Part I describes the [[wikipedia:phonology|phonology]] of the language.  In this section is discussed the writing and the sounds of the language, the [[wikipedia:syllabification|syllabification]] and accenting of words, and [[wikipedia:punctuation|punctuation]].  Part II describes the inflection of the words.  In this section is discussed the formation of individual words in their several categories (nouns, verbs, ''etc''.).  Part III describes word formation, the way in which individual words are combined to form new words.  Part IV describes the [[wikipedia:syntax|syntax]].  In this section are discussed the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.

===[[Senjecan Phonology]]===</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Phonology</title>
    <id>2233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48827</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T18:54:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Vowels and Diphthongs ſŭevſŭenoesкŭe dŭopelruunoesкŭe */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=The Alphabet &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuniȝos&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''001.''' The Senjecan alphabet has 30 [[wikipedia:grapheme|graphemes]]: 24 [[wikipedia:consonant|consonants]] and six [[wikipedia:vowel|vowels]].  See the table at [[Senjecan alphabets]].
**[[wikipedia:labialization|Labialized]] and [[wikipedia:palatalization|palatalized]] consonants are not considered to be separate graphemes, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;duta&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;dĭoϙos&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo&lt;/font&gt;.  &lt;font color=blue&gt;ŭ&lt;/font&gt; after a consonant indicates labialization. &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĭ&lt;/font&gt; after a consonant indicates palatalization.  When using the [[wikipedia:cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] graphemes, palatalization is shown on the vowel and not on the consonant.
**Long vowels are indicated by doubling the grapheme in all the scripts, with two exceptions.  In Devanāgarī the [[wikipedia:avagraha|''avagraha'']] is used.  In Cyrillic a doubled palatal vowel repeats the wowel without the palatalization, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кorĭaagues&lt;/font&gt; (cavalry) = &lt;font color=red&gt;коряагyec&lt;/font&gt;, not &lt;font color=red&gt;коряягyec&lt;/font&gt;.
**There are three other graphemes used in Senjecas which are not considered to be separate letters.  These are the &lt;font color=blue&gt;live&lt;/font&gt; (weak e, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ë&lt;/font&gt;) used to prevent disallowed consonant clusters (&lt;font color=blue&gt;łernëſos&lt;/font&gt;, torch); the &lt;font color=blue&gt;livi&lt;/font&gt; (weak i, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ï&lt;/font&gt;) used when a palatalized consonant is followed by a consonant (&lt;font color=blue&gt;кorĭa&lt;/font&gt;, wage war; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кorïnaauſos&lt;/font&gt;, warship); and the &lt;font color=blue&gt;livu&lt;/font&gt; (weak u, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ü&lt;/font&gt;) used when a labialized consonant is followed by a consonant (&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭos&lt;/font&gt;, eye; &lt;font color=blue&gt;oкüкaðos&lt;/font&gt;, eyelid).
**Senjecan linguists, however, speak of two types of consonants, male and female.  The occlusives &lt;p/b, t/d, ĸ/g, ć/ź&gt; are male consonants; they must undergo [[wikipedia:lenition|lenition]] when followed by another consonant.  The fricatives &lt;f/v, þ/ð, x/ϙ, s/z&gt; and the approximants &lt;ɱ/m, ł,l, r/n, ħ/ȝ&gt; are female.  They do not undergo lenition.
*'''002.''' Several [[wikipedia:alphabet|alphabets]] have been in use from the dawn age for writing Senjecas.  In all of them there is a one-to-one correspondence between the grapheme (letter) and the [[wikipedia:phoneme|phoneme]] (sound). 
*'''003'''. The earliest alphabet consists of cursive graphemes which are [[wikipedia:acrophonic|acrophonic]], ''i.e.'', represent the object used as the name of the letter, not unlike the [[wikipedia:phoenician alphabet|Phoenician alphabet]] at its origin.  These were devised in the first era by the [[Senjecan Anatomy and Physiology|Ethrans]] for recording their great discoveries.
*'''004'''. A second alphabet consists of symbols derived from the preceding cursive symbols, but suitable for brush strokes.  These were devised in the third era by the Children of Water, the [[Senjecan Anatomy and Physiology|Hydorans]], and continue to be used by them.
*'''005'''. A third alphabet consists of rectilinear graphemes derived from the aforementioned cursive graphemes.  These were devised in the fifth era by the Children of Wood, the [[Senjecan Anatomy and Physiology|Xylans]], for carving in wood.  Because they are not symmetrical they are used as runes.  These rectilinear graphemes were adopted by the Children of Stone, the [[Senjecan Anatomy and Physiology|Lithans]], for carving in stone.
*'''006'''. The vowel graphemes from this rectilinear alphabet may also be used with the other alphabets.  They are placed under the consonant they follow.  A consonant with no vowel under it indicates that there is no vowel following.  There is a null symbol for initial vowels and for the second vowel in double vowels.

{| border=1
|i=No|  
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;i&lt;/font&gt; / ⋅
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e&lt;/font&gt; / :
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a&lt;/font&gt; / ⋮ ''or'' ∴
|-
|i=No|  
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt; / ≡ ''or'' △
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;å&lt;/font&gt; / = 
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;u&lt;/font&gt; / -
|}

*'''007'''. The order of the alphabet is based on articulatory phonetics.  The order with the IPA symbols is: &lt;font color=blue&gt;p /p/, b /b/, f /ɸ/, v /β/, ɱ /m̥/, m /m/; t /t/, d /d/, þ /θ/, ð /ð/, ł /l̥/, l /l/; ć /ts/, ź /dz/, s /s/, z /z/, r /ɾ̥/, n /n/; к /k/, g /g/, x /ç/, ϙ /ʝ/, ħ /j̥/, ȝ /j/; i /i/, e /e/, a /a/, å /ɔ/, o /o/, u /u/&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''008'''. By the time the Humans had begun writing, the Senjecans were already dispersed among them.  As the various human cultures began to write, the Senjecans took advantage of the various alphabets for writing their own language, but at all times retaining their skill in their three original alphabets.  The Committee on Orthography of the Council of Archimages (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ufſefźum meðкantuſĭo ruunpexmaſĭo neeɱħa daarкantïmus&lt;/font&gt; - UMRD) has always desired to make the various human alphabets as simple as possible by not using digraphs or diacritics.  As the alphabets have developed, the UMRD has updated the orthographies to match, keeping in mind the phonemes used in Senjecas.  The use of the Latin alphabet by various languages has given the committee greater freedom to represent the Senjecan phonemes.  I have chosen their currently approved Latin alphabet for this work.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;þ&lt;/font&gt; ([[wikipedia:thorn (letter)|thorn]]) and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ð&lt;/font&gt; ([[wikipedia:eth|eth]]) are retained from the [[Anglo-Saxon]] alphabet to represent the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ respectively.
**[[wikipedia:yogh|yogh]], &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝ&lt;/font&gt;, and [[wikipedia:qoppa|qoppa]], &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙ&lt;/font&gt;, have been retained from the Middle English alphabet for /j/ and /ʝ/ respectively.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ł&lt;/font&gt; is taken from the [[wikipedia:polish alphabet|Polish alphabet]] to represent the voiceless dental lateral fricative /l̥/.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ć&lt;/font&gt; from the [[wikipedia:esperanto|Esperanto]] alphabet and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ź&lt;/font&gt; from the [[wikipedia:Skolt Sami|Skolt Sami]] alphabet represent /ts/ and /dz/ respectively.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ&lt;/font&gt; has been taken from the IPA alphabet for /m̪/; it was chosen for its ease in being rendered in cursive.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;å&lt;/font&gt; is taken from the Swedish alphabet to represent the open mid-back rounded vowel /ɔ/.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħ&lt;/font&gt; is taken from the [[wikipedia:Maltese language|Maltese alphabet]] (where it represents a voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/) to represent the voiceless palatal approximant /j̥/.
*'''009'''.  Each of the graphemes is named after a natural creature whose name begins with that grapheme or whose name includes that grapheme.  When naming the graphemes, however, the full word is not used, but only the first syllable, CVC, CVVC, VC, or VVC, ''e.g.'', the name of the letter is &lt;font color=blue&gt;bat&lt;/font&gt;, not &lt;font color=blue&gt;bates&lt;/font&gt;.  Thus the letters of the Senjecan alphabet are: &lt;font color=blue&gt;pun, bat, кof, vev, ƿer&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;min&lt;/font&gt;; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tuur, dor, reþ, ðan, łem&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;iil&lt;/font&gt;; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćað, źem, ſel, eez, raas&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;neeþ&lt;/font&gt;; &lt;font color=blue&gt;к???, gug, xoj, qel, ħas&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝaan&lt;/font&gt;.  The vowel names are &lt;font color=blue&gt;iź, eet, a?, åd, op&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ur&lt;/font&gt;. The long vowels are specified as &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱâzda&lt;/font&gt; (long a), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱâzde&lt;/font&gt; (long e), ''etc.''  For the three weak vowels, v. #001.
*'''010'''. Senjecas has a register [[Wikipedia:tone (linguistics) |tonal]] system with three tones: low, mid, and high, which are relative to the speaker. These tones are neither grammatical nor lexical, therefore the substitution of stress accent is allophonic.

=Vowels and Diphthongs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭevſŭenoesкŭe dŭopelruunoesкŭe&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''011'''. The vowels are &lt;font color=blue&gt;i, e, a, å, o, u&lt;/font&gt;, ordered from front non-rounded closed to back rounded closed.  These vowels represent the sounds found in d'''ee'''m, d'''a'''me, d'''a'''me (French), d'''o'''me, d'''aw'''n, d'''oo'''m.  Transliterating the Senjecan alphabets into the Latin alphabet for the speaker of English requires a few modifications.  In this case, Senjecas has six vowel phonemes, while the Latin alphabet has but five graphemes with which to represent them.  Since one of these Senjecan phonemes does not have its own grapheme in English, the &lt;font color=blue&gt;ø&lt;/font&gt; grapheme from the Norwegian alphabet was adopted to represent it.
*'''012'''. The vowels are the pure vowels found in Italian or Spanish.  Remember to keep the '''e''' and the '''o''' pure, without the '''i''' or '''u''' glides that occur in the English pronunciation of these phonemes.
*'''013'''. The grapheme &lt;font color=blue&gt;ë&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;live&lt;/font&gt;, pronounced as in p'''e'''t, is used for euphony to avoid an improper consonant cluster, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭetis&lt;/font&gt;, round; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭetëtas&lt;/font&gt;, roundness.
*'''014'''. A consonant followed by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĭ&lt;/font&gt; indicates the palatalization of that consonant, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tema&lt;/font&gt;, to hammer; &lt;font color=blue&gt;temĭis&lt;/font&gt;, malleable.  When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a root word ending in a palatal consonant, the palatalization is vocalized and pronounced as in p'''i'''t, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;temĭis&lt;/font&gt;, malleable; &lt;font color=blue&gt;temïtas&lt;/font&gt;, malleability.
*'''015'''. A consonant followed by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ŭ&lt;/font&gt; indicates the labialization of that consonant, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðis&lt;/font&gt;, red; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðŭis&lt;/font&gt;, reddish.  When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a root word ending in a labial consonant, the labialization is vocalized and pronounced as in p'''u'''t, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðŭis&lt;/font&gt;, reddish; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðütas&lt;/font&gt;, reddishness.
*'''016'''. The Senjecan vowel can be either long or short.  The long vowels are indicated by a doubling of the letter, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ii, ee, aa, åå, oo&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;uu&lt;/font&gt;.  The quality of the long vowel is not changed, but it is pronounced for a longer time than the short vowel.
*'''017'''. There are no [[Wikipedia:diphthong|diphthongs]] in Senjecas.  Each vowel is syllablic and the tone is placed on every vowel according to the rules for tone.

=Consonants &lt;font color=blue&gt;argëſŭenoes&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''018'''. The consonants are divided, according to the organs of speech by which they are produced, into [[Wikipedia:plosive|plosives]] or stops, spirants or [[wikipedia:fricative|fricatives]], and [[wikipedia:sonorant|sonorants]].  In Senjecas these organs include the lips (labials), the teeth (dentals), the alveolus (alveolars), and the palate (palatals). Each consonant may be either voiced or unvoiced.  There are no [[wikipedia:geminate|geminate]] consonants.
*'''019'''. Plosives are produced by the complete closing of the organ of speech.  These plosives are:
**Labials: p/b
**Dentals: t/d
**Alveolars: ć/ź
**Palatals: к/g
*'''020'''. Spirants are produced by an incomplete closing of the organ of speech.  These spirants are:
**Labials: f/v
**Dentals: þ/ð
**Alveolars: ſ (s final)/z
**Palatals: x/ϙ
*'''021'''. Sonorants are produced by a relatively free flow of air.  These sonorants are: 
**Labials: ɱ/m
**Dentals: ł/l
**Alveolars: r/n
**Palatals: ħ/ȝ
*'''022'''. The following table gives the relationship of these consonants, as understood by the speakers of Senjecas, with their pronunciation.

{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=en|
!c=01|PLOSIVES
!c=02|SPIRANTS
!c=03|SONORANTS
|-
|i=No|  
|c=en|Labials
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;'''p''' / '''b'''&lt;br&gt;'''p'''et / '''b'''et
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;'''f''' / '''v'''&lt;br&gt;see below
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;'''ɱ''' / '''m'''&lt;br&gt;s'''m'''ut / '''m'''utt
|-
|i=No|  
|c=en|Dentals
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;'''t''' / '''d'''&lt;br&gt;'''t'''ie / '''d'''ie
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;'''þ''' / '''ð'''&lt;br&gt;'''th'''igh / '''th'''y
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;'''ł''' / '''l'''&lt;br&gt;p'''l'''eat / b'''l'''eat
|-
|i=No|  
|c=en|Alveolars
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;'''ć''' / '''ź'''&lt;br&gt;bu'''ts''' / bu'''ds'''
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;'''ſ'''-'''s''' / '''z'''&lt;br&gt;bu'''s''' / bu'''zz'''
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;'''r''' / '''n'''&lt;br&gt;see below
|-
|i=No|  
|c=en|Palatals
|c=01|&lt;center&gt;'''к''' / '''g'''&lt;br&gt;'''c'''ane/ '''g'''ain
|c=02|&lt;center&gt;'''x''' / '''ϙ'''&lt;br&gt;see below
|c=03|&lt;center&gt;'''ħ''' / '''ȝ'''&lt;br&gt;see below
|}

*'''023'''. These consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:
**'''f''' and '''v''' are bilabials as in Spanish, not labiodentals as in English.
**'''ɱ''' represents the voiceless counterpart of the English '''m'''.  It occurs in English after a voiceless consonant, ''e.g.'', s'''m'''oke (''cf''. '''m'''utt).
**'''þ''' and '''ð''' represent the sounds '''th''' as in '''th'''igh, and '''th''' as in '''th'''y, which are interdental in English, but dental in Senjecas.
**'''r''' represents the voiceless counterpart of the Spanish tap '''r'''.  A trilled, but still voiceless, '''r''' is allophonic and often used with the interrogative &lt;font color=blue&gt;-r&lt;/font&gt; at the end of a question.
**'''ł''' represents the voiceless counterpart of '''l'''.  It occurs in English after a voiceless consonanct, ''e.g.'', p'''l'''eat (''cf''. b'''l'''eat).
**'''l''' represents the clear '''l''' of '''l'''ight, never the dark '''l''' of du'''ll'''.
**'''x''' represents the sound '''ch''' as in the German i'''ch''', not the '''ch''' as in the German ba'''ch'''.
**'''ϙ''' represents the voiced counterpart of '''x''', as found in Spanish intervocalic '''g''', ha'''g'''a.
**'''ħ''' represents the voiceless counterpart of '''j'''.  It occurs in English after a voiceless consonant, ''e.g.'', the '''y'''-glide between the '''p''' and the '''u''' in '''pu'''ny (''cf.'' '''beau'''ty).
*'''024'''. Labialized and palatalized consonants are ordered immediately after the letter they affect, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;s, sĭ, sŭ, z&lt;/font&gt;, ''etc''.
*'''025'''.
**'''a'''. A palatalized consonant is written in Cyrillic by using the iotacized vowels after the consonant: &lt;font color=red&gt;і, е, я, ѭ, ё, ю&lt;/font&gt;, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðuſĭas&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=red&gt;ђусяc&lt;/font&gt;, soul.
**'''b'''. A labialized consonant is written in Cyrillic with a breve over or under the consonant, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭeć, &lt;font color=red&gt;c̆eц&lt;/font&gt;, six.
*'''026'''. Only consonant clusters of two consonants are permitted in Senjecas.
*'''027'''. When it happens that the addition of a [[Wikipedia:morpheme|morpheme]] would result in a three-consonant cluster, an [[Wikipedia:epenthesis|epenthetic]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ë&lt;/font&gt; is inserted for euphony, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;alvis&lt;/font&gt;, barley; &lt;font color=blue&gt;alvëȝoſos&lt;/font&gt;, barley broth. This epenthetic &lt;font color=blue&gt;ë&lt;/font&gt; is ordered after &lt;font color=blue&gt;e&lt;/font&gt; in an alphabetical listing.
*'''028'''. Consonant clusters cannot contain two stops, ''e.g.'', '''gb'''.  In order to prevent this, when a morpheme with an initial stop is added to a base with a final stop, the final stop is muted to the corresponding affricate in a process known as [[wikipedia:lenition|lenition]]. Thus, &lt;font color=blue&gt;odegos&lt;/font&gt;, stem, + &lt;font color=blue&gt;bolos&lt;/font&gt;, lump, = &lt;font color=blue&gt;odeϙbolos&lt;/font&gt;, tuber.

=Elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûras&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''029'''. [[Wikipedia:elision|Elision]] is the omission of a word-final vowel when the next word begins with a vowel.  The two words are written separately and an apostrophe marks the omission.  When writing with the various Senjecan alphabets, no apostrophe is used.
**Elision occurs with the negating adverbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;, which are always elided with a following initial vowel, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;n' iðu&lt;/font&gt;, not here.
**Elision occurs when the final vowel of a word is the same as the initial vowel of the following word, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;o ɱum ćemeloſĭo en' apa&lt;/font&gt;, our father in heaven.
**Elision occurs when a postposition is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nues venoðvi ooćo feravom ant' era&lt;/font&gt;, they are paddling futilely against the swift current.

=Syllabification &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭenleeźoſĭo ɱerźas&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''030'''. A Senjecan word has as many [[Wikipedia:syllable|syllables]] as it has vowels.  The last syllable is called the ultima.  The syllable next to the last is called the penult(ima[te]).  The one before the penult is called the antepenult(imate).
**A single consonant between two vowels belongs to the following vowel, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;a-pe-los&lt;/font&gt;, force.
**Two contiguous consonants are separated with the first consonant going with the preceding syllable, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſel-кŭes&lt;/font&gt;, seal.
**When dividing words at the end of a line, a long vowel may be divided, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кaavro-ogos&lt;/font&gt;, peppercorn.

=Intonation &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭenoſĭo ɱerźas&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''031'''. In many modern languages, such as English, the [[Wikipedia:stress (linguistics)|accent]] is known as stress accent in which the accented syllable is pronounced more intensely than the other syllables.  In Senjecas, as in some modern languages, the accent is known as register pitch accent in which the vowel of the primary syllable is pronounced on a higher pitch.  This is called intonation.  There are three pitches in Senjecas, the primary, the secondary, and the basal.  These are relative pitches and their absolute pitch will vary with the individual speaker.
*'''032'''. Accent marks are not used when writing in any of the Senjecan alphabets.
*'''033'''. For purposes of intonation, Senjecan words are placed into two categories: those which take the primary pitch (verbs, nouns, adjectives, and interjections) and those which do not (the other words).
*'''034'''. Monosyllables, except for interjections and numerals, are pronounced on the basal pitch.
*'''035'''. The primary accent regularly stands on the penult.  When the verb is finite, the accent remains on the penult, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;müműda&lt;/font&gt;.  With the participles, the accent is shifted so as to remain on the stem vowel, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mũdantis&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;mũdaþus&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''036'''. The primary accent may not be any farther back than the antepenult.  Therefore, when the participles are declined in the plural, the accent must be shifted forward.  The primary accent is then replaced by the secondary accent, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mũdaþus&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;múdaþũes&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''037'''. Nouns and adjectives take the primary accent on the penult, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćőlos&lt;/font&gt;, front; &lt;font color=blue&gt;gűűngos&lt;/font&gt;, shin; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħagűlos&lt;/font&gt;, gum.  When they are declined in the plural, the primary accent remains on the penult, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;colőes&lt;/font&gt;, fronts; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħágulőes&lt;/font&gt;, gums.
*'''038'''. When nouns and/or adjectives are compounded, the root word retains the primary accent while the primary accents of the prefixed words are changed to secondary accents, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðúſloɱȝééxɱidȁȁgus&lt;/font&gt;, veterinary.
*'''039'''. Some monosyllables attach themselves so closely to the preceding word that they lose their own accent.  These are called [[Wikipedia:enclitic|enclitics]] and comprise an exception to the regular accent pattern.  They include the conjunction &lt;font color=blue&gt;-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;, and, and the disjunction &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ɱo&lt;/font&gt;, or, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirũesкŭe gŭenũesкŭe&lt;/font&gt;, men and women.

=Punctuation &lt;font color=blue&gt;paкas&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''040'''. The following [[Wikipedia:punctuation|punctuation]] is used with the three Senjecan alphabets.
**An interpunct (⋅) (&lt;font color=blue&gt;telpëźeenos&lt;/font&gt;) is used instead of spaces between words.  This is no longer used in contemporary scripts, although it may be seen in formal writing.
**The function of the comma, used to set off dependent clauses, is taken by a dash or hyphen (-) (&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭiilźeenos&lt;/font&gt;).
**The function of the period is taken by two raised dots (:) (&lt;font color=blue&gt;duſźeenos&lt;/font&gt;).
**The end of a paragraph is marked by three dots (⋮) (&lt;font color=blue&gt;miinënemкeerкŭos&lt;/font&gt;).
**Neither quotation marks nor question marks are used.
**Because capital letters are not used in the Senjecan alphabets, capital letters are not used when the language is transliterated.

[[Senjecan Inflection]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lamaisa</title>
    <id>2234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-06T23:12:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>category conlangs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Phonology ==
=== Consonants ===
Each consonant character has three forms: neutral, stressed, and unstressed.  These are displayed below:
{|
|| '''Character''' || '''Stressed''' || '''Neutral''' | '''Unstressed'''
|-
|| v || [vC] || [v] || [f]
|-
|| l || [K] || [l] || [l_0]
|-
|| s || [S] || [s] || [C]
|-
|| n || [nj] || [n] || [N]
|-
|| m || [mj] || [m] || [m_0]
|-
|| TBC || TBC || TBC || TBC
|}

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Games</title>
    <id>2235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8820</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-05T03:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Daçezzhi.gif</title>
    <id>2237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:44:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Daçezzhi]] board

[[Category:Games]]
[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Daçezzhi-Archer.gif</title>
    <id>2238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T03:42:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Movement diagram for an Archer in [[Daçezzhi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Movement diagram for an Archer in [[Daçezzhi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daçezzhi</title>
    <id>2239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:41:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daçezzhi''', sometimes pronounced ''Dashezzhi'', is a popular game, originating in the old Kasshi Empire, derived from the game of [[Fives]], among the [[Traders (Galhaf)|Traders]].  This page describes the game as played in the early days of the Old Empire.  This version remained popular well into modern times, but several other variants are common as well.

[[Image:Daçezzhi.gif|right]]

Daçezzhi is played on an 11x11 board, as seen to the right. The top half is called East, the bottom half West, the left half North, and the right half South.  The middle row and middle collumn divide the board into four quadrants.  The middle collumn has no role in the classic game or its descendants, but it ''did'' have an important role in Fives.  The blue squares in the middle row are called the River, while the grey squares are called Bridges.  No piece may occupy a River square, though they may pass over them.

There are two players, East and West, sometimes referred to as Red and Blue.  West makes the first move.  Victory can be achieved by either checkmating the opponent's General, or by leaving one's opponent with no legal moves.

== Pieces ==
Each player starts with 22 pieces, as follows:
*1 General (G on the diagram)
*2 Aides (A)
*4 Knights (K)
*2 Chariots (C)
*2 Dragons (D)
*5 Archers (Ar)
*6 Soldiers (S)

The '''General''' moves one step in any direction, but must remain on its own half of the board, that is, they cannot cross the River

The '''Aide''' steps in a single diagonal direction.  The Aide and the General share a special move.  When adjacent, they can swap spaces

[[Image:Daçezzhi-Knight.gif|left|100px]]The '''Knight''' moves one space orthogonally and one or two spaces diagonally, leaping over intervening pieces

The '''Chariot''' moves any number of spaces orthogonally.  It captures by leaping over an enemy piece the space immediately after it.  It therefore cannot capture a piece if there is not an empty space behind it.

The '''Dragon''' moves up to five spaces in any direction, leaping over ''friendly'' pieces, but not hostile ones.

Note that Chariots and Dragons are capable of threatening each other from positions in which they are completely safe, if a Chariot has another piece behind it, or if a Dragon hides behind a friendly piece, they are safe from their counterparts

[[Image:Daçezzhi-Archer.gif|left|100px]]The '''Archer''' moves one space directly ahead or diagonally ahead.  It captures differently, however.  It has two ways of capturing.  It can capture a piece adjacent to it directly ahead, diagonally ahead, or to the side without moving (stationary shooting).  Alternately, it can capture the piece directly in its line of movement after making a move, either as usual or by moving left or right.  After crossing the river, it becomes a Promoted Archer.

The '''Promoted Archer''' can moves one space in any direction.  It can capture any adjacent piece without moving, or, as with the Archer, by moving and capturing the piece beyond it.

The '''Soldier''' can move one space directly ahead or diagonally.  In addition, it has the ability to capture a piece to the left or right, but otherwise cannot move horizontally.  After crossing the river, it becomes a Promoted Soldier

The '''Promoted Soldier''' can move one space in any direction.

Because of the ability of the Chariot to capture by leaping, and of the Archer to capture ahead of itself, it is sometimes necessary to guard two or three spaces to protect a piece.

The opening phase of the game generally consists of moving ones pieces into a particular array, known as a ''Formation'', independant of one's opponent's moves.  This often lasts between 15-20 moves.  The early midgame often consists of forrays into enemy territory, and exchanges of pieces (this is formally recognized as the &quot;Raid&quot; phase).  The midgame is generally considered to begin once one player gains a foothold in enemy territory, that is, moving a piece into enemy terrritory that is not immediately captured.

== Notation ==
Traditionally, each row and collumn has a name.  The rows are, from top to bottom:
*East Home Row
*East Archers' Row
*East Soldiers' Row
*East Marching Row
*East Shore

The bottom five are named inversely.  East and West may be replaced by Friendly and Hostile, which terms are relative to the players.

The collumns are, from left to right
*North Dragons' Collumn
*North Outer Knights' Collumn
*North Chariots' Collumn
*North Inner Knights' Collumn
*North Aides' Collumn
*Middle Collumn or Generals' Collumn

With the right half mirroring them.  The terms North and South may be dropped, and often are, in discussion of strategy, since there is no inherent difference between the north and south halves of the board (although, of course, in an individual game, one half may prove more important, depending on play)  Individual spaces may be named by combining the name of the collumn and row, thus, Northeast Dragons' Marching.  The bridges are named North Bridge, Middle Bridge, and South Bridge.  In modern times, a more abstract naming scheme has developed that uses numbers, with East Home Row being East 5, East Archers' being East 4 and so forth, and North Dragons' being North 5, etc, with the entire middle row called Middle and the middle collumn Middle.  Thus, Northeast Dragons' Marching would be North 5 East 2 (N5E2), and North Bridge would be North 3 River (N3R).

A quick look at the board and the movement rules for the pieces indicates that there are two squares that serve as traps for the soldiers and archers.  They are the Friendly Dragons' Shore squares.  An Archer or Soldier caught in these squares can only escape by capturing.  They are often referred to as the Dead Squares.

=== Moves ===
To describe moves, one first names the piece being moved, and then the square it is moved to.  If necessary to disambiguate, one gives the name of the starting square as well.  The squares' names are commonly abbreviated.  We may abbreviate them as follows:
*Quadrants are referred to as NE, SE, NW, SW
*Collumns are: D, O, C, I, A, M (for Middle)
*Rows are: H, A, S, M, Sh
*Bridges are NB, MB, SB
Pieces are abbreviated as in the board diagram at top, with S+ and Ar+ for Promoted Soldier and Promoted Archer

To indicate a move without capture, a dash is used (the Kassi use a simplification of the character for &quot;go&quot;), e.g., K-NEDH (Knight to Northeast Dragons' Home) or K:NEOH-IM (Knight from Northeast Outer Knights' Home to Inner Knights' Marching).  Quadrants need only be named in the destination if different from the initial square.  For a capture, an x is used (the Kassi use a simplification of the character meaning &quot;Kill&quot;), followed by the piece captured and the square captuerd on, thus, KxS/NB (Knight captures Soldier on North Bridge)

For Archers, a stationay shooting is indicated by a simple arrow followed by the piece being captured and its sqare.  The identity of the archer is not necessary (and can often be academic anyways).  We may indicate this with the symbol -&gt;, thus -&gt;K/NEDSh (Knight on Northeast Dragons' Shore shot), a moving shooting is indicated by the Archers' move followed by the arrow and the site of the capture, e.g., Ar-NWCM-&gt;S/ISh (Archer moves to Northwest Chariots' Marching, capturing Soldier on Inner Knights' Shore).  Promotions are optionally marked with a (P) after the move.

A chariots' capture is indicated by a character meaning &quot;run over&quot;.  Like the archer, its move is given first, then its capture.  We may symoblize the capture with %, thus C-SEISh%S/ASh (Chariot to Southeast Inner Knights' Shore, capturing Soldier on Aides' Shore)

A General-Aide swap is indicated by writing the General's movement, followed by a special sign indicating a swap, which may be indicated with *, thus, G-SEIS* (General to Southeast Inner Knights' Soldier, swapping with an Aide)

[[Category:Kasshi]]
[[Category:Games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Daçezzhi-Knight.gif</title>
    <id>2240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T04:12:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dacezzhi</title>
    <id>2241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T04:34:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Daçezzhi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>'Ukana'akau</title>
    <id>2242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48306</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-10T20:55:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Imperative */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name='Ukana'akau
|pronounce=/ʔukanaʔakau/
|tu=nonspecific
|species=Human
|in=nonspecific
|no=unknown
|script=Own
|tree=None
|morph=Isolating
|ms=Accusative-Dative
|wo=(T)VAP(R)(L)
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=February 2006&lt;br&gt;revised March 2008}}

'Ukana'akau was created by [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] on the [http://www.spinoff.com/zbb ZBB] as part of Neek's Minimal Phonology Challenge in February 2006. It was revised in March 2008. Relevant linguistic information: the speakers of 'Ukana'akau are called the 'Akau. 'Ukana'akau is topic-marking, almost completely isolating, and accusative-dative (see below for more information).

==Phonology==
'Ukana'akau has a fairly simple phonology.

===Phoneme Inventory===
The nine phonemes of the challenge were &lt;tt&gt;/p t k s n ʔ a i u/&lt;/tt&gt;, romanized as &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p t k s n ' a i u&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Additionally, there is a fourth &quot;grammatical vowel&quot;, transcribed &lt;v&gt;, which is covered in more detail in the section on nominal morphology. When it is necessary to pronounce &lt;v&gt;, it is pronounced as a schwa /ǝ/.

===Syllables===
'Ukana'akau's original syllable structure was (C)(')V (with &lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; not permitted), but C' clusters have since been reanalyzed as glottalized consonants &lt;tt&gt;/p_ʔ t_ʔ k_ʔ s_ʔ n_ʔ/&lt;/tt&gt;, leaving the structure (C)V.

===Allophony===
Vowel clusters, which technically constitute multiple syllables, are generally realized as diphthongs or triphthongs.

===Stress===
Stress falls regularly on the penultimate syllable. Monosyllabic words are usually stressed. In polysyllabic words which have one or more glottalized consonants, stress usually falls on vowel after the first glottalized consonant. Particles, such as '''iki''' and '''tv''' are never stressed.

===Notes===
The most common consonants are &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;t k&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, with &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;s p&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; being the rarest. Few words have more than three syllables; those that do are usually compounds of smaller words. The name of the language, itself is a compound of the words ''''ukana''' ''language'' (an archaic stative form of '''kinu''' ''speak'') and ''''Akau''', the autonym of the speakers of 'Ukana'akau.

==Nominal Morphology==
A note at the beginning: any time the word &quot;noun&quot; appears in this section, it can be freely replaced with &quot;pronoun,&quot; which is to say they are treated the same. A variety of preposed particles are used with nouns.

* '''kv''' is the topic-marking particle
* '''tv''' is the object-marking particle
* '''pv''' is the location/motion-marking particle
* '''sv''' is the vocative particle
* ''''v''' is the generic plural-marking particle

When a plural needs to be marked on any particle other than ''''v''', the initial consonant becomes glottalized, i.e. '''k'v''', '''t'v''', '''p'v''', '''s'v'''.

===Topic===
The topic-marking particle defaults to being placed before the subject/agent of the sentence, i.e.

{| 
! k'aki || ''k'a'' || ta'aka || tu || nu'au
|-
| create  || TOP.PL  || god || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| the || gods || create || the || world
|}

where '''k'a''' marks '''ta'aka''' ''gods'' as the topic/agent. If further emphasis is desired, or if another nominal or pronominal constituent is be topic marked, the topic is fronted and an anaphoric particle is left in its place (the marker for the fronted constituent), for example

{|
! ku || nu'au || k'aki || ('a) || ta'aka || ''tu''
|-
| TOP.SG || world || create || (PL) || god || OBJ.SG
|-
| the || world, || the || gods || create || it
|}

The topic can also act as an introductory phrase, i.e. ''as for the world, the gods created it''. The anaphoric pronoun is the particle that was in the original sentence.

===Object===
The object-marking particle marks the direct object/patient by default, and is used in several compound expressions, e.g. '''tua tv''' (marks the recipient or beneficiary). When an object has already been stated, rather than restate it or use a third person pronoun, the object particle is used as an anaphoric device. For example,

{|
! 'i || t'asa || ku || ti'u || ''ta'' || '''i-t'asa'' || tua ti || ka'i; || 'i || t'asa || ka'i || ''ta'' || tua || ta || pu'a
|-
| PAST || give || TOP.SG || 2P || OBJ.SG || gift || REC.SG || 1P || PAST || give || 1P || OBJ.SG || REC || OBJ.SG || 3P
|-
| you || gave || the || gift || to || me; || I || gave || it || to || him
|}

where '''ta''' in the second clause shows that ''''i-t'asa''' ''gift'' is still the object.

===Location===
The location-marking particle marks, unsurprisingly, location, after the generic relation-markers ni (in, at, on), na (to, at, towards), and nu (from, out of, away from). Locatives have their own place in the sentence, appearing after the Receiver argument but before any clause-final particles. A locational expression can be used as a verb by placing the stative particle a'u before it and moving it to the front of the clause. In such a case, it can take the same particles as any verb, except a locational adverb. For example:

{|
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || ki || ka'i
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || TOP.SG || 1P
|-
| I || was || in || Sa'aku
|}

===Vocative===
The vocative particle marks direct address, e.g.

{|
! su || K'uanu, || ka || uka || ini || n'a
|-
| VOC.SG || K'uanu || TOP.SG || IMP || come || ALLADV
|-
| K'uanu, || come || hither
|}

===Plural===
The separate plural-marker ''''v''' is optional in most cases. It is usually only used in cases where context cannot distinguish number. It is only used on unmarked subjects/agents (i.e. the subjects/agents of clauses where the topic has been fronted).

===Possession===
Possessive relationships are shown by placing the possessor after the possessee, e.g.

{|
! ta'aka || ka'i
|-
| god || 1P
|-
| my || god
|}

==Verbal Morphology==
Verbs also take particles to show a number of things, as well as being able to be modified by adverbs. In the order they appear in a sentence: there is a particle marking a verb as irrealis (realis is unmarked), particles marking a verb as imperfective or stative (perfective is unmarked), a particle marking the past the past tense (non-past is unmarked), and a variety of particles (the list is incomplete) marking mode and evidentiality. The mood, aspect, and tense particles, as well as adverbs, come before the verb, while the mode and evidentiality markers are clause final. Finally, there are some special nominal constructions that affect the verb.

===Irrealis===
The irrealis particle is '''iki'''. It is used with the nonpast to show doubt, hope, or possibility, and with the past to show a contrafactual. With the clause-initial particle kiu, the irrealis sets up a condition which can have several different translations depending on a number of factors. The past irrealis sets up a contrafactual (if I had done...[and I didn't]; if I should do...[and I may or may not]) or hypothetical condition, and the nonpast sets up a standard condition (if I did...[and I did]; if I do...[and I will/have]). The tense of the realis determines whether the entire conditional is past (...then I would have done...) or nonpast (...then I will do...). (The parentheticals are just examples of some conditional openings and conclusions.)

===Aspect===
Ukana'akau distinguishes three aspects: perfective, imperfective, and stative.

* The perfective aspect is the default unmarked aspect.
* The imperfective aspect is marked by the particle '''a'i'''.
* The stative is marked by the particle '''a'u'''.

The perfective aspect shows that an action was/is/will be completed. The imperfective shows that the action was not/is not/will not be completed, or is habitual. The stative, like the perfect in English, shows a state resulting from a past action. The stative is also used to from stative verbs from adjectives and to turn verbs into a &quot;participial/gerundive&quot; form that can act as an adjective or a noun, e.g. '''a'u t'asa''' ''giving''. These derived forms function identically to other nouns. When they are used with topic, object, etc. particles, the particle agrees with the final vowel of the verb, e.g. '''ka a'u t'asa'''.

===Adverbs===
Following aspect markers come adverbs. Adverbs fall into several categories. First, there is the negative marker '''nui'''. In a sequence of adverbs, this always comes first, and marks that the verb is negative. Second come temporal markers such as ''''iaki''' ''yesterday'' and '''nuaki''' ''tomorrow''. Third come adverbs derived from adjectives with the particle '''sua'''.

===Tense===
Ukana'akau verbs distinguish two tenses, past and non-past. The non-past is unmarked; the past tense marker is ''''i'''. It shows that the verb describes a past action, e.g. ''''i kinu ka'i''' ''I spoke''.

===Preverbal Particles===
So, the final order of preverbal particles: irrealis - aspect - negative - temporal - adverb - locative - past

===Clause-Final Particles===
A number of particles are clause-final, acting somewhat like English modal verbs.

* '''ua''' is the permissive particle, either asking, granting, or withholding permission from someone.
* '''ita''' is the dubitative particle, showing doubt on behalf of the speaker.
* '''pau''' marks the sentence as hearsay: the speaker has yet to confirm what he or she has heard.
* '''kui''' marks the sentence as fact that the speaker has confirmed and believes to be true.
* '''anu''' is the potential particle, i.e. &quot;able to&quot; or &quot;can&quot;.

Marking evidentiality with '''pau''' or '''kui''' is not obligatory, but can clarify the meaning of a sentence in some contexts. More of these particles are yet to come.

===Causative===
The causative works by adding a second agent argument A2. The second agent is marked by the particle '''is'a ('v)''' and is generally fronted, e.g.

{|
! is'a || 'u || 'Akau || 'i || k'aki || ki || ka'i || tu || nu'au
|-
| CAUS || PL || 'Akau || PAST || create || TOP.SG || 1P || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| the || 'Akau || made || me || create || the || world
|}

If a topic other than the subject of the main verb is fronted, A2 moves to clause-final position, although it always precedes the receiver argument, if there is one.

{|
! ku || nu'au || 'i || k'aki || ka'i || tu || is'a || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| TOP.SG || world || PAST || create || 1P || OBJ.SG || CAUS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| as for || the || world, || the || 'Akau || made || me || create || it
|}

===Passive===
The passive, marked by the particle '''atu''', reverses A and P. The order of constituents changes from VAP to VP atu A. P is marked as the topic and A is unmarked, except for plurality. For example:

{|
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || ('u) || 'Akau
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || (PL) || 'Akau
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || the || 'Akau
|}

This usage is just an inverse, switching the emphasis from the agent to the patient. The passive can be translated with the English passive, but in reality it's usually just a less emphatic way of changing the topic. Topic-fronting is more common when specific emphasis is necessary, especially when changing the focus for the first time, but the passive is used in subsequent cases when the extra emphasis would be out of place.

However, the A argument can also be dropped, in which case a topic-marker is left in its place, a more prototypical passive than the general usage. This is one of a very few times that more than one topic-marker may appear in a clause.

{|
! 'i || k'aki || ku || nu'au || atu || k'u
|-
| PAST || create || TOP.SG || world || PASS || TOP.PL
|-
| the || world || was || created || by || them
|}

===Imperative===
The imperative takes no preverbal particles and is usually preceded by a vocative expression. There are to ways of forming the imperative. The first replaces the subject/agent (the person commanded) with the particle '''uka'''. '''Uka''' is always topic-marked and fronted. No anaphoric particle is left in its place. If the person commanded is singular, uka is treated is singular; if plural, plural.

{|
! su || ti'u, || ka || uka || k'aki || tu || nu'au
|-
| VOC.SG || 2P || TOP.SG || IMP || create || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| you, || create || the || world
|}

The second replaces the subject/agent with a dummy subject marker '''ku''' (or '''k'u''' if a group is commanded).

{|
! s'u || ti'u, || k'aki || k'u || tu || nu'au
|-
| VOC.PL || 2P || create || TOP.PL || OBJ.SG || world
|-
| you (all), || create || the || world
|}

===Existentials===
Existentials are formed with the stative expression a'u n'i. N'i is a pronominal/adverbial particle meaning here, there. This expression is treated as a verb in all respects, including fronting and taking particles. If clarification as to the location is needed, a further locative expression can be used, e.g.

{|
! a'u || 'i || ni || pu || Sa'aku || n'i || ka || ta'aka
|-
| STAT || PAST || in || LOC.SG || Sa'aku || LOCADV || TOP.SG || god
|-
| there || was || a || god || in || Sa'aku
|}

===Impersonal Expressions===
Impersonal expressions are formed with the ubiquitous stative particle '''a'u''' and an anaphoric topic '''ka'''. Like the passive, if another topic is to be fronted, the extra topic marker remains. An impersonal sentence may be translated in a number of ways depending on context.

{|
! k'u || nu'au || a'u || n'i || k'aki || ka
|-
| TOP.PL || world || STAT || LOCADV || create || TOP.SG
|-
| worlds || are || created || there
|-
| &quot;they&quot; || create || worlds || there
|}

{|
! a'u || n'i || kinu || ka || tu || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| STAT || LOCADV || speak || TOP.SG || OBJ.SG || 'Ukana'akau
|-
| &quot;they&quot; || speak || 'Ukana'akau || there
|-
| 'Ukana'akau || is || spoken || there
|}

It can also express, to a certain degree, ability, e.g. they can speak 'Ukana'akau there.

==Adjectives==
Adjectives, such as '''puia''' ''red'', always follow the noun they modify, e.g.

{|
! 'i-t'asa || puia
|-
| gift || red
|-
| red gift
|}

===Stative Verbs===
However, if the adjective is really a stative verb, the stative phrase follows the noun modified, e.g.

{|
! ka || 'i-t'asa || a'u || t'asa
|-
| TOP.SG || gift || STAT || give
|-
| the || given || gift
|-
| the || gift || that || is || given
|}

===As Verbs===
An adjective may be used as a stative verb, e.g. ''be red''. In such cases it acts as a verb in all respects, including taking verbal particles and moving to the front of the clause. Such adjectives always take the stative particle ''a'u'':

{|
! a'u || 'i || puia || ku || 'Akau
|-
| STAT || PAST || red || TOP.SG || 'Akau
|-
| the || 'Akau || was || red
|}

===Adverbs===
An adjective can be changed into an adverb with the particle '''sua'''. Adverbs (formed with '''sua''' or otherwise) can be used to modify adjectives. In such cases, the adverb follows the noun it modifies.

{|
! ka || ta'aka || puia || nui
|-
| TOP.SG || god || red || not
|-
| the || not || red || god
|}

[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune Lesson 1</title>
    <id>2243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T22:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Carune is spoken in a nation which is, in our world, northern Italy, a little part of southern France, and some of Switzerland (which annexed part of Austria in the first World War). This nation depends greatly on tourism, especially skiers, as well as on mining and animal herding. However, the capital, Torine (Turin), as well as Milane (Milan) and Monze feature large computer industries, and Milane has become a world fashion center. The southern area of the country is also a haven for archaeologists seeking Roman ruins. Grenobela (Grenoble), in what is in our world France, Torine, Zergattum in our Switzerland, and Genova (Genoa), in our Italy have all hosted Olympic games at one time or another.

==Pronunciation==
===Vowels===
Carune has five vowels:
*A (alva) /a/
*E (epcilon) /E/
*I (iota) /i/ or /j/ in a vowel cluster, so &quot;iota&quot; is pronounced /jota/
*O (omicron) /o/
*U (upcilon) /u/

===Consonants===
It also has 21 consonants, not counting 2 variations on c and g:
Stops:
*B (beta) /b/
*C (ceta) /k/ before &lt; u &gt;, &lt;a&gt;, or &lt;o&gt;. Before &lt;e&gt; or &lt; i &gt;, ceta is pronounced /tS/
*D (delta) /d/
*G (gamma) /g/before &lt; u &gt;, &lt;a&gt;, or &lt;o&gt;. Before &lt;e&gt; or &lt; i &gt;, gamma is pronounced /dZ/
*P (pai) /p/
*Qu (quappa) /kw/
*T (tau) /t/

Fricatives:

*H (hai) /h/
*F (fai) /f/
*S (sigma) /s/
*V (veta) /v/
*Z (zeta) /z/

Nasals:
*M (miu) /m/
*N (niu) /n/

Liquids:
*L (landa) /l/
*R (ro) /r/

==Dialog==
Ione and Rome are students at a language course, learning Carune in preparation for their trip their over the summer. This is the first day of class and they are meeting outside the classroom. Each knows a little Carune from outside study, so they begin their conversation in Carune.

===Carune===
*Ione: Chao! Estuda vusse Carune?
*Rome: Signa, signa. Mi iamo Rome. Comi si iama?
*Ione: Mi iamo Ione. Benencontrate.
*Rome: Iqualamente.
*''Enton il clase comensa.''

===English===
*Ione: Hi! Do you study Carune?
*Rome: Yes, yes. My name is Rome. What is your name?
*Ione: My name is Ione. Good to meet you.
*Rome: You as well.
*''Then the class begins.''

===Grammar Notes===
This dialogue highlights something extremely important: introducing your self. The verb in Carune to introduce yourself is '''iamarsi''', a reflexive (we'll learn more about reflexive verbs in Lesson 5). Here are some important phrases to know:

*'''Chao''': hi, hello
*'''Mi iamo...''': my name is...
*'''Comi si iama?''': what is your name? (formal)
*'''Benencontrate''': good to meet you
*'''Iqualamente''': you as well (response to '''benencontrate''')
*'''Enton''': then

==Nouns==
Carune has three genders of noun: masculine (ending in -e), feminine (ending in -a), and neuter (ending in -um). Here are some basic nouns:
Masculine:
'''il some'''-the human
'''il cane'''-the dog
'''il fele'''-the cat
Feminine:
'''al selva'''-the jungle
'''al ava'''-the bird
'''al verba'''-the verb
Neuter:
'''el frasum'''-the sentence
'''el lugum'''-the placfe
'''Zergattum'''-Zergattum, a city in Carune

In case you couldn't guess, '''il, al,''' and '''el''' are the Carune singular definite articles. '''Il''' for masculine nouns, '''al''' for feminine nouns, and '''el''' for neuter nouns. To make nouns plural, change the ending from -e to -i in masculine nouns, -a to -ae in feminine nouns, and -um to -o in neuter nouns. To make the articles plural, remove the final -l.

==Introduction to Verbs==
There are five types of verbs in Carune: -a stem (regular -are verbs), -e stem (regular -ere verbs), -i stem (regular -ire verbs), -o stem (so-called &quot;regular&quot; irregular verbs), and irregular verbs. In Lesson One, we will learn to conjugate -a stem verbs in the present indicative tense. First, though, we must learn to use subject pronouns. Carune has nine subject pronouns:

*'''Io'''-I
*'''Tu'''-you (singular, informal), thou
*'''Ele'''-he
*'''Ela'''-she
*'''Vusse'''-you (singular, formal, masculine)
*'''Vussa'''-you (singular, formal, feminine)
*'''Noi'''-we
*'''Voi'''-you (plural)
*'''Eli'''-they (if one male is present or for masculine nouns)
*'''Elae'''-they (if a group is all female or for feminine nouns)

NOTE: Like most romance languages, Carune differentiates between formal and informal forms of the pronoun &quot;you&quot;. In order to differentiate, &quot;thou&quot; will be used when translating '''tu''', as &quot;thou&quot; was originally an informal pronoun in English. You will be used to translate '''vusse/a'''. When translating '''voi''', y'all will be used.

==Verb Conjugation==
Now to conjugate our first verb:

*'''parlare'''-to speak
*'''Io parlo'''-I speak
*'''Tu parlai'''-thou speak(est?)
*'''Ele/ela parla'''-he/she speaks
*'''Vusse parla'''-you speak (singular)
*'''Noi parlam'''-we speak
*'''Voi parlas'''-y'all speak
*'''Eli parlae'''-they (masculine) speak
*'''Elae parlae'''-they (feminine) speak

Wasn't that easy? Just take off the stem and add an ending based on the pronoun. For reference:

*Io: -o
*Tu: -ai
*Ele/ela/vusse: -a
*Noi: -am
*Voi: -as
*Eli/elae: -ae

Here are some general words before I give you your practice assignment:

*'''a'''-to. When combined with the definite articles, in contracts to '''al''' if singular, and '''a''' if plural.
*'''com'''-with
*'''per'''-for
*'''sed'''-but
*'''para'''-in order to, for
*'''di'''-from, of
*'''no'''-not, comes before the verb
*'''in'''-in, on

==Exercises==
===Exercise I===
Conjugate each verb below in all forms:
*1) Volare-to fly
*2) Confezare-to confess
*3) Commensare-to commence

===Exercise II===
Translate from English to Carune:
*1) The bird flies to Zergattum.
*2) The cat walks with the dog. (HINT: to walk=ambulare)
*3) I study Carune (HINT: to study=estudare)
*4) The bird flies, but the cat walks.
*5) Thou confess(est?).

===Excercise III===
Translate from Carune to English:
*1) Il lezione commensa. (HINT: Il lezione is a cognate)
*2) Ele ambula a Zergattum.
*3) Elae estudae Carune.
*4) Voi ambulas in el lugum
*5) El frasum comensa com al verba &quot;confezare.&quot;

===Exercise IV===
Write three sentences using the vocabulary you have learned.

==Next==
*[[Carune|Top]]
*[[Carune Lesson 2|Forward]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune Lesson 2</title>
    <id>2244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T22:11:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Carune Lesson 1|Lesson 1]] you learned to conjugate regular -a stem verbs in Carune. In this lesson, we will discuss -e stem verbs, as well as the irregular verb '''stare''', adjectives, and numerals.

==Dialog==
Ione and Rome have completed their class in Carune and are on the plane to Torine international airport (Al Airoporta Intrenazionala di Torine). They've encountered a native of Torine, and they engage her in conversation.

===Carune===
*Ione: Siniora, parla Carune?
*Ofelia: A, signa. Comi si iamae?
*Rome: Mi iamo Rome, e estu es Ione.
*Ione: Estudam Carune in Nuva Iorca, e querem ire a Carune para estudara alla.
*Ofelia: Bene! Pudo directarvos a unum lugum bonum para habitare.
*Rome: In realita? Perfette!
*''Ela dice a Rome e Ione el lugum.''

===English===
*Ione: Miss, do you speak Carune?
*Ofelia: Ah, yes. What are your names?
*Rome: My name is Rome, and this is Ione.
*Ione: We study Carune in New York, and we want to go to Carune to study there.
*Ofelia: Great! I can direct you to a great place to live.
*Rome: Really? Perfect!
*'''She tells Rome and Ione the place.''

===Grammar Notes===
There are a few things to note here. '''A''' in Carune usually means ''to'' or ''at''. However, there are many cases where Carune uses it that English would not. For example '''ela dice a Rome e Ione''' translates as ''she tells Rome and Ione'', not ''she tells to Rome and Ione''.

*'''Comi si iamae?''': what are your names?
*'''Nuva Iorca''': New York
*'''Pudo directarvos''': I can direct you
*'''Habitare''': to live (closer to ''to inhabit'')
*'''Perfette''': perfect

==Nouns==
In Lesson 1 you learned about the definite articles in Carune. In this lesson, you will learn about the definite articles. They are much simpler than the definite articles, as they function as adjectives in effect. There are six indefinite articles:

*'''Une''': masculine singular
*'''Uni''': masculine plural
*'''Una''': feminine singular
*'''Unae''': feminine plural
*'''Unum''': neuter singular
*'''Uno''': neuter plural

For example:

*'''Une cane''': a dog
*'''Una ora''': an hour
*'''Unum adiectum''': an adjective
*'''Uni cani''': some dogs
*'''Unae orae''': some hours
*'''Uno adiecto''': some adjectives

==-E Stem Verbs==
In the last lesson, you learned to conjugate -a stem verbs, those whose infinitive forms end in -are. In this lesson you will learn about -e stem verbs, whose stems end in -ere. Here is a sample -e stem verb, conjugated in the present indicative tense:

*'''Savere''': to know (knowledge)
*'''Io savo''': I know
*'''Tu savei'''-you (singular, informal) know
*'''Ele save'''-he knows
*'''Ela save'''-she knows
*'''Vusse/a save'''-you (singular, formal) know
*'''Noi savem'''-we know
*'''Voi saves'''-you (plural) know
*'''Eli saven'''-they (masculine) know
*'''Elae saven'''-they (feminine) know

Just take off the stem and add an ending based on the pronoun. For reference:

*Io: -o
*Tu: -ei
*Ele/ela/vusse: -e
*Noi: -em
*Voi: -es
*Eli/elae: -en

==Stare and Adjectives==
'''Stare''' (to be) is an irregular verb. It is used to express transient or mutable qualities, such as feelings and location. It is conjugated as follows:

*'''Io stoi''': I am
*'''Tu stai''': you (informal, singular) are
*'''Ele/ela/vusse sta''': s/he/you (formal, singular) is/are
*'''Noi stam''': we are
*'''Voi stas''': you (plural) are
*'''Eli/elae stae''': they are

Adjectives decline similarly to noun. They must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. For instance, '''felice''' is the singular masculine form of the adjective ''happy''. Here is '''felice''' in all its forms:

*'''felice''': masculine singular
*'''felici''': masculine plural
*'''felica''': feminine singular
*'''felicae''': feminine plural
*'''felicum''': neuter singular
*'''felico''': neuter plural

Some other adjectives:

*'''triste''': sad
*'''bene''': well (does not decline)
*'''male''': bad (does not decline)

Stare is used to express feelings. Fill it in to this formula: '''stare''' + declined feeling adjective. For example:

*'''Io stoi felice''': I am happy
*'''Tu stai felica''': Thou art happy
*'''Noi stam felici''': We are happy

==Numbers and Counting==
The numbers in Carune are quite simple. They are very similar to many Romance languages, but with more relation to Latin. Here are the numbers from one to ten.

*'''Zero''': 0
*'''Unu''': 1
*'''Due''': 2
*'''Tre''': 3
*'''Qator''': 4
*'''Qinqe''': 5
*'''Sece''': 6
*'''Septe''': 7
*'''Oto''': 8
*'''Nove''': 9
*'''Dez''': 10

When describing how many objects there are, use the special verb '''hai'''-there is/are. For example:

*'''Hai tre cani in mi casa''': There are three dogs in my house
*'''Hai dez avae in il parqe''': There are ten birds in the park

==Exercises==
===Exercise I===
Conjugate each verb below in all forms:
*1) Aprendere-to learn (always combined with '''a''': '''Io aprendo a Carune'''-I learn Carune)
*2) Devere-to owe, should
*3) Lignere-to read

===Exercise II===
Write sentences describing how the following people feel:
*1) Ione: happy
*2) Iulia: sad
*3) Rome: well
*4) Ofelia: bad

===Exercise III===
Translate the following sentences into English:
*1) Io stoi bene.
*2) Iulia sta maele.
*3) Ligno une libre. (libre=book)
*4) Vusse aprende a Carune, non?
*5) Hai qator fraso in il libre.

===Exercise IV===
Translate the following sentences into Carune:
*1) I am well.
*2) Ione wants to be happy. (qerere-to want)
*3) There is a cat here. (here-aqui)
*4) You should read a book.
*5) Compose your own sentence here. (Really, don't translate this ;)

==Next==
*[[Carune|Top]]
*[[Carune Lesson 1|Back]]
*[[Carune Lesson 3|Forward]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune Lesson 3</title>
    <id>2245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T22:12:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Exercise III */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Carune Lesson 2|Lesson 2]] you learned about describing feelings with the verb '''stare'''. In this lesson, you will learn to use '''stare''' in describing location, and the verb '''sere''' will be introduced. We'll also talk about third conjugation ('''-i''' stem) verbs, such as '''cognire''' and '''somnire'''.

==Dialogue==
Having arrived in Torine, Ione and Rome said goodbye to Ofelia and now are proceeding to an art exhibit that they've been looking forward to. Passing through the web of side streets, they become lost and seek out directions from Iulia, a passerby.

===Carune===
*Ione: Cogno quo stam confuzati. (''Ele punte a una muera.'') Lo pudem pidire direchioni a li.
*Rome: Signa, signa. M'scusi, siniorina.
*Iulia: Signa? Que te pudo fazere?
*Ione: Stam vistadori a Torine, e nezitam direchini.
*Rome: Signa. Noi querem zare al Museme di Arti para al presentazione.
*Iulia: In realita? Io tamben! Venis com mi.
*''Eli ambulae al Museme di Arti.''

===Traduzione (Translation)===
*Ione: I think that we are lost. (''He points to a woman.'') We can ask her for directions.
*Rome: Yes, yes. Excuse me, miss.
*Iulia: Yes? What can I do for you?
*Ione: We are visitors to Torine, and we need directions.
*Rome: Yes. We want to go to the museum of art for the presentation.
*Iulia: Really? Me too! Come with me.
*''The walk to the Museum of Art.''

===Grammar Notes===
This dialogue focuses on a number of points that were studied previously, and some that are coming up. In the first line, Ione says '''...stam confuzati'''. This means &quot;we are confused&quot;. Here are some other sentences you should be able to understand, and a list of vocabulary.

*'''confuzate''': lost, confused (adj)
*'''siniorina''': miss
*'''vistadore''': vistor
*'''nezitam direchini''': we need directions
*'''nezitare''': to need
*'''direchine''': direction
*'''in realita''': really (lit. in reality)
*'''tamben''': also
*'''venis''': come (all of you)
*'''m'scusi''': excuse me (to one person)
*'''pudere''': to be able to (pudo=I can)
*'''signa''': yes

==-I Stem Verbs==
You already know how to conjugate regular -a and -e stem verbs. In this lesson you will learn about -i stem verbs, the third conjugation. Here is a sample -i stem verb, fully conjugated in the present indicative tense:

*'''Somnire''': to sleep
*'''Io somno''': I sleep
*'''Tu somnei''': you (familiar) sleep
*'''Ele/ela/vusse somni''': he/she/you (formal) sleeps/sleep
*'''Noi somnim''': we sleep
*'''Voi somnis''': you (plural) sleep
*'''Eli/elae somnie''': they sleep

So, simply remove the infinitive ending and add '''-o/-ei/-i/-im/-is/-ie'''. Here are some other -i stem verbs:

===Additional Verbs===
-a stem
*'''funziare''': to work
*'''cegrare''': to close
*'''caglentare''': to heat

-e stem
*'''aprendere''': to learn
*'''attendere''': to attend
*'''videre''': to see

-i stem:
*'''cognire''': to think
*'''pidire''': to ask for
*'''venire''': to come

==Describing Location and Origin==
To speak of your location, use a simple formula. To speak of origin, you will learn a new irregular verb, and a new preposition, '''di'''. '''Di''' means &quot;of&quot; or &quot;from&quot;, and is used in possession as well as location. For example:

*'''al ava di Ione''': Ione's bird (lit., the bird of Ione)
*'''il cane di Iulia''': Iulia's dog (lit., the dog of Iulia)
*'''il fele di Rome''': Rome's cat (lit., the cat of Rome)

===Location===
The formula for location is as follows: [subject pronoun]+'''stare'''+'''in'''+location. The subject pronoun is largely unnecessary, but you must use a conjugated form of '''stare in''' and the location. For example:

*'''Io stoi in Zergattum''': I am in Zergattum.
*'''Stai in Torine''': You are in Torine
*'''Stam noi in Grenobela?''': Are we in Grenobela?
*'''Signa, stam in Grenobela''': Yes, we are in Grenoble

===Sere===
To talk about origin, you will need to use a new verb: '''sere''', another verb for &quot;to be. '''Sere''' describes qualities, time, and origin. It is conjugated as follows:

*'''Sere''': to be
*'''Io evo''': I am
*'''Tu eves''': you (familiar) are
*'''Ele/ela/vusse es''': he/she is
*'''Noi sovom''': we are
*'''Voi sovos''': you (plural) are
*'''Eli/elae sovoe''': they are

===Origin===
To describe your origin, use the following formula: [subject pronoun]+'''sere'''+'''di'''+origin. The subject pronoun is mostly unnecessary, but '''sere di''' is key. For example:

*'''Evo di Grenobela''': I am from Grenobela
*'''Ela es di Torine''': She is from Torine
*'''Di ube sovos?''': Where are you all from? ('''ube'''=&quot;where&quot;)
*'''Noi sovom di Zergattum''': We are from Zergattum

==Exercises==
===Exercise I===
Translate the following from Carune to English:
*1) '''Io stoi in Zergattum.'''
*2) '''Eves tu di Grenobela?'''
*3) '''Pudei aiudare''' (aiudare=to help)
*4) '''Ube stai?'''
*5) '''Evo di Londone''' (Londone=London)

===Exercise II===
Translate the following from English to Carune:
*1) I am from Torine.
*2) I am in Grenobela.
*3) Can you walk?
*4) Excuse me, are you from Zergattum?
*5) I attend classes. (class=il clase)

===Exercise III===
Answer the following questions in Carune.
*1) '''Comi stai?''' (comi=how)
*2) '''Di ube essei?'''
*3) '''Ube stai?'''
*4) '''M'scusi, essei tu di Milane?'''

===Exercise IV===
You thought it wasn't going to be here, didn't you. :P Conjugate each of these verbs in all forms:
*1) Concibire (to conceive)
*2) Criere (to believe)
*3) Prepare (to prepare)

==Next==
*[[Carune|Top]]
*[[Carune Lesson 2|Back]]
*[[Carune Lesson 4|Forward]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carune Lesson 4</title>
    <id>2246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-21T22:11:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Carune Lesson 3|Lesson 3]] you learned to conjugate regular -i stem verbs in Carune. In this lesson, we will discuss -o stem verbs, such as '''amare''' and '''collere''', as well as the irregular verb '''avere'''. You will also learn how to conduct yourself in a restaurant.

==Dialogue==
Ione, Rome, and Iulia from the last lesson have become friends. To practice their Carune, the trio go out for lunch after the presentation at the Art Museum.

===Carune===
*Michale: M'scusis, siniori, Siniora, mi iamo Michale, e zoi a stare il tue cameradore hoi. Queres bevidae?
*Rome: No savo qua quera. Iulia?
*Iulia: Um...me gustaria aqua, per favore.
*Michale: Aqua, bene. E voi, siniori?
*Ione: Quali tipi di refresci si tene?
*''MIchale lista i refresci.''
*Ione: Bene, me gustaria Coca-cola, per favore.
*Rome: Me pude traere Espraite?
*Michale: Bene, bene. Uni momenti, siniori!

===Traduzione (Translation)===
*Michale: Excuse me, sirs, miss, my name is Michale, and I am going to be your waiter today. Do you want drinks?
*Rome: I don't know what I want. Iulia?
*Iulia: Um...I would like water, please.
*Michale: Water, sure. And you, sirs?
*Ione: What types of soda do you have?
*''Michale lists the sodas.''
*Ione: Well, I would like Coca-cola, please.
*Rome: Can you bring me Sprite?
*Michale: Good, good. A few minutes, sirs [and miss]!

===Grammar Notes===
This dialogue focuses more on colloquial speech. There are a number of phrases that you'll learn more about later. For now, just accept the approximate translations.

*'''m'scusis''': excuse me (to more than one person)
*'''mi iamo...''': I am called...
*'''cameradore''': waiter
*'''per favore''': please
*'''No savo qua quera''': I don't know what I want
*'''me gustaria...''': I would like...
*'''aqua''': water
*'''quali tipi di refresci si tene''': what types of soda do you have
*'''refresce''': soda
*'''Coca-cola''': Coca-cola
*'''Espraite''': Sprite
*'''me pude traere...''': can you bring me...
*'''uni momenti''': a few minutes

There are a few other things you should know. In the last lesson, you learned that '''m'scusi''' meant excuse me. There is another form that takes its place when talking to plural people: '''m'scusis'''. There is also a colloquial greeting, '''costa''', the equivalent of &quot;what's up&quot;.

==-O Stem Verbs==
You already know how to conjugate verbs in all of the basic stems. However, there are a small number of verbs of the -o stem. These verbs are 

*'''Amare''': to love
*'''Io amo''': I love
*'''Tu amoi''': you (familiar) love
*'''Ele/ela/vusse amoz''': he/she/you (formal) loves/love
*'''Noi amom''': we love
*'''Voi amos''': you (plural) love
*'''Eli/elae amoe''': they love

So, simply remove the infinitive ending and add '''-o/-oi/-oz/-om/-os/-oe'''.

===Additional Verbs===
-a stem
*'''funziare''': to work
*'''cegrare''': to close
*'''caglentare''': to heat

-e stem
*'''aprendere''': to learn
*'''attendere''': to attend
*'''videre''': to see

-i stem:
*'''cognire''': to think
*'''pidire''': to ask for
*'''venire''': to come

-o stem:
*'''collere''': to color
*'''traere''': to bring
*'''olere''': to smell

==Avere==
'''Avere''' is the first auxiliary verb you will learn. Avere is used in many idiomatic expressions, and in crafting most of the compound tenses. First, you'll learn about to conjugate '''avere'''. In the present tense, it has only one irregular form, and is treated as an -e stem verb. It's the other tenses you need to worry about.

*'''Avere''': to have (auxiliary)
*'''Io avo''': I have (auxiliary)
*'''Tu avei''': you (fam) have (auxiliary)
*'''Ele/ela/vusse ave''': he/she/you (form) has/have (auxiliary)
*'''Nio avem''': we have (auxiliary)
*'''Vo avec''': you (plural) have (auxiliary)
*'''Eli/elae aven''': they have (auxiliary)

Here are some idiomatic phrases and their uses.

*'''Avere sone''': to be sleepy (lit. to have sleepiness)
*'''Avere ambra''': to be hungry
*'''Avere tirsta''': to have thirst
*'''Avere quo''': to have to (do something)

'''Avere quo''' is a very common expression, so make sure to remember it.

==Exercises==
===Exercise I===
Translate the following from Carune to English:
*1) '''Stai in Zergattum?'''
*2) '''Amo al citta di Milane.''' (citta=city)
*3) '''Me gustaria encontrare Ministore Primere Ivane di Torine.''' (encontrare=to meet)
*4) '''M'scusi, me pude traere Coca-cola.'''
*5) '''Avec quo somnire.'''

===Exercise II===
Translate the following from English to Carune:
*1) I am from Grenobela. Where are you from?
*2) Is she hungry?
*3) She loves cats.
*4) Excuse me, are you (plural) from Milane?
*5) They are tired.

===Exercise III===
Answer the following questions in Carune.
*1) '''M'scusi, me pude traere Espraite?'''
*2) '''Avei sone?'''
*3) '''Stai in al citta di Milane?'''
*4) '''I love to sing?''' (chantare=to sing)

===Exercise IV===
Conjugate each of these verbs in all forms:
*1) Collere (to color)
*2) Olere (to smell)
*3) Traere (to bring)

==Next==
*[[Carune|Top]]
*[[Carune Lesson 3|Back]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italo-Carune</title>
    <id>2247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-07T01:41:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}

The Italo-Carune subfamily of the Ibero-Italic language family is the family that spawned, for example, [[Carune]] and [[Monzo]].

==Common Features of Italo-Carune Languages==
The most notable feature of these languages is the retension of the neuter [[gender]], lost in most other Romance languages.

===Eastern Carune Languages===
Mònzo and other central languages are, interestingly enough, more closely related to Spanish than Italian, Rumantsch, or the other languages in their vicinity. They lost the final -e's common in central verb infinitives, but gained a stress accent not found in the central languages.

===Central Carune Languages===
Carune and other eastern languages are, in contrast, much closer to Italian than the Iberian languages. They incorporate a large portion of vocabulary from Iberian languages, however.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Monzo</title>
    <id>2248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46373</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T13:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Texts */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Mònzo is an Italo-Carune language spoken in Monze, [[Carune (nation)|Carune]]. It is similar to Carune, but incorporates grave accents as stress markers because of the loss of some final letters.

{{Infobox|name=Mònzo
|pronounce=/m&quot;Onts)o/
|tu=[[Alternate Earth]], modern era
|species=Human
|in=[[Carune (nation)|Carune]]
|no=5 million
|script=Roman
|tree=[[Proto-Indo-European|Indo-European]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Italic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Italo-Western&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Ibero-Italic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Italo-Carune]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Eastern Carune
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''[[Monzo]]'''
|morph=Inflecting
|ms=Fusional
|wo=SVO
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=December 2005}}
==Phonology/Orthography==
Monzo has 29 phonemes.

*Plosives: &lt;tt&gt;/p t k b d g/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; p t ch b d g &gt;
*Fricatives: &lt;tt&gt;/f h s v/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; f h s v &gt;
*Affricates: &lt;tt&gt;/ts) tS)/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; z c &gt;
*Approximants: &lt;tt&gt;/l r\ L/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; l r lh &gt;
*Nasals: &lt;tt&gt;/m n J/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; m n nh &gt;
*Unstressed Vowels: &lt;tt&gt;/a e i o u/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; a e i o u &gt;
*Stressed Vowels: &lt;tt&gt;/&quot;A &quot;E &quot;I &quot;O &quot;U/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; à è ì ò ù &gt;
*Labialized Plosives: &lt;tt&gt;/kw/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt; qu &gt;
*In diphthongs, /i/ becomes /j/ and /u/ becomes /w/
*Before /a o u/ &lt;c&gt; is /k/.

==Syntax and Stress==
Stress falls on the penultimate syllable, unless the word ends in a vowel, in which case it lands on the ultimate syllable:

*Mònzo: /m&quot;Onts)o/
*Parlàr: /parl&quot;Ar\/
*Che: /k&quot;e/
*Grazie: /grats)j&quot;e/

==Subject Pronouns==
Mònzo has nine subject pronouns. It distinguishes two singular forms, one formal and one informal.

*'''Eo''': I
*'''Tu''': you (informal)
*'''Lho''': he
*'''Lha''': she
*'''Vùzu''': you (formal)
*'''Nòze''': we
*'''Vòze''': you (plural)
*'''Lhi''': they (masculine)
*'''Lhe''': they (feminine)

==Verbal Morphology: Indicative Mood Simple Tenses==
There are four types of verbs: -a stem, -e stem, -i stem, and irregulars. The infinitive forms are -àr, -èr, -ìr, and -e respectively. To conjugate, remove them and add the correct endings.

===Present Indicative Conjugation===
This describes actions that happen in the present. Regular verbs conjugate as follows.

*The '''eo''' form ends in -ò.
*The '''tu''' form ends in -(stem vowel)s
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' forms end in -(stem vowel)
*The '''nòze''' form ends in -(stem vowel)mo
*The '''vòze''' form ends in -(stem vowel)z
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' forms end in -(stem vowel)n
*Thus, parlàr conjugates as follows: parlò, parlas, parla, parlamo, parlaz, parlan
*Savèr: savò, saves, save, savemo, savez, saven
*Venìr: venò, venis, veni, venimo, veniz, venin
*The irregular verb pusse (to be able to) conjugates like this: pò, pes, pe, pemo, pez, pen.

===Preterit Indicative Conjugation===
The preterit describes actions that have happened in the past.

*The '''eo''' form ends in -è for -a stem verbs and -ì for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''tu''' form ends in -ast for -a stem verbs and -ist for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' forms end in -u for all types of verbs.
*The '''nòzo''' form ends in -àm for -a stem verbs and -ìm for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''vòzo''' form ends in -àste for -a stem verbs and -ìste for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' forms end in -àtu and -ìtu for -e and -i stem verbs.
*Parlàr: parlè, parlast, parlu, parlàm, parlàste, parlàtu.
*Savèr: savì, savist, savu, savìm, savìste, savìtu
*Venìr: venì, venist, venu, venìm, venìste, venìtu
*Pusse: puì, puist, peu, puìm, puìste, puìtu

===Future Indicative Conjugation===
The future tense describes actions that have yet to occur.

*The '''eo''' ending is -e.
*The '''tu''' ending is -as.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' ending is -i.
*The '''nòzo''' ending is -emo
*The '''vòzo''' ending is -az.
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' ending is -in
*Parlàr: parlàre, parlàras, parlàri, parlàremo, parlàraz, parlàrin
*Savèr: savère, savèras, savèri, savèrimo, savèraz, savèrin
*Venìr: venìre, venìras, venìri, venìremo, venìraz, venìrin
*Pusse: puère, puèras, puèri, puèremo, puèraz, puèrin

===Imperfect Indicative Conjugation===
The imperfect tense describes an action that occurred at an unspecified past time. In -a stem verbs, it is formed by removing the final -r, adding -v-, and then adding the normal present tense ending. If this would change the stress placement, the stress stays with the infinitive ending. In -e and -i stem forms it is conjugated as follows:

*The '''eo''' form is -ià.
*The '''tu''' form is -iàs.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' form ends in -ià.
*The '''nòzo''' form ends in -iàmo
*The '''vòzo''' form ends in -iàz
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' form ends in -iàn
*Parlàr: parlàvo, parlàvas, parlàva, parlàvamo, parlàvas, parlàvan
*Savèr: savià, saviàs, savià, saviàmo, saviàz, saviàn
*Venìr: venià, veniàs, venià, veniàmo, veniàz, veniàn
*Pusse: puià, puiàs, puià, puiàmo, puiàz, puiàn

===Present Conditional Conjugation===
The present conditional describes things that would happen. It conjugates by adding certain endings to the full infinitive of a verb. When the stress of the added ending conflicts with the stress of the infinitive, the stress stays with the added ending.

*The '''eo''' form is -ià.
*The '''tu''' form is -iàs.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' form is -ià.
*The '''nòzo''' form is -iàmo
*The '''vòzo''' form is -iàz
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' form is -iàn
*Parlàr: parlarià, parlariàs, parlarià, parlariàmo, parlariàz, parlariàn.
*Savèr: saverià, saveriàs, saverià, saveriàmo, saveriàz, saveriàn.
*Venìr: venirià, veniriàs, venirià, veniriàmo, veniriàz, veniriàn.
*Pusse: puerià, pueriàs, puerià, pueriàmo, pueriàz, pueriàn.

==Nominal Morphology: Gender and Number==
In common with other [[Italo-Carune]] languages, Mònzo has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

*Masculine nouns end in '''-o''' in the singular. To make them plural, change '''-o''' to '''-i'''. For example: '''il bambino'''&gt;'''lhi bambini''' ('''bambino'''=boy).
*Feminine nouns end in '''-a''' in the singular. To make them plural, change '''-a''' to '''-e'''. For example: '''al bambina'''&gt;'''lhe bambine''' ('''bambina'''=girl).
*Neuter nouns end in '''-u''' in the singular. To make them plural, change '''-u''' to '''e'''. For example: '''el frasu'''&gt;'''lhe frase''' ('''frasu'''=sentence).

==Direct Object Pronouns==
Direct object pronouns reflect the immediate object of an action: I have '''the book''' to him.; She loves '''me'''. Mònzo nouns do not reflect the accusative (direct object) case, but pronouns do. The direct object pronouns are as follows.

*'''Me''': me
*'''Te''': you
*'''Lho''': him
*'''Lha''': her
*'''Lhu''': it
*'''Ne''': us
*'''Ve''': you
*'''Lhi''': them (masculine)
*'''Lhe''': them (feminine or neuter)

==Indirect Object Pronouns==
Indirect object pronouns reflect the indirect object of a sentence: She gave the book '''to me'''. Nouns in Mònzo do not reflect the dative (indirect object) case, but pronouns do.

*'''Me''': to/for me
*'''Te''': to/for you
*'''Lo''': to/for him
*'''La''': to/for her
*'''Lu''': to/for it
*'''Ne''': to/for us
*'''Ve''': to/for you
*'''Li''': to/for them (masculine)
*'''Le''': to/for them (feminine or neuter)

==Prepositional Object Pronouns==
Prepositional object pronouns reflect the object of a preposition: I am going away '''from her'''. Nouns in Mònzo do not decline to show the locative/ablative (prepositional object) case, but pronouns do.

*'''Mi''': me
*'''Ti''': you
*'''Si''': him, her, it, them
*'''Ni''': us
*'''Vi''': you

==Reflexive Verbs/Pronouns==
Reflexive verbs are the reflection of an action done by the speaker to the speaker: '''She''' gave the book '''to herself'''. There are two ways of dealing with reflexives: conjugate them, or leave them as infinitives. As conjugated verbs, reflexives look like normal verbs, but have a reflexive pronoun tacked onto the beginning.

*'''Lavèr-si''': to wash oneself
*'''Mi lavò''': I wash myself
*'''Ti laves''': you wash yourself
*'''Si lave''': he/she/you washes/wash him/her/yourself
*'''Ni lavemo''': we wash ourselves
*'''Vi lavez''': you wash yourselves
*'''Si laven''': they wash themselves

In their infinitive forms, reflexives look like normal verbs with a reflexive pronoun tacked on at the end.

*'''Sentìr-si''': to feel
*'''Sentìr-mi''': to feel (I)
*'''Sentìr-ti''': to feel (you)
*'''Sentìr-si''': to feel (he, she, it, they)
*'''Sentìr-ni''': to feel (we)
*'''Sentìr-vi''': to feel (you)

The second type of reflexive is always used after a conjugated verb, never in place of one.

==Verbal Morphology: Irregular Verbs==
You have already learned to conjugate one irregular verb: '''pusse''' (to be able to, can). This section will teach you a number of the most common irregular verbs. Irregular verbs end in '''-e''', and typically more specifically in '''-sse'''. The most common irregular verbs are as follows.

*'''esse''': to be
*Present Indicative: '''sò, es, è, somo, soz, son'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''fuì, fuist, fuu, fuìm, fuìste, fuìtu'''
*Future Indicative: '''sierre, sierras, sierri, sierremo, sierraz, sierrin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''erò, eras, era, eramo, eraz, eran'''
*Present Conditional: '''sierrià, sierriàs, sierrià, sierriàmo, sierriàz, sierriàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''sa, sas, sa, samo, saz, san'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''fuìrra, fuìrras, fuìrra, fuìrramo, fuìrraz, fuìrran'''

*'''avesse''': to have (auxiliary)
*Present Indicative: '''hò, has, ha, hamo, haz, han'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''hè, hast, hu, hàm, haste, hàtu'''
*Future Indicative: hàre, '''hàras, hàri, hàremo, hàraz, hàrin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''hià, hiàs, hià, hiàmo, hiàz, hiàn'''
*Present Conditional: '''harià, hariàs, harià, hariàmo, hariàz, hariàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''he, hes, he, hemo, hez, hen'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''hàrra, hàrras, hàrra, hàrramo, hàrraz, hàrran'''

*'''ire''': to go
*Present Indicative: '''vò, vas, va, vamo, vaz, van'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''fuì, fuist, fuu, fuìm, fuìste, fuìtu'''
*Future Indicative: '''ire, iras, iri, iremo, iraz, irin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''ià, iàs, ià, iàmo, iàz, iàn'''
*Present Conditional: '''irià, iriàs, irià, iriàmo, iriàz, iriàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''ve, ves, ve, vemo, vez, ven'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''fuìrra, fuìrras, fuìrra, fuìrramo, fuìrraz, fuìrran'''

*'''disse''': to say, tell
*Present Indicative: '''dicio, dices, dice, dicemo, dicez, dicen'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''dehì, dehist, dehu, dehìm, dehìste, dehìtu'''
*Future Indicative: '''dehère, dehèras, dehèri, dehèremo, dehèraz, dehèrin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''dià, diàs, dià, diàmo, diàz, diàn'''
*Present Conditional: '''deherià, deheriàs, deherià, deheriàmo, deheriàz, deheriàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''dicia, dicias, dicia, diciamo, diciaz, dician'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''dehìrra, dehìrras, dehìrra, dehìrramo, dehìrraz, dehìrran'''

*'''pusse''': to be able to
*Present Indicative: '''pò, pes, pe, pemo, pez, pen'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''puì, puist, peu, puìm, puìste, puìtu'''
*Future Indicative: '''puère, puèras, puèri, puèremo, puèraz, puèrin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''puià, puiàs, puià, puiàmo, puiàz, puiàn'''
*Present Conditional: '''puerià, pueriàs, puerià, pueriàmo, pueriàz, pueriàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''pa, pas, pa, pamo, paz, pan'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''puìrra, puìrras, puìrra, puìrramo, puìrraz, puìrran'''

*'''fare''': to make, do
*Present Indicative: '''facio, faces, face, facemo, faces, facen'''
*Preterite Indicative: '''fè, fast, fu, fàm, faste, fàtu'''
*Future Indicative: '''fàre, fàras, fàri, fàremo, fàraz, fàrin'''
*Imperfect Indicative: '''fià, fiàs, fià, fiàmo, fiàz, fiàn'''
*Present Conditional: '''farià, fariàs, farià, fariàmo, fariàz, fariàn'''
*Present Subjunctive: '''facie, facies, facia, faciemo, faciez, facien'''
*Imperfect Subjunctive: '''fàrra, fàrras, fàrra, fàrramo, fàrraz, fàrran'''

==Verbal Morphology: Indicative Mood Compound Tenses==
These are tenses that in English are formed by more than one verb: I have gone, I had gone, I will have gone, I am going to go, I would have gone; etc. To form these compound tenses, you will need, in many cases, the present and past participles. To form the present participle of a regular verb, remove the final -r and add -nd. This is equivalent to the English -ing form. To form the past participle of a regular verb, remove the final -r and add -d. This is equivalent to the English -ed form.

===Present Perfect Indicative Conjugation===
The present perfect is equivalent to English &quot;I have done something&quot;. It is formed by placing the present indicative form of '''avesse''' before the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me ha parlàd''': he has spoken to me
*'''Hò savèd por muci anhi''': I have known for many years

===Pluperfect Indicative Conjugation===
The pluperfect is equivalent to English &quot;I had done something&quot;. It is formed by placing the preterite indicative form of '''avesse''' before the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me hu parlàd''': he had spoken to me
*'''Hè savèd por muci anhi''': I had known for many years

===Present Progressive Indicative Conjugation===
The present progressive form is equivalent to English &quot;I am doing something&quot;. It is formed by placing the present indicative form of '''esse''' before the present participle of a verb.

*'''Me è parlànd''': he is speaking to me
*'''Sò savènd''': I am knowing

===Future Perfect Indicative Conjugation===
The future perfect is equivalent to English &quot;I will have done something&quot;. It is formed by placing the future indicative form of '''avesse''' before the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me hàri parlàd''': he will have spoken to me
*'''Hàre savèd por muci anhi''': I will have known for many years

===Simple Future Indicative Conjugation===
The simple future is equivalent to English &quot;I am going to do something&quot;. It is formed by placing the present indicative form of '''ire''' before an infinitive verb.

*'''Me va parlàr''': he is going to speak to me
*'''Vò savèr por muci anhi''': I am going to know for many years

===Past Conditional Indicative Conjugation===
The past conditional is equivalent to English &quot;I would have done something&quot;. It is formed by placing the present conditional form '''avesse''' before the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me harià parlàd''': he would have spoken to me
*'''Harià savèd por muci anhi''': I would have known for many years

===Imperfect Progressive Indicative Conjugation===
The imperfect progressive is equivalent to English &quot;I was doing something&quot;. It is formed by placing the imperfect form of '''esse''' before the present participle of a verb.

*'''Me era parlànd''': he was speaking to me
*'''Erò savènd''': I was knowing

==Nominal Morphology: Articles==
These are equivalent to English &quot;the&quot;, &quot;a&quot;, &quot;an&quot;, and &quot;some&quot;. The articles agree in gender and number with their accompanying nouns.

*The masculine singular definite article is '''il'''.
*The masculine plural definite article is '''lhi'''.
*The feminine singular definite article is '''al'''.
*The neuter singular definite article is '''el'''.
*The feminine and neuter plural definite article is '''lhe'''.
*The masculine singular indefinite article is '''un'''.
*The masculine plural indefinite article is '''uni'''.
*The feminine singular indefinite article is '''una'''.
*The neuter singular indefinite article is '''unu'''.
*The feminine and neuter plural indefinite article is '''une'''.

==Adjective Morphology: Gender and Number==
Adjectives, like articles, must agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. Adjectives change their ending to reflect their gender and number. So '''felicho''' is the singular masculine form of &quot;happy&quot;, and '''feliche''' is the plural feminine/neuter form of &quot;happy&quot;. Here is '''felicho''' in all its forms. The endings it has are applicable to all adjectives.

*The masculine singular form is '''felicho'''.
*The masculine plural form is '''felichi'''.
*The feminine singular form is '''felicha'''.
*The neuter singular form is '''felichu'''.
*The feminine and neuter plural form is '''feliche'''.

==Verbal Morphology: The Passive Voice==
The passive voice is formed using a specific pattern. It is equivalent to English &quot;something was done by me&quot;. Use this format for the passive voice.

*[Patient noun]+'''esse'''+[past participle of main verb]+'''còmo''' (by)+[agent noun or prepositional object pronoun]

==Verbal Morphology: Subjunctive Mood Simple Tenses==
The subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a grammatical mood of the verb that expresses wishes, commands (in subordinate clauses), emotion, possibility, judgment, necessity and statements that are contrary to fact.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjunctive_mood]

===Present Subjunctive Conjugation===
The present subjunctive is used in relative clauses wherever the present indicative would be used. The present subjunctive stem is the first person singular present indicative stem. It is equivalent to English &quot;if I were to...&quot; and &quot;I may...&quot; and similar constructions.

*The '''eo''' form ending is -e for -a stem verbs and -a for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''tu''' form ending is -es for -a stem verbs and -as for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' form ending is -e for -a stem verbs and -a for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''nòzo''' form ending is -emo for -a stem verbs and -amo for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''vòzo''' form ending is -ez for -a stem verbs and -az for -e and -i stem verbs.
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' form ending is -en for -a stem verbs and -an for -e and -i stem verbs.
*Parlàr: parle, parles, parle, parlemo, parlez, parlen
*Savèr: sava, savas, sava, savamo, savaz, savan
*Venìr: vena, venas, vena, venamo, venaz, venan
*Pusse: pa, pas, pa, pamo, paz, pan

===Imperfect Subjunctive Conjugation===
The imperfect subjunctive is used wherever the imperfect or preterite indicative would be used in a relative clause. The imperfect subjunctive stem is the third person plural form of the preterite indicative, without the final -tu.

*The '''eo''' form ending is -rra.
*The '''tu''' form ending is -rras.
*The '''lho''', '''lha''', and '''vùzu''' form ending is -rra.
*The '''nòzo''' form ending is -rramo.
*The '''vòzo''' form ending is -rraz.
*The '''lhi''' and '''lhe''' form ending is -rran.
*Parlàr: parlàrra, parlàrras, parlàrra, parlàrramo, parlàrraz, parlàrran
*Savèr: savìrra, savìrras, savìrra, savìrramo, savìrraz, savìrran
*Venir: venìrra, venìrras, venìrra, venìrramo, venìrraz, venìrran
*Pusse: puìrra, puìrras, puìrra, puìrramo, puìrraz, puìrran

==Verbal Morphology: Imperative Mood==
The imperative mood is used to give commands. While Central Carune languages do not distinguish between positive and negative commands, other than by adding the verb negator before the command, Eastern Carune languages do. Commands are very simple in Mònzo. Affirmative commands (do something) are formed by taking the present subjunctive form of a verb. Negative commands (don't do anything) are formed by taking the imperfect subjunctive form of a verb. Object pronouns for positive imperatives are added to the end of the imperative in this order: reflexive, direct object, indirect object. Objects for negative imperatives precede the verb as normal. Attaching an object pronoun places a stress accent on the final vowel of the basic imperative, or in the case of the '''nòzo''' form, the penultimate vowel.

*'''Parlème!''': speak to me! ('''vùzu''')
*'''Non me approchàrras''': do not approach me! ('''tu''')
*'''Vemo!''': let's go! ('''nòzo''')

==Contractions==
Mònzo, like many languages, incorporates some contractions. In Mònzo, the singular definite article contracts with the prepositions '''in''' (in, on), '''a''' (to, at), and '''de''' (of, from).

*'''in'''+'''il'''='''nil'''
*'''in'''+'''al'''='''nal'''
*'''in'''+'''el'''='''nel'''
*'''a'''+'''il'''=al'''
*'''a'''+'''al'''='''al'''
*'''a'''+'''al'''='''al'''
*'''de'''+'''il'''='''del'''
*'''de'''+'''al'''='''del'''
*'''de'''+'''el'''='''del'''

==Pronominative Morphology: Nonpersonal Pronouns== 
Mònzo, like other Carune languages, incorporates a number of non-personal pronouns in three groups: interrogative (who), locative (here), and relative (that, which).

===Interrogative Pronouns===
Interrogative pronouns indicate a question. In English, they are: who, what, where, when, why, how, how much/many, and which.

*'''Che''': what
*'''Quu''': who
*'''Dove''': where
*'''Quande''': when
*'''Per che''': why
*'''Quante''': how much
*'''Quale''': which

===Locative Pronouns===
Locative pronouns describe place. The locative pronouns in English are &quot;here&quot; and &quot;there&quot;. In Mònzo, they are.

*'''Qui''': here
*'''Alha''': there

===Relative Pronouns===
The relative pronouns join a relative or subordinate clause to a main clause. The relative pronouns in English are that/which, who, what, where, when, and why. '''Quo''' (that, which) also means &quot;because&quot;, so pay attention to the context in which it is used.

*'''Quo''': that/which
*'''Chu''': who
*'''Que''': what
*'''Dovè''': where
*'''Chande''': when
*'''Perque''': why

==Verbal Morphology: Subjunctive Mood Compound Tenses==
Like the indicative mood compound tenses, these are a combination of a verb and a participle, though these are in the subjunctive.

===Present Perfect Subjunctive Conjugation===
The present perfect subjunctive is used where the indicative present perfect would be used, but only in relative or subordinate clauses. The present perfect subjunctive is a combination of the present subjunctive of '''avesse''' followed by the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me he parlàd''': he may have spoken to me
*'''He savèd por muci anhi''': I may have known for many years

===Pluperfect Subjunctive Conjugation===
The pluperfect subjunctive is used where the indicative present perfect would be used, but only in relative or subordinate clauses.  The pluperfect subjunctive is a combination of the imperfect subjunctive of '''avesse''' followed by the past participle of a verb.

*'''Me hàrra parlàd''': he might have spoken to me
*'''Hàrra savèd por muci anhi''': I might have known for many years

==Verbal Morphology: Idiomatic Verbs==
There are a number of idiomatic verbs, mostly using the irregular verbs '''avesse''' and '''fare'''.

===With Avesse===
'''Avesse''' is used in a number of cases where English uses &quot;to be&quot;. Some of the most common uses are:

*'''avesse de''': to have to [do something]
*'''avesse sonha''': to be sleepy
*'''avesse habra''': to be hungry
*'''avesse tirssa''': to be thirsty

===With Fare===
Idioms with '''fare''' typically relate to the weather. Here are a few:

*'''facie fresca''': it's cold
*'''facie caldo''': it's warm
*'''facie solha''': it's sunny

==Texts==

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Alternate Earth]]
[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]</text>
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  </page>
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    <title>Main Page/Carune</title>
    <id>2249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45160</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-04T12:34:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
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      <minor/>
      <comment>Typo</comment>
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&lt;center&gt;Hodium esse {{CURRENTDAYNAME}}, {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;/center&gt;
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Benveniti a '''FrathWiki''', une vicche ubi alguene pude presentare a suae crelinguae e creculturae, e una proheta para collectare informazione sobre soggeti relevanti a crelinguant, creculturant, e cremondant.  Visitas [[FrathWiki:Goals]] per qu'essem sobre.

FrathWiki currentamente ha '''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}''' pagini.

I contenti di FrathWiki essen liberi (come parlazione).  Visitas [[FrathWiki:Copyrights]] per mais informazione.

'''Commenzant:'''  Visitas [[Help:How does one start a page|Aiuda:Comi si commenza une pagine]] e [[Help:Editing|Aiuda:Adiustant]] si no saves di vicchi in generale.  Una lista completa di topici d'aiuda esse a [[Help:Contents|Aidua:Contenti]].  Per favore lignas [[FrathWiki:Naming conventions]] antes di crient sehe primere pagine.

Ce uni '''[[Templates|templati]]''' para fazere formattant mais facile.

Vicchi similari: [[ConlangWiki:ConlangWiki|CrelinguaVicche]], Ill Bethisad Vicche, [[wikibooks:Conlang|Crelingua Vicchelibre]], [[AltHist:|AlthistoriaVicche]], e il [[conlangcity:|Crelingua Vicchacitta]].

Iam ce une [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/frathwiki/ Yahoogrupe] per esta citta d'il intrenette, ubi parlazioni staran fazet e recordazioni d'il informazione ponet.

Per favore reportes behaviore inusuali a [mailto:muke@frath.net Muke].

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'''[[Help:Contents|Topici Aiudi]]''' - [[FrathWiki:Idle chatter|Discuzioni intopici]] - [[List of mailing lists|Lista di listae cartantae]] - '''[[List of conlangs|Lista di crelinguae]]'''

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'''Topici linguistichi:''' [[:Category:Grammar|concepti grammaticali]] - [[person|persona]] - [[number|numerale]] - [[tense|tempe]] - [[aspect|aspette]] - [[mood|mode]] - [[Swadesh list|lista Swadesh]]

|-
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'''Prohetae collaborativae:'''
*[[Hangraphy]]
*:Una crescritura per linguae Indo-Europae usant charactadori Cinesi.
*[[Sisiwön]]
*:Una crelingua collaborativa  [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conlangcollaboration].
*[[Homonyms Across Languages|Homonimi Intre Linguae]]
*:Una lista di verbo quo s'oggi similari intre linguae.
*[[Noric]]
*:Una familia di linguae parlant n'i alpi Austriani n'il [[League of Lost Languages|Grupe di Lingu'Olvidatae]].
''...see also [[:Category:Collaborations|Categoria:Collaborazioni]]'' 

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'''Lista di topici creculturi:'''
*[[Henaudute ceremonial calendar|Calendare ceremonale di Henaudute]]
*[[New Royce|Nuve Roce]]
*[[Galhaf]]
*[[Alternate Earth|Terra Nuva]]
''...visitas tamben [[:Category:Conworlds|Categoria:Cremondae]]''

&lt;!-- these items should probably be moved or at least rotated, once they get enough to merit a page --&gt;

|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/sandbox</title>
    <id>2250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46850</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-02T14:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== My subpages ==
&lt;DPL&gt;
createdby=Melroch
titlematch=%/%
&lt;/DPL&gt;

__NEWSECTIONLINK__
== Paramtest ==

cf [[Template:paramtest]]
  &lt;nowiki&gt;
{{paramtest|
   |t   = tim
   |t_d = þam
   |t_- = com
}}
   &lt;/nowiki&gt;


{{paramtest|
   |t   = tim
   |t_d = þam
   |t_- = com
}}


 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{paramtest|t=t|t_d=þ|t_-=c}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{paramtest|t=t|t_d=þ|t_-=c}}


 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Paramtest|t=t|t_d=þ}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Paramtest|t=t|t_d=þ}}


 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Paramtest|caption=0|t=t}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Paramtest|caption=0|t=t}}


 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Paramtest|t_-=c}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Paramtest|t_-=c}}

== Template==

{{Voweltable|caption=Swedish dialect vowel spellings|i=i|y=y|I=î ''or'' ê|e=e|2=ö|8\= &amp;mdash; u|u\=(u)|8=û|E=ä|&amp;=(â)|a=â|&amp;\=(ô)|3\=ô|u=o|o=å|Q=a|A=(a)|@=(e)}}

== Table ==
{| class=&quot;gridtable voweltable&quot; style=&quot;width: {{{width|60%}}};&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|+{{{caption}}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Front
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Central
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;| Back
|-
! class=&quot;small&quot; | Unrounded
! class=&quot;small&quot; | Rounded
! class=&quot;small&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Unrounded
! class=&quot;small&quot; | Rounded
! class=&quot;small&quot; | Unrounded
! class=&quot;small&quot; | Rounded
|-
! Closed
| {{{i}}} || {{{y}}} || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{{i\}}} || {{{u\}}} || {{{M}}} || {{{u}}}
|-
!
| {{{I}}} || {{{Y}}} || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{{I\}}} 
| {{{U\}}} || {{{M_}}} || {{{U}}}
|-
! Half-closed
| {{{e}}} || {{{2}}} {{{8\}}} || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | {{{@\}}} 
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{{@}}} || {{{8}}} || {{{7}}} || {{{o}}}
|-
! Half-open
| {{{E}}} || {{{9}}} || colspan=&quot;1&quot; | {{{3}}} || {{{3\}}} 
| {{{V}}} || {{{O}}}
|-
!
| {{{&amp;}}} || {{{&amp;\}}} || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{{6}}} 
| {{{3\_}}} || {{{V_}}} || {{{O_}}}
|-
! Open
| {{{a}}} || {{{&amp;\_}}} || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{{a_}}} 
| {{{Q_x}}} || {{{A}}} || {{{Q}}}
|}

== Stuff ==

{{paramtest|A_x=â|8_+_w=û}}

Sohlob '''ä ö ü''': {{Sohlob|ä ö ü}}

Vowel length{{Hnote|1|Vowel length}}


{{BIGIPA|[ɛɪ]}} {{big|{{IPA|aɪ}}}}

'''Sohlob''' is spelled&lt;span class=&quot;graphemic&quot;&gt;hhohlob&lt;/span&gt;in Sohlob script.

'''Sohlob''' is spelled&amp;lang;hhohlob&amp;rang;in Sohlob script.

{{sc|Benct}} cŭ́m sī́t quā́rē ''cŭ́m sī́t quā́rē''

Without joiner: ị̄ị̆į̄į̆ 
With zero-width joiner: ī‍̣ĭ‍̣ī‍̨ĭ‍̨ 
With zero-width non-joiner: ī‌̣ĭ‌̣ī‌̨ĭ‌̨

''Without joiner: ị̄ị̆į̄į̆ ''
''With zero-width joiner: ī‍̣ĭ‍̣ī‍̨ĭ‍̨ ''
''With zero-width non-joiner: ī‌̣ĭ‌̣ī‌̨ĭ‌̨''

''ę̄ę̆ǭǫ̆į̄į̆ẹ̄ẹ̆ọ̄ọ̆ị̄ị̆''
''į̄ị̆''
''&amp;#x012B;&amp;#x0328;&amp;#x012D;&amp;#x0323;''

p{{Small|D}}o{{small|O}}a{{Small|A}}  {{Small|D}}I{{small|GNVS}}

{| class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
!
!align=&quot;left&quot;|INCLUSION 
!align=&quot;left&quot;|CONTACT 
!align=&quot;left&quot;|PROXIMITY
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|LOCATIVE 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|in 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|on 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|at
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|SEPARATIVE 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|out of 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|off 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|from
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|TRANSLATIVE 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|through 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|over 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|along
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|INGRESSIVE 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|towards 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|against (for)
|align=&quot;left&quot;|to
|}

==== (1) Vowel length ====

== Abandoned infobox ==

{{Abandoned}}
{{Abandoned|username=Melroch}}
{{Abandoned|username=Melroch|date=January}}
{{Abandoned|username=Melroch|realname=BPJ|date=January}}
{{Abandoned|username=Melroch|talk=(Leave a note!)|date=January}}
{{Abandoned|username=Melroch|realname=BPJ|talk=(Leave a note!)|date=January}}

(Based on what [[User:Muke|Muke]] made at [[Latin Pinyin]].)

== deflist ==

;Benct 
:;Philip :Jonsson
;Melroch 
:;Melarocco :Aestan 
:Aistano

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
;Benct 
:;Philip :Jonsson
;Melroch 
:;Melarocco :Aestan 
:Aistano
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;


== Kijeb syllabary ==

The rightmost columns and lowest rows  get cut off.  May it be due to some file size limitation setting?

Cf. the [http://www.melroch.se/conlang/misc/kijebsyllabary.svg external copy on my own webspace!]

[[Image:Kijebsyllabary.svg|thumb|300px|right|The Kijeb syllabary.  Click in the image to see it enlarged.]]

[[Image:Kijebsyllabary.svg]]


[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 00:14, 15 January 2007 (PST)

== Bordertable ==

{| class=&quot;bordertable&quot;
! Benedictus || Philippus || Gothus
|-
| Benct || Philip || Jonsson
|}

== smallcaps ==

{{SC|foo}}
&lt;span class=&quot;morpho-label&quot;&gt;foo&lt;/span&gt;
{{morpho-label|foo}}
{{sc|foo}}
{{Sc|foo}}

== [[Template:Scroll box]] test ==

{{scroll box
|width=75%
|height=10em
|content=
&lt;dpl&gt;
  namespace= Help
&lt;/dpl&gt;
}}

== Faking ɛɩ ligature ==

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: xx-large;&quot;&gt;
l&lt;span style=&quot;letter-spacing: -0.45ex;&quot;&gt;ɛ&lt;/span&gt;ɩn
L&lt;span style=&quot;letter-spacing: -0.45ex;&quot;&gt;Ɛ&lt;/span&gt;ƖN
f&lt;span style=&quot;letter-spacing: -0.45ex;&quot;&gt;c&lt;/span&gt;ɩþr
F&lt;span style=&quot;letter-spacing: -0.45ex;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/span&gt;ƖÞR
F&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 133%;&quot;&gt;ɑ&lt;/span&gt;ÞR
&lt;/div&gt;

{{Capital EI ligature}} {{EI}} 

{{Small ei ligature}} {{ei}}

== Table styles ==

{{testtable}}
----
{{testtable|class= bordertable}}
----
{{testtable|class=gridtable}}
----
{{testtable|class=bluetable}}
----
{{testtable|class=graytable}}
----
{{testtable|style=background: lightsteelblue;}}

== If test ==


{{iftest}} : all undefined


{{iftest|i = i}} I i defined

== [[Template:Voweltemplate]] ==

{{Voweltable|  
|caption = 
| i = 
| y = 
| i\ = 
| u\ = 
| M = 
| u = 
  
| I = 
| Y = 
| I\ = 
| U\ = 
| M_o = 
| U = 
  
| e = 
| 2 = 
| 8\ = 
| @\ = 
| @ = 
| 8 = 
| 7 = 
| o = 
  
| E = 
| 9 = 
| 3 = 
| 3\ = 
| V = 
| O = 
  
| &amp; = 
| &amp;\ = 
| 6 = 
| 3\_o = 
| V_o = 
| O_o = 
  
| a = 
| &amp;\_o = 
| a_x = 
| Q_x = 
| A = 
| Q = 
}}

== Switch test ==

{{Switchtest}}
{{Switchtest|0}}
{{Switchtest|1}}

== User page transclusion [[User:Melroch/charinsert]] ==

{{CURRENTUSER}}

{{:User:{{CURRENTUSER}}/charinsert}}

&lt;p class=&quot;insertchar&quot;&gt;&lt;charinsert&gt;{{{chars|{{{characters|benct}}}}}}&lt;/charinsert&gt;&lt;p&gt;

&lt;p class=&quot;insertchar&quot;&gt;'''Benct''': &lt;charinsert&gt;B e n c t&lt;/charinsert&gt;&lt;p&gt;

== Magic word parserfunction ==

{{magic word}}

== Includeonly, DPL template inclusion ==

{{User:Melroch/sandbox2}}

&lt;dpl&gt;
  titlematch=%Melroch%
  include={Foo}.dpl
&lt;/dpl&gt;

== Subpage DPL ==

&lt;DPL&gt; namespace= 
titlematch=Main Page/% 
&lt;/DPL&gt;

== Gloss ==

{{gloss|note|use}}

== Nested lists to simulate a family tree ==

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;

=== Source ===

: [[Foo]] - by conlanger A
:: [[Fee]] - by conlanger A and conlanger B
::: [[He]] - by conlanger B
:: [[Fie]]
:::[[Vie]]
::::[[Wy]]
:: [[Foe]]
: [[Bar]]
:: [[Bor]]
::: [[Baw]]
:::: [[Bah]]
: [[Baz]]
:: [[Bass]]
:: [[Baehz]]
::: [[Beez]]

Notice how the number of colons corresponds to the node's level is the tree
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

=== Output ===

: [[Foo]] - by conlanger A
:: [[Fee]] - by conlanger A and conlanger B
::: [[He]] - by conlanger B
:: [[Fie]]
:::[[Vie]]
::::[[Wy]]
:: [[Foe]]
: [[Bar]]
:: [[Bor]]
::: [[Baw]]
:::: [[Bah]]
: [[Baz]]
:: [[Bass]]
:: [[Baehz]]
::: [[Beez]]

Notice how the amount of indentation corresponds to the node's level is the tree

== Subpage list again ==
&lt;dpl&gt;
category=Kijeb
replaceintitle=#([^/]+?)$#,\1|\1
mode=userformat
listseparators=,\n* [[%TITLE%]],,
&lt;/dpl&gt;

&lt;dpl&gt;
category=Kijeb
replaceintitle=#([^/]+?)$#,\1|\1
mode=userformat
listseparators=,\n* [[%TITLE%]],,
&lt;/dpl&gt;

{{#dpl:
|category=Kijeb
|replaceintitle=#^{{{3}}}(.+?)$#,\1
|mode=userformat
|listseparators=,\n* [[%PAGE%{{!}}%TITLE%]],,
|namespace=
|resultsheader=«pre»«nowiki»
|resultsfooter=«/nowiki»«/pre»
}}

{{:List of conlangs on FrathWiki}}

== DPL from category ==

{{DPL from category|
| category=Lucus
| exclude category=Conlangs based on English
| exclude category 1=Romance conlangs
| exclude category 2=Germanic conlangs
}}

{{DPL from category
  | category=Conlangs
  | heading=Conlangs on FrathWiki listed alphabetically
  | namespace=
  | columns=3
  | exclude category=Meta-pages
  | exclude category 1=Theory
  | exclude category 2=Concultures
  | exclude category 3=Vocabulary
  | exclude category 4=For deletion
}}

{{DPL from category by category
  | category=Conlangs
  | heading=Conlangs on FrathWiki listed by subcategories and crosscategories
  | namespace=
  | exclude category=Meta-pages
  | exclude category 1=Theory
  | exclude category 2=Concultures
  | exclude category 3=Vocabulary
  | exclude category 4=For deletion
}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Longman Defining Vocabulary</title>
    <id>2251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-27T12:04:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>User:Melroch/Longman Defining Vocabulary moved to Longman Defining Vocabulary: It is OK!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Longman Defining Vocabulary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charos S'fik</title>
    <id>2252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T22:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== About ==
Modern Charos S'fik is an evolved version of the Traditional [[Kharos S'fik]].&lt;br&gt;
It was reformed later into [[Kratal-Rul]].&lt;br&gt;
Modern Charos S'fik was created 5/2006 by me (Pascal A. Kramm).

== Culture ==
The speakers of Charos S'fik, the Hoka, are living majorly on Hokkaido (Japan's northern-most island), but a good amount of them also live on Honshû (the Japanese main island), and there mostly in the Kantô region. A small amount is still living on the Russian island Sakhalin north of Hokkaido.&lt;br&gt;
Their name stems back from the late 16th century, when they first made contact with westerners (most likely Portuguese) who named them &quot;Hocaidoes&quot;. They eventually adapted the name for themselves, but shortened it to &quot;Hoka&quot;.

== Origin ==
When analyzing their language, and also judging from their original Phoenician-derived script, it seems most likely that the Hoka were originally tribes coming from today's Germany and Scandinavia, as you can still find Germanic-sounding words in their vocabulary. From their original habitat, they moved more and more eastwards, crossing all of Russia on the way (which had quite an impact on their language), always looking for a good place to stay. They eventually set over to Sakhalin, and from there to Hokkaido, where they finally started settling down, while some moved on to Honshû and settled mostly in the Kantô region. Their language became strongly influenced by Japanese over time.

== Modernisation ==
Starting with the Meiji Restauration of 1868, the Modernisation also reached the Hoka and eventually gave rise to Modern Charos S'fik.&lt;br&gt;
The new script of Modern Charos S'fik, based upon the old handwriting script, was influenced by the intensive trade and relations with Korea, which also had an strong impact on their language. Also, many started moving over to Korea.

== Grammar ==
Sentences have '''SOV''' order.&lt;br&gt;
All words consist of '''syllables''' which are composed like this:&lt;br&gt;
* initial consonant (which can be the null-consonant)
* vowel (which can be the null-vowel after the word-initial consonants '''ch''', '''f''', '''s''')
* final consonant (doesn't always occur at the end of a word, omitted before '''r''')

== Script ==
[[image:Modern-Tifet-script.png|left|thumb|150px|Modern Tifet Script]] The Modern Charos S'fik script evolved from the original Tifet handwriting script.&lt;br&gt;
In its creation, the Korean Hangul alphabet was taken as a model for the vowels and the syllable stacking.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

== Phonology ==
The Phonology has changed somewhat from the traditional version.

===Alphabet===
This table presents the alphabet in its proper order.&lt;br&gt;
It is named '''chakra''', after its first two consonant letters.
{|border=1
! Sound ||  Ipa  || Initial || Medial || Final || Unit by itself
|-
| a || a,ʌ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ä || æ || O || O || O || O
|-
| e || e,ɛ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ei || aɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| i || i,ɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| u || u,ʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| o || o,ɔ || O || O || O || O
|-
| eu || oɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ja || ja,jʌ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jä || jæ || O || O || O || O
|-
| je || je,jɛ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ju || ju,jʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jo || jo,jɔ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jeu || joɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ch/kh || ç/x || ch || kh || kh || ch
|-
| kr || kʁ || O || O || O || O
|-
| k || k || - || O || O || -
|-
| t/d || t/d || t || d || t || -
|-
| n || n || O || O || O || -
|-
| f || f || O || O || O || O
|-
| m || m || O || O || O || -
|-
| p || p || p+ja || O || O || -
|-
| j || j || O || O || - || -
|-
| r || ʁ || O || O || - || -
|-
| l || l || O || O || O || -
|-
| sh || ʃ || O || O || O || O
|-
| s || s || O || O || O || O
|-
| h || h || O || O || - || -
|}
* kr is regarded as a single consonant
* initial vowels use a null-consonant (as in Korean Hangul)
* only p + &quot;ja&quot;-vowel can occur word-initially

===Pronunciation rules===
Two consonants have a different pronunciation, depending on their position in the word:
* '''ch/kh''': '''ch''' if word-initial, '''kh''' otherwise.
* '''t/d''': '''t''' at the beginning or end of a word or at the end of a syllable, '''d''' at the beginning of a syllable inside of a word.

If consonants are followed by any of the '''ja''' vowels (ja, jä, je...), some change their pronunciation:
* ch+ja -&gt; cja [ʝa]
* kh+ja -&gt; cha [ça]
* kr+ja -&gt; kkha [kxa]
* k+ja -&gt; kja [kça]
* n+ja -&gt; nja [ɲa]

* t+ja -&gt; tja [tja]
* d+ja -&gt; dja [dja]
* f+ja -&gt; fj [fja]
* p+ja -&gt; pj [pja]
* s+ja -&gt; sj [sja]

The consonants m, j, r, l, sh, h cannot be followed by a '''ja''' vowel.


== Babel text ==
'''Note:'''
* The apostrophe (') is used in order to indicate syllable boundaries. After a single consonant it means that the consonant has to be pronounced long (consonant-only syllable).&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
[[image:charos-s-fik-genesis11.png|left|thumb|150px|Babel text]] '''Bereshit''' (Book of Genesis) ''Chapter 11, 1-9''
* '''1''' Chik'im choncjeu sekä han s'parakh sjam chot'op fe tja ita.
* '''2''' Tjon e in fut'esh ch'mas, inkhan Shin'ara ni pjoncje tja tjarof okh tä shikmin tja ch'mas.
* '''3''' Krot-ul själ ni tja malha: &quot;Jo f'rokhot! Nek-ul tikh'el jo ch'mas okh mik chot-ul jo fjulpik!&quot; Krot-ul tikh'el sjam'en tol okh tjäl sjam'en morat tja suda.
* '''4''' Ched'akh krot-ul tja malha: &quot;Jo f'rokhot! Tosh tjoran fe chankron e nek-ul fa jo chorip, s'da nek-ul choncjeu jorat ue njet s'ka cha s'farakh.&quot;
* '''5''' Ut'an HaShem ch'ta tja f'rokhot fa tosh okh tjoran fi'djet som sjaram in tja chorip.
* '''6''' HaShem tja malha: &quot;Man'il akkhat'i han sjaramtul han s'parakh fe krot-ul chon tata shi'kjak ch'mas, nada krot-ul chäfik ch'mas pulchanunhan krot-ul fa s'ka ita.
* '''7''' Jo f'rokhot! Nek-ul ch'ta jo chada okh s'parakh af krot-ul jo chondon, s'da krot-ul själ njet s'ka ihä.&quot;
* '''8''' S' HaShem krot-ul choncjeu jorat s'fa tja s'farakh, okh krot-ul tosh tja f'rek chorip.
* '''9''' Takha tosh Faf'el tja cha nam, emedan HaShem dä s'parakh af choncjeu sekä chondon; tä jo'kje, HaShem krot-ul choncjeu jorat ue tja s'farakh.


'''Literal:''' (word-by-word)
* '''1''' now whole world one language same word with *past* have.
* '''2''' east towards *continuous* travel make, human-*plural* Shinar in flat *past* find and there settlement *past* make.
* '''3''' they self to *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! We brick *cohortive* make and much they *cohortive* burn!&quot; they brick instead-of stone and tar instead-of mortar *past* use.
* '''4''' then they *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! city tower with sky towards we for *cohortive* build, so-that we whole earth over not *future* *passive* scatter.&quot;
* '''5''' but HaShem down *past* come for city and tower see that man-*plural* *continuous* *past* build.
* '''6''' HaShem *past* say: &quot;if as one people with one language they this *perfect* begin do, nothing they plan do not-possible they for *future* be.
* '''7''' *cohortive* come! we down *cohortive* go and language of they *cohortive* confuse, so-that they self not *future* understand.&quot;
* '''8''' so HaShem they whole world over *past* scatter, and they city *past* stop build.
* '''9''' therefore city Babel *past* passive* name, because HaShem there language of whole world confuse; there from, HaShem they whole earth over *past* scatter.


'''Translation:'''
* '''1''' Now the whole world had one language with the same words.
* '''2''' Journeying eastwards, men found a plain in Shinar and settled there.
* '''3''' They said to one another: &quot;Come! Let's make brick and burn it thorougly!&quot; They used bricks instead of stone and tar instead of mortar.
* '''4''' Then they said: &quot;Come! Let's build a city for us with a tower up to the sky, to make a name for us, so that we are not scattered over the whole earth.&quot;
* '''5''' But HaShem came down to see the city and the tower men were building.
* '''6''' HaShem said: &quot;If as one people with one language they have begun doing this, nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
* '''7''' Come! Let's go down and confuse their language, so that they will not understand each other.&quot;
* '''8''' So HaShem scattered them over the whole earth, and they stopped building the city.
* '''9''' Therefore the city was named Babel, because there HaShem confused the language of the whole world; from there HaShem scattered them over the whole earth.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Modern-Tifet-script.png</title>
    <id>2253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-04-30T22:51:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Modern Tifet script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Modern Tifet script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Kharos S'fik</title>
    <id>2254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10731</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-11T00:17:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Slavonic influences?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name Hokkaido was created in the 19th century.  Before then, the island was called Ezo. [[User:Nik|Nik]] 21:15, 30 April 2006 (PDT)

Also, I would think that their numbers would follow the general East Asian pattern and have words for 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;, etc., rather than 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;, etc.  Thus, something like:

*100 chak
*1000 sen
*10,000 man
*100,000 des man
*1,000,000 chak man
*10,000,000 sen man
*100,000,000 oku
*1,000,000,000 des oku
etc.  Just as in Japanese, where it's
*100 hyaku
*1000 sen
*10,000 man
*100,000 juuman
*1,000,000 hyakuman
*10,000,000 senman
*100,000,000 ichi oku
*1,000,000,000 juuoku
etc

== Slavonic influences? ==

I can see some Slavonic influences on Kharos S'fik. Is it true? --'''[[User:Zlatiborica|George D. Bozovic]]''' &lt;small&gt;''([[User talk:Zlatiborica|talk]])''&lt;/small&gt; 17:17, 10 July 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Kasshian</title>
    <id>2256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48902</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-04T05:03:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gender/Number Prefixes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Classical Kasshian''' (''Watakasshi'') was the language of the [[Kasshi]] from the [[Anarchic Era]] to the early [[Second Kasshi Empire|Second Empire]].

= Phonology and Orthography =
== Consonants ==
{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
|
| '''Bilabial'''
| '''Labiodental'''
| '''Dental'''
| '''Alveopalatal'''
| '''Palatal'''
| '''Velar'''
|-
| Stops
| '''P''', '''B'''
|
| '''T''', '''D'''
|
|
| '''K''', '''G'''
|-
| Nasals
| '''M'''
|
| '''N'''
|
|
| '''(Ng')'''
|-
| Affricates
|
|
| ''Ts'', ''Dz''
| '''(Ch)''', '''(J)'''
|
|
|-
| Fricatives
|
| '''F''', '''V'''
| '''S''', '''Z'''
| ''Sh'', ''Zh''
| '''(Ç)'''
|
|-
| Liquids
|
|
| '''L''', ''R''
|
|
|
|-
| Glides
| '''W'''
|
|
|
| '''Y'''
|
|}

''Italics'' represent allophones, while parentheses indicate marginal phonemes.

== Allophones ==
*T and D are [ts] and [dz] in some dialects before /i/ or /j/ (/j/ is absorbed into [ts] and [dz])
*S and Z are [S] and [Z] before /i/ or /j/
*L is /r/ after dental consonants

== Vowels ==
There are only three vowel phonemes - /i a u/, which may be long or short.  Long vowels are indicated in romanization by either doubling or the use of a macron (e.g., both ii and ī are used).  Macron cannot be used if the two vowels belong to different morphemes, e.g., the plural suffix -i added to a noun ending in -i will be written -ii and never -ī.  /i/ and /u/ are both pronounced [e] and [o] (and romanized that way) in closed syllables.  There are two diphthongs, /aj/ and /aw/

== Syllables ==
Legal onsets in Kasshian are 0, consonant, and consonant followed by a glide or liquid.  Legal codas are fricative, N (assimilates in place), L, or gemination of the following consonant.  Geminate consonants may not be followed by /l/ or glides.  Where inflectional morphology would otherwise create a geminate followed by l, y, or w, no gemination occurs.

The marginal phonemes ''ch'', ''j'', ''ç'', must be followed by vowels while ''ng'' must be preceded by a vowel and cannot be geminated.  In addition, ''ch'', ''j'' and ''ç'' can only be geminated if an /i/ follows.  W and Y must be followed by vowels, and may not be geminated.

Ç is an odd phoneme in Kasshian.  Historically, it was derived from /kj/ and /ki/ (although later sound-changes have created new /kj/ and /ki/).  In the modern language, /çi/, when unstressed, preceded by a vowel, and either word-final or followed by a voiceless consonant, becomes /ç/, which is pronounced as a single mora, treated as a coda.  When word-initial and followed by a voiceless consonant, it also often simply /ç/.  Thus, ''çitauçi'' may be pronounced /çtawç/

== Stress ==
Stress is regularly on the penultimate mora.  Long vowels count as two morae, and, as mentioned above, word-final ç counts as a single mora.

= Grammar =
== Nouns ==
=== Gender/Number Prefixes ===
Kasshian uses a gender system in its nouns.  Gender is indicated by a prefix, which varies depending on the noun root, and indicates number.  In the following table, * indicates gemination, and C indicates &quot;any consonant&quot;.  In all cases with &quot;C&quot;, the C is an s, f, z, v, l, n, or m followed by a consonant other than l, r, w, or y.  In some cases, there is a sound change; s/t, s/d, f/p, f/b, z/d, z/t, v/b, v/p, m/n.  Italics indicate rare forms.

Note: the forms that depict a single consonant, like n-, only occur before vowels.  They are very rare before vowels that are in the most common prefix (the first given; chi-, na-, su-, çi-, la-, wa-, pi-).  Thus, a word that starts with ''na-'' is most likely to pluralize according to the first subtype, ''na*-'', rather than as ''nra-''.

Note 2: In using this chart, one should keep in mind phonetic constraints.  Gemination, for example, can only occur with consonants, and therefore, a word that starts with ''nai'' has to be treated as having a prefix ''n-'', with ''ai'' as the start of the root.

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|'''Singular'''
|'''Plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=6|'''Gender I'''
|chi-
|che*-, chi-¹
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|cheC-
|che*Ca-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|ch-
|chily-, ''tr-'', ''chell-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|tr-
|chell-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|p-
|chilw-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|chī-
|chekka-, chegga-, ''chili-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=7|'''Gender II'''
|na-
|na*-, na-¹
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|naC-
|na*Ca-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|n-
|nr-, ''nall-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|ny-
|naly-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|nr-
|nall-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|m-
|nalw-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|nā-
|nakka-, nagga-, ''nala-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=6|'''Gender III'''
|su-
|so*-, su-¹, ''sru-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|soC-
|so*Ca-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|sw-
|sulw-, ''sr-'', ''soll-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|sh-
|suly-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|sr-
|soll-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|sū-
|sokka-, sogga-, ''sulu-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=6|'''Gender IV'''
|çi-
|çef-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|çeC-
|çefCa-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|ç-
|çify-, ''çif-''², ''çeff-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|qu-
|çif-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|kl-
|çifl-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|çī-
|çefka-, çevga-, ''çifi-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=5|'''Gender V'''
|la-
|rowspan=2|laf-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|lw-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|l-
|laf-, ''laff-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|laC-
|lafCa-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|lā-
|lafka-, lavga-, ''lafa-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=6|'''Gender VI'''
|wa-
|waf-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|w-
|waf-, ''waff-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|u-
|wafu-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|o-
|wafo-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|waC-
|wafCa-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|wā-
|wafka-, wavga-, ''wafa-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|rowspan=4|'''Gender VII'''
|pi-
|pef-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|peC-
|pefCa-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|p-
|pif-, ''peff-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|pī-
|pefka-, pevga-, ''pifi-''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|colspan=3|¹Second form used when the root starts with a stop followed by l, r, w, or y; otherwise, first one used
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|colspan=3|²Very rare form, used only with a few roots that start with ''i'' or ''e''
|}

The /f/ in the gender IV-VII plurals becomes /v/ before roots beginning with voiced stops or fricatives.

==== Meanings of Genders ====
*Gender I - Female human or supernatural being
*Gender II - Male human or supernatural being
*Gender III - Epicene human or supernatural being (including hermaphroditic beings)
*Gender IV - Animals associated with people (domesticated animals, common pests, some animals with symbolic or religious significance)
*Gender V - Other animal
*Gender VI - Other animate (includes social institutions)
*Gender VII - Inanimate

The distinction between genders VI and VII is somewhat arbitrary, as is the distinction between IV/V and V/VI.

=== Number Suffixes ===
Plural is marked in both the gender prefix and in a suffix to the root.  The basic suffix is -i, but there are several complications
*-tu, -du, -nu, -pu, -bu, -mu, -fu, and -vu usually become -pi, -bi, -mi, -pi, -bi, -mi, -fi, and -vi
*Words ending in ''ai'' or ''au'' don't change for plural.
See [[#Stem-Changes|below]] for further complications

=== Cases ===
Case suffixes follow the plural suffix, if any.  Note, /i/ and /u/ become [e] and [o] in closed syllables
*Absolutive - No suffix
**Absolutive is used for the subject of an intransitive verb or the object of a transitive verb
*Ergative -(a)l
**Ergative is used for the subject of a transitive verb
*Genetive -(a)f
*Dative -(a)z
*Instrumental -li/-*i
**Used to indicate the instrument used to perform an action, also used in causative constructions to indicate the person made to do something (e.g., &quot;The woman made ''her servant'' clean the house&quot;)
*Benefactive -na
**Used to indicate the person ''for whom'' an action is performed
*Commitative -n(an)
**Indicates that an action is done ''together with'' a noun
*Locative -(a)v
**Indicates the location of an action, generally indicates ''on the surface of''
*Ablative -ta (-da)
**Indicates motion away from an object, generally ''from the surface of''
*Allative -s(a) (-za)
**Motion towards, generally ''on to the surface of''
*Perlative -ni
**Motion ''over the surface of''
*Inessive -ka (-ga)
**Indicates ''inside of''
*Elative -du (-tu)
**''Out of''
*Illative -ba (-pa)
**''Into''
*Perillative -bav (-pav)
**''Through''
*Circumlocative -ji (-chi)
**''In the vicinity of''
*Circumablative -gu (-ku)
**''From the vicinity of''
*Circumallative -ma
**''To the vicinity of''
*Circumperlative -man
**''motion near''

=== Stem-Changes ===
In addition to the plural change listed above
*Stop/Fricative alterations - some nouns end in a fricative in the singular, and replace the fricative with a stop (s/t, z/d, f/p, v/b) in the plural and before the genetive and dative suffixes, e.g., ''pyalef'' &quot;path&quot;, ''pifyalipi'' &quot;paths&quot;, ''pyalipaf'' &quot;of a path&quot;
*Gemination - some consonant-final nouns geminate the final consonant before the plural suffix, e.g., ''wamushan'' &quot;dawn&quot;, ''wafmushanni'' &quot;dawns&quot;
*Hidden Consonants - Nouns that end in a vowel in the singular, and add a geminated fricative in the plural, and a non-geminated fricative before the dative and genetive suffixes, e.g., ''trāna'' &quot;friend&quot;, ''trānasaf'' &quot;of a friend&quot;, ''chellānasshi'' &quot;friends&quot;
*A/i - Some nouns that end in -a drop the a before the plural, e.g., ''lanidana'' &quot;a food animal&quot;, ''lafnidani''
*Nouns ending in long vowels fall into one of four classes
**Class I - long vowel changed to short vowel + k before plural suffix and genetive/dative suffixes.  Thus, -ā -&gt; -aç (plural), -akaf (singular genetive)
**Class II, III, and IV shorten the vowel before the plural suffix, undergo different changes before genetive and dative suffixes
***Class II: ā, ī, ū -&gt; ag, ig, ug
***Class III: ā, ī, ū -&gt; a, i, u
***Class IV: ā, ī, ū -&gt; ā, ya, wa
*Also, keep in mind the [[#Vowels|allophonic]] nature of the i/e and u/o pairs, and the s/sh and z/zh pairs.  A root that ends in oC will become uCi, for example, &quot;man&quot;, ''nrakos'', &quot;men&quot;, ''nallakushi''
A number of irregular alterations also exist

== Verbs ==
Verbs can take several prefixes and suffixes, in the following pattern
*Voice-Tense-Conditional-'''Verb'''-Auxilary-'''Personal'''-'''Aspect'''
=== Voice ===
There are five voices in Kasshian
*Anti-Passive S-/Su-/Sw-/So-
**Anti-passive is used to promote an ergative noun to absolutive.  The absolutive is either dropped or changed to instrumental, and any instrumental noun becomes perlative
*Reflexive K-/Ku-/Kw-/Ko-
*Dative-Object P-/Pa-
**Dative-object is used to promote a ''dative'' noun to absolutive.  Absolutive and instrumental make the same changes as in anti-passive
*Reciprocative Tan-

Active is marked with no prefix

=== Tense ===
*Past F(a)-
*Future Nai-/Ny-
=== Conditional ===
*If Vi-
*Contrafactual Gwa-
**Indicates an &quot;if&quot; statement that is ''contrary to fact''
*Then Os-/Us-
=== Personal Suffixes ===
{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
| '''Singular'''
| '''Dual'''
| '''Paucal'''
| '''Plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| -u
| -*of, -lof, -uf
| -tai
| -ni
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| -fen
| -f(i)ni
| colspan=2| -f(i)na
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; rational'''
| -tas
| -chi
| colspan=2| -tan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; non-rational'''
| -l, -*a, -la
| -li, -*i, -i
| colspan=2| -n(a)
|}

Verbs agree with the noun in the absolutive.  &quot;Rational&quot; means referring to a human or spirit, thus generally genders I, II, or III, while non-Rational refers to any other noun, including all body-parts, some of which normally take the gender of their possessor.

Certain stem-changes occur when personal suffixes are added.
*Stop-final verbs - these verbs end in -ku, -tu, -pu, -gu, -du, or -bu in the 1st person singular.  In the 1st dual, 3rd non-rational singular and 3rd non-rational dual, the stop is kept, and the ''l'' form is used in the suffixes.  ''t'' and ''d'' are also retained before endings beginning with ''t'' and ''ch''  In all other persons, ''t'', ''p'', ''d'' and ''b'' are changed to ''s'', ''f'', ''z'', ''v'', while ''k'' and ''g'' are dropped, with the preceding vowel lengthened.
*-chi becomes -shi after an ''s'', -zhi after a ''z''.  When added to a verb ending in -t, the consonant and suffix merge to become -cchi, while when added to a verb ending in -d, they merge to -jji.
*The t-initial suffixes change to /d/ after a verb ending in ''d''
*The f-initial suffixes change to /v/ after a verb ending in ''v''
*Vowels in parentheses are lost after verbs ending in vowels
*Asterisk indicates gemination.  The presence or absence of gemination in a particular verb must be learned
*After stems ending in vowels, the l-initial suffixes (except -la) drop the l.

=== Aspect ===
*Prospective -ma/-n
**Indicates that an action is ''about to'' begin or ''was about to'' begin, generally with the implication that the action is due to intentional preparation
*Inceptive -tu
**Indicates the start of an action
*Non-Punctual -ç(i)
**Non-punctual indicates that an action takes place over a period of time, rather than in an instant
*Punctual (no suffix)
**Punctual indicates that an action takes place in an instant, or in a brief period of time viewed as an instant.  Combined with the present tense, it indicates that an action has just happened
*Habitual -v(a)
**Habitual indicates that an action is done frequently and with some regularity, but not necessarily at the reference moment
*Cessative -l(a) (-ra after s)
**The inverse of inceptive, indicates the completion of an action
*Perfective -nu
**Indicates that an action has been completed, and that the result of the action is still in effect

Notes:
*The personal suffixes -fen and -tan merge with the aspect suffix -la to become -fenna and -tanna
*The personal suffix -tas merges with -çi to become -tasshi
*The second form of the suffixes is used after vowels (''u'' and ''i'' become ''o'' and ''e'').
*When combining third person non-sentient singular and plural with the prospective, non-punctual, habitual, or cessative, it is the aspect suffix that loses its vowel (e.g., -lav, not -lva)

== Clitic Pronouns ==
Clitic pronouns may be added to nouns and verbs.  They are placed immediately after the inflected verb, but without affecting stress.  For nouns, they are placed immediately after the noun itself to indicate inalienable possession (affecting stress), and after the inflected noun for alienable possession (not affecting stress).  For verbs, the following order is used 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; person &amp;ndash; 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; person &amp;ndash; Genders 1-3 abs/erg &amp;ndash; Genders 1-3 acc &amp;ndash; Gender 4-5 erg &amp;ndash; Genders 4-5 abs &amp;ndash; Gender 6 erg &amp;ndash; Gender 6 abs &amp;ndash; Gender 7 erg &amp;ndash; Gender 7 abs

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| rowspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
| colspan=4|'''First Person'''
| colspan=3|'''Second Person'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''paucal'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Nominative'''
| ku
| sa
| na
| chi
| el
| dri
| ina
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Accusative'''
| qui
| sai
| nai
| chī
| ili
| drī
| inai
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Genetive'''
| qua
| sau
| nau
| chiwa
| iwa
| driwa
| ima
|}

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| rowspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
| colspan=3|'''Gender I'''
| colspan=3|'''Gender II'''
| colspan=3|'''Gender III'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Absolutive'''
| chi
| chel
| chen
| na
| nal
| nan
| su
| sol
| son
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Accusative'''
| chī
| chili
| chini
| nai
| nali
| nani
| swi
| suli
| suni
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Ergative'''
| chika
| chekka
| chenga
| naka
| nakka
| nanga
| suka
| sokka
| songa
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Genetive'''
| chiwa
| colspan=2|chima
| nau
| colspan=2|nama
| sau
| colspan=2|suma
|}

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| rowspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
| colspan=3|'''Gender IV'''
| colspan=3|'''Gender V'''
| colspan=3|'''Gender VI'''
| colspan=3|'''Gender VII'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
| '''singular'''
| '''dual'''
| '''plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Absolutive'''
| çi
| çel
| çen
| la
| lal
| lan
| wa
| wal
| wan
| pi
| pel
| pen
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Ergative'''
| çika
| çekka
| çenga
| laka
| lakka
| langa
| waka
| wakka
| wanga
| pika
| pekka
| penga
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Genetive'''
| çiwa
| colspan=2|çima
| lwa
| colspan=2|lama
| wau
| colspan=2|wama
| piwa
| colspan=2|pima
|}

== Free Pronouns ==
Free pronouns take standard case suffixes.  They vary by gender (first form is feminine, second is masculine, third is epicine).  Third person pronouns take standard gender prefixes
*1st person singular: Trī/Nrī
*1st person dual: Chellespi/Nallespi/Sollespi
*1st person paucal: Chellesshi/Nallesshi/Sollesshi
*1st person plural: Chempi/Nampi/Sompi
*2nd person singular: Chā/Nā
*2nd person dual: Chevvaibi/Navvaibi/Sovvaibi
*2nd person plural: Chempā/Nampā/Sompā
*3rd person singular: Eshna
*3rd person plural: Eshni
*3rd person reflexive singular: Jītal
*3rd person reflexive plural: Jītali

== Adjectives ==
Adjectives are inflected like nouns.  They are placed after the noun and agree in number, gender, and case.  In predicate position, they take the prefix sa-, and become verbs meaning &quot;to be X&quot;, e.g., ''chika'' &quot;old&quot;, ''sachika'' &quot;to be old&quot;
=== Gender/Number Prefixes ===
Like nouns, adjectives take prefixes to indicate gender.  Where semantically appropriate, therefore, adjectives can have one of 14 gender/number-prefixes.  Adjectives are commonly given in dictionaries in gender I (or gender VI if gender I is not semantically appropriate), with both the singular and plural given.  One can generally predict the other genders from the gender I form, but in a few cases, gender IV plural must also be given.  In all, there is a grand total of 12 gender/number paradigms

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;bordertable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|colspan=2|'''Gender I'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender II'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender III'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender IV'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender V'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender VI'''
|colspan=2|'''Gender VII'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|Singular
|Plural
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group I'''
|rowspan=2|chi-
|che*-
|rowspan=2|na-
|na*-
|rowspan=2|su-
|so*-
|rowspan=2|çi-
|rowspan=2|çef-
|rowspan=2|la-
|rowspan=2|laf-
|rowspan=2|wa-
|rowspan=2|waf-
|rowspan=2|pi-
|rowspan=2|pef-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group II'''
|chi-
|na-
|su-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group III'''
|cheC-
|che*Ca-
|naC-
|na*Ca-
|soC-
|so*Ca-
|çeC-
|çefCa-
|laC-
|lafCa-
|waC-
|wafCa-
|peC-
|pefCa-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group IV'''
|rowspan=3|ch-
|tr-
|rowspan=3|n-
|nr-
|rowspan=3|sw-
|sr-
|rowspan=3|ç-
|rowspan=2|çif-
|rowspan=3|l-
|rowspan=2|laf-
|rowspan=3|w-¹
|rowspan=2|waf-
|rowspan=3|p-
|rowspan=2|pif-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group V'''
|ch-
|n-
|sw-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group VI'''
|rowspan=3|chell-
|rowspan=3|nall-
|rowspan=3|soll-
|rowspan=2|çeff-
|rowspan=2|laff-
|rowspan=2|waff-
|rowspan=2|peff-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group VII'''
|rowspan=2|tr-
|rowspan=2|nr-
|rowspan=2|sr-
|rowspan=2|kl-
|rowspan=2|lal-
|rowspan=2|wal-
|rowspan=2|pl-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group VIII'''
|çifl-
|lafl-
|wafl-
|pifl-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group IX'''
|p-
|chilw-
|m-
|nalw-
|sw-
|sulw-
|qu-
|çif-
|lw-
|laf-
|w-
|waf-
|p-
|pif-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group X'''
|ch-
|chily-
|ny-
|naly-
|sh-
|suly-
|ç-
|çify-
|ly-
|lafy-
|uy-
|wafy-
|py-
|pify-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group XI'''
|rowspan=2|chī-
|chekka-
|rowspan=2|nā-
|nakka-
|rowspan=2|sū-
|sokka-
|rowspan=2|çī-
|çekka-
|rowspan=2|lā-
|lafka-
|rowspan=2|wā-
|wafka-
|rowspan=2|pī-
|pefka-
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Group XII'''
|chegga-
|nagga-
|sogga-
|çevga-
|lavga-
|wavga-
|pevga-
|}

¹w is dropped before u- or o-

=== Number Suffixes ===
Like nouns, plurality is also marked by the suffix -i.  The same complications as for nouns apply to adjectives

=== Comparison ===
Comparison is indicated with an infix, that varies depending on the adjective
*For adjective beginning with CVC-, -tu- is added immediately after the first vowel (''chika'' - old, ''chituka''' - older)
*For adjectives beginning with CVV- (Long vowels count as VV), -p- is added after the first vowel (''zhīku'' - beautiful, ''zhipiku'' - more beautiful)
*For adjectives beginning with Cl-, -atu- after the first consonant (''mlichi'' - thick, ''matulichi'' - thicker)
*For adjectives beginning with CC-, -tu- after the first consonant (''nvau'' - clean, ''ntuvau'' - cleaner)
The object of comparison takes the ellative case
=== Superlative ===
Superlative is also indicated with an infix, varying accordign to the adjective
*For adjectives beginning with CV-, -la- is added after the vowel (''chika'' - old, ''chilaka'' - oldest)
*For adjectives beginning with CC- or Cl-, -la- is added after the consonant, -la- becomes -ra- after ''t'', ''d'', ''n'', ''s'' or ''z'' (''mlichi'' - thick, ''mlalichi'' - thickest)

= Syntax =
Basic word order is VSO, with modifiers consistently following their head.

== Verb Types ==
There are 9 main categories of verbs, determined by the cases their arguments take
*Standard Verbs
**Intransitive
**Transitive
**Ditransitive
*Experiential Verbs (emotions, senses)
**Experiencer-Subject
***Experiencer is in the '''ergative''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''
**Experiencer-Object
***Experiencer is in the '''dative''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''
**Experiencer-Equal
***Experiencer is in the '''inessive''', source of experience is in the '''absolutive'''
**Some verbs can call into differing experiential categories, with different connotations; experiencer-subject tends to connote a degree of control, while experiencer-object tends to indicate lack of control.  Experiencer-equal tends to connote a state
*Verbs of Mental Action
**Mental Action I
***Person performing the action is in the '''ergative''', recpient of action is in the '''absolutive''' (e.g., ''dakas'' &quot;to ignore&quot;, person doing the ignoring is ergative, person being ignored is absolutive)
**Mental Action II
***Agent in teh '''dative''', patient in the '''absolutive'''
**Like Experiential verbs, but less common, some verbs of mental action may switch categories.  Mental Action II tends to imply that the agent is affected by his or her action
*Others
**Dative-Object
***Agent is absolutive, affected noun is in the dative.

= Vocabulary =
*[[Galhafan Swadesh lists]] - includes Classical Kasshian and its ancestor [[Common Kasshian]]
*[[Classical Kasshian Family Terms]]
*[[Classical Kasshian Numbers]]

[[Category:Kasshian languages]]
[[Category:Classical Kasshian|*]]
[[Category:Conlangs|Kasshian, Classical]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency (1)</title>
    <id>2257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21410</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:28:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

== The Defining Vocabulary sorted by word frequency ==

To increase the usefulness of this Defining Vocabulary I have sorted it according to [ftp://ftp.itri.bton.ac.uk/bnc/all.num.o5 a word frequency list] based on the [http://info.ox.ac.uk/bnc British National Corpus].  Remaining American spellings in the above list have been Britished.

Words in the frequency list are distinguished according to which word class (part of speech) they belong to, so that words that occur in multiple word classes occur several times at different places in the Defining Vocabulary as sorted by word frequency.  I have appended an alphabetical list of those words of the Defining Vocabulary which appear in multiple word classes according to the frequency list, along with the tags which the frequency list uses to identify the word classes.  Unfortunately I haven't been able to find any key to those tags.


=== Words not occurring in the frequency list ===

:woolen
:worthy_of

=== The words by frequency ===

&lt;ol start=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;the
&lt;li&gt;of
&lt;li&gt;and
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;in
&lt;li&gt;to
&lt;li&gt;it
&lt;li&gt;to
&lt;li&gt;i
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;you
&lt;li&gt;he
&lt;li&gt;be
&lt;li&gt;with
&lt;li&gt;on
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;by
&lt;li&gt;at
&lt;li&gt;not
&lt;li&gt;this
&lt;li&gt;but
&lt;li&gt;they
&lt;li&gt;his
&lt;li&gt;from
&lt;li&gt;she
&lt;li&gt;which
&lt;li&gt;or
&lt;li&gt;we
&lt;li&gt;an
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;have
&lt;li&gt;their
&lt;li&gt;would
&lt;li&gt;what
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;there
&lt;li&gt;if
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;all
&lt;li&gt;her
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;who
&lt;li&gt;have
&lt;li&gt;do
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;one
&lt;li&gt;them
&lt;li&gt;some
&lt;li&gt;could
&lt;li&gt;him
&lt;li&gt;into
&lt;li&gt;its
&lt;li&gt;then
&lt;li&gt;when
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;time
&lt;li&gt;my
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;so
&lt;li&gt;about
&lt;li&gt;your
&lt;li&gt;now
&lt;li&gt;me
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;more
&lt;li&gt;other
&lt;li&gt;just
&lt;li&gt;these
&lt;li&gt;also
&lt;li&gt;people
&lt;li&gt;any
&lt;li&gt;first
&lt;li&gt;only
&lt;li&gt;new
&lt;li&gt;may
&lt;li&gt;very
&lt;li&gt;should
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;her
&lt;li&gt;than
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;how
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;way
&lt;li&gt;our
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;between
&lt;li&gt;many
&lt;li&gt;those
&lt;li&gt;there
&lt;li&gt;because
&lt;li&gt;do
&lt;li&gt;three
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;such
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;where
&lt;li&gt;year
&lt;li&gt;through
&lt;li&gt;must
&lt;li&gt;still
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;know
&lt;li&gt;too
&lt;li&gt;here
&lt;li&gt;get
&lt;li&gt;own
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;more
&lt;li&gt;so
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;us
&lt;li&gt;government
&lt;li&gt;might
&lt;li&gt;same
&lt;li&gt;much
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;yes
&lt;li&gt;go
&lt;li&gt;make
&lt;li&gt;day
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;another
&lt;li&gt;world
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;work
&lt;li&gt;life
&lt;li&gt;again
&lt;li&gt;against
&lt;li&gt;think
&lt;li&gt;never
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;one
&lt;li&gt;most
&lt;li&gt;old
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;know
&lt;li&gt;something
&lt;li&gt;take
&lt;li&gt;why
&lt;li&gt;each
&lt;li&gt;while
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;on
&lt;li&gt;number
&lt;li&gt;different
&lt;li&gt;really
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;children
&lt;li&gt;always
&lt;li&gt;four
&lt;li&gt;without
&lt;li&gt;one
&lt;li&gt;within
&lt;li&gt;system
&lt;li&gt;local
&lt;li&gt;during
&lt;li&gt;most
&lt;li&gt;although
&lt;li&gt;next
&lt;li&gt;small
&lt;li&gt;case
&lt;li&gt;great
&lt;li&gt;social
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;say
&lt;li&gt;quite
&lt;li&gt;both
&lt;li&gt;group
&lt;li&gt;five
&lt;li&gt;about
&lt;li&gt;every
&lt;li&gt;party
&lt;li&gt;important
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;before
&lt;li&gt;information
&lt;li&gt;often
&lt;li&gt;money
&lt;li&gt;school
&lt;li&gt;national
&lt;li&gt;fact
&lt;li&gt;night
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;off
&lt;li&gt;thing
&lt;li&gt;think
&lt;li&gt;area
&lt;li&gt;perhaps
&lt;li&gt;company
&lt;li&gt;in
&lt;li&gt;all
&lt;li&gt;family
&lt;li&gt;hand
&lt;li&gt;already
&lt;li&gt;possible
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;nothing
&lt;li&gt;when
&lt;li&gt;home
&lt;li&gt;large
&lt;li&gt;yet
&lt;li&gt;business
&lt;li&gt;in
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;side
&lt;li&gt;whether
&lt;li&gt;week
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;give
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;want
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;almost
&lt;li&gt;country
&lt;li&gt;much
&lt;li&gt;himself
&lt;li&gt;find
&lt;li&gt;council
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;thought
&lt;li&gt;young
&lt;li&gt;room
&lt;li&gt;political
&lt;li&gt;six
&lt;li&gt;until
&lt;li&gt;get
&lt;li&gt;public
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;service
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;problem
&lt;li&gt;though
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;go
&lt;li&gt;towards
&lt;li&gt;anything
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;war
&lt;li&gt;car
&lt;li&gt;both
&lt;li&gt;police
&lt;li&gt;interest
&lt;li&gt;where
&lt;li&gt;on
&lt;li&gt;say
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;education
&lt;li&gt;ever
&lt;li&gt;best
&lt;li&gt;today
&lt;li&gt;face
&lt;li&gt;enough
&lt;li&gt;office
&lt;li&gt;door
&lt;li&gt;since
&lt;li&gt;voice
&lt;li&gt;before
&lt;li&gt;less
&lt;li&gt;form
&lt;li&gt;body
&lt;li&gt;person
&lt;li&gt;together
&lt;li&gt;when
&lt;li&gt;want
&lt;li&gt;big
&lt;li&gt;only
&lt;li&gt;name
&lt;li&gt;little
&lt;li&gt;million
&lt;li&gt;health
&lt;li&gt;law
&lt;li&gt;question
&lt;li&gt;book
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;mother
&lt;li&gt;child
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;period
&lt;li&gt;court
&lt;li&gt;main
&lt;li&gt;several
&lt;li&gt;society
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;itself
&lt;li&gt;themselves
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;away
&lt;li&gt;therefore
&lt;li&gt;woman
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;including
&lt;li&gt;help
&lt;li&gt;among
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;real
&lt;li&gt;job
&lt;li&gt;likely
&lt;li&gt;position
&lt;li&gt;process
&lt;li&gt;effect
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;far
&lt;li&gt;line
&lt;li&gt;half
&lt;li&gt;moment
&lt;li&gt;difficult
&lt;li&gt;action
&lt;li&gt;special
&lt;li&gt;particular
&lt;li&gt;international
&lt;li&gt;kind
&lt;li&gt;father
&lt;li&gt;report
&lt;li&gt;look
&lt;li&gt;age
&lt;li&gt;across
&lt;li&gt;idea
&lt;li&gt;certain
&lt;li&gt;rather
&lt;li&gt;off
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;tell
&lt;li&gt;third
&lt;li&gt;view
&lt;li&gt;morning
&lt;li&gt;else
&lt;li&gt;sense
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;behind
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;sometimes
&lt;li&gt;thus
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;better
&lt;li&gt;shall
&lt;li&gt;need
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;table
&lt;li&gt;further
&lt;li&gt;death
&lt;li&gt;industry
&lt;li&gt;ago
&lt;li&gt;century
&lt;li&gt;take
&lt;li&gt;control
&lt;li&gt;sort
&lt;li&gt;church
&lt;li&gt;yesterday
&lt;li&gt;clear
&lt;li&gt;range
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;general
&lt;li&gt;word
&lt;li&gt;work
&lt;li&gt;history
&lt;li&gt;free
&lt;li&gt;keep
&lt;li&gt;road
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;few
&lt;li&gt;make
&lt;li&gt;hundred
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;food
&lt;li&gt;study
&lt;li&gt;result
&lt;li&gt;air
&lt;li&gt;committee
&lt;li&gt;team
&lt;li&gt;experience
&lt;li&gt;change
&lt;li&gt;course
&lt;li&gt;language
&lt;li&gt;white
&lt;li&gt;someone
&lt;li&gt;everything
&lt;li&gt;mind
&lt;li&gt;home
&lt;li&gt;rate
&lt;li&gt;similar
&lt;li&gt;trade
&lt;li&gt;reason
&lt;li&gt;before
&lt;li&gt;necessary
&lt;li&gt;nature
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;central
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;early
&lt;li&gt;department
&lt;li&gt;especially
&lt;li&gt;personal
&lt;li&gt;value
&lt;li&gt;member
&lt;li&gt;around
&lt;li&gt;seven
&lt;li&gt;paper
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;eight
&lt;li&gt;true
&lt;li&gt;herself
&lt;li&gt;support
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;type
&lt;li&gt;wife
&lt;li&gt;once
&lt;li&gt;city
&lt;li&gt;former
&lt;li&gt;common
&lt;li&gt;friend
&lt;li&gt;care
&lt;li&gt;sure
&lt;li&gt;decision
&lt;li&gt;single
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;provide
&lt;li&gt;stage
&lt;li&gt;matter
&lt;li&gt;club
&lt;li&gt;practice
&lt;li&gt;private
&lt;li&gt;foreign
&lt;li&gt;god
&lt;li&gt;further
&lt;li&gt;need
&lt;li&gt;whole
&lt;li&gt;town
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;situation
&lt;li&gt;soon
&lt;li&gt;strong
&lt;li&gt;bed
&lt;li&gt;recent
&lt;li&gt;us
&lt;li&gt;girl
&lt;li&gt;according_to
&lt;li&gt;better
&lt;li&gt;quality
&lt;li&gt;either
&lt;li&gt;various
&lt;li&gt;to
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;may
&lt;li&gt;tax
&lt;li&gt;look
&lt;li&gt;away
&lt;li&gt;poor
&lt;li&gt;production
&lt;li&gt;month
&lt;li&gt;music
&lt;li&gt;anyone
&lt;li&gt;game
&lt;li&gt;royal
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;knowledge
&lt;li&gt;art
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;hair
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;bad
&lt;li&gt;bank
&lt;li&gt;since
&lt;li&gt;south
&lt;li&gt;simple
&lt;li&gt;lot
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;west
&lt;li&gt;rest
&lt;li&gt;secretary
&lt;li&gt;manager
&lt;li&gt;hospital
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;heart
&lt;li&gt;structure
&lt;li&gt;attention
&lt;li&gt;story
&lt;li&gt;means
&lt;li&gt;nine
&lt;li&gt;letter
&lt;li&gt;need
&lt;li&gt;field
&lt;li&gt;short
&lt;li&gt;become
&lt;li&gt;per
&lt;li&gt;union
&lt;li&gt;success
&lt;li&gt;figure
&lt;li&gt;everyone
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;whatever
&lt;li&gt;news
&lt;li&gt;chance
&lt;li&gt;evening
&lt;li&gt;population
&lt;li&gt;boy
&lt;li&gt;modern
&lt;li&gt;legal
&lt;li&gt;computer
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;ask
&lt;li&gt;give
&lt;li&gt;human
&lt;li&gt;off
&lt;li&gt;please
&lt;li&gt;fire
&lt;li&gt;above
&lt;li&gt;feel
&lt;li&gt;growth
&lt;li&gt;agreement
&lt;li&gt;account
&lt;li&gt;nice
&lt;li&gt;size
&lt;li&gt;son
&lt;li&gt;space
&lt;li&gt;amount
&lt;li&gt;property
&lt;li&gt;example
&lt;li&gt;myself
&lt;li&gt;nor
&lt;li&gt;meeting
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;feel
&lt;li&gt;record
&lt;li&gt;behaviour
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;only
&lt;li&gt;recently
&lt;li&gt;serious
&lt;li&gt;either
&lt;li&gt;current
&lt;li&gt;east
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;income
&lt;li&gt;leave
&lt;li&gt;building
&lt;li&gt;pressure
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;treatment
&lt;li&gt;north
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;choice
&lt;li&gt;try
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;bring
&lt;li&gt;happy
&lt;li&gt;list
&lt;li&gt;bit
&lt;li&gt;red
&lt;li&gt;loss
&lt;li&gt;industrial
&lt;li&gt;low
&lt;li&gt;floor
&lt;li&gt;activity
&lt;li&gt;nearly
&lt;li&gt;become
&lt;li&gt;other
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;sorry
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;forward
&lt;li&gt;army
&lt;li&gt;difference
&lt;li&gt;hour
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;summer
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;husband
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;understand
&lt;li&gt;contract
&lt;li&gt;product
&lt;li&gt;material
&lt;li&gt;wall
&lt;li&gt;meet
&lt;li&gt;believe
&lt;li&gt;thank
&lt;li&gt;dead
&lt;li&gt;military
&lt;li&gt;season
&lt;li&gt;look
&lt;li&gt;unit
&lt;li&gt;arms
&lt;li&gt;easy
&lt;li&gt;lower
&lt;li&gt;show
&lt;li&gt;find
&lt;li&gt;successful
&lt;li&gt;colour
&lt;li&gt;play
&lt;li&gt;yourself
&lt;li&gt;beyond
&lt;li&gt;style
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;date
&lt;li&gt;popular
&lt;li&gt;hear
&lt;li&gt;window
&lt;li&gt;science
&lt;li&gt;new
&lt;li&gt;less
&lt;li&gt;once
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;sea
&lt;li&gt;advice
&lt;li&gt;above
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;event
&lt;li&gt;thousand
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;picture
&lt;li&gt;village
&lt;li&gt;oil
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;believe
&lt;li&gt;goods
&lt;li&gt;blood
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;useful
&lt;li&gt;page
&lt;li&gt;operation
&lt;li&gt;film
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;shop
&lt;li&gt;effective
&lt;li&gt;press
&lt;li&gt;move
&lt;li&gt;hard
&lt;li&gt;degree
&lt;li&gt;around
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;capital
&lt;li&gt;means
&lt;li&gt;glass
&lt;li&gt;ready
&lt;li&gt;president
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;street
&lt;li&gt;fish
&lt;li&gt;stop
&lt;li&gt;importance
&lt;li&gt;remember
&lt;li&gt;test
&lt;li&gt;complete
&lt;li&gt;work
&lt;li&gt;until
&lt;li&gt;talk
&lt;li&gt;parliament
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;interesting
&lt;li&gt;physical
&lt;li&gt;thought
&lt;li&gt;little
&lt;li&gt;thought
&lt;li&gt;garden
&lt;li&gt;title
&lt;li&gt;start
&lt;li&gt;street
&lt;li&gt;eye
&lt;li&gt;help
&lt;li&gt;employment
&lt;li&gt;buy
&lt;li&gt;daughter
&lt;li&gt;remember
&lt;li&gt;responsible
&lt;li&gt;competition
&lt;li&gt;tell
&lt;li&gt;around
&lt;li&gt;about
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;medical
&lt;li&gt;purpose
&lt;li&gt;mouth
&lt;li&gt;piece
&lt;li&gt;wide
&lt;li&gt;heavy
&lt;li&gt;answer
&lt;li&gt;tomorrow
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;worth
&lt;li&gt;doctor
&lt;li&gt;arm
&lt;li&gt;ability
&lt;li&gt;hotel
&lt;li&gt;pattern
&lt;li&gt;method
&lt;li&gt;television
&lt;li&gt;election
&lt;li&gt;baby
&lt;li&gt;suppose
&lt;li&gt;early
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;seem
&lt;li&gt;change
&lt;li&gt;surface
&lt;li&gt;best
&lt;li&gt;future
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;machine
&lt;li&gt;lack
&lt;li&gt;hot
&lt;li&gt;peace
&lt;li&gt;charge
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;hardly
&lt;li&gt;direct
&lt;li&gt;otherwise
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;stay
&lt;li&gt;radio
&lt;li&gt;provision
&lt;li&gt;direction
&lt;li&gt;trouble
&lt;li&gt;beautiful
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;allow
&lt;li&gt;character
&lt;li&gt;variety
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;continue
&lt;li&gt;safety
&lt;li&gt;tea
&lt;li&gt;box
&lt;li&gt;below
&lt;li&gt;around
&lt;li&gt;weight
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;i
&lt;li&gt;late
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;include
&lt;li&gt;station
&lt;li&gt;since
&lt;li&gt;none
&lt;li&gt;sale
&lt;li&gt;afternoon
&lt;li&gt;produce
&lt;li&gt;king
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;miss
&lt;li&gt;live
&lt;li&gt;condition
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;try
&lt;li&gt;university
&lt;li&gt;along
&lt;li&gt;sex
&lt;li&gt;argument
&lt;li&gt;kitchen
&lt;li&gt;brother
&lt;li&gt;keep
&lt;li&gt;demand
&lt;li&gt;library
&lt;li&gt;alone
&lt;li&gt;principle
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;north
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;start
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;sun
&lt;li&gt;duty
&lt;li&gt;rule
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;presence
&lt;li&gt;truth
&lt;li&gt;dog
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;seem
&lt;li&gt;blue
&lt;li&gt;general
&lt;li&gt;exchange
&lt;li&gt;balance
&lt;li&gt;turn
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;sure
&lt;li&gt;protection
&lt;li&gt;marriage
&lt;li&gt;road
&lt;li&gt;i
&lt;li&gt;speech
&lt;li&gt;south
&lt;li&gt;born
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;effort
&lt;li&gt;attempt
&lt;li&gt;failure
&lt;li&gt;practical
&lt;li&gt;horse
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;chair
&lt;li&gt;turn
&lt;li&gt;consider
&lt;li&gt;student
&lt;li&gt;separate
&lt;li&gt;future
&lt;li&gt;accept
&lt;li&gt;memory
&lt;li&gt;regular
&lt;li&gt;little
&lt;li&gt;call
&lt;li&gt;opposition
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;edge
&lt;li&gt;image
&lt;li&gt;politics
&lt;li&gt;show
&lt;li&gt;instead
&lt;li&gt;expression
&lt;li&gt;influence
&lt;li&gt;quarter
&lt;li&gt;no_one
&lt;li&gt;association
&lt;li&gt;public
&lt;li&gt;opinion
&lt;li&gt;advantage
&lt;li&gt;late
&lt;li&gt;western
&lt;li&gt;happen
&lt;li&gt;pain
&lt;li&gt;gas
&lt;li&gt;active
&lt;li&gt;scale
&lt;li&gt;university
&lt;li&gt;early
&lt;li&gt;officer
&lt;li&gt;clothes
&lt;li&gt;plant
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;li&gt;deal
&lt;li&gt;powerful
&lt;li&gt;possibly
&lt;li&gt;where
&lt;li&gt;share
&lt;li&gt;corner
&lt;li&gt;length
&lt;li&gt;race
&lt;li&gt;telephone
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;river
&lt;li&gt;possibility
&lt;li&gt;speak
&lt;li&gt;strength
&lt;li&gt;carry
&lt;li&gt;visit
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;insurance
&lt;li&gt;ball
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;somewhere
&lt;li&gt;skin
&lt;li&gt;confidence
&lt;li&gt;develop
&lt;li&gt;wind
&lt;li&gt;whole
&lt;li&gt;message
&lt;li&gt;hold
&lt;li&gt;enough
&lt;li&gt;write
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;railway
&lt;li&gt;stone
&lt;li&gt;sexual
&lt;li&gt;thought
&lt;li&gt;network
&lt;li&gt;attack
&lt;li&gt;ordinary
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;expect
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;tonight
&lt;li&gt;actual
&lt;li&gt;cause
&lt;li&gt;whole
&lt;li&gt;fresh
&lt;li&gt;scene
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;dark
&lt;li&gt;article
&lt;li&gt;distance
&lt;li&gt;very
&lt;li&gt;include
&lt;li&gt;band
&lt;li&gt;excellent
&lt;li&gt;his
&lt;li&gt;beginning
&lt;li&gt;lead
&lt;li&gt;crime
&lt;li&gt;avoid
&lt;li&gt;traffic
&lt;li&gt;hard
&lt;li&gt;introduction
&lt;li&gt;explain
&lt;li&gt;animal
&lt;li&gt;sister
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;existence
&lt;li&gt;winter
&lt;li&gt;offer
&lt;li&gt;rich
&lt;li&gt;lady
&lt;li&gt;male
&lt;li&gt;proper
&lt;li&gt;famous
&lt;li&gt;religious
&lt;li&gt;spirit
&lt;li&gt;straight
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;formal
&lt;li&gt;sight
&lt;li&gt;move
&lt;li&gt;coffee
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;prison
&lt;li&gt;follow
&lt;li&gt;accident
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;look
&lt;li&gt;earth
&lt;li&gt;leave
&lt;li&gt;appear
&lt;li&gt;hard
&lt;li&gt;ask
&lt;li&gt;tree
&lt;li&gt;strange
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;warm
&lt;li&gt;firm
&lt;li&gt;difficulty
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;support
&lt;li&gt;ahead
&lt;li&gt;dinner
&lt;li&gt;before
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;meaning
&lt;li&gt;half
&lt;li&gt;wine
&lt;li&gt;usual
&lt;li&gt;worse
&lt;li&gt;wish
&lt;li&gt;twice
&lt;li&gt;equal
&lt;li&gt;to
&lt;li&gt;path
&lt;li&gt;northern
&lt;li&gt;reasonable
&lt;li&gt;learn
&lt;li&gt;aircraft
&lt;li&gt;background
&lt;li&gt;soft
&lt;li&gt;president
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;battle
&lt;li&gt;smile
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;seat
&lt;li&gt;play
&lt;li&gt;stand
&lt;li&gt;fourth
&lt;li&gt;safe
&lt;li&gt;suitable
&lt;li&gt;ought
&lt;li&gt;future
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;manner
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;prevent
&lt;li&gt;freedom
&lt;li&gt;human
&lt;li&gt;while
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;pair
&lt;li&gt;danger
&lt;li&gt;afraid
&lt;li&gt;feeling
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;sign
&lt;li&gt;train
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;li&gt;through
&lt;li&gt;match
&lt;li&gt;reduce
&lt;li&gt;provide
&lt;li&gt;along
&lt;li&gt;expensive
&lt;li&gt;supply
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;join
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;scientific
&lt;li&gt;football
&lt;li&gt;weather
&lt;li&gt;beside
&lt;li&gt;absence
&lt;li&gt;sentence
&lt;li&gt;damage
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;detail
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;below
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;dangerous
&lt;li&gt;minute
&lt;li&gt;college
&lt;li&gt;card
&lt;li&gt;exercise
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;by
&lt;li&gt;familiar
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;recognition
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;live
&lt;li&gt;track
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;correct
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;rain
&lt;li&gt;victory
&lt;li&gt;hall
&lt;li&gt;meeting
&lt;li&gt;silence
&lt;li&gt;offer
&lt;li&gt;though
&lt;li&gt;perfect
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;bill
&lt;li&gt;cell
&lt;li&gt;neck
&lt;li&gt;build
&lt;li&gt;conversation
&lt;li&gt;historical
&lt;li&gt;improve
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;city
&lt;li&gt;bright
&lt;li&gt;appearance
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;threat
&lt;li&gt;king
&lt;li&gt;boat
&lt;li&gt;violence
&lt;li&gt;profit
&lt;li&gt;upper
&lt;li&gt;empty
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;deal
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;feelings
&lt;li&gt;become
&lt;li&gt;organization
&lt;li&gt;leg
&lt;li&gt;dark
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;reach
&lt;li&gt;dry
&lt;li&gt;occasion
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;except
&lt;li&gt;payment
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;spend
&lt;li&gt;pleasure
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;neither
&lt;li&gt;murder
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;careful
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;remain
&lt;li&gt;literature
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;branch
&lt;li&gt;heat
&lt;li&gt;show
&lt;li&gt;faith
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;island
&lt;li&gt;wait
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;along
&lt;li&gt;eat
&lt;li&gt;attractive
&lt;li&gt;call
&lt;li&gt;breath
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;birth
&lt;li&gt;general
&lt;li&gt;description
&lt;li&gt;prove
&lt;li&gt;wood
&lt;li&gt;tend
&lt;li&gt;send
&lt;li&gt;sit
&lt;li&gt;receive
&lt;li&gt;spring
&lt;li&gt;belief
&lt;li&gt;coal
&lt;li&gt;lead
&lt;li&gt;thin
&lt;li&gt;notice
&lt;li&gt;gentleman
&lt;li&gt;west
&lt;li&gt;division
&lt;li&gt;newspaper
&lt;li&gt;copy
&lt;li&gt;far
&lt;li&gt;object
&lt;li&gt;work
&lt;li&gt;engine
&lt;li&gt;standard
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;sky
&lt;li&gt;company
&lt;li&gt;green
&lt;li&gt;beneath
&lt;li&gt;desire
&lt;li&gt;busy
&lt;li&gt;ancient
&lt;li&gt;decide
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;broad
&lt;li&gt;about
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;god
&lt;li&gt;begin
&lt;li&gt;through
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;plenty
&lt;li&gt;narrow
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;acid
&lt;li&gt;doubt
&lt;li&gt;typical
&lt;li&gt;examination
&lt;li&gt;partner
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;call
&lt;li&gt;very
&lt;li&gt;milk
&lt;li&gt;middle
&lt;li&gt;address
&lt;li&gt;lose
&lt;li&gt;reduction
&lt;li&gt;explanation
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;official
&lt;li&gt;intention
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;little
&lt;li&gt;forest
&lt;li&gt;journey
&lt;li&gt;form
&lt;li&gt;northern
&lt;li&gt;bill
&lt;li&gt;establish
&lt;li&gt;flight
&lt;li&gt;surprise
&lt;li&gt;hall
&lt;li&gt;fall
&lt;li&gt;control
&lt;li&gt;o'clock
&lt;li&gt;rare
&lt;li&gt;least
&lt;li&gt;support
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;terrible
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;metal
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;severe
&lt;li&gt;factory
&lt;li&gt;wild
&lt;li&gt;agree
&lt;li&gt;suggest
&lt;li&gt;east
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;court
&lt;li&gt;tall
&lt;li&gt;protect
&lt;li&gt;southern
&lt;li&gt;low
&lt;li&gt;worst
&lt;li&gt;afterwards
&lt;li&gt;criminal
&lt;li&gt;chief
&lt;li&gt;appear
&lt;li&gt;respect
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;ourselves
&lt;li&gt;desk
&lt;li&gt;shoulder
&lt;li&gt;break
&lt;li&gt;funny
&lt;li&gt;noise
&lt;li&gt;somehow
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;odd
&lt;li&gt;customer
&lt;li&gt;inner
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;cover
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;bridge
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;combination
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;justice
&lt;li&gt;beginning
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;lot
&lt;li&gt;add
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;green
&lt;li&gt;fashion
&lt;li&gt;temperature
&lt;li&gt;nation
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;search
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;afford
&lt;li&gt;pool
&lt;li&gt;feeling
&lt;li&gt;youth
&lt;li&gt;understand
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;patient
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;suggest
&lt;li&gt;quick
&lt;li&gt;crowd
&lt;li&gt;sport
&lt;li&gt;iron
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;nose
&lt;li&gt;meal
&lt;li&gt;cause
&lt;li&gt;ship
&lt;li&gt;alive
&lt;li&gt;female
&lt;li&gt;yours
&lt;li&gt;beauty
&lt;li&gt;pretty
&lt;li&gt;late
&lt;li&gt;angry
&lt;li&gt;building
&lt;li&gt;union
&lt;li&gt;eastern
&lt;li&gt;choose
&lt;li&gt;sheet
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;improvement
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;pick
&lt;li&gt;mine
&lt;li&gt;roof
&lt;li&gt;face
&lt;li&gt;provisions
&lt;li&gt;grass
&lt;li&gt;shock
&lt;li&gt;fruit
&lt;li&gt;gold
&lt;li&gt;draw
&lt;li&gt;anywhere
&lt;li&gt;mind
&lt;li&gt;date
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;vehicle
&lt;li&gt;spot
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;bottle
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;consider
&lt;li&gt;glad
&lt;li&gt;forget
&lt;li&gt;start
&lt;li&gt;friendly
&lt;li&gt;sum
&lt;li&gt;plastic
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;cover
&lt;li&gt;breakfast
&lt;li&gt;answer
&lt;li&gt;association
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;relative
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;imagine
&lt;li&gt;slow
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;watch
&lt;li&gt;establishment
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;song
&lt;li&gt;worry
&lt;li&gt;college
&lt;li&gt;encourage
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;passage
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;comfortable
&lt;li&gt;abroad
&lt;li&gt;obtain
&lt;li&gt;sudden
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;soil
&lt;li&gt;write
&lt;li&gt;approval
&lt;li&gt;autumn
&lt;li&gt;magazine
&lt;li&gt;standard
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;enjoy
&lt;li&gt;willing
&lt;li&gt;valuable
&lt;li&gt;division
&lt;li&gt;short
&lt;li&gt;touch
&lt;li&gt;guide
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;golden
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;firm
&lt;li&gt;add
&lt;li&gt;cat
&lt;li&gt;chest
&lt;li&gt;silent
&lt;li&gt;control
&lt;li&gt;bring
&lt;li&gt;remain
&lt;li&gt;yellow
&lt;li&gt;keen
&lt;li&gt;electricity
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;religion
&lt;li&gt;wealth
&lt;li&gt;coast
&lt;li&gt;height
&lt;li&gt;parent
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;care
&lt;li&gt;bread
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;chief
&lt;li&gt;bank
&lt;li&gt;capital
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;wages
&lt;li&gt;expect
&lt;li&gt;dress
&lt;li&gt;struggle
&lt;li&gt;border
&lt;li&gt;care
&lt;li&gt;kill
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;acceptable
&lt;li&gt;grow
&lt;li&gt;sensitive
&lt;li&gt;turn
&lt;li&gt;visit
&lt;li&gt;aside
&lt;li&gt;chain
&lt;li&gt;ring
&lt;li&gt;fall
&lt;li&gt;meat
&lt;li&gt;flow
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;sit
&lt;li&gt;agree
&lt;li&gt;fifth
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;weak
&lt;li&gt;hill
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;sharp
&lt;li&gt;pale
&lt;li&gt;figure
&lt;li&gt;furniture
&lt;li&gt;wooden
&lt;li&gt;healthy
&lt;li&gt;block
&lt;li&gt;enter
&lt;li&gt;serve
&lt;li&gt;pocket
&lt;li&gt;easy
&lt;li&gt;mistake
&lt;li&gt;request
&lt;li&gt;talk
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;restaurant
&lt;li&gt;apart
&lt;li&gt;strike
&lt;li&gt;mountain
&lt;li&gt;gun
&lt;li&gt;kingdom
&lt;li&gt;bear
&lt;li&gt;die
&lt;li&gt;inquiry
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;white
&lt;li&gt;store
&lt;li&gt;arrival
&lt;li&gt;wish
&lt;li&gt;plane
&lt;li&gt;bird
&lt;li&gt;sad
&lt;li&gt;across
&lt;li&gt;bill
&lt;li&gt;dependent
&lt;li&gt;fault
&lt;li&gt;rapid
&lt;li&gt;enemy
&lt;li&gt;pure
&lt;li&gt;taste
&lt;li&gt;queen
&lt;li&gt;daily
&lt;li&gt;catch
&lt;li&gt;need
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;comparison
&lt;li&gt;official
&lt;li&gt;matter
&lt;li&gt;coat
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;preparation
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;captain
&lt;li&gt;just
&lt;li&gt;affair
&lt;li&gt;wedding
&lt;li&gt;beer
&lt;li&gt;exciting
&lt;li&gt;hold
&lt;li&gt;clear
&lt;li&gt;arrangement
&lt;li&gt;check
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;solid
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;widespread
&lt;li&gt;share
&lt;li&gt;break
&lt;li&gt;male
&lt;li&gt;confident
&lt;li&gt;manage
&lt;li&gt;sugar
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;face
&lt;li&gt;throat
&lt;li&gt;altogether
&lt;li&gt;everywhere
&lt;li&gt;standard
&lt;li&gt;finger
&lt;li&gt;stupid
&lt;li&gt;judgment
&lt;li&gt;show
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;sleep
&lt;li&gt;sleep
&lt;li&gt;whenever
&lt;li&gt;continue
&lt;li&gt;thick
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;command
&lt;li&gt;sweet
&lt;li&gt;helpful
&lt;li&gt;mad
&lt;li&gt;flat
&lt;li&gt;shot
&lt;li&gt;permission
&lt;li&gt;hat
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;i
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;follow
&lt;li&gt;concerning
&lt;li&gt;exist
&lt;li&gt;mile
&lt;li&gt;frame
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;proud
&lt;li&gt;mixture
&lt;li&gt;birthday
&lt;li&gt;painting
&lt;li&gt;kingdom
&lt;li&gt;wave
&lt;li&gt;middle
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;anxious
&lt;li&gt;nervous
&lt;li&gt;hear
&lt;li&gt;entrance
&lt;li&gt;limit
&lt;li&gt;describe
&lt;li&gt;extreme
&lt;li&gt;profession
&lt;li&gt;queen
&lt;li&gt;conscious
&lt;li&gt;gain
&lt;li&gt;electric
&lt;li&gt;green
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;sheep
&lt;li&gt;alcohol
&lt;li&gt;holy
&lt;li&gt;prize
&lt;li&gt;lady
&lt;li&gt;neither
&lt;li&gt;worth
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;depth
&lt;li&gt;port
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;hill
&lt;li&gt;soul
&lt;li&gt;gate
&lt;li&gt;alone
&lt;li&gt;help
&lt;li&gt;mirror
&lt;li&gt;attend
&lt;li&gt;sand
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;grand
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;guidance
&lt;li&gt;adult
&lt;li&gt;employer
&lt;li&gt;prince
&lt;li&gt;examine
&lt;li&gt;honest
&lt;li&gt;moral
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;send
&lt;li&gt;middle
&lt;li&gt;carry
&lt;li&gt;snow
&lt;li&gt;introduce
&lt;li&gt;reply
&lt;li&gt;admit
&lt;li&gt;wear
&lt;li&gt;phrase
&lt;li&gt;distant
&lt;li&gt;tendency
&lt;li&gt;mind
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;gentle
&lt;li&gt;contents
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;travel
&lt;li&gt;cricket
&lt;li&gt;valley
&lt;li&gt;ear
&lt;li&gt;patient
&lt;li&gt;origin
&lt;li&gt;play
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;listen
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;smooth
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;allow
&lt;li&gt;possession
&lt;li&gt;slight
&lt;li&gt;silly
&lt;li&gt;nurse
&lt;li&gt;discovery
&lt;li&gt;childhood
&lt;li&gt;suit
&lt;li&gt;satisfaction
&lt;li&gt;mind
&lt;li&gt;listen
&lt;li&gt;flat
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;cake
&lt;li&gt;behind
&lt;li&gt;determination
&lt;li&gt;relation
&lt;li&gt;clock
&lt;li&gt;stop
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;report
&lt;li&gt;female
&lt;li&gt;violent
&lt;li&gt;false
&lt;li&gt;cheap
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;sun
&lt;li&gt;feeling
&lt;li&gt;grateful
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;young
&lt;li&gt;argue
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;sensible
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;stomach
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;meeting
&lt;li&gt;mass
&lt;li&gt;move
&lt;li&gt;buy
&lt;li&gt;wing
&lt;li&gt;chemical
&lt;li&gt;fill
&lt;li&gt;pleasant
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;poetry
&lt;li&gt;meet
&lt;li&gt;result
&lt;li&gt;knife
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;signal
&lt;li&gt;remove
&lt;li&gt;god
&lt;li&gt;string
&lt;li&gt;enjoy
&lt;li&gt;infection
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;proof
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;republic
&lt;li&gt;dirty
&lt;li&gt;castle
&lt;li&gt;minute
&lt;li&gt;bath
&lt;li&gt;imagination
&lt;li&gt;continuous
&lt;li&gt;cycle
&lt;li&gt;operate
&lt;li&gt;wait
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;watch
&lt;li&gt;universe
&lt;li&gt;king
&lt;li&gt;choose
&lt;li&gt;begin
&lt;li&gt;castle
&lt;li&gt;universal
&lt;li&gt;yard
&lt;li&gt;offer
&lt;li&gt;west
&lt;li&gt;pink
&lt;li&gt;camera
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;shirt
&lt;li&gt;wheel
&lt;li&gt;instrument
&lt;li&gt;cattle
&lt;li&gt;anxiety
&lt;li&gt;stand
&lt;li&gt;defeat
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;pull
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;live
&lt;li&gt;leather
&lt;li&gt;mention
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;sixth
&lt;li&gt;flesh
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;hold
&lt;li&gt;sick
&lt;li&gt;hers
&lt;li&gt;need
&lt;li&gt;dance
&lt;li&gt;dust
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;change
&lt;li&gt;represent
&lt;li&gt;egg
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;western
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;escape
&lt;li&gt;form
&lt;li&gt;salt
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;raw
&lt;li&gt;stream
&lt;li&gt;asleep
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;complete
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;help
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;prince
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;outer
&lt;li&gt;tail
&lt;li&gt;tennis
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;study
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;host
&lt;li&gt;grammar
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;forward
&lt;li&gt;angle
&lt;li&gt;load
&lt;li&gt;bone
&lt;li&gt;eat
&lt;li&gt;perform
&lt;li&gt;far
&lt;li&gt;joy
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;pretty
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;fun
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;receive
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;red
&lt;li&gt;contain
&lt;li&gt;machinery
&lt;li&gt;nowhere
&lt;li&gt;material
&lt;li&gt;clever
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;photograph
&lt;li&gt;frequent
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;airport
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;poem
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;depend
&lt;li&gt;quantity
&lt;li&gt;tongue
&lt;li&gt;speak
&lt;li&gt;exist
&lt;li&gt;ill
&lt;li&gt;promise
&lt;li&gt;destruction
&lt;li&gt;since
&lt;li&gt;instruction
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;lake
&lt;li&gt;rid
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;wide
&lt;li&gt;generous
&lt;li&gt;marry
&lt;li&gt;stay
&lt;li&gt;bare
&lt;li&gt;sea
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;guest
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;trousers
&lt;li&gt;grand
&lt;li&gt;lift
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;petrol
&lt;li&gt;favour
&lt;li&gt;mystery
&lt;li&gt;secret
&lt;li&gt;lesson
&lt;li&gt;spend
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;bitter
&lt;li&gt;handle
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;miss
&lt;li&gt;cigarette
&lt;li&gt;river
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;pack
&lt;li&gt;persuade
&lt;li&gt;fat
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;justice
&lt;li&gt;ill
&lt;li&gt;produce
&lt;li&gt;poet
&lt;li&gt;palace
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;lawyer
&lt;li&gt;form
&lt;li&gt;travel
&lt;li&gt;exact
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;fate
&lt;li&gt;tool
&lt;li&gt;accept
&lt;li&gt;lie
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;shot
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;satisfactory
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;palace
&lt;li&gt;substance
&lt;li&gt;urgent
&lt;li&gt;moral
&lt;li&gt;specialist
&lt;li&gt;prepare
&lt;li&gt;teach
&lt;li&gt;mine
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;contain
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;mass
&lt;li&gt;laughter
&lt;li&gt;amount
&lt;li&gt;blue
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;ticket
&lt;li&gt;notice
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;habit
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;treat
&lt;li&gt;white
&lt;li&gt;sympathy
&lt;li&gt;gold
&lt;li&gt;collect
&lt;li&gt;still
&lt;li&gt;middle
&lt;li&gt;priest
&lt;li&gt;delay
&lt;li&gt;desirable
&lt;li&gt;learn
&lt;li&gt;punishment
&lt;li&gt;finish
&lt;li&gt;prayer
&lt;li&gt;forget
&lt;li&gt;pupil
&lt;li&gt;suffer
&lt;li&gt;cotton
&lt;li&gt;alone
&lt;li&gt;mass
&lt;li&gt;firm
&lt;li&gt;talk
&lt;li&gt;report
&lt;li&gt;tower
&lt;li&gt;addition
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;attract
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;be
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;represent
&lt;li&gt;upstairs
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;imagine
&lt;li&gt;forest
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;chocolate
&lt;li&gt;secret
&lt;li&gt;knee
&lt;li&gt;adult
&lt;li&gt;steady
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;declaration
&lt;li&gt;harm
&lt;li&gt;convenient
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;silk
&lt;li&gt;dollar
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;watch
&lt;li&gt;in
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;warmth
&lt;li&gt;call
&lt;li&gt;root
&lt;li&gt;start
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;scientist
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;settle
&lt;li&gt;moon
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;earth
&lt;li&gt;cheque
&lt;li&gt;weapon
&lt;li&gt;carriage
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;butter
&lt;li&gt;farmer
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;fortune
&lt;li&gt;match
&lt;li&gt;town
&lt;li&gt;tin
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;pot
&lt;li&gt;piano
&lt;li&gt;drop
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;cloth
&lt;li&gt;drop
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;touch
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;current
&lt;li&gt;tight
&lt;li&gt;actor
&lt;li&gt;mud
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;wise
&lt;li&gt;painful
&lt;li&gt;uncle
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;bridge
&lt;li&gt;supply
&lt;li&gt;artificial
&lt;li&gt;passenger
&lt;li&gt;daily
&lt;li&gt;test
&lt;li&gt;heaven
&lt;li&gt;sign
&lt;li&gt;print
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;ring
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;invitation
&lt;li&gt;business
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;taxi
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;wood
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;concert
&lt;li&gt;blame
&lt;li&gt;hungry
&lt;li&gt;hall
&lt;li&gt;great
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;play
&lt;li&gt;die
&lt;li&gt;entertainment
&lt;li&gt;chicken
&lt;li&gt;dictionary
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;influential
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;above
&lt;li&gt;grow
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;kind
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;oxygen
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;refusal
&lt;li&gt;day
&lt;li&gt;funeral
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;defend
&lt;li&gt;face
&lt;li&gt;shame
&lt;li&gt;mouse
&lt;li&gt;grain
&lt;li&gt;decide
&lt;li&gt;backwards
&lt;li&gt;arrive
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;except
&lt;li&gt;succeed
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;deliver
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;soldier
&lt;li&gt;straight
&lt;li&gt;fun
&lt;li&gt;turn
&lt;li&gt;nasty
&lt;li&gt;creature
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;wool
&lt;li&gt;servant
&lt;li&gt;satisfy
&lt;li&gt;neighbour
&lt;li&gt;cheek
&lt;li&gt;straight
&lt;li&gt;shell
&lt;li&gt;precious
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;besides
&lt;li&gt;aunt
&lt;li&gt;dull
&lt;li&gt;delicate
&lt;li&gt;lonely
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;formerly
&lt;li&gt;fail
&lt;li&gt;enter
&lt;li&gt;serve
&lt;li&gt;lead
&lt;li&gt;father
&lt;li&gt;complaint
&lt;li&gt;talk
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;little
&lt;li&gt;muscle
&lt;li&gt;ceremony
&lt;li&gt;escape
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;captain
&lt;li&gt;test
&lt;li&gt;delight
&lt;li&gt;neat
&lt;li&gt;influence
&lt;li&gt;tropical
&lt;li&gt;sick
&lt;li&gt;cinema
&lt;li&gt;valley
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;ours
&lt;li&gt;lose
&lt;li&gt;support
&lt;li&gt;bell
&lt;li&gt;official
&lt;li&gt;fellow
&lt;li&gt;brick
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;green
&lt;li&gt;direct
&lt;li&gt;attempt
&lt;li&gt;tourist
&lt;li&gt;eastern
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;push
&lt;li&gt;pity
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;hotel
&lt;li&gt;splendid
&lt;li&gt;chemical
&lt;li&gt;stick
&lt;li&gt;chemistry
&lt;li&gt;law
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;republic
&lt;li&gt;attendance
&lt;li&gt;building
&lt;li&gt;address
&lt;li&gt;flat
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;cap
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;suit
&lt;li&gt;record
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;doorway
&lt;li&gt;arrange
&lt;li&gt;companion
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;pile
&lt;li&gt;fence
&lt;li&gt;explosion
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;share
&lt;li&gt;peaceful
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;change
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;nonsense
&lt;li&gt;develop
&lt;li&gt;destroy
&lt;li&gt;clothing
&lt;li&gt;navy
&lt;li&gt;lake
&lt;li&gt;press
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;queen
&lt;li&gt;excuse
&lt;li&gt;uncle
&lt;li&gt;loyalty
&lt;li&gt;glory
&lt;li&gt;suppose
&lt;li&gt;representative
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;recognize
&lt;li&gt;rice
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;meaning
&lt;li&gt;north
&lt;li&gt;laugh
&lt;li&gt;reward
&lt;li&gt;opposition
&lt;li&gt;stop
&lt;li&gt;check
&lt;li&gt;single
&lt;li&gt;guilt
&lt;li&gt;fierce
&lt;li&gt;shot
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;fat
&lt;li&gt;tube
&lt;li&gt;prisoner
&lt;li&gt;day
&lt;li&gt;compete
&lt;li&gt;rest
&lt;li&gt;rope
&lt;li&gt;brave
&lt;li&gt;sort
&lt;li&gt;chin
&lt;li&gt;damage
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;witness
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;regard
&lt;li&gt;fellow
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;join
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;button
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;feed
&lt;li&gt;exercise
&lt;li&gt;chief
&lt;li&gt;advise
&lt;li&gt;mother
&lt;li&gt;clay
&lt;li&gt;probability
&lt;li&gt;press
&lt;li&gt;dish
&lt;li&gt;fail
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;tie
&lt;li&gt;travel
&lt;li&gt;me
&lt;li&gt;lie
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;supper
&lt;li&gt;laugh
&lt;li&gt;check
&lt;li&gt;vary
&lt;li&gt;absent
&lt;li&gt;vary
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;naval
&lt;li&gt;mention
&lt;li&gt;clerk
&lt;li&gt;pick
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;fool
&lt;li&gt;clear
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;thick
&lt;li&gt;wisdom
&lt;li&gt;chief
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;courage
&lt;li&gt;whoever
&lt;li&gt;encouragement
&lt;li&gt;secret
&lt;li&gt;favourable
&lt;li&gt;stick
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;share
&lt;li&gt;adventure
&lt;li&gt;go
&lt;li&gt;steep
&lt;li&gt;forwards
&lt;li&gt;finish
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;cry
&lt;li&gt;shore
&lt;li&gt;account
&lt;li&gt;wish
&lt;li&gt;happen
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;eager
&lt;li&gt;seventh
&lt;li&gt;grandfather
&lt;li&gt;fall
&lt;li&gt;awkward
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;date
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;envelope
&lt;li&gt;sympathetic
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;waist
&lt;li&gt;cupboard
&lt;li&gt;sensation
&lt;li&gt;draw
&lt;li&gt;ocean
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;fall
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;faint
&lt;li&gt;cover
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;local
&lt;li&gt;suffer
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;supply
&lt;li&gt;terror
&lt;li&gt;quick
&lt;li&gt;match
&lt;li&gt;repeat
&lt;li&gt;move
&lt;li&gt;cruel
&lt;li&gt;operate
&lt;li&gt;equality
&lt;li&gt;worthy
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;collar
&lt;li&gt;refuse
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;central
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;specialist
&lt;li&gt;ugly
&lt;li&gt;grandmother
&lt;li&gt;regard
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;tight
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;grief
&lt;li&gt;intend
&lt;li&gt;sword
&lt;li&gt;conscience
&lt;li&gt;sing
&lt;li&gt;pretty
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;soup
&lt;li&gt;stranger
&lt;li&gt;station
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;trick
&lt;li&gt;popularity
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;zero
&lt;li&gt;bell
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;leave
&lt;li&gt;island
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;mysterious
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;earth
&lt;li&gt;news
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;organ
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;account
&lt;li&gt;stand
&lt;li&gt;mix
&lt;li&gt;forehead
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;loyal
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;ladder
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;pull
&lt;li&gt;nest
&lt;li&gt;gain
&lt;li&gt;evil
&lt;li&gt;worship
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;avoid
&lt;li&gt;useless
&lt;li&gt;shelter
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;tune
&lt;li&gt;explain
&lt;li&gt;aunt
&lt;li&gt;nerve
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;preserve
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;cry
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;fortunate
&lt;li&gt;south
&lt;li&gt;boot
&lt;li&gt;roll
&lt;li&gt;reach
&lt;li&gt;protective
&lt;li&gt;tobacco
&lt;li&gt;temple
&lt;li&gt;male
&lt;li&gt;attack
&lt;li&gt;this
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;shot
&lt;li&gt;eighth
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;shelf
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;li&gt;guess
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;push
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;bacteria
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;half
&lt;li&gt;reach
&lt;li&gt;officer
&lt;li&gt;stretch
&lt;li&gt;remind
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;lift
&lt;li&gt;neighbourhood
&lt;li&gt;demand
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;opponent
&lt;li&gt;citizen
&lt;li&gt;leaf
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;repair
&lt;li&gt;describe
&lt;li&gt;wear
&lt;li&gt;juice
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;noble
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;i
&lt;li&gt;curtain
&lt;li&gt;within
&lt;li&gt;rob
&lt;li&gt;reduce
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;strike
&lt;li&gt;copper
&lt;li&gt;fellow
&lt;li&gt;pause
&lt;li&gt;beginning
&lt;li&gt;remove
&lt;li&gt;orange
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;skirt
&lt;li&gt;attempt
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;probable
&lt;li&gt;daily
&lt;li&gt;fame
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;old-fashioned
&lt;li&gt;magic
&lt;li&gt;draw
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;horizon
&lt;li&gt;cover
&lt;li&gt;brush
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;general
&lt;li&gt;bunch
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;guide
&lt;li&gt;experience
&lt;li&gt;bit
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class (1)</title>
    <id>2258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21414</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:32:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

== Words occurring in more than one word class ==

:a: ''at0, zz0, unc, np0, to0, prf, dt0'';
:about: ''prp, av0, avp, avp-prp'';
:above: ''prp, av0, aj0, aj0-av0'';
:absent: ''aj0, vvb, vvi'';
:accept: ''vvi, vvb'';
:accident: ''nn1, np0'';
:according: ''vvg, cjs, cjs-prp, prp'';
:account: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:ache: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:acid: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:across: ''prp, av0'';
:act: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, unc'';
:action: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:actor: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:actress: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, vvi, nn1-np0'';
:add: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:addition: ''nn1, av0'';
:address: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:admiration: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:admire: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:admit: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:adult: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0'';
:advance: ''nn1, vvi, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0'';
:advantage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:adventure: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:adverb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:advertise: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:advertisement: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:advice: ''nn1, np0'';
:advise: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:afford: ''vvi, vvb'';
:after: ''prp, cjs-prp, cjs, av0, aj0, aj0-av0, unc'';
:afterwards: ''av0, np0'';
:age: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:agree: ''vvi, vvb'';
:agreement: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:aim: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:air: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:airforce: ''nn0, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:airport: ''nn1, np0'';
:alike: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:all: ''dt0, av0, unc'';
:allow: ''vvi, vvb'';
:alone: ''aj0-av0, aj0, av0'';
:along: ''prp, avp-prp, avp, av0'';
:alphabet: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:amount: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:amuse: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:amusement: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:amusing: ''aj0, aj0-vvg, vvg, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvg'';
:an: ''at0, unc, cjc'';
:ancient: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:and: ''cjc, unc'';
:anger: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:angle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:animal: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:ankle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:annoy: ''vvi, vvb'';
:another: ''dt0, pnx'';
:answer: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:ant: ''nn1, np0'';
:anxiety: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:anxious: ''aj0, np0'';
:any: ''dt0, av0, unc'';
:apparatus: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:appear: ''vvi, vvb'';
:apple: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn0, vvi'';
:appoint: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:approve: ''vvi, vvb'';
:arch: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvi, vvb'';
:area: ''nn1, np0'';
:argue: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:argument: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:arm: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:armour: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:arms: ''nn2, np0, nn2-vvz'';
:army: ''nn0, np0'';
:around: ''prp, avp, avp-prp, av0'';
:arrange: ''vvi, vvb'';
:arrive: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:art: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:article: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:artificial: ''aj0, np0'';
:as: ''cjs, cjs-prp, prp, av0, unc, cjc'';
:ash: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:aside: ''av0, nn1'';
:ask: ''vvi, vvb, unc'';
:association: ''nn0, nn1, np0'';
:at: ''prp, unc'';
:atom: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:attack: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:attempt: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:attend: ''vvi, vvb'';
:attendance: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:attract: ''vvi, vvb'';
:aunt: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:average: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:avoid: ''vvi, vvb'';
:awake: ''aj0, vvb, vvi'';
:away: ''avp, av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:awkward: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:baby: ''nn1, np0'';
:back: ''avp, nn1, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb, aj0, nn1-vvb, np0, unc'';
:backward: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:bad: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, nn1, av0'';
:bag: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0'';
:bake: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:balance: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:ball: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:banana: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:band: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:bank: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:bar: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, prp, np0'';
:bare: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:barrel: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:base: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0'';
:basket: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:bath: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:bathe: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:battle: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:be: ''vbi, vbb, unc'';
:beak: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:beam: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:bean: ''nn1, np0'';
:bear: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:beard: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:beat: ''vvd, vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, vvn'';
:become: ''vvi, vvn, vvb, vvd'';
:bed: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:bee: ''nn1, np0'';
:beer: ''nn1, np0'';
:before: ''prp, cjs-prp, cjs, av0'';
:beg: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, nn1, unc'';
:begin: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:beginning: ''nn1, vvg, nn1-vvg'';
:behave: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:behind: ''prp, av0, nn1'';
:belief: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:believe: ''vvb, vvi'';
:bell: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:belong: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:below: ''av0, prp'';
:belt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:bend: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:beneath: ''prp, av0'';
:berry: ''np0, nn1-np0, nn1'';
:beside: ''prp, av0'';
:besides: ''av0, prp'';
:best: ''ajs, av0, np0, ajc'';
:better: ''ajc, av0'';
:between: ''prp, av0, aj0'';
:beyond: ''prp, av0, nn1, np0'';
:bicycle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:big: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:bill: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:bind: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:bird: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:birth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:birthday: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:bit: ''nn1, vvd, vvn, av0, pni'';
:bite: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:bitter: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:black: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:blade: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:blame: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:bleed: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:bless: ''vvb, vvi'';
:blind: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:block: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:blood: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:blow: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:blue: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0, vvb'';
:board: ''nn1, nn0, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:boat: ''nn1, np0'';
:body: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:boil: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:bomb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:bone: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:book: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:boot: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:border: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:born: ''vvn, aj0-vvn, aj0'';
:borrow: ''vvi, vvb'';
:both: ''dt0, av0'';
:bottle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:bottom: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:bowl: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:box: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:boy: ''nn1, itj, np0'';
:brain: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb, aj0'';
:branch: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:brass: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb, vvi'';
:brave: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1'';
:bread: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:breadth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:break: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:breakfast: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:breast: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:breath: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:breathe: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:breed: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:brick: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:bridge: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:bright: ''aj0, nn1, np0'';
:bring: ''vvi, vvb'';
:broad: ''aj0, np0'';
:broadcast: ''nn1, vvn, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:brother: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:brown: ''np0, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0, vvi'';
:brush: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:build: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:building: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg, nn1-np0, np0'';
:bullet: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:bunch: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0'';
:burn: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:burst: ''vvd, nn1, vvd-vvn, vvi, vvn, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvb, aj0-vvn, aj0-vvd'';
:bury: ''np0, vvi, vvb'';
:bus: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, unc, vvb'';
:bush: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:business: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0, nn2'';
:busy: ''aj0, vvb, vvi'';
:but: ''cjc, av0, cjs, prp, cjs-prp'';
:butter: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:button: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:buy: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:by: ''prp, avp-prp, avp, av0'';
:cage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:calculate: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:calculator: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:call: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:calm: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:camera: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:camp: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:can: ''vm0, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, unc, vvi'';
:cap: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, unc'';
:capital: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:captain: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:car: ''nn1, np0, unc'';
:card: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:cardboard: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:care: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:careless: ''aj0, np0'';
:carry: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:cart: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:case: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, cjs'';
:castle: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:cat: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:catch: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:cause: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, cjs'';
:cement: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:cent: ''nn1, nn0'';
:center: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:central: ''aj0, np0'';
:century: ''nn1, np0'';
:ceremony: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:chain: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:chair: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:chairperson: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:chalk: ''nn1, np0'';
:chance: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, aj0-nn1, vvb'';
:change: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:charge: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:charm: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:chase: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:cheap: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, av0'';
:cheat: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:check: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:cheek: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:cheer: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:cheerful: ''aj0, np0'';
:cheese: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, aj0, nn0, aj0-nn1'';
:chemical: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, np0'';
:chemistry: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:chicken: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb'';
:chief: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:child: ''nn1, np0'';
:children: ''nn2, np0'';
:chimney: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, aj0-nn1'';
:chin: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:chocolate: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:choice: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:choose: ''vvi, vvb'';
:church: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:cigarette: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:cinema: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:circle: ''nn1, nn0, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:circular: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1, np0'';
:citizen: ''nn1, np0'';
:city: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:civilization: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:claim: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:class: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, vvi, nn2'';
:clay: ''nn1, np0'';
:clean: ''aj0, vvi, aj0-av0, vvb, av0, aj0-nn1'';
:clear: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1'';
:clerk: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:cliff: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:climb: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:clock: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:clockwork: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:close: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0, vvi, vvb, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:cloth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:clothes: ''nn2, nn2-vvz'';
:clothing: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg'';
:cloud: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:club: ''nn0, np0, vvb, nn1'';
:coal: ''nn1, np0'';
:coast: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:coat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:coffee: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:coin: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:cold: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0-av0, np0, av0'';
:collar: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0'';
:collect: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:college: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:colour: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:comb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, nn1-np0'';
:combine: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:come: ''vvi, vvb, vvn, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvd'';
:comfort: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:comfortable: ''aj0, np0'';
:command: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:committee: ''nn0, np0'';
:common: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:company: ''nn1, nn0, np0'';
:compare: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:compete: ''vvi, vvb'';
:complain: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:complaint: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:complete: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:compound: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:computer: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:concern: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:concerning: ''prp, vvg'';
:condition: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:confuse: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:connect: ''vvi, vvb'';
:conscious: ''aj0, np0'';
:consider: ''vvi, vvb'';
:consist: ''vvi, vvb'';
:consonant: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0'';
:contain: ''vvi, vvb'';
:contents: ''nn2, nn2-vvz, vvz'';
:continue: ''vvi, vvb'';
:contract: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:control: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:cook: ''vvi, np0, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, nn0'';
:cool: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb, av0, nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:copper: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:copy: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:cord: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:corn: ''nn1, np0'';
:corner: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:correct: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:cost: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvn, vvd, vvd-vvn'';
:cotton: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:cough: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:council: ''nn0, np0'';
:count: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:country: ''nn1, np0'';
:courage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:course: ''nn1, av0, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:court: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:cover: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:cow: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:coward: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:crack: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, vvb, aj0'';
:crash: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:cream: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:creature: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:creep: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:cricket: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:crime: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:criminal: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:crop: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:cross: ''nn1, np0, vvi, vvb, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, aj0, prp'';
:crowd: ''nn0, vvb, vvi'';
:crush: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:cry: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:cultivate: ''vvi, vvb'';
:cup: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, nn0, vvi'';
:cupboard: ''nn1, nn0, nn1-np0'';
:cure: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:curl: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:current: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:curse: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:curtain: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:curve: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0'';
:custom: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:customer: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:cut: ''vvn, vvi, vvd, nn1, vvd-vvn, vvb, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-vvn, aj0'';
:cycle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:daily: ''aj0, np0, av0, aj0-av0'';
:damage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:dance: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:dangerous: ''aj0, np0'';
:dare: ''vm0, vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:daring: ''vvg, aj0-vvg, nn1-vvg, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1, np0'';
:dark: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:date: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:day: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:dead: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0'';
:deal: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, pni'';
:dear: ''itj, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0-av0, np0, av0'';
:death: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:debt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:decay: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:deceit: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:deceive: ''vvi, vvb'';
:decide: ''vvi, vvb'';
:decimal: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:decision: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:declaration: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:declare: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:decorate: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, aj0'';
:decoration: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:decrease: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:deep: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:deer: ''nn0, np0'';
:defeat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:defend: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:degree: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:delay: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:delight: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:deliver: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:demand: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:department: ''nn0, np0'';
:depend: ''vvi, vvb'';
:dependent: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:depth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:descend: ''vvi, vvb'';
:describe: ''vvi, vvb'';
:descriptive: ''aj0, np0'';
:desert: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:deserve: ''vvb, vvi'';
:desire: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:destroy: ''vvi, vvb'';
:destruction: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:detail: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:determined: ''vvn, aj0-vvn, aj0, aj0-vvd, vvd, vvd-vvn'';
:develop: ''vvi, vvb'';
:devil: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:diamond: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:die: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, unc'';
:dig: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, unc, np0'';
:dip: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:direct: ''aj0, aj0-av0, vvi, vvb, av0'';
:dirt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:dirty: ''aj0, vvb, aj0-av0, vvi'';
:disappoint: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:discourage: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:discover: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:discovery: ''nn1, np0'';
:dish: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:dismiss: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:distance: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0'';
:distant: ''aj0, np0'';
:ditch: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:divide: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:division: ''nn0, nn1, np0'';
:do: ''vdb, vdi, unc, nn1'';
:doctor: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:dog: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:dot: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:double: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, av0, aj0-av0, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:doubt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, av0'';
:down: ''avp, avp-prp, prp, np0, aj0, nn1, aj0-nn1, vvb'';
:drag: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:draw: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:dream: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:dress: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:drink: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:drive: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:drop: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:drown: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:drug: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:drum: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:drunk: ''aj0-vvn, aj0, vvn, aj0-nn1, aj0-vvd, vvd, vvd-vvn'';
:dry: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:duck: ''nn0, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:dull: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:dust: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:each: ''dt0, av0'';
:ear: ''nn1, unc'';
:early: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:earn: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:earth: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:east: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:eastern: ''aj0, np0'';
:easy: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:eat: ''vvi, vvb'';
:edge: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:educate: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:education: ''nn1, np0'';
:effect: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:egg: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:eight: ''crd, unc'';
:either: ''av0, dt0'';
:elastic: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:elect: ''vvi, vvb, nn0, aj0'';
:election: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:electric: ''aj0, np0'';
:electricity: ''nn1, np0'';
:elephant: ''nn1, np0'';
:employ: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:employer: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:employment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:empty: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:enclose: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:enclosure: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:encourage: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:encouragement: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:end: ''nn1, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:engine: ''nn1, np0'';
:engineer: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:enjoy: ''vvi, vvb'';
:enjoyment: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:enough: ''av0, dt0'';
:enter: ''vvi, vvb'';
:entertain: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:entertainment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:entrance: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0'';
:equal: ''aj0, vvi, aj0-nn1, vvb'';
:equality: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:escape: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:especially: ''av0, np0'';
:establish: ''vvi, vvb'';
:even: ''av0, aj0-av0, nn1, aj0-nn1, np0, aj0, unc'';
:evening: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvg'';
:ever: ''av0, unc'';
:every: ''at0, unc'';
:evil: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1'';
:exact: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:examine: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0'';
:example: ''nn1, av0'';
:except: ''cjs, cjs-prp, prp'';
:exchange: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:excite: ''vvi, vvb'';
:excited: ''aj0, aj0-vvn, vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd, aj0-vvd'';
:exciting: ''aj0, aj0-vvg'';
:excuse: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:exercise: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:exist: ''vvi, vvb'';
:expect: ''vvi, vvb'';
:expensive: ''aj0, np0'';
:experience: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:explain: ''vvi, vvb'';
:explode: ''vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1'';
:explosion: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:explosive: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:express: ''vvi, np0, aj0, vvb, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-vvb, av0, aj0-av0'';
:expression: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:extreme: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:eye: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:face: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:factory: ''nn1, np0'';
:fail: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:faint: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1, vvb'';
:fair: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, av0, nn1, np0'';
:faith: ''nn1, np0'';
:faithful: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:fall: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:false: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:familiar: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:family: ''nn0, np0'';
:famous: ''aj0, np0'';
:fancy: ''vvb, aj0, vvi, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:far: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0, np0, unc'';
:farm: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:farmer: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:farmyard: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:fashion: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:fashionable: ''aj0, np0'';
:fast: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1'';
:fasten: ''vvi, vvb'';
:fat: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1'';
:father: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:fault: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:favorite: ''nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:favour: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:fear: ''nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0'';
:feather: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb'';
:feed: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:feel: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:feeling: ''nn1, vvg, nn1-vvg'';
:fellow: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:female: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:fence: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:fever: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0, vvi'';
:field: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:fight: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:figure: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:fill: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Carune</title>
    <id>2259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-14T21:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">How are /ke/ /ki/ /ge/ and /gi/ represented? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 19:35, 2 May 2006 (PDT)
:/ke ki/ are not represented (they don't occur). /ge gi/ would be &lt;gue gui&gt;. — [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] 11:51, 13 May 2006 (PDT)
::What about in loan-words?  Surely there must be a few borrowings with /ke/ and /ki/ in them? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 19:35, 13 May 2006 (PDT)
:::In such cases, the spelling would probably use whatever letters the foreign word had. Give me a minute...and another...ah. Probably &lt;ch&gt; would be used. Now that I think about it, &lt;gh&gt; would probably be used with /ge gi/ as well. Surrounded as it is by Italian, and with Mònzo near Milane, some borrowings were bound to slip in. Thanks for making me think. I'll add them to my list now. — [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] 14:58, 14 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Defining Vocabulary</title>
    <id>2260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-03T17:27:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Lexica]]

Word lists that may help in the creation of vocabulary for a conlang.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khombu</title>
    <id>2261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-13T22:04:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Khombu
|pronounce=/k_ho+mbu/
|tu=[[Alternate Earth]], modern era
|species=Human
|in=[[Khombu (nation)|Khombu]]
|no=10 million
|script=Futozi-Khombu Script
|tree=Khombic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Eastern Khombic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Nambonta-Angondic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Nambonta [[Khombu]]'''
|morph=Isolating
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=VSO
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=February 2005}}
[[Khombu]] was created by [[User:Sectori|Sectori]] over his spring vacation in March 2006. It is spoken in the nation of [[Khombu_nation|Khombu]] and is part of his [[Alternate Earth]] conworld.

==Phonetics==
Khombu is a phonetically simple language. It contains six plosives, six aspirates, three nasals, one fricative, three vowels, and five clicks. Clicks can appear as individual words or incorporated into many words

*Plosives: /p t k b d g/ p t k b d g
*Aspirates: /p_h t_h k_h b_h d_h g_h/ ph th kh bh dh gh
*Nasals: /m n N/ m n ng
*Fricative: /h/ h
*Vowels: /a o u/ a o u
*Clicks: /!\ I\ \I\ O\/ kx tx gx px

A word is as follows: (N)(P)(V)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(V)(C)

Broken down:
Initial Syllable: (N)(P)V(C)
Medial/Final Syllable(s): (C)V(C)

A word must have at least one medial syllable. A two syllable word may have an intial and final syllable, or a medial and final syllable. A three syllable word must have an initial, medial, and final syllable, etc. The only disallowed consonant clusters are those that combine a voiced plosive with an unvoiced plosive, and/or have an aspirate precede a plosive.

==Beginning Grammar==
Khombu is a grammatically basic language. There is no concept of tense, only of time (Yesterday I run=I ran). Generic words such as yesterday and tomorrow describe past and future tenses, while words like always form the habitual.

Sentences in Khombu are VSO, with the direct object always preceding the indirect object.

*Here is an example sentences:
*''Phamku thu-px-ang kx a-tx-tu tx.''

*Let's break this down:
*Phamku tu-px-ang is the verb phrase. Phamku is an adverb meaning tonight, and tu-px-ang means &quot;to give&quot;.
*Kx and tx are pronouns. Kx is the first person pronoun, and tx is the second person pronoun. Since they have no modifiers, we can leave them as they are, but note the word between them. Since tx is at the end of the sentence it is the indirect object, so &quot;to you&quot;.
*A-tx-tu means &quot;deer&quot;. Since it comes between the subject and indirect object, it must be the direct object.
*So, the whole sentence means &quot;tonight I will give deer to you&quot;, or the less awkward &quot;tonight I will give you deer&quot;.

*Here's another one:
*Nam tx-ap kx tx.
*Nam tx-ap is the verb phrase. Nam means &quot;not&quot;. Tx-ap means &quot;to understand&quot;. You already know what kx and tx mean. So, the whole sentence means &quot;I don't understand you&quot;.

==Text==
Px-o ongu mantan gha tx, khang [[Futozi]] bha ntombu tua px am-px-aka ta nambuo. Angkhap px o khopa bha haopa tua px khopu tha-nga-na nambuo: English, Spanish, French, [[Carune]], Swahili, Zulu, German, Afrikaans, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Cantonese, Dutch, Swedish, Norweigian, Italian, Finnish, Xhosa, Sesotho, Wolof, Arabic, Polish, Turkish, Czech, Romanian, Common South Slavic, Russian, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Thai, Vietnamese, Mongolian, Dinka, Tagalog, Javanese, Maori, Hawaiian, Quechua, Hebrew, Portuguese, Lakhota, Cherokee, Inuktitut, Welsh, Irish, Scottish, Sanskrit, Gothic, Old English, Latin, Classical Greek, Proto-Indo-European, Coptic, Middle Chinese, Akkadian, Amharic, Hittite, Esperanto, Interlingua, Ido, Quenya, Sindarin, Klingon, Anas, Verdurian, Cervenian, [['Ukana'akau]], Saonian, Qatama, [[Inote]], Ttithue, Melannya, Fhey, Kxilt, Astian, Futozi Creole, [[Khombu]]. Ut bha px gha noph, nop bha hopha akh hopa. Akh angkompu tua px, kat-tx-a bha ntombu tua Futozi ampo nan puatha akh mogu tua gha px tua gha nambuo mba khapao ngko gha px.

==Links==
*[[Khombu lexicon]]
*[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]'s page

[[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khombu lexicon</title>
    <id>2262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-07T01:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;center&gt;
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#Bh|Bh]] - [[#D|D]] - [[#D|Dh]] - [[#G|G]] - [[#Gh|Gh]] - [[#H|H]] - [[#K|K]] - [[#Kh|Kh]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#Ng|Ng]] - [[#O|O]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#Ph|Ph]] - [[#T|T]] - [[#Th|Th]] - [[#U|U]] - [[#Gx|Gx]] - [[#Kx|Kx]] - [[#Px|Px]] - [[#Tx|Tx]]
&lt;/center&gt;
==A==
*a: one
*akh: [in order] to
*akh hopa: [in order] to learn
*akh otkha: at least
*aku: day
*ampo: famous
*am-px-aka: to speak
*angkhompu: reason
*angkhop: to signify, to mean
*a-tx-tu: n., deer
*a-gx-kham-tx-a: bread

==B==
*ba: none

==Bh==
*bha: all

==D==
*da: some

==Dh==
*dha: question marker (end of sentence)

==G==
*ga: a few

==Gh==
*gha: many

==H==
*ha: six
*haopa: school
*hopha: student
*huta-tx: fish
*Hutou: Futozi (nation)
*hutum: to swim

==K==
*ka: two
*kat-txa: to be
*ka-gx: to eat

==Kh==
*kha: seven
*khang: to require
*khapao: skill
*kha-tx: to hunt
*kho: to
*khopa: to learn
*khopu: to teach

==M==
*maku: morning
*mantan: to know
*mba: and
*mbanda: to come
*mogu: love (n.)
*mpondu: to see
*mponta: to visit

==N==
*na: five
*nam: adv., not
*nambuo: language
*nan puatha: world-wide
*nta-tx: bird
*ntombu: person
*ntum: to fly
*nop: to choose
*noph: choice

==Ng==
*nga: ten
*ngko: in

==O==
*o: that, relative pronoun
*-obu: possessive suffix
*ongu: sunjunctive particle (may)

==P==
*pa: three

==Ph==
*pha: nine
*phamku: adv., tonight
*phaku: tomorrow morning
*phu: next
*phuku: tomorrow

==T==
*ta: three
*tua: of
*tum: to run
*tu-px-ang: v. tr., give

==Th==
*tha: eight
*thamku: last night
*tha-nga-a: 81 (8-10-1)
*tho: last (as in &quot;last night&quot;)
*thoku: yesterday
*thomaku: this morning
*thum: good, well
*thumbanda: welcome
*thu-px-ang: to give

==U==
*ubatunga: website
*ut: with

==Kx==
*kx: prn., 1P

==Gx==
*gx-amba: to farm
*gx-am-tx-a: grain

==Px==
*px-o: as

==Tx==
*tx: prn., 2P
*tx-ap: v. tr., understand</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Khombu</title>
    <id>2263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8816</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-05T02:45:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Clicks'' in an otherwise phonetically simple language? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 19:45, 4 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Religions</title>
    <id>2264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-05T03:10:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nrastaism</title>
    <id>2265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33070</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-17T21:02:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Moral Beliefs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nrastaism''' ([[Classical Kasshian]]: ''Wanrastakan'') was the major religion of the [[Kasshi Empire]].  It is named after the founder, [[Chinrasta]] (which simply means &quot;The Prophetess).

== Doctrines ==
Nrastaism is, at least nominally, a monotheistic faith.  Nrastaists believe in a single Goddess (Chidzilau), but believe that her first creations, the Divinities (''soddzilaukani'' - literally &quot;Children of Goddess&quot;) are the ones who run the world.  In orthodox Nrastaism, they are worshipped as a collective, the Divine Council (''Wafchezzhilaukan''), but many sects have taken to worshipping individual Divinities, evolving into a polytheistic faith.

=== Eschatology ===
The world is threatened with destruction at the hands of Goddess, unless the original beauty and joy can be restored.  To this end, all the world must be converted.

=== Afterlife ===
Nrastaists believe in a form of reincarnation.  The soul, they believe, consists of two halves.  Upon death, the halves separate, and are reincarnated separately, finding other halves, to form a new soul in a new body.  The soul is short-lived outside of a body, dying after 6 days if it is not reincarnated.  It is therefore imperative to cremate the body immediately after death, to aid the soul's attempt to leave the prison of the corpse.  A particularly righteous individual may achieve Preservation, by which the Divine Council clothes them in an immortal body, and gives them a place among them.

=== Moral Beliefs ===
Nrastaism contains a number of laws, detailed in several books written by Chinrasta.  The laws are found in her First Revelation, Second Revelation, Account of the Divine Laws, and the Final Revelation.  Only the books written by Chinrasta herself are held valid by all sects.  Many sects have further books, written by later teachers and prophets, as well as a body of interpretation of laws.

Some of the universally-held laws are
*No flying creature shall be harmed
*No worship of false gods (as mentioned above, some sects are polytheistic, with no effective distinction between the Divinities and the gods of other religions)
*No two-legged animal can be eaten (some sects claim the text actually reads &quot;No animal that breathes air&quot;, thus including all land animals in the taboo)

=== Creation Story ===
''As found in the Book of the First Revelation''

In the beginning, Goddess was alone in the Void.  She sought companionship, and so created beings like herself, but of lesser majesty, known as the Divinities.  The Divinities failed to satisfy her, and so she left them, wandering off into the Void.  There, she created another group of Divinities, but they also failed to satisfy her, and so she wandered the Void, creating one group after another of Divinities.  And so, the Void was filled with groups of Divinities.

At last, Goddess despaired of ever creating beings able to satisfy her profound loneliness.  She returned to her earlier creations.  &quot;Create!&quot; She commanded them.  &quot;What shall we create?&quot; they asked her, in awe that their Creator had returned.  &quot;Create something pleasing&quot;  The Divinities did not know how to interpret this command, and each had her own idea.  &quot;But, how shall we create?&quot; they asked her.  &quot;I shall give unto you a piece of myself, a spark of power.&quot; And so, from her being appeared two great lights, which were called Suns.  The Divinities drew power from one of the two, and with that power, they each created something different.  One created ice, another water, still another created rocks, and a fourth created air, another created fire, and still another created metal.  Goddess saw this, and was entertained.  &quot;Give order to your creations!&quot; she commanded again, for at this time, everything was in a jumble.  They worked together, and sometimes against each other, but gradually a world of beauty appeared.  Yet, this world was too static.  Once it had been shaped, it remained unchanging.  Still, Goddess enjoyed the beauty.  &quot;Continue creating&quot; she commanded them.  &quot;Create, ever improving your creation.  I shall return to judge you&quot;  She returned to the Void, and visited other Divinities, giving them similar commands.  And so, one after another, the Void was illuminated by countless suns, but so remote were they from each other, that each saw the others as mere points of lights, which they named Stars.

The Divinities, meanwhile, began creating an ever more subtle world, carving great mountains, deep valleys, wide oceans, and broad rivers.  But, the world failed to satisfy them.  At last, the greatest of them, the Chief Divinity (''Chidzilaukanjezh'' - literally Leader of the Children of Goddess), proposed creating things that would change, things that would reshape their own world.  Their first creations were the plants, which clothed the land, growing and dying.  But, soon the world was filled with dead plants, and this was not good.  So, small animals were created to eat the plants, and it was good.  But, these creatures grew in numbers, filling the world, and so more animals were created to eat them.  And so, one after another, the world was populated by animals of all different kinds.  And the Divinities continued creating new plants, adding further beauty, and seeking ways to feed new animals.  At last, a world of surpassing beauty, filled with great wonders and countless variety of life, was formed.  And Goddess was very pleased when she returned.  She continued touring the Void, looking at all the different works of art her creations had created.

But, at last, the Divinities too felt the need for companionship.  They'd run out of ideas for new wonders.

&quot;Let us create beings like ourselves, to create new things, for our pleasure&quot; Suggested one of the Divinities.

&quot;This is blasphemy&quot; spoke another, &quot;None but Goddess herself may create thinking beings&quot;  There were many who agreed with her, but more who disagreed.  The Chief Divinity herself opposed her, and so, the Divinities decided to create beings like themselves.  They created a small village of people, and commanded their creations to create, to shape the world, and change it.  These people died after six days, however.  They tried again, and again they failed.  Their powers were limited, and they could not create beings entirely like themselves.  At last, they discovered that if they put the beings in a physical body, they could live.  But, a body is itself short-lived, and so, they ordained that the people could create more people, and that these new people could provide homes for souls who had lost their bodies.

The one who had opposed their creation sought to destroy them.  She, and those who followed her, rebelled against the Divine Council.  They were exiled from the Council, and cast down into the world.  They became the Exiled Ones (''sonnaakusuni'').  The Exiled Ones sowed hatred, fear, greed, avarice, willfull ignorance, disease, and other curses, among the people.  They were, themselves, jealous of the people's ability to fly through the air, for at that time people could still fly, and so they struck them down, cursing them to spend their days on the ground.

The Exiled Ones began to spread lies among the people, turning them against the Divinities, by false claims of godhood.  They became split among themselves, with some continuing to pursue the destruction of people, and others seeking to use people against the Divinities.  The Exiled Ones fought amongst themselves, and their fights involved their enslaved peoples.

And so the world fell from its original state of beauty and joy.

Goddess returned, and was horrified.  &quot;This abomination must be destroyed!&quot; She exclaimed, but the Divinities sought to appease her, promising to restore it to beauty, if she'd only withhold her wrath.  &quot;Very well.  I shall leave now.  When I return, if you have not restored this world to its original beauty, I shall destroy it.&quot;

Goddess left again, and the Divine Council met, to figure out a solution.  It was decided that it was time for the Divinities themselves to intervene in the affairs of people, to reveal the truth, and break the slavery of the Exiled Ones' lies.

And so, a messenger was sent to me.  She commanded me to write down all her words, and to go forth and share the Truth with all peoples.


[[Category:Nrastaism|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Laughing Mystics</title>
    <id>2266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Laughing Mystics''' are a religious group found on [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]].  They originated in [[Kalpan]], during the Sixth Dynasty.

The Laughing Mystics reject the notion that life has any higher meaning, or that people have any special role in the gods' plans.  Their texts state that people were an accident, and that the gods were surprised to discover humanity.

The secret to eternal bliss, they believe, is to realize that nothing matters.  Only when one lets go of the delusion that this world matters can one escape the suffering of this world.  ''The only genuine Truth in this world is that the world is absurd'', their founder, the First Enlightened One, proclaimed in her teaching.  Their belief in the fundamental absurdity and pointlessness of the world is the source of their common name, as they tend to laugh at piety and theology, as well as at such thing as politics.  ''The ultimate devotion to the absolute absurd'' they call such activities.

They also use logical arguments against theology and religion.  They have few doctrines, and even fewer dogmas.  They generally hold to some form of reincarnation, but believe that the full truth is beyond the understanding of any mortal.

In terms of morality, they again have no absolute laws.  Instead, they believe that one should seek to minimize suffering in the world.  That ones goal should be to avoid causing pain, and, beyond that, to seek to eliminate it.  They therefore work towards charitable goals, and believe that differences based on class, race, sex, religion, etc., are all artificial, and harmful.  Their ideal is an egalitarian culture.

The Laughing Mystics are frequently persecuted due to their egalitarianism, and their irreverance towards religion.

[[Category:Galhafan Religions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Sanle</title>
    <id>2267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31751</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-26T20:59:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Classical Sanle''' was an early form of the [[Sanle (language)|Sanle language]], spoken during the Sanle's first great expansion.  It was descended from [[Proto-Sanle]].

== Phonology ==
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Stops || p || b || || || || || t || d || || || || || k || g || q
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || f || v || th || dh || s || z || sh || zh || || || kh || gh || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Affricates || || || || || || || tlh
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || || || || || || || r || || || || y
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || l
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || i || || || || || || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || e || || || || || || || o ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || a
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Vowels may be long, in which case they're marked with an acute, as á í ú é ó.  Stress is normally on the first syllable of a word.  In cases of irregular stress, the grave (or circumflex for long vowels) is used to indicate the stress.

=== Syllables ===
Classical Sanle tended towards monosyllabic words, with a few disyllabic, and even fewer trisyllabic, words, permitting a modest range of consonant clusters, but no vowel sequences.

Syllables could begin with:
*A vowel
*Any consonant
*A stop followed by any consonant (including another stop)
*A nasal followed by anything except another nasal
*A fricative followed by any other consonant (same voicing for stops and fricatives)
*L followed by r or y
Syllables could end with:
*A vowel
*Any consonant
*A nasal followed by a homorganic stop or a fricative
*A fricative followed by a stop (same voicing)
*An l or r followed by a stop, fricative, or nasal
*rl

In intervocalic consonant-clusters, the first consonant is always syllabified with the preceding vowel (e.g., ''ákhmosht'', &quot;visit&quot; is syllabified ''ákh-mosht'' rather than ''á-khmosht'')

== Grammar ==
Sanle was an isolating language.  Normal word order was subject-object-verb, modifiers preceding their head, with postpositions.  Serial verbs and classifiers were also frequently used.

[[Category:Galhafan languages]]
[[Category:Sanle]]
[[Category:Conlangs|Sanle, Classical]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinikan</title>
    <id>2268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40266</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-28T08:04:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chinikan''', also known as the Mad [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]] or the Demon Empress, was the last Empress of the [[Second Kasshi Empire]].  At one time, it was commonly believed by [[Nrastaism|Nrastaists]] that she was not a person at all, but rather, a demon in human form.  She reigned for nearly 20 years, until, at last, she provoked a rebellion from the army.  She disappeared  shortly before the army captured her palace.  Her ultimate fate remains a mystery to this day.  Some believe that she escaped, going into hiding.  Others believe that she was killed, but she'd been in disguise as a noble, and her body went unrecognized.

Nrastaist priests said that she simply returned to her true, demonic, form.

After her overthrow, the Empire was thrown into civil war, falling into dozens of factions in the Wars of the Collapse.  After a nearly three-dozen-year period of warfare, several small states took shape in the former Empire, and the Nrastaist faith fell from power, nearly dying out.

== Early Reign ==
Chinikan seized power after a succession disupte following ???'s death.  She proclaimed herself Empress, and threatened her rivals with assassination.  She proved a far more powerful empress than most, ignoring the advice of the [[Imperial Family Council]], and ruling as an autocrat.

Five years into her reign, she pressured the [[Supreme Matriarch]] into naming her as a priestess, and, upon the opening of a vacancy in the [[Council of Twelve]], she forced herself to be named to the vacancy.  And, when the High Priestess died three years later, she proclaimed ''herself'' to be Supreme Matriarch, reuniting the positions of Empress and High Priestess for the first time since [[Chalanya]] established the Second Kasshi Empire.

In her dual role as Empress and High Priestess, she ignored the advice of her Councils.  She ordered the persecution of heresies and other faiths, ending a period of tolerance that had begun with [[Chila]] the Great.  In addition, one by one, she had the members of the Imperial Family killed, and refused to fill vacancies in the Council of Twelve.

Her reign became increasingly tyrannical.  In fear of magic, she forbade any image to be made of herself.  She ordered the deaths of all who could make a claim on the Imperial Throne.  A few distant relatives fled the Empire, but most were massacred.

On the twelfth anniversary of her coronation, she proclaimed the abolition of the Imperial Family Council and the Council of Twelve, and began the construction of [[Chinikan's Palace|a new palace]].  She also ordered the creation of an elite Sacred Guard to defend herself, and to search out signs of heresy.  Separatist movements were brutally crushed, and, in the 16th year of her reign, she proclaimed that the learned classes were to abandon all languages save [[Classical Kasshian]].

By the 18th year of her reign, her madness reached a peak.  She proclaimed herself a goddess of [[Nikanism|a new faith]], abruptly turning [[Nrastaism]] into a &quot;false religion&quot;.  Surrounded by her fanatical Sacred Guard, she was insulated from the outrage of her people and the Nrastaist leadership.  She proclaimed that her sacred mission was to unite the world, and to that end, she ordered invasions of nearby nations.

This proved her downfall, as the bulk of the army finally rebelled.  A two-year civil war ensued, which eventually ended when the main army defeated the Sacred Guard, and stormed Chinikan's Palace.  Chinikan herself was nowhere to be found.

After her deposal, several distant relatives claimed to be the legitimate heir, while many non-Kasshi regions proclaimed independence.  A series of bloody wars ensued, resulting in the complete destruction of the Second Kasshi Empire.  Eventually, a loose federation came about in the heart of the Second Empire, which is often referred to by historians as the [[Third Kasshi Empire]], although at the time, it was considered a restoration of the Second Empire.

[[Category:Empresses of the Second Kasshi Empire]]
[[Category:Nrastaist Supreme Matriarchs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Star3.gif</title>
    <id>2269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-09T15:28:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Accents</title>
    <id>2270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27071</id>
      <timestamp>2007-11-28T08:21:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__TOC__
= A not so brief explanation of my use of accent marks =

Since the use of accent marks in some of my conlangs{{ref|1}}&amp;nbsp; may be a bit original some explanation of it may be in order.  Basically it employs the three most common [[Wikipedia:Diacritic|accent marks]], the [[Wikipedia:acute accent|acute]] (&amp;nbsp;{{Big|ˊ}}&amp;nbsp;), the [[Wikipedia:Grave accent|grave]] (&amp;nbsp;{{Big|ˋ}}&amp;nbsp;) and the [[Wikipedia:circumflex|circumflex]] (&amp;nbsp;{{Big|ˆ}}&amp;nbsp;) according to the following pattern (exemplified on the letter '''a'''):

{{Bordertable|#fff}}
| rowspan=2 colspan=2 align=center valign=middle |
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=1 colspan=2 | Length
|-
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | Short
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | Long
|-
| rowspan=2 colspan=1 | Stress
| Unstressed
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | {{Big|a}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | {{Big|á}}
|-
| Stressed
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | {{Big|à}}
| valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot; | {{Big|â}}
|}


The impetus for the system comes from the fact that the circumflex graphically looks like a combination of the acute and the grave:

{|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Big|/}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| +
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Big|\}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &lt;nowiki&gt;=&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;| {{Big|/\}}
|}

== Use of accents in natlangs ==

There are several conflicting uses of the acute accent mark in Western orthographies: in some languages (e.g. Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician, Welsh and (optionally) Russian) it is used to mark the [[Wikipedia:Acute_accent#Stress|stressed vowel]] of a word.  In other languages it is used to mark [[Wikipedia:Acute_accent#Length|vowel length]] (orthographically in Irish, Hungarian, Czech, and Slovak; in scholarly use also in Old Norse{{ref|2}}&amp;nbsp; and Old English{{ref|3}}).

=== Grave difficulties ===

I used to think that by contrast the grave, which is used to mark stress in Italian and Greek, was never used to mark vowel length. [[Wikipedia:Grave_accent#Length|Scottish Gaelic proves me wrong]], but on the other hand Welsh actually uses the grave to explicitly mark a stressed vowel as short!

== Weaknesses ==

The weakness of the system clearly is that AFAIK no language except Ancient Greek actually uses the circumflex to indicate the ''combination'' of stress and length, although it is used to mark vowel length in the orthography or transliteration of [[Wikipedia:Circumflex#Length|several languages]].  I think, however, that the graphical similarity of the circumflex to a combination of acute and grave outweighs this consideration.

== Unicode and the macron ==

Some may wonder why I don't use the [[Wikipedia:macron|macron]] instead, now that it is readily available in [[Wikipedia:Unicode|Unicode]].  The answer is threefold:
# There are still many people using email clients that don't support Unicode, while most email clients nowadays support [[Wikipedia:ISO/IEC 8859-1|&quot;Latin-1&quot;]] which contains the five vowel letters '''a, e, i, o, u''' with acute, grave and circumflex{{ref|4}}.
# The vast majority of Unicode-supporting fonts and applications don't handle the placement of accent marks above a letter which already bears a macron with any elegance; the likelihood is that you don't see the added accent mark at all because it gets entagled in the macron (if this&amp;nbsp;'''ā́''' actually comes out right in your browser, things may be getting better! {{-)}}), and '''āˊ''' with the spacing acute is a kludgy substitute{{ref|5}}.
# Also &amp;mdash; and that's actually a big part of it for me &amp;mdash; macron and acute are notoriously difficult to keep apart in handwriting, not to speak of the combination of them, which either looks like a [[Wikipedia:double acute accent|double acute accent]] (which means something entirely different in its only natlang use), or it looks monstruously clumsy.

== Another use ==

Finally I have to admit that in the old spelling of one of my conlangs, [[Knoschke|Knòškè]] I exploit yet another use of the grave, namely to indicate [[Wikipedia:Grave_accent#Height|vowel openness]] (as in French, Italian and Catalan): '''è''' is {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and '''ò''' is {{IPA|[ɔ]}} &amp;mdash; against '''e''' {{IPA|[e]}} and '''o''' {{IPA|[o]}} &amp;mdash;, but the acute still indicates length &amp;mdash; which makes '''ê''' {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and '''ô''' {{IPA|[ɔː]}}; I guess nobody is perfect! {{-)}}

== Notes ==

{{note|1}}[1]  This system of using accent marks was suggested to me by [http://www.carolandray.plus.com/Glosso/Glossopoeia.html Raymond Brown].  I readily and enthusiastically took to using it, and still am enthusiastic about it.  To my knowledge Ray has never used the system himself (indeed nobody but myself seems to have used it), but I wish to acknowledge him as the inventor; I don't think it would have occurred to me on my own, since I was quite set in my earlier less systematic use of accent marks.

{{note|2}}[2]  In modern Icelandic the acute is used in the same positions in the same words as scholars put it in Old Norse, but they no longer indicate vowel length, since the old distinction between long and short vowels has in the course of the history of the language developed into a distinction of quality, with most of the old long vowels having become diphthongs.

{{note|3}}[3]  The Anglo-Saxons themselves apparently used the acute as length mark only occasionally if at all.  The use by Old English scholars dates only from the 19{{sup|th}} century, and was then probably inspired by the use in Irish and the somewhat less occasional use in Old Norse.  Nowadays Old English scholars seem to prefer the [[Wikipedia:macron|macron]], but I first met Old English in [[Wikipedia:Tolkien|Tolkien]] when I was ten years old, and old habits die hard! {{-)}}

{{note|4}}[4]  Unfortunately Latin-1 doesn't contain '''y''' with grave or circumflex, nor  '''æ''' or '''ø''' with any accent mark, and not even most Unicode fonts contain the precomposed forms of these letters with accent marks (other than '''ý''' obviously) but you can't always get everything!

{{note|5}}[5]  Incidentally {{type|U+0341 : COMBINING ACUTE TONE MARK}} usually makes a better job of it: '''ā́''', but with '''Ā́''' and '''Ā́''' (not to speak of '''Ṓ''' and '''Ṓ''') you're usually in equally bad luck{{-(}}, and it '''is''' a hack in any case!</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Laughing Mystics</title>
    <id>2271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-09T22:20:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nik, I like these laughing mystics.
*Thanks.  :-)

Is there more detail available somewhere?
*Only in my brain.  :-)  I'm still working out the details.  Thanks for your questions.

For instance,

*Do they deny the existence of life-after-death, or &quot;life&quot;-between-lives if they believe in reincarnation?
**They believe in reincarnation.  Most do believe that there is some sort of world between lives.  Some believe that ''that'' is the &quot;Real World&quot;, with this being merely illusion, while others believe that it is similar to ours.  A few believe that reincarnation is instantaneous without any intermediate world.  They all agree that whatever the afterlife is like, you'll learn when you die, and so it's pointless to argue about it.

*Do they deny the possibility of a heaven in which a disembodied soul can experience reward for its actions in life?

*Do they deny the possibility of a hell in which a disembodied soul can experience punishment for its actions in life?
**Yes to both.  They do not believe that the gods take an interest in individuals.  They do generally believe that reincarnation is in some way affected by ones actions in this life, a sort of kharma-like doctrine.  They do admit the possibility that the gods might take an interest in the world as a whole.

*Do they deny the possibility of communication between the living and the &quot;dead&quot; before the &quot;dead&quot; are re-incarnated?

*Do they deny the possibility that the circumstances of one's reincarnation can be a reward or punishment for one's conduct in the past life or lives?
**Not so mcuh as a &quot;reward&quot; or &quot;punishment&quot;, as that would imply a higher being being responsible, but more as a natural consequence of ones actions.

(Consistent with their egalitarianism.)

*Do they believe that the foundation and source of human morality is the human mind, rather than some God or gods?
**Not quite.  They believe that morality exists independent of the sentient mind or the gods. [[User:Nik|Nik]] 15:18, 9 May 2006 (PDT)

----

eldin</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sup</title>
    <id>2272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-10T11:21:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;sup&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/sup&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sub</title>
    <id>2273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-10T11:22:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;sub&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/sub&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Type</title>
    <id>2274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-10T12:09:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;tt&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/tt&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan dictionaries</title>
    <id>2275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45667</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-26T01:10:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[lexicon roots a-b]]

[[lexicon roots c-ð]]

[[lexicon roots e-ȝ]]

[[lexicon roots к-l]]

[[lexicon roots ł-ø]]

[[lexicon roots p-r]]

[[lexicon root s]]

[[lexicon roots t-ź]]

[[Senjecan classification]]

[[Senjecan complex terms]]

[[Senjecan fauna - arthropods]]

[[Senjecan fauna - birds]]

[[Senjecan fauna - fish]]

[[Senjecan fauna - herptiles]]

[[Senjecan fauna - mammals]]

[[Senjecan fauna - other]]

[[Senjecan flora]]

[[Senjecan geography]]

[[Senjecan postpositions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Charos-s-fik-genesis11.png</title>
    <id>2276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-10T21:43:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Babel text in Modern Charos S'fik</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Babel text in Modern Charos S'fik</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Family Council</title>
    <id>2277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24458</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-13T02:33:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Family Council''' was the supreme executive body of the [[Second Kasshi Empire]], and continued its existence, though largely ceremonial, from the [[Third Kasshi Empire|third]] through through the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire]].  The Imperial Family Council consisted of a set of members of the Imperial Family, and was lead by an [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]].  The Council was established by [[Chalanya]] herself.

In modern times, the Council's functions are almost entirely ceremonial.  They nominally elect the Empress, but in practice, the [[First Advisor]] appoints her.

[[Category:Kasshi Empresses]]
[[Category:Kasshi Government]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Council of Twelve</title>
    <id>2278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33072</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-17T21:07:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Council of Twelve''' was the ruling body of the [[Nrastaism|Nrastaist church]] until the [[Wars of the Collapse]].

The Council was established by [[Chinrasta]] late in her life, and was, by her decree, named her collective successor following her death.  The Council initially elected a [[Nrastaist Supreme Matriarch|Supreme Matriarch]] from amongst themselves, but later the [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]] took over the nomination of a Supreme Matriarch, subject to the Council's approval.

Vacancies in the Council were filled from among the Matriarchs of the Church, by the Empress, subject to the approval of the Supreme Matriarch.

During [[Chinikan]]'s reign, vacancies went unfilled, and Chinikan claimed for herself the position of Supreme Matriarch.  The Wars of the Collapse which followed Chinikan's deposing worsened matters, as different claimants to the Imperial Throne named different Supreme Matriarchs.  In addition, the chaos of the wars themselves made it impossible for the Council to meet.  Some of the Council-Members established Provisional Appointments, creating several different bodies that each claimed to be the legitimate Provisional Council of Twelve, several of which named, or had named, a Supreme Matriarch.

Never again would a single Council of Twelve be established.  This fragmented the church beyond repair.

[[Category:Nrastaism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sectori's Abbreviation Key</title>
    <id>2280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>8993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-13T20:45:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">These are the abbreviations used in my webpages, subdivided by part of speech.

==Part of Speech==
*adj.: adjective
*adv.: adverb
*conj.: conjunction
*intj.: interjection
*n.: noun
*prep.: preposition
*prn.: pronoun
*v.: verb

==Nouns==
*abs: absolutive case
*acc: accusative case
*dat: dative case
*d/l: dative-locative case
*erg: ergative case
*gen: genitive case
*loc: locative case
*nom: nominative case
*voc: vocative case

==Verbs==
My verb notation when marking conjugations is divided into two parts: person and then number/gender. For example: 3Pf is divided into 3P and f. 3P stands for third person and f stands for feminine.

*1P: first person
*2P: second person
*3P: third person
*Ind.: indicative
*f: feminine; when appearing alone (i.e., not as fs or fp), feminine singular
*Fut.: future
*Imp.: imperative
*m: masculine; when appearing alone (i.e., not as ms or mp), masculine singular
*p: plural
*Past: past
*Pres.: present
*s: singular
*Subj.: subjunctive</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>'Ukana'akau Lexicon</title>
    <id>2281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-01T19:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* A */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;center&gt;
[[#'|']] - [[#A|A]] - [[#I|I]] - [[#U|U]] - [[#K|K]] - [[#T|T]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#N|N]]
&lt;/center&gt;
=='==
*'a: part., present tense
*'au: prep., for
*'ak'u: prn., never
*'akau: n., language
*'aki: adj., one
*'at'i: prn., nothing
*'atu'a: prn., no-way
*'i: part., past tense
*'iupu: adv., yesterday
*'ia: prep., in
*'ip'u: no-one
*'u: part., future tense
*'u'u'una: part., changes cardinal number to adverbial
*'ui: prep., to
*'uiku: v., join
*'uipu: adv., tomorrow
*'uipu'u: v., relate
*'uk'a: prn., nowhere

==A==
*a'i: adj., passive; marks the passive voice when placed before a verb
*a'itu: n., deer
*a'ip'itu: n., the Passive Way, a central philosophy of the K'uanu
*a'uani: nm., tenty-five
*a'uni: nm., five
*ai'uani: nm., three thousand one hundret twenty-five
*au: conj., and
*au'uani: nm., one hundred twenty-five
*aka: part., subjunctive mood
*ak'u: v., be
*ap'atia: adj., orange
*ap'u: v., live
*an'u: v., eat
*an'uani: nm., six hundred twenty-five
*ani'uani: nm., fifteen thousand six hundred twenty-five

==I==
*i'aki: adj., thin; skinny
*Iau'iau: n., the chief of the K'uanu god-spirits
*iu: conj., but
*ik'a: prn., where
*ika: part., indicative mood
*ika'u: v., sit
*ik'u: prn., when
*iku: v., go
*it'i: prn., what
*ita'u: v., stand
*itu: v., stop
*ip'u: prn., who
*ipu'u: adj., united
*ipuk'u: v., unite
*ipuku: v., make
*ina: n., fish
*inu: v., swim

==U==
*uakuni: v., understand
*uapusiti: n., website
*ui'i: conj., or
*uip'u: n., time
*uipu: v., give
*uka: part., imperative mood
*ut'aku: n., shaman; wizard
*utani: n., bird
*utaniki: n., hawk
*utanitu: n., chicken
*utanu: v., fly
*upau: n., legend
*upu: v., appease
*una: part., changes cardinal number to ordinal number
==K==
*k'ai: adj., tall
*k'aita: n., fire
*k'ak'i: n., creation
*k'aku: adv., most
*k'iaki: v., begin
*k'iu: prep., of; from
*k'iuti: v., irk
*k'iki: v., prosper
*k'iku: adv., more
*k'in'i: v., say; tell
*k'inu: n., child
*k'ua: adj., two
*ka'i: prn., 1st person
*ka'iaki: n.,  beginning
*kai: adj., big
*kap'iu: n., school
*kap'u: v., move
*kapiu: v., learn
*kan'u: v., run
*kana: n., queen
*kanaku: adv., tonight
*kani: n., king
*kani'u: v., think
*kanu: n., human; person
*ki'au: adj., four
*ki'u: n., sky
*kisuki: n., circus; menagerie
*kin'u: v., tell
*kinu: v., say
*ku'ai: n., land
*ku'itu: adj., each
*kuipu: prn., that; which [relative pronoun]
*kutan'u: v., rain

==T==
*t'it'ika: v., incapacitate
*ta'aka: n., god
*ta'aku: v., worship
*tak'i: adv., exactly
*tak'u: prn., always
*tat'i: prn., everything
*tan'u: v., walk
*tanaka: n., country
*tani'u: v., know
*ti'u: prn., 2nd person
*tip'u: prn., everyone
*tinu'i: n., demon spirit; goblin
*tu'ai: n., water
*tui: part., question
*tuk'a: prn., everywhere
*tuk'itu: adj., every
*tup'a: n., dog
*tup'aki: n., horse
*tup'atu: n., cow
*tup'asu: n., cat
*tupia: adj., probable
*tupia'i: adv., probably
==P==
*pa'itu: v., bear
*pak'u: prn., anytime
*pat'i: prn., anything
*patapata: v., tiptoe
*piti: adj., impossible
*pip'u: prn., anyone
*pu'a: prn., 3rd person
*puk'a: prn., anywhere
*putisi: adj., improbable
==S==
*s'au: adj., short
*s'apu: adv., less
*s'iki: prep., under
*s'ipu: adv., least
*sau: adj., small
*sak'u: prn., sometime
*sat'i: something
*sapa: v., see
*sap'iu: v., admire
*sasi: adj., sensible
*san'i: v., feel
*si'ua: v., here is/are [verb phrase]
*sikaku: n., friend
*sitiaun'i: n., situation
*sip'u: prn., someone
*su'iki: adj., other
*suk'a: prn., somewhere

==N==
*n'aku: n., night
*n'atu: adj., fat
*na'ipi: v., fear
*na'ipi'u: v., hate
*nai: adj., three
*naipu: v., sacrifice
*nak'u: prn., now
*naku: n., morning
*nak'a: prn., there
*nat'i: prn., this
*nap'a'isu: n., flower
*nap'ati: n., root
*nap'asi: n., leaf
*napa'i: n., tree
*napasi: prep., over
*nan'a: n., rock
*nan'atu: n., boulder
*nan'asu: n., pebble
*ni'ua: v., there is/are [verb phrase]
*nik'u: prn., then
*nu'i: adj., good; adv., well
*nuat'asi: n., bud (of a flower)
*nui: part., negative
*nuk'a: prn., here
*nuta'u: n., world 
*nut'i: prn., that</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>K'uanu</title>
    <id>2282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-14T22:10:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''K'uanu'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=top| http://img73.imageshack.us/img73/6061/uanuflag8nt.png
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Name:'''
|| Ku K'uanu
|-
|valign=top|'''Population:'''
|| 9.34 million
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Languages:'''
|| 'Ukana'akau, English
|-
|valign=top|'''Neighboring States:'''
|| British India, India, Seychelles
|-
|valign=top|'''Government Type:'''
|| Anarchy (for the moment)
|-
|valign=top|'''Capital:'''
|| Niui
|-
|valign=top|'''Administrative Divisions:'''
|| None
|-
|valign=top|'''Constitution:'''
|| N/A. A constitution is currently in progress, but not yet complete
|-
|valign=top|'''Suffrage:'''
|| 21 years; univeral
|-
|valign=top|'''Executive Branch:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''Legislative Branch:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''Judicial Branch:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''Political Parties and Leaders:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP (PPP):'''
|| $543 billion (2002 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP per capita:'''
|| $15,000 (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Labor Force:'''
|| 7.3 million (includes unemployed) (2003 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Unemployment Rate:'''
|| 5.4% (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Population below poverty line:'''
|| 10.6% (2004 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Major Industries:'''
|| Tourism, textiles
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Suisan</title>
    <id>2283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-15T16:46:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eosp</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fdkjsl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Suisan is a Romance language that developed in the mountains of Switzerland with little intervention of other languages.

== Phonology ==
a -&gt; [a]
b -&gt; [b_0]
c -&gt; [k]
ch -&gt; [tS]
d -&gt; [d_0]
e -&gt; [E]
f -&gt; [f]
g -&gt; [g_0]
h -&gt; [C]
i -&gt; [i]
j -&gt; [Z]
l -&gt; [l]
m -&gt; [m]
n -&gt; [n]
o -&gt; [o]
p -&gt; [p]
qu -&gt; [kw]
r -&gt; [R]
s -&gt; [s]
sh -&gt; [S]
t -&gt; [t]
u -&gt; [U]
MORE</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Kuroda</title>
    <id>2284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26432</id>
      <timestamp>2007-10-28T01:22:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Not really a user page so much as a useless page.

[[Channel Island Siouxan]]
[[Neo-Khitanese]] [[Neo-Khitanese_Lexicon]] [[Kilda Kelen]]
[[Fusangese]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fusangese</title>
    <id>2285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43903</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-06T23:18:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuroda</username>
        <id>171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Gooder grammer and speling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;tomato&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Fusangese'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in: 
||Mexico
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||[[League of Lost Languages]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
|| &lt;1000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Sino-Tibetan&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Chinese&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Late Old or Early Middle Chinese&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Fusangese'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||Topic-Comment -- usually SOV or SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Mostly isolating, some fusional clitic elements
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Accusative (?)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;tomato&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||author ||date
|}

For decades (if not centuries) the language spoken by a small and relatively isolated group of fishers and hunter-gatherers on the Pacific coast of Mexico was considered to be an indigenous Mesoamerican language, probably related to nearby Mixtecan languages. More recent work suggests that this language -- here termed &quot;Fusangese&quot; as a temporary and somewhat tongue-in-cheek placeholder -- is in fact a form of archaic Chinese with heavy contact influences from Mixtecan and Nahua languages.

These sub- and adstratum influences, particularly in the domain of phonology, combined with the obscurity of the community and the improbability of an unknown Chinese-speaking group living as Indians in modern Mexico, understandably led previous investigators to assign this language to the large and diverse Otomanguean group. 

Considerable mystery and uncertainty still surrounds “Fusangese”, however. Is it simply a creolized form of modern Chinese, possibly a Minnan or Minbei dialect, spoken by post-Columbian immigrants from China? Or is it, as seems increasingly more likely, a cousin of the modern Chinese languages, descended from an earlier stage of Chinese? So little fieldwork has been done at this point, to say nothing of analysis, that these questions cannot yet be resolved. The genetic affiliation shown in the sidebar is simply a guess.

Watch this space!


'''UPDATE''': In a disappointing development, it has been demonstrated recently that the &quot;Fusangese&quot; language is simply a dialect of Min Chinese -- specifically, a form of Puxian Min -- and that its speakers are descended from Chinese workers brought to New Spain in the early 1600s via the Philippines. The presence of a lateral fricative in &quot;Fusangese&quot; phonology can now be understood not as a contact borrowing from local Mesoamerican languages, but a direct inheritance from Puxian Min. Likewise, its complicated tone system is recognizable as clearly Min (to the extent that tone sandhi in Min is ever &quot;clear&quot;) and not either Otomanguean nor a separate New World development of some Old Chinese original. The League of Lost Languages loses a member!

[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:LLL]]
[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Chinese conlangs]]
[[Category:Amerindian conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:PeteBleackley</title>
    <id>2286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48483</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-17T12:06:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to iljena</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Pete Bleackley is an astronomer by education and an engineer by employment. His main conlanging project is [[Khangaþyagon]], and he is also the creator of [[iljena]].

[[Khangaþyagon/dictionary]]

He's also working on a [[Template:NavBar|Template for Back/Up/Next links]]

[[Template:R8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon</title>
    <id>2287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43620</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-27T16:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Contents */ Corrrected typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==The Grammar of Khangaþyagon==

Khangaþyagon is a language that I have created as part of the setting of a fantasy novel. It is the original language of the world (Huna) on which it is spoken, and thus the only one that can be used for magical spells. As such, its use was preserved by wizards when other languages diverged from it.

General information about Khangaþyagon and links to texts can be found at the [[ConlangWiki:Khangathyagon]] page. This page presents a more detailed grammar.

===Contents===

#[[Khangaþyagon Phonology|Phonology and Script]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Consonants|Consonants]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels|Vowels]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Phonotactics|Phonotactics and Stress]]
##[[The Bukhstav]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Morphology|Morphology]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Verbs|Verbs]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Nouns|Nouns]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Adjectives|Adjectives]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Adverbs etc|Adverbs, Pronouns and Conjunctions]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Derivational Morphology|Derivational Morphology]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Syntax|Syntax]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Word Order|Basic Word Order]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Subordinate Clauses|Subordinate Clauses and Reported Speech]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Questions etc|Questions, Commands, Conditionals and Counterfactuals]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Syntax misc|Syntactical Miscellany]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Babel Text|The Babel Text]]
#[[Khangaþyagon/dictionary|Dictionary]]
##[[Khangaþyagon/dictionary/Khangaþyagon to English|Khangaþyagon to English]]
##[[Khangaþyagon/dictionary/English to Khangaþyagon|English to Khangaþyagon]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 02:57, 17 May 2006 (PDT)

While I wish to retain copyright over Khangaþyagon, as I intend to use it in a published work at some time in the future, the manner of its presentation in this document is released under a the Creative Commons licence - for example, anyone wishing to use this document as the basis for the documentation of their own conlang is free to do so. I will uphold the Principle of Fair Use with regard to all material where I retain copyright.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Phonology</title>
    <id>2288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-19T08:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Phonology and Script==

===Contents===

#[[Khangaþyagon Consonants|Consonants]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Consonants#Basic Inventory|Basic Inventory]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Consonants#Phonemic Geminates|Phonemic Geminates]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Consonants#Syllabic l|Syllabic l]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Vowels|Vowels]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels#Short Vowels|Short Vowels]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels#Long Vowels|Long Vowels]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels#Diphthongs|Diphthongs]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels#Tense/lax Distinction|Tense/lax Distinction]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Vowels#Schwa|Schwa]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Phonotactics|Phonotactics and Stress]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Phonotactics#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]
##[[Khangaþyagon Phonotactics#Stress|Stress]]
#[[The Bukhstav]]

[[Khangaþyagon|Back : The Grammar of Khangaþyagon]] [[Khangaþyagon|Up : The Grammar of Khangaþyagon]] [[Khangaþyagon Morphology| Next : Morphology]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 03:19, 17 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Morphology</title>
    <id>2289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-17T10:48:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Created chapter contents</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Contents===
#[[Khangaþyagon Verbs|Verbs]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Nouns|Nouns]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Adjectives|Adjectives]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Adverbs etc|Adverbs, Pronouns and Conjunctions]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Derivational Morphology|Derivational Morphology]]

[[Khangaþyagon Phonology|Back : Phonology]] [[Khangaþyagon|Up : The Grammar of Khangaþyagon]] [[Khangaþyagon Syntax|Next : Syntax]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 03:48, 17 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Syntax</title>
    <id>2290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9044</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-17T10:47:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Contents===

#[[Khangaþyagon Word Order|Basic Word Order]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Subordinate Clauses|Subordinate Clauses and Reported Speech]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Questions etc|Questions, Commands, Conditionals and Counterfactuals]]
#[[Khangaþyagon Syntax misc|Syntactical Miscellany]]

[[Khangaþyagon Morphology|Back : Morphology]] [[Khangaþyagon|Up : The Grammar of Khangaþyagon]] [[Khangaþyagon Babel Text|Next : The Babel Text]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 03:47, 17 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Consonants</title>
    <id>2291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9057</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-17T14:11:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Basic Inventory===

Khangaþyagon's consonants are shown in the table below. Each series of consonants is shown on two rows, the first with the IPA symbol, the second with the romanisation. In each cell, voiceless consonants are on the left, voiced consonants on the right.

{|
|-
! &amp;nbsp; || Labial || Dental || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal 
|-
! Stops 
| p b 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| t d 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| k g 
| &amp;nbsp; 
|-
|&amp;nbsp; || p b || &amp;nbsp; || t d || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || k g || &amp;nbsp; 
|-
! Fricatives 
| f v 
| θ ð 
| s z 
| ʃ ʒ 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| χ &amp;nbsp; 
| h &amp;nbsp; 
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || f v || þ ð || s z || sh zh || &amp;nbsp; || kh &amp;nbsp; || h &amp;nbsp; 
|-
! Nasals 
| &amp;nbsp; m 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; n 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; ŋ 
| &amp;nbsp; 
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; m || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; n || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; ng || &amp;nbsp; 
|-
! Approximants and a tap 
| &amp;nbsp; w 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; ɾ 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; j 
|  &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; w || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; r || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; y || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; 
|-
! Lateral 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; l 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; l || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; 
|}

===Phonemic Geminates===

[s],[z],[m],[n],[l] and [ɾ] can all be gemminated, with [ɾː] realised as [r]. In the romanisation, these are all represented by doubling the letter.

===Syllabic l===

[l̩] occurs as an allophone of [l] in the context ClC, where C represents any consonants.

[[Khangaþyagon Phonology|Back : Phonology]] [[Khangaþyagon Phonology|Up : Phonology]] [[Khangaþyagon Vowels| Next : Vowels]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 07:11, 17 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:C-cedilla-origin.gif</title>
    <id>2292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-18T11:14:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>An image describing the origin of '''ç''' from '''z'''</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An image describing the origin of '''ç''' from '''z'''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cedilla</title>
    <id>2293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46009</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T22:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* External links */ cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid gray; padding: 5px; float: right;&quot;&gt;
[[image:visigothz.jpg|center|100px]] 
A Visigothic '''z'''.{{ref|visigothz}}
&lt;/div&gt;

===The origin of ç ===

The letter '''ç''' originated in the [[Wikipedia:Visigothic script|Visigothic script]] used in Spain in early medieval times.  Contrary to what the modern shape and name ''c-[[Wikipedia:cedilla|cedilla]]'' suggest it is not in origin a '''c''' with a [[Wikipedia:diacritic|diacritic]], but a swash form of the letter '''z'''.

[[Image:C-cedilla-origin.gif|left|200px|The origin of '''ç''']]

A form of '''z''' like the '''{{IPA|ʒ}}''' now used in [[IPA]] for the French sound of '''j''', with a downward curved swash replacing the lower horizontal line, was widespread in medieval scripts.  In Spain this form developed a variant with also the ''upper'' horizontal line becoming a curved swash.  In time this form (No. 3 in the image) became differentiated in use, denoting the voiceless coronal affricate {{IPA|/ts/}} while form (1) or (2) denoted the corresponding voiced affricate {{IPA|/dz/}}.  Perhaps it was the use of this letter form for the same sound as '''c''' represented before the letters '''e, i''' and '''y''' that prompted its further development into a form like a '''c''' with a tail, through increasing the size of the upper curve while decreasing the size of the lower part.

== The name &quot;cedilla&quot; ==

The word ''cedilla'' is originally a diminutive of ''zeda'' or ''ceda'', the Spanish name for the letter '''z''', and thus was originally a name for the letter '''ç''', and not just for the ostensible diacritic.  Alternative forms in older Spanish were ''cerilla'' and ''ceril''.  Incidentally ''cerilla'' means &quot;friction match&quot; in modern Spanish!

== Sources ==

* {{note|visigothz}} The image of the [http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/scripts/examples/visigoth.htm Visigothic] '''z''' was borrowed from Dr  Dianne Tillotson's [http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/writing.htm medieval writing site]. She in turn got it from the [http://www.bl.uk/ British Library].

== External links ==

* [[Wikipedia:Cedilla|Cedilla]] at Wikipedia.
* [[Wikipedia:Visigothic script|Visigothic script]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/scripts/examples/visigoth.htm Visigothic Script] at Dr  Dianne Tillotson's [http://medievalwriting.50megs.com/writing.htm medieval writing site].
* [http://www.staff.uni-mainz.de/klump/20041202-10093458-Cedille.pdf Zur Geschichte und Bezeichnung der Cédille in den romanischen Sprachen], [[Wikipedia:PDF|PDF]] by Dr. Andre Klump, Mainz (in German).
* [http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/apocalypse/beatscript.html Another image showing Visigothic script] from the [http://www.library.nd.edu/medieval_library/index.shtml Library of the Medieval Institute] at University of Notre Dame.  AFAICT unfortunately without any example of '''z''' which of course was uncommon in Latin text.

[[Category:Natscripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Vowels</title>
    <id>2294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-26T15:31:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diphthongs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Khangaþyagon has five short vowels, five long vowels, and five permissible diphthongs. These are shown in the tables below first as IPA, then with the romanisation below them.

===Short Vowels===

{|
! &amp;nbsp; || Front || Central || Back 
|-
! High
| i 
| &amp;nbsp;
| u
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || i || &amp;nbsp; || u
|-
! Mid
| e 
| &amp;nbsp;
| o
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || e || &amp;nbsp; || o 
|-
! Low
| æ
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || a || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|}

Short vowels are generally more common than long vowels.

===Long Vowels===

{|
! &amp;nbsp; || Front || Central || Back 
|-
! High
| iː
| &amp;nbsp;
| uː
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || ī || &amp;nbsp; || ū
|-
! Mid
| eː
| &amp;nbsp;
| oː
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || ē || &amp;nbsp; || ō 
|-
! Low
| &amp;nbsp;
| aː
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || ā || &amp;nbsp;
|}

Most the stuff I've written online has the macrons missed off, as they're difficult to type.

Note the qualitative as well as quantitative difference in the low vowels.

===Diphthongs===

{|
| ae || au || eu || oæ || oe
|-
| æ || au || eu || oa || œ 
|}


Fairly rare sounds. All diphtongs are falling, ie the first element is the syllabic nucleus.

===Tense/lax Distinction===

This is not phonemic in Khangaþyagon, so for example [i] and [ɪ] will be recognised as the same phoneme. Technically it's a free variation, although tense forms are more usual in careful speech. The emergence of allophonic and phonemic tense/lax distinctions in dialects was one of the mechanisms by which different languages diverged from Khangaþyagon.

===Schwa===

[ə] never occurs in Khangaþyagon.

[[Khangaþyagon Consonants|Back : Consonants]] [[Khangaþyagon Phonology|Up : Phonology and Script]] [[Khangaþyagon Phonotactics|Next : Phonotactics and Stress]]

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 08:09, 18 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:NavBar</title>
    <id>2295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-18T15:30:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created NavBar Template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|
!allign=center | Back || Up || Next
|-
|allign=center | [[{{{Back_dest}}}|{{{Back_name}}}]] || [[{{{Up_dest}}}|{{{Up_name}}}]] || [[{{{Next_dest}}}|{{{Next_name}}}]]
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mabri</title>
    <id>2296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29135</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

=Sounds=
==Vowels==

Mabri has five phonemic vowels, transcribed as &lt;a&gt;, &lt;e&gt;, &amp;lt;i&gt;, &lt;o&gt;, and &amp;lt;u&gt;. In an unstressed position, their phonetic realizations are respectively [ɐ], [e], [i], [o] and [u]. When stressed, at the end of verbs, they are nasalized: [ɐ̃], [ẽ], [ĩ], [õ] and [ũ]. When stressed, elsewhere, they are pronounced as follows: [a], [ɛ], [i], [ɔ] and [u].

&lt;table width=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Phoneme&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Stressed (non-V)&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Unstressed&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Stressed (V)&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;/a/&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;a&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ɐ&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ɐ̃&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;/e/&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ɛ&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;e&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ẽ&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;/i/&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;i&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;i&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ĩ&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;/o/&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ɔ&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;o&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;õ&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;/u/&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;u&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;u&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;ũ&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
==Consonants==
This is the consonantal system of mabri.

&lt;table width=&quot;700px&quot;&gt;
   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Bilabial&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Labiodental&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Labiovelar&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Alveolar&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Post-alveolar&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Palatal&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Velar&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Glottal&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Nasal&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;m&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;n&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Plosive&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;p b&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;t d&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;k g&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Affricate&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;tx, dj&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Fricative&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;f v&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;s z&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;x, j&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;h&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Approximant&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;w&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;y&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Tap&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;r&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;

   &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Lat. Approx.&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;l&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Phonotactics==
The syllable structure in Mabri is (C)(C)V. Syllables like '''a''', '''re''' and '''pwi''' are valid. Syllables have phonemically no coda, although a written &quot;n&quot; appears at the end of verbs. This final &quot;n&quot; indicates that the previous vowel is nasal and is not always pronounced. An epenthetic [m], [n], [ɱ] or [ŋ] will appear, however, if the next word begins with b/p, d/t/z/s/dj/tx/j/x, v/f and g/k, respectively.

Examples:
&lt;p&gt;'''Kaze txin ha.''' ['kaze tʃĩ ha]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''Mu men taze.''' ['kaze mẽn 'taze]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''Mya kon frugyo.''' [mja kõɱ 'fɾugjo]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''Fa gran bla.''' [fa gɾɐ̃m bla]&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''Ladjo yan katxi.''' ['ladʒo jɐ̃ŋ 'katʃi]&lt;/p&gt;

==Word Stress==
*Monosyllabic prepositions, such as '''ga''' and '''po''', are unstressed. Their pronunciations are therefore [gɐ] and [po] (and not [ga] or [pɔ]).

:*All the other monosyllabic words are stressed: '''ka''', '''lo''', '''ban''', '''de''' ([ka], [lɔ], [bɐ̃], [dɛ]).

*Disyllabic verbs are stressed on the last syllable: '''latxin''', '''kyofan''', '''broton''' ([lɐ'tʃĩ], [kjo'fɐ̃], [bɾo'tõ]).

:*All the other disyllabic words are stressed on the first syllable: '''latxi''', '''kyofa''', '''broto''' (['latʃi], ['kjɔfɐ], ['bɾɔto]).

::*That includes disyllabic prepositions: '''potxi''', '''gale''', '''polye''' (['pɔtʃi], ['gale], ['pɔlje]).

*Larger words (hyphenated words) are multiply stressed, each part according to the rules above.

=Grammar=
Words in Mabri can be roughly divided in 4 main groups: verbs, nouns, adjectives and prepositions. Mabri is a pro-drop language.
==Word order==
&lt;p&gt;Mabri is a SVO (subject verb object) language, as English. Other arrangements are possible but marked through special constructions. Sentence-modifying adverbs are placed either before or after the sentence, never in the middle. Examples:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''xewan'''. (It rains.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''lafa nun'''. (She is sleeping.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''lafa kon fruno'''. (She is eating an apple.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''kon fruno polye lafa'''. (Eating an apple she is.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''podo grihe kadjo yan si'''. (Yesterday we went to the city.)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''kadjo yan si podo grihe'''. (We went to the city yesterday.)&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;As to noun phrases, mabri is ''head-final'', as Spanish. Adjective-modifying adverbs are placed after the adjective. Intensifiers are placed before the adjectives. Counters come before the nouns. Examples:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''mwakwi''' (cat)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''mwakwi du ba''' (big cat)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''mwakwi du ba gapo ku kii''' (unexpectedly big cat)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''mwakwi du jaja ga ba''' (very big cat)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''natxa ga mwakwi''' (two cats)&lt;/p&gt;

==Nouns==
*Nouns have no inflection at all.
*There is no grammatical number (exceptions for &quot;pronouns&quot;; see table below). Number is indicated by means of counters (below).
*There is no grammatical gender (exceptions for &quot;pronouns&quot;; see table below). Biological gender is represented through periphrasis.
*There is no declension; the role of the noun phrases is determined by word order.
*There are no true pronouns; instead, there are nouns that can be translated in English as nouns. Below are some of these nouns:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|+ 
! || here || there || yonder
|-
| sing. pronoun || '''kaze''' (I) || '''taze''' (you) || '''laze''' (that person)
|-
| sing. masc. pronoun || '''kato''' (I) || '''tato''' (you) || '''lato''' (he)
|-
| sing. fem. pronoun || '''kafa''' (I) || '''tafa''' (you) || '''lafa''' (she)
|-
| plural pronoun || '''kadjo''' (we) || '''tadjo''' (you) || '''ladjo''' (they)
|-
| time || '''kado''' (this moment) || '''tado''' || '''lado''' (that moment)
|-
| place || '''katxi''' (this place) || '''tatxi''' (place near you) || '''latxi''' (place over there)
|-
| reason || '''kari''' (this reason) || '''tari''' (reason of yours) || '''lari''' (that reason)
|}

===Counters===
Counters have two main purposes: numbering nouns and as intensifiers. They are followed by the preposition '''ga'''.
* Numbers always start with the prefix '''na'''. Mabri uses a decimal system. The vowel of each syllable determines the order of magnitude. The consonant determines the digit.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 1em auto&quot;
|+ 
! (digit) || units || tens || hundreds || thousands
|-
| 0 || na-xa || || || ||
|-
| 1 || na-txa || na-txu || na-txi || na-txe
|-
| 2 || na-la || na-lu || na-li || na-le
|-
| 3 || na-ba || na-bu || na-bi || na-be
|-
| 4 || na-ya || na-yu || na-i || na-ye
|-
| 5 || na-fa || na-fu || na-fi || na-fe
|-
| 6 || na-wa || na-u || na-wi || na-we
|-
| 7 || na-ma || na-mu || na-mi || na-me
|-
| 8 || na-ra || na-ru || na-ri || na-re
|-
| 9 || na-ta || na-tu || na-ti || na-te
|}

&lt;p&gt;Examples:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;15 persons: '''na-txu-fa ga ze'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;38 computers: '''na-bu-ra ga chu'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;462: '''na-u-i-la ga'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;2007: na-le-ma&lt;/p&gt;


&lt;p&gt;'''ni ga''': every, all&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''sha ga''': none&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''ja ga''': so many&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''jaja ga''': many, much&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''jaku ga''': few, little&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''plu ga''': more&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''pluni ga''': most&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''pluku ga''': less, fewer&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''pluku-ni ga''': least, fewest&lt;/p&gt;

==Adjectives==
==Verbs==
===Aspect===
==Adverbs==
==Prepositions==
==Conjunctions==
==Dependent clauses==
===Subject and object clauses===
===Relative clauses===
===The prefix &quot;ju&quot;===
===Adverbial clauses===
==Word formation==
===Compounds===
===Affixes===

=Writing System=
The writing system of mabri is '''logosyllabic''' (i. e., it is both '''logographic''' and '''syllabic'''). Each syllable represents a distinct '''morpheme''' and is uniquely written with a '''grapheme'''. 

The transcription into the Latin alphabet is straightforward. The phonemes are generally transcribed as pronounced. The exceptions are &lt;j&gt;, &lt;x&gt; and &lt;y&gt;, which correspond to /ʒ/, /ʃ/ and /j/, respectively. The letter &lt;r&gt; is usually pronounced as a tap [ɾ].

Recently, the transcription system has gone through a minor reform. Former &lt;sh&gt; is now written &lt;x&gt; and former &lt;ch&gt; is now written &lt;tx&gt;.

The &lt;n&gt; at the end of the words marks that the previous vowel is nasal, as explained in Phonotactics.
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Phonotactics</title>
    <id>2297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-19T08:50:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Phonotactics===

This is more of a philosophical discussion than a rigourous description. I've never actually sat down and said  &amp;quot;These are the constraints that a Khangaþyagon syllable must obey.&amp;quot; Rather, I set out to give the language a quasi-Gemanic feel to it. Both consonant clusters and vowel hiatus can occur intra-morphemically, and as the morphology is agglutinating, even more complex things can occur at morpheme boundaries. Very few things are absolutely disalowed (initial geminates being one of them), others can occur but are fairly rare (initial ng, initial stop clusters).

One reason for this is that I don't use automatic word generation for Khangaþyagon. When I create new vocab items, I try to produce words that fit in with the tone of what's gone before, and suit their meaning. Khangaþyagon seems to have developed a distinctive sound of its own, and I'm happy that my language has found its own voice.

===Stress===

Placement of stress is much better defined. The primary stress occurs on the first syllable of the primary root. Secondary stress occurs in compounds on the first syllable of secondary roots.

One consequence of this is that stress can be phonemic. Here's a minimal pair.

;zaldep [ˈzældep] : treasure
;ban [bæn] : stone
;-ban [bæn] : that (suffix)

zaldepban

;[ˌzældepˈbæn] : gemstone
;[ˈzældepbæn] : that treasure 

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Vowels|Back_name=Vowels|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Phonology|Up_name=Phonology and Script|Next_dest=The Bukhstav|Next_name=The Bukhstav}}

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 01:50, 19 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Bukhstav</title>
    <id>2298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24649</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-24T11:55:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bukhstav Runes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Bukhstav Runes===
[[Image:Bukhstav.gif]]

This is the native script for Khangaþyagon. It is a runic script, known as bukhstav, which means &amp;quot;rite sign&amp;quot;. Notice that the first seven letters spell out the name of the script. In the illustration, each rune is preceeded by its romanisation. Each vowel has two forms. The first one shown (diagonal slanting top left to bottom right) represents the short vowel, while the second one (bottom left to top right) represents the long vowel. Diphthongs are written by writing the long form of the first element joined to the short form of the second element by the upper ends of the diagonals. The last rune shown (labelled &quot;) is a gemination rune. It forms the phonemic geminate of the preceeding rune. It is only used intra-morphemically. If a morpheme ends with a particular phoneme and the next morpheme begins with the same one, the rune for that phoneme is written twice, and the gemination rune is not used.

===Final note on the romanisation===

If a situation occurs where two phonemes occur together whose symbols would form a digraph for a third phoneme, the romanisation uses an apostrophe to disambiguate them. This does not correspond to any feature of the bukhstav, where every phoneme has a distinct rune.

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Phonotactics|Back_name=Phonotactics and Stress|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Phonology|Up_name=Phonology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Next_name=Moprhology}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azirian Phylogeny</title>
    <id>2299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17851</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-29T20:09:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Evolutionary history==

The people of Azir are all distantly related to each other, via a common ancestor millions of years ago on an unknown world. The two main groups of Azirian people are the &quot;[[elves]]&quot; (Nelya and relatives) and the &quot;furry people&quot; (Zireen and relatives). The Nikta and relatives are technically more closely related to elves, although often associated with the furry people because of their appearance. In addition to these groups are more distantly related people such as the [[Zaik]] and related Mizarian rodent-people, which have been created by genetic engineering.

The branching pattern of the Azirian family tree is influenced by two main factors. First, the opening and closing of Impossible Gates can allow a population to become established on a distant world, then become cut off from the original population. Second, when two populations come together on a single world, they can establish new hybrid populations, if they are closely related. For example, the [[Kireethin]] are hybrids of [[Zireen]] and [[Sangari]] populations that have recently come into contact on the world of [[Sharnirazva]]. Alternatively, one of the populations can outcompete the other, causing the less successful population to fall back to another world or even to become extinct. The Ttanissyn and Thruad are recent examples of populations that have become extinct due to recent contact with other Azirian populations (Nithra and Nikta, respectively). More rarely, two populations will eventually come to coexist on the same world (as with the [[Neyasai]] and [[Zireen]] of [[Rishai]]).

==Azirian family tree==

   5         4         3         2         1         0 (million years ago)
 +---------------------+--+---------------------------Tanja
 |                     |  +-+-------------------------Sayana
 |                     |    +----+--------------------Klathnar
 |                     |         +-------+----+-------[[Kaltani]]
 |                     |                 |    +-------Lialia
 |                     |                 +---+---+----[[Nelya]]
 |                     |                     |   +----[[Yitha]]
 |                     |                     +-+------Hlal
 |                     |                       +------Miri
 |                     +----+-------------------------(Ttanissyn)
 |                          +-----------------------+-Nikta
 |                                                  +-Neyasai
 +----+-----------------------------------------------Binda
      +-----------------+--------------------(Dhuli)
                        +---+----------------------+--[[Sangari]]
                            |                      |  + [[Kireethin]]
                            |                      +--[[Zireen]]
                            +---+---------+-------(Varinnoya)
                                |         +-----------Zoray
                                +-----+---------------[[Nithra]]
                                      +---------+-----Hralta
                                                +-----(Thruad)


[[Category:Azir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blafu</title>
    <id>2300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32745</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-13T05:44:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Blafu''' have traditionally been the dominant culture of the eastern part of Odirá.  For much of Odiran history, the Blafu were the technologically dominant culture.  Today, most Odiran languages (and many non-Odiran, as well) borrow from [[Classical Blafu]] for scientific terminology.

For example, see [[Galhafan Biological Taxonomy]]

The [[Blafu religion]] was based upon the worship of the [[Silent God]], the god of death.  Their religion considered deafness sacred, and its priesthood used a sign language known as the [[Sacred Hand]].

[[Category:Galhaf]]
[[Category:Blafu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbic</title>
    <id>2301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47881</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-01T16:17:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Pronominal morphology */ - nominate —&gt; nominative</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Élbica
|pronounce='ɛlbika
|tu=[[Ill Bethisad]]
|species=Human
|in=[http://ib.frath.net/w/Elba Elba]
|no=30,000
|script=Latin
|tree=[[Proto-Indo-European|Indo-European]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Italic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;South-Central Romance&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central-Southern Italian&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''[[Elbic]]'''
|morph=Inflecting
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=SVO
|creator=[[User:Sectori|Sectori]]
|date=July, 2009}}
''Nota bene: Elbic has undergone extreme reforms of late. Bear with me as I update the page. The revised version is currently accurate through [[Elbic#Verbal morphology|Verbal morphology]].''

Elbic is the language of the Principality of Elba, an island off the coast of Tuscany. It is a Central and Southern Italian language, although it has been relatively isolated, related to Neapolitan and Tuscan Italian.

==Phonology==
Elbic phonology is fairly ordinary for a Romance language.

===Vowels===
Elbic has a straightforward seven-vowel system inherited from Vulgar Latin. It also has three diphthongs, two falling and one rising: /jɛ/, /wɔ/, and /ai/.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || i || || || || || || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || ê || || || || || || || ô
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || e || || || || || || || o
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || a
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Orthographically, it should be noted that '''e''' and '''o''' occasionally represent /e/ and /o/; as a general rule, only the first vowel in a word that would receive a circumflex does. The diphthong /jɛ/ is represented orthographically as '''ië''', the diphthong /wɔ/ as '''uo''', and the diphthong /ai/ as '''ai'''.

===Consonants===
Elbic has either 22 or 24 consonants, depending on whether the semivowels /w/ and /j/ are treated as allophonic realizations of /i/ and /u/ or as consonants in their own right.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Labiovelar
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || gn || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || p || b || || || t || d || || || || || || || c(h) || g(h) || qu || gu
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative ||  ||  || f || v ||  ||  || s || || x || g(i) || || ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || ç || z || || || c(i) ||  || || ||  ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || ||(u)|| || || || || || || || || ||(i)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || || r
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || ||  || || || l || || || || lh
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Orthographically, '''ch''' and '''gh''' are used for /k/ and /g/ before front vowels, '''c''' and '''g''' before back vowels. '''c''' and '''g''' are used for /tʃ/ and /ʒ/ before front vowels, '''ci''' and '''gi''' before back vowels. All consonants can be geminated, in which case they are written twice, with the following exceptions:
* geminated '''lh''' is written '''llh'''
* geminated '''ç''' is written '''tç'''
* geminated '''qu''' is written '''cqu'''
* geminated '''gn''' is written '''ggn'''

Written Elbic utilizes four diacritics:
* the circumflex is used to mark the vowels /e/ and /o/ (written '''ê''' and '''ô''')
* the diaeresis is used to mark the diphthong /jɛ/ (written '''ië''')
* the acute accent is used to mark irregular stress on a non-final syllable
* the grave accent is used to mark irregular stress on a final syllable

Note that an acute or grave takes precedence over the diaeresis (e.g. '''Miéxxicu''' ''Mexico'').

===Stress===
To place the stress of a word, follow these rules in the order they are presented here.

* When determining the stress of a word, always initially place it on the final syllable.
* If the final sound is a vowel, stress moves back one syllable.
* If anywhere in the word there is a vowel with an acute or grave, move the stress to the accented vowel.
* In monosyllabic words, the vowel is generally treated as if it were unstressed.

Thus, '''Miéxxicu''', the Elbic name for Mexico, is /'mjɛʃ:iku/, '''Êlba''', the Elbic name for Elba, is /'elba/, the definite article '''la''' is /la/, and '''nu napoletannu''' ''a Neapolitan'' is /nu napolɛ'tan:u/.

==Nominal morphology==
Nouns in Elbic belong to one of two genders, masculine or feminine. The vast majority of nouns end in a vowel, and all nouns form their plurals by suffixing '''s''':

* '''duomnu''' (lord) —&gt; '''duomnus'''
* '''acqua''' (water) —&gt; '''acquas'''
* '''princêppi''' (prince) —&gt; '''princêppis
* '''parti''' (part, section) —&gt; '''partis'''
* '''mannu''' (hand) —&gt; '''mannus'''
* '''zi''' (day) —&gt; '''zis'''

Generally speaking, nouns that end in '''u''' are masculine and nouns that end in '''a''' are feminine (although this is not always so: '''mannu''' is feminine, for example). Nouns ending in other vowels might belong to either gender, although there are some observable patterns. For example,

* nouns ending in '''ionni''' ('''stazionni''' &quot;station&quot;, e.g.) are feminine
* nouns ending in '''atti''' ('''universitatti''' &quot;university&quot;, e.g.) are feminine
* nouns ending in '''orri''' ('''amorri''' &quot;love&quot;, e.g.) are masculine

===Articles===
Elbic has two types of articles, definite and indefinite, each of which has five forms. The forms of the definite article are as follows:

{|
! || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || lu || la || l'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || lus || las || *
|}

Plural nouns that begin with a vowel use the normal plural forms. For example, '''lu duomnu''' (the lord), '''las mannus''' (the hands), '''l'universitatti''' (the university), '''lus amorris''' (the loves).

The forms of the indefinite article are as follows:

{|
! || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || nu || na || n'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || nus || nas || *
|}

Plural nouns that begin with a vowel use the normal plural forms. The plural indefinite article is equivalent to English &quot;some&quot; or French &quot;des&quot;. The definite article contracts with the prepositions '''a''' (at, to, towards), '''da''' (from, of), '''in''' (in, at, on), and '''su''' (around, on).

====Contraction with ''a''====
{|
! ''a'' || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || allu || alla || all'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || allus || allas || *
|}

====Contraction with ''da''====
{|
! ''da'' || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || dallu || dalla || dall'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || dallus || dallas || *
|}

====Contraction with ''in''====
{|
! ''in'' || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || gnellu || gnella || gnell'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || gnellus || gnellas || *
|}

====Contraction with ''su''====
{|
! ''a'' || Masc. || Fem. || Before vowel
|-
| '''Sing.''' || sullu || sulla || sull'
|-
| '''Plur.''' || sullus || sullas || *
|}

==Pronominal morphology==
Elbic pronouns, like nouns, distinguish two numbers and between two and five cases. In the third person, there is a masculine-feminine distinction, as well. The cases shown by the pronouns are the following: for the first and second person pronouns, nominative, genitive, and oblique-reflexive cases are distinguished. For the impersonal pronoun '''si''', the nominative and the oblique-reflexive are identical. For the third person pronouns, nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and reflexive are distinguished, and there exist special disjunctive forms, as well.

===First person===
The first person pronoun declines as follows:
{|
! || Sing. || Plur.
|-
| '''Nom.''' || giu || nus
|-
| '''Gen.''' || miu || nuostru
|-
| '''O.-R.''' || mi || nui
|}

===Second person===
The second person pronoun declines as follows:
{|
! || Sing. || Plur.
|-
| '''Nom.''' || tu || vus
|-
| '''Gen.''' || tiu || vuostru
|-
| '''O.-R.''' || ti || vui
|}

===Third person===
The third person pronoun declines as follows:
{|
| || Masc. || || Fem.
|-
! || Sing. || Plur. || Sing. || Plur.
|-
| '''Nom.''' || ell || ells || ella || ellas
|-
| '''Gen.''' || siu || lôrru || siu || larru
|-
| '''Dat.''' || lhi || lhis || lhi || lhis
|-
| '''Acc.''' || lu/l' || lus || la/l' || las
|-
| '''Ref.''' || si || si || si || si
|-
| '''Disj.''' || ellu || ellus || ella || ellas
|}

==Verbal morphology==
Elbic verbs can be classified into five groups; four of them are distinguished by their infinitive endings while the fifth comprises irregular verbs.

* First conjugation infinitives end in '''arri''', e.g. '''parlarri''' ''speak''
* Second conjugation infinitives end in '''erri''', e.g. '''vêderri''' ''see''
* Third conjugation infinitives end in '''ri''', e.g. '''priëndri''' ''take''
* Fourth conjugation infinitives end in '''irri''', e.g. '''finirri''' ''finish''
* Irregular verbs' infinitives look like infinitives for one of the other four conjugations

There are two important notes about verb conjugation. Some finite endings cause palatalization of the preceding consonant:

{|
! Normal || Palatalized
|-
| c || x
|-
| ch || c
|-
| g || gi
|-
| gh || g
|-
| t || ç
|-
| d || z
|-
| l || lh
|-
| n || gn
|}

Additionally, any verbs, most notably verbs of the third conjugation, whose final stem vowel is short '''e''' or '''o''' will diphthongize when that vowel is stressed to '''ië''' or '''uo'''. Thus, the stem of the third conjugation verb '''priëndri''' is actually *'''prend''', but because the stress falls on the stem vowel, it has diphthongized even in the infinitive.

All verbs are conjugated by removing the infinitive ending and adding various suffixes. The conjugation patterns for regular verbs, as well as for the irregular verbs '''esserri''' ''be'' and '''averri''' ''have''. Additionally, it should be noted that many verbs, especially of the second and third conjugations, have irregular preterite stems. For example, '''vêderri''' ''see'' has the preterite stem '''vid''' (e.g. '''vidì''' ''I saw''). The irregular preterite stem is used in both the indicative and the subjunctive.

===First conjugation===
The conjugation of first conjugation verbs in '''arri''' is shown below.

====Finite forms====
The finite forms of the first conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || u || ai || abba || arò || i || assi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || as || asti || abbas || aràs || is || assis || a
|-
| 3 sg.  || a || ò || abba || arà || i || assi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || ammu || ammu || ábbamu || aremmu || immu || ássimu || immu
|-
| 2 pl.  || atti || astis || ábbati || aretti || itti || ássiti || atti
|-
| 3 pl. || an || arrun || abban || aràn || in || assin || —
|}

====Non-finite forms====
The non-finite forms of the first conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''arri'''
|- 
| Past part. || '''attu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''anti'''
|}

====Sample conjugation====
The finite conjugation of the verb '''cantarri''' ''sing'':

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || cantu || cantai || cantabba || cantarò || canti || cantassi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || cantas || cantasti || cantabbas || cantaràs || cantis || cantassis || canta
|-
| 3 sg.  || canta || cantò || cantabba || cantarà || canti || cantassi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || cantammu || cantammu || cantábbamu || cantaremmu || cantimmu || cantássimu || cantimmu
|-
| 2 pl.  || cantatti || cantastis || cantábbati || cantaretti || cantitti || cantássiti || cantatti
|-
| 3 pl. || cantan || cantarrun || cantabban || cantaràn || cantin || cantassin || —
|}

And the non-finite forms:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''cantarri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''cantattu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''cantanti'''
|}

===Second conjugation===
The conjugation of second conjugation verbs in '''erri''' is shown below:

====Finite forms====
The finite forms of the second conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || *u || ì || ebba || erò || *a || essi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || es || isti || ebbas || eràs || *as || essis || i
|-
| 3 sg.  || i || ò || ebba || erà || *a || essi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || emmu || immu || ébbamu || eremmu || *ammu || éssimu || *ammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || etti || istis || ébbati || eretti || *atti || éssiti || etti
|-
| 3 pl. || *un || *errun || ebban || eràn || *an || essin || —
|}

====Non-finite forms====
The non-finite forms of the second conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''erri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''ittu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''enti'''
|}

====Sample conjugation====
The finite conjugation of '''vêderri''' ''see'':

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || vêzu || vidì || vêdebba || vêderò || vêza || videssi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || vêdes || vidisti || vêdebbas || vêderàs || vêzas || videssis || vêdi
|-
| 3 sg.  || vêdi || vidò || vêdebba || vêderà || vêza || videssi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || vêdemmu || vidimmu || vêdébbamu || vêderemmu || vêzammu || vidéssimu || vêzammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || vêdetti || vidistis || vêdébbati || vêderetti || vêzatti || vidéssiti || vêdetti
|-
| 3 pl. || vêzun || vizerrun || vêdebban || vêderàn || vêzan || videssin || —
|}

And the non-finite forms; note the irregular past participle:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''vêderri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''vistu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''vêdenti'''
|}

===Third conjugation===
The conjugation of third conjugation verbs in '''ri'''.

====Finite forms====
The finite forms of the third conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || u || ì || *ebba || rò || a || essi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || is || isti || *ebbas || ràs || as || essis || i
|-
| 3 sg.  || i || ò || *ebba || rà || a || essi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || emmu || immu || *ébbamu || remmu || ammu || éssimu || ammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || etti || istis || *ébbati || retti || atti || éssiti || etti
|-
| 3 pl. || un || *errun || *ebban || ràn || an || essin || —
|}

====Non-finite forms====
The non-finite forms of the second conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''ri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''ittu'''
|-
| Present part. || *'''enti'''
|}

====Sample conjugation====
The finite conjugation of '''piërdri''' ''lose'' (stem '''perd'''):

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || piërdu || perdì || perzebba || perdrò || piërda || perdessi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || piërdis || perdisti || perzebbas || perdràs || piërdas || perdessis || piërdi
|-
| 3 sg.  || piërdi || perdò || perzebba || perdrà || piërda || perdessi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || perdemmu || perdimmu || perzébbamu || perdremmu || perdammu || perdéssimu || perdammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || perdetti || perdistis || perzébbati || perdretti || perdatti || perdéssiti || perdetti
|-
| 3 pl. || piërdun || perzerrun || perzebban || perdràn || piërdan || perdessin || —
|}

And the non-finite forms:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''piërdri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''perdittu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''perzenti'''
|}

===Fourth conjugation===
The conjugation of fourth conjugation verbs in '''irri'''.

====Finite forms====
The finite forms of the fourth conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || *u || ì || *ebba || irò || *a || essi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || is || isti || *ebbas || iràs || *as || essis || i
|-
| 3 sg.  || i || ò || *ebba || irà || *a || essi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || immu || immu || *ébbamu || iremmu || *ammu || éssimu || *ammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || itti || istis || *ébbati || iretti || *atti || éssiti || itti
|-
| 3 pl. || *un || *errun || *ebban || iràn || *an || essin || —
|}

====Non-finite forms====
The non-finite forms of the fourth conjugation are as follows:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''irri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''ittu'''
|-
| Present part. || *'''enti'''
|}

====Sample conjugation====
The finite conjugation of '''finirri''' ''finish'':

{| border=1
! || Present Indicative || Preterite Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Preterite Subjunctive || Imperative
|-
| 1 sg.  || fignu || finì || fignebba || finirò || figna || finessi || —
|-
| 2 sg.  || finis || finisti || fignebbas || finiràs || fignas || finessis || fini
|-
| 3 sg.  || fini || finò || fignebba || finirà || figna || finessi || —
|-
| 1 pl.  || finimmu || finimmu || fignébbamu || finiremmu || fignammu || finéssimu || fignammu
|-
| 2 pl.  || finitti || finistis || fignébbati || finiretti || fignatti || finéssiti || finitti
|-
| 3 pl. || fignun || fignerrun || fignebban || finiràn || fignan || finessin || —
|}

And the non-finite forms:

{| border=1
| Infinitive || '''finirri'''
|-
| Past part. || '''finittu'''
|-
| Present part. || '''fignenti'''
|}

==Irregular Verbs==
Elbic has many irregular verbs. Most belong to the second conjugation. Two of the most important are '''ésshe''' and '''avhe'''. '''ésshe''' means &quot;to be&quot;, and '''avhe''' &quot;to have&quot;. '''Avhe''' also is &quot;to have&quot; in the auxiliary sense, e.g. &quot;I have done this before&quot;. '''Ésshe''' is conjugated as follows:

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || sonno || fui || ero || shero || sea || fuissa || srhi
|-
| 2Ps  || sei || fuiste || erai || sherai || seai || fuissai || srhei
|-
| 3Ps  || é || fuo || era || shera || sea || fuissa || srhi
|-
| 1Pp  || sammo || fuimo || erammo || sheremmo || seammo || fuissammo || srhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || satte || fuisti || eratte|| sheratte || seatte || fuissatte || srhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || sanno || fuirono || eranno || sheranno || seanno || fuissanno || srhinno
|}

And here is the conjugation of '''avhe''':

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || ho || hi || avevo || avrho || he || hissa || avrhi
|-
| 2Ps  || hai || histe || avevai || avrhai || hei || hissai || avrhei
|-
| 3Ps  || ha || hio || aveva || avrha || he || hissa || avrhi
|-
| 1Pp  || hammo || himo || avevammo || avrhemmo || hemmo || hissammo || avrhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || hatte || histi || avevatte|| avrhatte || hette || hissatte || avrhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || hanno || hirono || avevanno || avrhanno || henno || hissanno || avrhinno
|}

Also, the conjugationn of '''andha''', &quot;to go&quot;.

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || vo || fui || ivo || vharo || ve || fuissa || vrhi
|-
| 2Ps  || vai || fuiste || ivai || vharai || vei || fuissai || vrhei
|-
| 3Ps  || va || fuo || iva || vhara || ve || fuissa || vhri
|-
| 1Pp  || andammo || fuimo || ivammo || vharemmo || vemmo || fuissammo || vrhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || andatte || fuisti || ivatte|| vharatte || vette || fuissatte || vrhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || vanno || fuirono || ivanno || vharanno || venno || fuissanno || vrhinno
|}

The conjugation of '''bhe''', &quot;to drink&quot;.

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || beo || bi || bia || bhero || bea || beissa || brhi
|-
| 2Ps  || bei || beiste || biai || bherai || beai || beissai || brhei
|-
| 3Ps  || bè || beio || bia || bhera || bea || beissa || brhi
|-
| 1Pp  || bemmo || beimo || biammo || bheremmo || beammo || beissammo || brhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || bette || beisti || biatte|| bheratte || beatte || beissatte || brhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || benno || beirono || bianno || bheranno || beanno || beissanno || brhinno
|}

The conjugation of '''dha''', &quot;to give&quot;.

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || duo || di || dia || dharo || due || dassa || drhi
|-
| 2Ps  || duai || daste || diai || dharai || duei || dassai || drhei
|-
| 3Ps  || dua || dò || dia || dhara || due || dassa || drhi
|-
| 1Pp  || duammo || damo || diammo || dharemmo || duemmo || dassammo || drhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || duatte || dasti || diatte|| dharatte || duette || dassatte || drhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || duanno || darono || dianno || dharanno || duenno || dassanno || drhinno
|}

Finally, the conjugation of '''fha''', &quot;to make; do&quot;.

{| border=1
| || Present Indicative || Simple Past Indicative || Imperfect Indicative || Future Indicative || Present Subjunctive || Imperfect Subjunctive || Present Conditional
|-
| 1Ps  || fuo || fi || fia || fharo || fue || fassa || frhi
|-
| 2Ps  || fuai || faste || fiai || fharai || fuei || fassai || frhei
|-
| 3Ps  || fua || fò || fia || fhara || fue || fassa || frhi
|-
| 1Pp  || fuammo || famo || fiammo || frhemmo || fuemmo || fassammo || frhimmo
|-
| 2Pp  || fuatte || fasti || fiatte|| fharatte || fuette || fassatte || frhitte
|-
| 3Pp  || fuanno || farono || fianno || fharanno || fuenno || fassanno || frhinno
|}

==Verb Conjugation: Compound Tenses==
Elbic compound tenses are formed by combining a conjugated form of one verb and one of the participles of another. Most are formed with '''avhe''', but the passive and progressive tenses are formed with '''ésshe''' and the periphrastic future is formed with '''andha'''.

===Forming the Participles===
Elbic verbs have three participles. The Latin inflected passive has in Elbic become a passive participle. The Latin past and present participles are retained as well. To form any participle, add certain endings to the end of the '''full infinitive''' of a verb. These endings are:

* Passive Participle: '''-tto'''
* Perfect Participle: '''-tte'''
* Present Participle: '''-nte'''

===Compound Tenses with Avhe===
The tenses formed with '''avhe''' are the perfect tenses. They are formed by placing the various tenses of '''avhe''' before the perfect participle. The various tenses are:

* '''Perfect''': present '''avhe'''+perfect participle ('''ho fhatte''': I have done)
* '''Pluperfect''': imperfect '''avhe'''+perfect participle ('''hia fhatte''': I had done)
* '''Remote Pluperfect''': simple past '''avhe'''+perfect participle ('''hi fhatte''': I had done)
* '''Future Perfect''': future '''avhe'''+perfect participle ('''avrho fhatte''': I will have done)
* '''Conditional Perfect: conditional '''avhe'''+perfect participle ('''avrhi fhatte''': I would have done)

===Compound Tenses with Ésshe===
The &quot;tenses&quot; formed with '''ésshe''' are all of the passive voice tenses and the progressive tenses. The passive voice tenses are formed quite simply. The generic passive voice is the '''ésshe'''+the passive participle of a verb.

* '''É disshitto chè...''': it is said that...

Note, however, that the passive voice may also be formed in an impersonal manner, using the pronoun '''sè''', ''one''. We'll talk more about this later. There are also two progressive tenses, the present and imperfect progressives. They are formed simply: place the appropriate form of '''ésshe''' before the present participle of the verb.

* '''Sonno disshinte chè...''': I am saying that...
* '''Erai disshinte chè...''': you were saying that...

===Compound Tenses with Andha===
'''Andha''' is used in the construction of a periphrastic future tense. To form this tense, place an appropriately conjugated form of '''andha''' before the present participle of the verb.

* '''Vo hdisshinte chè...''': I'm going to say that...
* '''Fuiste hdisshinte chè...''': you were going to say that...

==Verbal Morphology: Imperatives==
The imperative is used to give commands. There are a number imperatives in Elbic. Firstly, the second person singular, covering the informal '''tu'''. Secondly, the first person plural, covering such constructions as ''let us go'', and agreeing with the pronoun '''noi'''. Finally, the second person plural, covering '''voi''', whether used as a singular or plural pronoun. The imperative forms differ depending on whether the command is affirmative (''do that'') or negative (''don't do that''). In many cases, object pronouns are affixed as clitics to the imperative verbs. In each entry, there is a note of how this is done. Note, finally, that there are a number of irregular imperatives. Where these exist, they will be noted.

* The second person singular affirmative ending is the same as the third person singular present indicative ending. When clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative, place an -'''h'''- before the penultimate vowel of the word: '''parla''' ''speak''&gt;'''pharlame''' ''speak to me''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and precedes the verb: '''aprende''' ''learn''&gt;'''l'aprende''' ''learn it''.
* The second person singular negative ending is the same as the second person singular present subjunctive ending. When clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative, remove the final -'''i''' from it: '''non parlei''' ''don't speak''&gt;'''non parlemi'''&gt;''don't speak to me''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and it precedes the verb: '''non aprendai''' ''don't learn''&gt;'''non l'aprendai''' ''don't learn it''.
* The first person plural affirmative ending is the same as the first person plural present indicative ending. There are no changes when clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative: '''parlammo''' ''let's speak''&gt;'''parlammole''' ''let's speak to him''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and precedes the verb: '''aprendemmo''' ''let's learn''&gt;'''l'aprendemmo''' ''let's learn it''.
* The first person plural negative ending is the same as the first person plural present subjunctive ending. There are no changes when clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative: '''non parlemmo''' ''let's not speak''&gt;'''non parlemmole''' ''let's not speak to him''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and precedes the verb: '''non aprendammo''' ''let's not learn''&gt;'''non l'aprendammo''' ''let's not learn it''.
* The second person plural/formal affirmative ending is the same as the second person plural present subjunctive ending. There are no changes when clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative: '''parlette''' ''speak''&gt;'''parlettele''' ''speak to him''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and precedes the verb: '''aprendatte''' ''learn''&gt;'''l'aprendatte''' ''learn it''.
* The second person plural/formal negative ending is the same as the second person plural present indicative ending. There are no changes when clitic pronouns are attached to this imperative: '''non parlatte''' ''don't speak''&gt;'''non parlattele''' ''don't speak to him''. If the imperative begins with a vowel or with '''h''', the final vowel is instead removed from the clitic pronoun and precedes the verb: '''non aprendette''' ''don't learn''&gt;'''non l'aprendette''' ''don't learn it''.

==Tense Clarification: Simple Past==
The simple past is in many ways the most complicated of Elbic's many tenses. This section will attempt to clarify it.

===Simple Past vs. Imperfect===
On the surface, these two tenses are similar. Both describe past events. However, there are many differences. The simple past is used to...

* ...describe events that occurred at a specific past time, with definite beginnings and ends.
* ...describe events that occurred only once.
* ...describe events in a story.

The imperfect is used to...

* ...describe events that occurred at an indefinite time, or over a long, undefined period.
* ...describe events that occurred habitually.
* ...form the imperfect progressive.

===Simple Past vs. Perfect===
The simple past is even closer to the perfect. In fact, the simple past is often used in place of the perfect. The perfect typically occurs once every paragraph or so and is from then on replaced with the simple past. Usually the perfect is not used more than once or twice every few minutes in colloquial speech, though the simple past is in contrast almost never used, replaced exclusively by the perfect, in formal discussions.

===Simple Past vs. Pluperfects===
The simple past and the pluperfects seem similar, but there is an important difference: the pluperfects are used in only one place: when describing events that occurred at a specific time, with definite beginnings and ends (or only occurring once), ''before other events''. The pluperfects are only used where English would use ''had done something'' and similar constructions. The remote pluperfect is especially select: it can only be used when something pluperfect occurred at a distant past time (usually more than a year before the speaking).

==The Soft Mutation==
There are two cases where the soft mutation occurs. Every conjugated verb causes the soft mutation in the word following it. This often occurs with the periphrastic future, and in fact is seen in both of the examples above. It also occurs in any case of a conjugated verb followed by another word: '''nechésitha''', '''chirhe''', '''dovhe''', anything.

* '''Nechésito hchiamha a mme má''': I need to call my mom.
* '''Chiro hchiamha a mme má''': I want to call my mom.
* '''Dovo hchiamha a mme má''': I should call my mom.

This seems an opportune time to mention also that '''a''', ''to'', causes the geminate mutation, and '''de''', ''of'', ''from'', causes the soft mutation.

The other time where the soft mutation occurs is adjectives. Adjectives can either precede or follow the noun they modify, with the difference only in emphasis. When adjectives are describing feminine or neuter nouns, one of two things can happen:

* The adjective precedes the feminine or neuter noun. If the adjective is singular, the soft mutation occurs on the noun. If the adjective is plural and feminine, the soft mutation occurs on the noun.
* The feminine or neuter noun precedes the adjective. If the noun is singular, the soft mutation occurs on the adjective. If the noun is plural and feminine, the soft mutation occurs on the adjective.

* '''Lu ffrasu hbuonu''': the good sentence
* '''Na nnova hcossina''': a new kitchen
* '''Gorde hnapolitanne''': fat Neapolitans (an Elban sterotype)

==Adjectives==
Adjectives are words that describe a noun. Adjectives must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify. There are two types of adjectives: -o-a-u adjectives have six forms; -e adjectives only two. The adjectives inflect as follows:

{| border=1
| || Masculine|| Feminine|| Neuter
|-
| Singular -o-a-u  || -o || -a || -u
|-
| Plural -o-a-u  || -i || -e || -e
|-
| Singular -e  || -e || -e || -e
|-
| Plural -e  || -i || -i || -i
|-
|}

So &quot;the good sentence&quot; is '''lu ffrasu hbuonu''' (remember the soft mutation!), and &quot;the beautiful kitchens&quot; is '''le bbelle hcossine'''. An adjective always has the endings shown here, regardless of the ending of the noun: '''il patre buon''o'''''; '''la mmatre hbell''a'''''.

===Telling the Difference===
-o-a-u adjectives are so named because of the different endings they take in the singular. When reading an unfamiliar adjective, try to determine whether the noun is singular or plural. Based on that, match the noun's gender and number on this table to the ending it has.

==The Origin of Mutations==
This section describes, briefly, the generally agreed upon origin of the Elbic consonantal mutations.

===The Geminate Mutation===
The soft mutation's origin is quite simple. It occurs in two places: after the feminine and neuter articles, and after the preposition '''a'''. The geminate mutation originated in the town dialect of La Mmarina de hMarcianna

* The description of the geminate mutation after '''a''' is simple: '''a''' comes from the Latin '''ad'''. The '''-d''', over time, shifted to attach itself to the word after it: '''ad cassa''' &gt; '''a dcassa'''. This extraneous '''d-''' soon shifted to match the initial consonant of the word it was applying to: '''a ccassa'''.
* The progression for the feminine and neuter articles is a bit less straightforward. The Elbic article derives from Latin demonstratives. These gradually shifted in meaning from a classifier (&quot;this sentence&quot;) to a definer (&quot;the sentence&quot;). The geminate after the article evolved by a vague analogy to the '''a ccassa''' situation. There were originally two '''l''''s in the Latin demonstratives. When the initial vowel disappeared in those, the now-initial '''l''' moved to be word-final. Gradually, it slipped across to the adjacent word and was assimilated similarly to (though over a longer period of time than) the '''-d''' of '''ad''' (it shifted first to a non-lateral approximant, '''r''', then by analogy with '''ad''' to a voiced plosive, '''d''', then assimilated at in the same manner that the '''-d''' did): '''illa cassa''' &gt; '''lla cassa''' &gt; '''la lcassa''' &gt; '''la rcassa''' &gt; '''la dcassa''' &gt; '''la ccassa'''.

Of course, this is mostly speculation, and it may just be a borrowing from Neapolitan: there was a fairly large influx of Neapolitan immigrants to Elba in the mid-16th century.

===The Soft Mutation===
The soft mutation is a bit more difficult to rationalize as an Elbic-only developement. Fortunately, it is not. It evolved as a dialectical variation on the pronunciation of initial consonants, similar to the famed &quot;Tuscan gorgia&quot;. In Elbic, the soft mutation originally began as a stress movement. But gradually, by way of trade with neighboring Tuscany, it began to soften or change the initial consonant. The reasons for its placement are yet unknown: it probably began as a stress shift in words starting with a consonant after '''de''', and a similar shift in the context of feminine and neuter adjectives, then evolved parallel to the  Tuscan gorgia. The soft mutation was originally a dialectical variation of Portoferraho.

===Standardization===
Little observed by the world, the Elbic language was ruthlessly standardized in the mid-17th century, around the time of its emergence as an individual language. The Elban '''Forza Par Independenza''', a movement for independence from Italy, devised a new spelling system for Elbic, still used to this day, and also standardized both mutations to further differentiate between Elbic and Italian. There was some grumbling, but the Elbans seemed to know that the independence movement would be the second most interesting thing about their island in the future, so they grudgingly, gradually accepted it. In fact, this proved to be for the better, as the FPI instituted a number of public schools where children were taught the FPI-approved standard dialect. Thus, in a mere generation, and about the time that the FPI came to an end, collapsing in on itself, the Elbic langauge was standardized. In the centuries since, there are still few dialects of Elbic, and overall the dialects that there are (most notably a minority group in Tuscany which does not use the geminate mutation) are small enough that they will probably disappear, incorporated into mainstream Italian, within another century or so.

==Spelling Conventions==
There are a few important spelling rules in Elbic.

* First, and most important: ''always spell correctly''. This applies to any language, really.
* Second: ''always include an orthographic '''h'''''. Even if it's redundant (as in '''cánthara'''). It's an important part of the spelling of a word, even if it doesn't seem like it.
* Third: ''when geminating a capitalized noun, the first of the pair of geminated consonants is capitalized''. As in '''La ''M''marina de hMarcianna'''.
* Fourth: ''when softening a capitalized noun, the softening '''h''' is lowercase.'' As in '''parlo ''h''Francesse'''.
* Fifth: '''''i''' (''and'') before '''i''' is spelt (and pronounced) as '''e'''.'' As in '''Tintin ''e'' i Picari'''.

==Links==
* [[Elbic Swadesh list]]

[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]
[[Category:Ill Bethisad]]
[[Category:Romance conlangs]]
[[Category:Elbic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Verbs</title>
    <id>2302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47548</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T11:53:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Existential verb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Verbs==

Khangaþyagon is an agglutinating language, and its grammatical affixes are suffixes - the native term is segunakar, &quot;follow-parts&quot;.

===Stem, Person, Infinitive and Participles===

The stem of a verb always ends in a consonant. This is obligatorily followed by either one of the person suffixes

;a:1p
;e:2p
;i:3p

which refer to the person of the subject of the verb, or the infinitive ending

;o:infinitive

or by a participle suffix

;on/ont:present participle
;osht:past participle

A participle may refer to a person characterised by the action, rather than the action itself. Which sense a participle has is entirely lexical, as is whether the verb has the &amp;quot;on&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;ont&amp;quot; form of the present participle. These do not correlate.

These may then be followed by the following segunakar, in order of occurrence

===Reflexiveness===

;d+reduplication of person ending:Reflexive

===Continuous aspect===

;ha:Continuous

===Perfect aspect===

;fœ:Perfect

===Tense===

;ng:past tense
;kh:future tense

Present is unmarked

===Voice===

;uf:passive

Active is unmarked

===Mood===

;azh:Conditional
;lt:Imperative
;dau:Interrogative

Indicative is unmarked

===Negation===

;she:not

===Number===

This refers to the number of the subject of the verb.

;(a)r:plural

The a appears epenthetically when this segunak follows a consonant.

===Paradigm Summary===
The form of the verb can thus be summarised as&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;
{set of alternatives, separated by commas}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;
[optional segunak]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;    stem+{person,infinitive,participle}+[Reflexiveness]+[continuous]+[perfect]+[tense]+[voice]+[mood]+[negation]+[number]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;

==The Existential Verb==

The equivalent of &amp;quot;there is&amp;quot; is indicated by using the verb dah- (be) in the passive voice, ''eg'' 
;dahiuf rik: there is a man 

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Phonology|Back_name=Phonology|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Up_name=Morphology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Nouns|Next_name=Nouns}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adpihi</title>
    <id>2303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T21:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Linked to new page to show sounds</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Typed in a hell of a lot, lost it all.  Frathwiki thought I hadn't logged in.

See
http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/Adpihi

[[Sounds of Old Adpihi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Reptigan</title>
    <id>2304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11254</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T22:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Typed in a hell of a lot, lost it all. Frathwiki thought I hadn't logged in.

http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/Reptigan

[[Sounds of Reptigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Nouns</title>
    <id>2305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-23T10:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Roots===      
The root of a noun is singular and may be used as the subject or object of the verb - the two roles are distinguished syntactically.

The root may be followed by segunakar of up to six ranks. Each rank of segunak performs a particular grammatical role, and complex combinations of segunakar of different ranks are possible.

The term &amp;quot;case&amp;quot; is not used in relation to Khangaþyagon nouns - the sheer variety of different grammatical forms a noun can take means that it isn't a very useful concept.

The ranks of segunakar are given below in the order they follow the root.

===modsegunakar===
These are deixis markers.
;il:this
;ban:that
;dau:what
;she:no
;wo:any
;ye:topical vocative. Marks the noun as referring to the person addressed when it occurs in any role other than the subject of a second person sentence (which obviously refers to the addressee, so isn't marked).

===densegunakar===

Proximity markers. In the noun phrase A B-densegunak, the densegunak indicates how closely A is associated with B.

;ut:at
;eb:in contact
;art:with
;ash:without
;iss:near
;orr:far

===radsegunakar===

Position markers. A B-radsegunak indicates where A is in relation to B.

;ip:in
;sta:outside
;omb:around
;gri:above
;od:below
;shing:left
;hop:beside
;urþ:right
;æks:alligned with
;tuk:in front of
;ðen:behind

===karvsegunakar===
Sense of motion

;am:destination
;ig:origin
;gu:path

===sintsegunakar===
Abstract relationships

;uz:of
;ol:by (instrumental)
;akh:to (recipient)
;ku:about
;ung:for (benefactive)
;zen:on behalf of
;aug:for (goal, reason)
;yat:against

===bantsegunak===
Number

;(a)r:Plural

===Paradigm Summary===
The form of the noun is therefore

&lt;nowiki&gt;stem+[deixis]+{[proximity]+[position]+[motion],[abstract]}+[number]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Verbs|Back_name=Verbs|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Up_name=Morphology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Adjectives|Next_name=Adjectives}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Senjecan lexicon roots a-ð</title>
    <id>2307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T19:21:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Talk:Lexicon roots a-ð moved to Talk:Senjecan lexicon roots a-ð</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The grey box appeared because you used spaces.  If you start each line with one or more spaces, then it will make a grey box.  If instead, you use colon, there'll be no space.  For example:

&lt;nowiki&gt;:A001 âa, ''inter.'' ah! [''exclamation denoting pleasure or admiration''].&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;:A002 aabêlis, apple tree (''Pyrus malus'') ['''Bot.'''].&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;:A003 ââfra, 1) ''t.v.'' beach. 2) ''i.v.'' beach.&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;:A004 -ââges, ''noun suffix used to name various kinds of caprids.''&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;:A005 -ââgus, ''noun suffix indicating someone performing or involved''&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;::::''with an occupation or some other function.''&lt;/nowiki&gt;

shows up as 

:A001 âa, ''inter.'' ah! [''exclamation denoting pleasure or admiration'']. 
:A002 aabêlis, apple tree (''Pyrus malus'') ['''Bot.'''].
:A003 ââfra, 1) ''t.v.'' beach. 2) ''i.v.'' beach.
:A004 -ââges, ''noun suffix used to name various kinds of caprids.''
:A005 -ââgus, ''noun suffix indicating someone performing or involved''
::::''with an occupation or some other function.''

So, if you want to get rid of the grey box, just take out all the spaces and replace them with colons.

[[User:Nik|Nik]] 11:07, 23 May 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Adjectives</title>
    <id>2310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-26T11:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Stems===
The stem of an adjective in Khangaþyagon often ends in a vowel, but this is not obligatory.

The stem is followed by the following segunakar, in the order they follow the root.

===Negation===

;she:forms antonyms

===Degree===

;ikhim:superlative
;ezhm:comparative
;dedu:reductive (less)
;kokra:minimative (least)

===Noun agreement===

Khangaþyagon adjectives agree with the noun, and thus carry all the segunakar that the nouns they qualify carry. One exception to this is cardinal numbers, since all cardinal numbers greater than one are implicitly plural, they do not carry plural marking, but they do agree with all other segunakar on the noun.

===Examples of antonyms and negation agreement===

As the segunak &amp;quot;she&amp;quot; can occur either to form an antonym or in agreement with a negated noun, it may seem ambiguous what it means in a given context. Here are some examples that illustrate how to disambiguate them with the help of some worthy and unworthy men.

;rik nello:worthy man
;rik nelloshe:unworthy man
;rikshe nelloshe:no worthy man
;rikshe nellosheshe:no unworthy man
;rik nelloezhm:worthier man
;rik nellosheezhm:unworthier man
;rikshe nelloezhmshe:no worthier man
;rikshe nellosheezhmshe:no unworthier man

===Adjective/verb compounding===

When an adjective is used as the predicate of a sentence, rather than qualifying the noun, it compounds with the verb, forming an adjectival verb. This occurs most frequently with the verbs

;dah-:be
;vlant-:become
;ap-:make, cause

In this case there is no noun agreement. Verb compounding follows negation and degree.

===Paradigm Summary===

In general the form of an adjective is

&lt;nowiki&gt;      
stem+[negation]+[degree]+{noun agreement,verb}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Nouns|Back_name=Nouns|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Up_name=Morphology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Adverbs etc|Next_name=Adverbs, Pronouns and Conjunctions}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan culture</title>
    <id>2314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41198</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-25T01:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Senjecan anatomy and physiology]]

[[Senjecan animals]]

[[Senjecan colors]]

[[Senjecan correspondences]]

[[Senjecan cuisine]]

[[Senjecan dice game]]

[[Senjecan heraldry]]

[[Senjecan marc]]

[[Senjecan polite expressions]]

[[Senjecan religion]]

[[Senjecan society]]

[[Senjecan time and calendar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan anatomy and physiology</title>
    <id>2315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44681</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-15T15:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* The Pyrans. */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=

=Introduction=
The names of the five loquent peoples (other than human) in English are formed on the pattern of the word &quot;human&quot; from the Latin '''humus''', earth, but derived rather from the Greek, than from the Latin.
*The Children of Air, the first created, are called '''ethrans''' (/iTr@n/) from the Greek '''aether''', air.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;iðrĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*The Children of Fire, the second created, are called '''pyrans''' (/pair@n/) from the Greek '''pyr''', fire.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;punĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*The Children of Water, the third created, are called '''hydorans''' (/&quot;haidor@n/) from the Greek '''hydor''', water.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*The Children of Earth, the fourth created, are called humans from the Latin '''humus''', earth.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;ertĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*The Children of Wood, the fifth created, are called '''xylans''' (/zail@n/) from the Greek '''xylos''', wood.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭalĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*The Children of Stone, the sixth created, are called '''lithans''' (/lIT@n/) from the Greek '''lithos''', stone.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;ondĭônus&lt;/font&gt;.
*Some general descriptions:
#All the peoples, save the ethrans and the humans, have a tapetum which enhances their night vision.
#All the peoples, save the hydorans, have hemoglobin as the blood oxygen carrier.  The hydorans have [[wikipedia:hemocyanin|hemocyanin]], which colors their blood blue.
#The six peoples are each a different species, thus there is no interbreeding.  Sexual activity is, however, possible between those peoples of the same size.
#The excretory, digestive, circulatory, respiratory and endocrine systems function in basically the same ways in all the peoples.
#In those peoples that procreate, the females possess only two functional breasts.
#In those peoples that procreate, the pyrans and the humans have a gestation period of ten lunar months.  For the hydorans and the lithans the gestation period is seven lunar months.
#The males of all the peoples possess a foreskin.

=The Ethrans.=
*The Ethrans are much like humans in anatomy and physiology.  They are, on the average, the same height and weight as humans.  Their hair is pure white, although the hair of the sundered ethrans has turned black.  Among the male ethrans, some have body hair and some do not, similar to the humans.  Their eyes are the light blue color of the sky.  In a manner similar to [[wikipedia:electric eel|electric eels]], their somatic cells are designed to be conduits of the energy in earth mistakenly called magic.  [[wikipedia:dentition|Dentition]] is the same as in humans.
*In the beginning of creation they were all created at the same time, thus there is no procreation.  But there are two sexes, complete with sex organs, although without ovaries or testicles, and sex is enjoyed for pleasure.  With the sundered ethrans, sex becomes a means of domination.
*The ethrans are immortal.
*In the tales and legends of humans, the ethrans have been transmogrified into wizards, mages, ''etc''.  Some cultures remember them as angels.

=The Pyrans.=
*The Pyrans are much like humans in anatomy and physiology.  They are, on the average, the same height as humans.  Although much more slender than humans, they are very muscular.  They are one of the three peoples that are hollow-boned (&lt;font color=blue&gt;кûlmis&lt;/font&gt;), in a manner similar to birds.  Their hair can be various shades of red and is usually worn in a ponytail.  Their eyes seem to be a golden color, but this is really a light shade of brown.  Their visual acuity is exceptional; they are [[wikipedia:tetrachromacy|tetrachromatic]] and can see in the infrared range.  They have no body hair, except in the axillae and groin.  Dentition is the same as in humans.
*They may engage in sex at any time, but the female is in estrus only in the fall.  Gestation is ten months long and one child, rarely two, is born in the spring.  The sex of the child is by chance as with humans.
*The average life span of a Pyran is about 200 years.
*In the tales and legends of Humans, the Pyrans have been transmogrified into elves.

=The Hydorans.=
*The Hydorans average half the height of a human and are very slender.  They are one of the hollow-boned peoples and thus are very light.  They possess in their knees a structure similar to that found in [[wikipedia:flea|fleas]] which enables them to jump a great distance.  Their hair is blond and they have no body hair at all.  Their eyes are blue but a darker blue than that of the Ethrans. Their hands have proportionally longer fingers and are partially webbed which facilitates swimming.  Just under the mandibular angle below the ear on either side is one [[wikipedia:gill|gill slit]], which is used both for respiration and the excretion of electrolytes when in the water.  It is covered by a muscular flap which prevents desiccation when on land. These gills do not function in salt water.  There are valves that close off the nostrils and ears when they dive.  Dentition is the same as in Humans.
*They may engage in sex at any time, but the female is in estrus only in the fall.  [[wikipedia:chromosome|Chromosomes]] comparable to the x and y chromosomes are found in the ova rather than in the sperm.  The left ovary produces the female chromosome and the right the male.  Both ovulate at the same time and, after a gestation of seven months a twin boy and girl are born.  Because of their slightness the children often fall prey to predatory animals.
*The average life span of a Hydoran is about 100 years.
*In the tales and legends of Humans, the Hydorans have been transmogrified into fairies.

=The Humans.=
*You know all about the Humans.

=The Xylans.=
*The Xylans average about 10 feet tall and they are proportionately wide, but they are one of the hollow-boned peoples and thus lighter than they seem.  There are valves in the veins in their legs and abdomen which assist the return flow of blood.   The larynx and nasal passages are proportionately larger and their blood is rich in [[wikipedia:erythrocyte|erythrocytes]], a large amount of which are stored in the [[wikipedia:spleen|spleen]] for emergency use.  All this combines to make them superior sprinters and runners.  Their hair is dark brown and, but for their bearded faces, they are covered with hair; not in the manner of a [[wikipedia:yeti|yeti]] or [[wikipedia:sasquatch|sasquatch]], but as in human males who are extremely hirsute.  The pubic hair is long and covers the genitals.  Their eyes are a brilliant green.  Dentition consists of one more set of molars than in human dentition, being 2-1-2-4.  The [[wikipedia:maxilla|maxilla]] and the [[wikipedia:mandible|mandible]] are not hollow-boned and the [[wikipedia:masseter|masseter]] muscle is proportionally more massive to facilitate the cracking of the nuts that comprise a large part of the diet.  The [[wikipedia:temporalis|temporalis]] muscle is attached to a [[wikipedia:sagittal crest|sagittal crest]].  They can hear frequencies both above and below those perceptible by the other peoples.
*There are no female Xylans.  The males possess a penis but lack testicles.
*The Xylans are not susceptible to natural death, but they can be killed.
*In the tales and legends of humans, the Xylans have been transmogrified into giants.

=The Lithans.=
*The Lithans, too, average half the height of a human, but are much stockier.  Being solid-boned, they are much heavier than the Hydorans.  In imagining a Lithan, do not think [[wikipedia:Gimli (Middle Earth)|Gimli]].  Think rather of robust [[wikipedia:munchkin|munchkins]].   I suppose some might say they were midgets rather than dwarves.  Their hair is jet black and the males are rather hirsute.  Upon being married, the male is permitted to let his beard grow.  Their eyes are violet.  Dentition is the same as in the humans.
*They may engage in sex at any time, but the female is in estrus only every three years.  The gestation period is about nine months and the birth of one child, never twins, occurs in the spring.
*The average life span of a Lithan is about 300 years.
*In the tales and legends of Humans, the Lithans have been transmogrified into dwarves.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan animals</title>
    <id>2316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44683</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-15T15:37:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* The Lithans. */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]===

===Introduction===
There are several animals which have a close association with each of the Loquent Peoples.  Two groups in especial are those known as the steeds and the companions.  Each of the Peoples has an animal that best suits it as a steed.  And each people has discovered an animal that shares its domestic life.

===The Ethrans.===
*Because of their need to travel to and from their mountain pinnacle fastnesses in a timely fashion, the Ethrans need a winged steed.  They have found this in the animal later known as a [[wikipedia:pegasus|Pegasus]], pterippus, or flying horse.  In Senjecas it is called a [[Senjecan marc|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mârк]]es&lt;/font&gt; (''Megadorcas volans'').  In reality it is not an [[wikipedia:equid|equid]], but a member of the family [[wikipedia:bovidae|Bovidae]], subfamily [[wikipedia:antilopinae|Antilopinae]], having a cloven hoof and chewing a cud, but lacking horns or antlers.  The ancestor (apparently related to [[wikipedia:pantholops hodgsonii|''Pantholops hodgsonii'']]) was a much smaller animal that lived in the mountains and a mutation for wings gave it an advantage in escaping from predators.  A descendant settled on the steppes, became a grazer instead of a browzer, and increased in size. The general body conformation does resemble that of a horse but, unlike the wild equids, it possesses a flowing mane.  The tail also marks it as bovine rather than equine.  The mark is hollow-boned for lightness.  The wing [[wikipedia:humerus|humerus]] is attached to the upper side of an enlarged [[wikipedia:scapula|scapula]], the foreleg humerus being attached to the lower side.  The chest is rather massive containing as it does the muscles for both the wing and the foreleg.   As with the larger birds, a running start is necessary to become airborne.  The early ancestor merely jumped off the side of the mountain!  The descendant still retains the musculature in the hindquarters for leaping.  Surprisingly, the wings are covered with feathers and not hair.  Five color variants have been bred, one for each of the orders of Ethrans (the elementals do not use steeds): gray for the archimages, palomino for the mages, sorrel for the archons, chestnut for the adepts, and brown for the guardians.  Of course, breeding registers are maintained.  Specimens of undesirable coloration are not bred (the bucks are [[wikipedia:gelding|gelded]]), but they are cared for until they die which could be as long as 30 years.  The females are known as does.
====Taxonomic Table====
*kingdom - [[wikipedia:animalia|Animalia]]
**phylum - [[wikipedia:chordata|Chordata]]
***subphylum - [[wikipedia:vertebrata|Vertebrata]]
****class - [[wikipedia:mammalia|Mammalia]]
*****subclass - [[wikipedia:theria|Theria]]
******infraclass - [[wikipedia:metatheria|Metatheria]]
*******order - [[wikipedia:artiodactyla|Artiodactyla]]
********family - [[wikipedia:bovidae|Bovidae]]
*********subfamily - [[wikipedia:antilopinae|Antilopinae]]
**********genus - Megadorcas
***********species - volans
*As companions, the Ethrans have the [[wikipedia:gyrfalcon|gyrfalcon]] (''Falco rusticolus''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſníłooćôrles&lt;/font&gt;, which they use for hunting.
*They also breed carrier [[wikipedia:pigeon|pigeons]] (''Columba livia''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;vénкëtûûtes&lt;/font&gt;, for sending messages from pinnacle to pinnacle.  Each of the ethran citadels contains a [[wikipedia:dovecote|dovecote]] for the breeding of carrier pigeons.
*Every citadel also has a flock of geese for food.

===The Pyrans.===
*The Pyran steed is the [[wikipedia:ostrich|ostrich]] (†''Megastruthio sinensis''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝâânes&lt;/font&gt;, a species now extinct, bigger than the present-day ''Struthio camelus''.  (A fossil ostrich egg has been found in China.)  Astride these great birds, they herd their flocks of goats.
*Their companion is the [[wikipedia:cheetah|cheetah]] (''Acinonyx jubatus''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîbes&lt;/font&gt;, a cat adapted for life on the grasslands.  Between the ostrich and the cheetah, the Pyrans can fend off most predators of their flocks.  Any too big for them to handle will fall victim to a Pyran arrow.
*The Pyrans herd [[wikipedia:Goat|goats]] (†''Capra aegagrus donensis''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħâdes&lt;/font&gt;, a breed that they developed from the [[wikipedia:West Caucasian Tur|tur]] (''Capra caucasica'') to produce large quantities of milk and wool.  The breed, although now extinct, may have some relationship to the present-day [[wikipedia:Don_Goat|Don Goat]].  The goat is supremely important to the Pyrans and they have built their culture around them.  A buck's head [[affronté]] is the symbol of the Pyrans.
**The meat is cooked in a variety of ways, most especially as [[wikipedia:sausage|sausage]].  The men take a form of [[wikipedia:jerky|jerky]] with them during the day while herding the goats.
**The milk is drunk plain, but is mainly used to make [[wikipedia:Cheese|cheese]] and [[wikipedia:Butter|butter]].
**The wool is woven to make clothing and the hide is tanned to make leather.
**The horns are used to make various utensils.
**The gut is used to make the strings for their harps and for their bows and as the [[wikipedia:casing|casing]] for sausage.
**The [[wikipedia:wether|wethers]] are used as pack and draft animals and to turn mills.

===The Hydorans.===
*The Hydoran steed is the [[wikipedia:unicorn|unicorn]] (''Alcelaphus monoceros''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;îźes&lt;/font&gt;.  From one of the wild species, they bred a domestic variety which they use as a steed and a pack animal.
====Taxonomic Table====
*kingdom - [[Wikipedia:animalia|Animalia]]
**phylum - [[Wikipedia:chordata|Chordata]]
***subphylum - [[Wikipedia:vertebrata|Vertebrata]]
****class - [[Wikipedia:mammalia|Mammalia]]
*****subclass - [[Wikipedia:theria|Theria]]
******infraclass - [[Wikipedia:metatheria|Metatheria]]
*******order - [[wikipedia:artiodactyla|Artiodactyla]]
********family - [[wikipedia:bovidae|Bovidae]]
*********subfamily - [[wikipedia:alcelaphinae|Alcelaphinae]]
**********genus - Alcelaphus
***********species - monoceros
*The protein staple of the Hydorans is, quite logically, fish.  To help them catch fish they enjoy the companionship of the river [[wikipedia:otter|otter]] (''L. lutra''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdôres&lt;/font&gt;.

===The Humans.===
*The humans domesticated the [[wikipedia:horse|horse]] (''Equus przewalskii''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;êćŭes&lt;/font&gt;, as a steed to help them hunt the game animals which they enjoy, and the [[wikipedia:wolf|wolf]] (''Canis lupus''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêlкŭes&lt;/font&gt;, later turned dog, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭônes&lt;/font&gt;, as a companion.

===The Xylans.===
*As swift as they are, Xylans have no need of a steed, but they have been seen riding atop a [[wikipedia:mammoth|mammoth]], &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭîȝes&lt;/font&gt; (''Mammutus primigenius'').
*As forest dwellers, the Xylans have discovered the [[wikipedia:squirrel|squirrel]], specifically the Eurasian red squirrel (''Sciurus vulgaris''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiɱêres&lt;/font&gt;, to be a fun companion.  Their diets are very similar!

===The Lithans.===
*The Lithans in their mountain stronghold have need of a steed that is at home on the crags.  They decided upon one of the mountain sheep known as an [[wikipedia:argali|argali]] (''Ovis ammon''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôɱes&lt;/font&gt;.  With their magnificent curled horns they make a fine war steed, putting the horns to use as both battering ram and shield.  The rams are gelded for better handling as steeds.  They are also used as pack animals.  A small herd of ewes is maintained in each settlement for breeding.
*Long before the Great Sundering, the Lithans had domesticated the Corsac [[wikipedia: corsac fox|fox]] (''Vulpes corsac''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸârſes&lt;/font&gt;.  The bond between a Lithan and his or her fox is fully as strong as that between a human and his or her dog.  Each household usually has a pack consisting of a fox, a vixen, and their litter.  This species of fox is no longer found as far west as it was in the past.
*The Lithans keep extensive breeding records on these animals.

===The Dragon.===
*There, indeed, be [[wikipedia:dragon|dragons]] and mention must be made of them.  There are two different genera, each containing one species, but not much is known of their natural history.  They seem to stand outside natural history.  They are not mentioned in any of the creation stories.  In Senjecas they are called &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćémelârĭus&lt;/font&gt;, skylord.  They are capable of speech and speak Senjecas fluently.  The [[wikipedia:larynx|larynx]] is large and located deeper in the throat than in humans, resulting in a deep booming voice.  The lips and tongue are as flexible as those of humans.  There is a tale that says it was a dragon who taught the Children of Air to speak.  Large scales cover all but the belly and were impervious to any human weapon prior to the invention of firearms.  However, the covering on the underside has no scales and, though the skin is leathery tough, it may be penetrated by a sharp weapon.  Dragons are usually a phosphorescent green, but [[wikipedia:mutation|mutations]] can occur giving other colors which are, unfortunately, always accompanied by a gene for sterility.  The skin of the throat becomes a bright red when in estrus or must.  The bones are hollow which decreases their weight.  They are [[wikipedia:warm-blooded|homoiothermous]].
*One genus (''Draco atrox''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;mĭûdes&lt;/font&gt;, lives to the west of the [[wikipedia:Ural Mountains|Ural Mountains]].  This species corresponds in many ways to the dragon of western myth.  They &quot;breathe&quot; fire.  They are predatory in nature, stealing from flocks and herds, and seizing unwary travelers.  They prefer to live in caves, which has caused some unpleasant encounters for the Lithans.  This species has five clawed toes on the front feet, with four forward and one backward, and four clawed toes on the hind feet, three forward and one backward.  In this species, the male is flightless, and it is the female that searches for a mate.  The eggs are brooded and protected by the male.
*The other genus (''Ouranokyrios benevolus''), &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſââres&lt;/font&gt;, lives to the east of the Ural Moutains.  It is a peaceable creature which does not &quot;breathe&quot; fire.   It is piscivorous, snatching fish from the water with a front foot as it skims across the surface of the water.  Each foot has four clawed toes, two forward and two backward, and the underside of the toes is scaled, like an [[wikipedia:osprey|osprey]]'s, for ease in grasping fish. They have been known to come to the aid of travelers and others in trouble.  In this species, both sexes are flighted and share the task of brooding and protecting.
====Taxonomic Table====
*kingdom - [[Wikipedia:animalia|Animalia]]
**phylum - [[Wikipedia:chordata|Chordata]]
***subphylum - [[Wikipedia:vertebrata|Vertebrata]]
****class - [[Wikipedia:sauropsida|Sauropsida]]
*****subclass - [[Wikipedia:diapsida|Diapsida]]
******infraclass - [[Wikipedia:archosauromorpha|Archosauromorpha]]
*******order - Pyrosauria
********family - Pyrosauridae
*********genus - Draco
**********species - atrox
*********genus - Ouranokyrios
**********species - benevolus</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan colors</title>
    <id>2317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41627</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-07T15:11:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]
*In the Senjecan analysis of color, there are six primary hues and six intermediary hues:
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;rûûðis&lt;/font&gt;, red
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêtis&lt;/font&gt;, reddish-orange
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêêlris&lt;/font&gt;, orange
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;кênкis&lt;/font&gt;, orangish-yellow
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;bâdis&lt;/font&gt;, yellow
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêlŭis&lt;/font&gt;, yellowish-green
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðâlis&lt;/font&gt;, green
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſlîîɱis&lt;/font&gt;, greenish-blue
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;môðris&lt;/font&gt;, blue
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêħis&lt;/font&gt;, bluish-purple
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîſкis&lt;/font&gt;, purple.
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôrbis&lt;/font&gt;, purplish-red.
*In addition, each of these twelve hues can be modified for lightness by two degrees of lightness, &lt;font color=blue&gt;xiið-&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;pel-&lt;/font&gt;, and two degrees of darkness, &lt;font color=blue&gt;mel-&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;кaal-&lt;/font&gt;.  These designations accord with the ISCC-NBS system which gives the degrees of lightness as very light, light, medium, dark, and very dark. Taking red as an example, there are then five shades of red, from lightest to darkest: &lt;font color=blue&gt;pelrûûðis&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;xiiðrûûðis&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;rûûðis&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;melrûûðis&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;кaalrûûðis&lt;/font&gt;.  Thus there is a total of 60 hues.
*There are two words for the hue brown, &lt;font color=blue&gt;vêêris&lt;/font&gt;, used to describe animals, including humans; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;vêvris&lt;/font&gt;, used in all other instances. Both words can be modified in the same way as the chromatic colors.
*There are also the achromatic colors of &lt;font color=blue&gt;âlis&lt;/font&gt;, white; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêêrɱis&lt;/font&gt;, gray; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кøſnis&lt;/font&gt;, dull black; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭôrdis&lt;/font&gt;, shining black.  White and black are absolute, but gray can be modified in the same way as the chromatic colors.
*The following hues have their own proper names instead of being formed by the aforementioned compounding.
** *&lt;font color=blue&gt;кaalmêêħis&lt;/font&gt; is replaced by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙrâmis&lt;/font&gt;.
** *&lt;font color=blue&gt;кaalħêêrɱis&lt;/font&gt; is replaced by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćĭêmis&lt;/font&gt;.
** *&lt;font color=blue&gt;кaalrûûðis&lt;/font&gt; is replaced by &lt;font color=blue&gt;lîpŭis&lt;/font&gt;.
** *&lt;font color=blue&gt;кaalvêvris&lt;/font&gt; is replaced by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðûſкis&lt;/font&gt;.
*There are several specialized colors:
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;bâgŭis&lt;/font&gt;, gray [''of hair'']
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćâſis&lt;/font&gt;, roan
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭêrmis&lt;/font&gt;, crimson
*Names of colors may also be made by suffixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ćîɱis&lt;/font&gt; (-colored) to an object of that color:
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćémelćîɱis&lt;/font&gt;, sky blue, cerulean
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;élaȝćîɱis&lt;/font&gt;, olive-colored</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan dice game</title>
    <id>2318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41652</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-07T19:49:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Equipment===
*The game of &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭèſpaſtôes&lt;/font&gt; is played on a field in the shape of a hexagon, from each side of which extends an arm consisting of three columns (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħâſtos&lt;/font&gt;, arm) of hexagons.  The &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaſtôes&lt;/font&gt; are colored red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.  The large central hexagon is called the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt; (nest).  The playing field can be made of any material.  Some are works of art in wood inlay or in ceramic.  Usually, though, a heavy linen fabric is used on which the gaming pattern is embroidered or painted.  In this way, the dice and the pieces can be rolled up inside and the whole tied for ease in traveling.
*Eighteen markers are used, three each of yellow biconcaves, red equilateral triangles, blue squares, orange regular pentagons, green regular hexagons and violet regular heptagons.  The element of chance is provided by three dice that, when thrown, indicate the number of spaces to be moved.  One die has pips one through six.  The second die has pips one, three and five, with like pips on opposite faces.  The third die has pips two, four and six, with like pips on opposite faces.

===Preparation and Objective===
*The game may be played by two, three, or six players (&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt;).  When two play, one plays green, blue and violet, while the other plays red, orange and yellow.  When three play, one plays green and blue, another plays violet and red, while the third plays orange and yellow.  To begin, the markers are placed in the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt;.  Each &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; throws the dice and the one who throws the highest plays first with the play going widdershins.
*Each &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt;'s objective is to move all three of his markers down the middle of the &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħâſtos&lt;/font&gt; of the same color, around the board widdershins, then back up the same &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħâstos&lt;/font&gt; to the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt;.  The game is won when a &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; succeeds in returning all his markers to the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt;.

===Play===
*Moves are decided by throws of the dice.  The &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; moves a piece (or pieces) the number indicated.  A player may move a marker out of the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt; only upon rolling a combination containing a six.  Throwing a run, that is, 1-2-3 or 3-4-5 in any order, entitles the &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; to a free throw.  But if a run is thrown on the free throw, the &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; must move his marker(s) back to their original position and forfeits the throw.  Each throw may be split into its constituent parts and shared across the markers.  A throw cannot be passed in whole or in part unless the &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; cannot move his markers.  The &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt; must be entered on an exact throw of one or more of the dice.
*Two or three markers of the same color may occupy the same hexagon.  When a marker of one color lands on a hexagon occupied by a marker of another color (&lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt;, enemy), the &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt; is captured and returns to the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt; from which it must start again.  A &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; who captures a &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt; is allowed another throw of the dice, but if it is a run, the &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt; returns to the hexagon from which it was removed and the &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt; forfeits his throw.  When two markers of the same color occupy a hexagon, a &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt; may not land on that hexagon, but he may pass through.  However, a &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt;'s double marker may return the &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt;'s double marker to the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt;.  When three markers of the same color (&lt;font color=blue&gt;argâźos&lt;/font&gt;, blockade) occupy a hexagon, a &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt; may not may pass through until the &lt;font color=blue&gt;argâźos&lt;/font&gt; is broken up.  However, a &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt;'s &lt;font color=blue&gt;argâźos&lt;/font&gt; may return the &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîćus&lt;/font&gt;'s &lt;font color=blue&gt;argâźos&lt;/font&gt; to the &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîzdos&lt;/font&gt;.  As it is impossible for three of a kind to be thrown, an &lt;font color=blue&gt;argâźos&lt;/font&gt; will only last for one play around the field.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The marc: Megadorcas volans</title>
    <id>2319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-07T20:41:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galhafan Biological Taxonomy</title>
    <id>2321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44347</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-22T03:08:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See Also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biological taxonomy''' on '''[[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]]''' is based, like terrestrial Linnaean taxonomy, on a hierarchy of categories, of which there are eleven main levels.  Unlike Linnaen taxonomy, scientific names are ''trinomial'' in full, and the species name comes first.  The format of a full name is species genus ''ima'' (&quot;from&quot;) family (family may informally be omitted if there is no chance of confusion).  Most names are taken from the [[Classical Blafu]] language.  Names may consist of two or more words, but must be written as a single compound for the lowest three levels.

There are eleven primary, obligatory, levels, as well as a number of optional levels.  The optional levels are indented.  Blafu names are given, along with their literal translations and, for the main levels, rough approximations in Linnaean taxonomy.  I use those translations on this wiki.
* Thabè (&quot;World&quot;, No equivalent)
* Kala Yarè (&quot;Continent&quot;, Domain)
* Yarè (&quot;Land&quot;, Kingdom)
** (&quot;Region&quot;, Subkingdom/Superphylum)
* Ng'uta (&quot;Province&quot;, Phylum)
** (&quot;District&quot;, Subphylum)
** (&quot;Subdistrict&quot;, Infraphylum)
** (&quot;City&quot;, Microphylum)
** (&quot;Higher Grade&quot;, Superclass)
* Fasà (&quot;Grade&quot; Class)
** (&quot;Lesser Grade&quot;, Subclass)
** (&quot;Distinction&quot;, Infraclass)
** (&quot;Subdistinction&quot;, Parvclass)
** (&quot;Minor Distinction&quot;, Superdivision)
** (&quot;Grand Division&quot;, Division)
** (&quot;Higher Division&quot;, Superlegion)
* Phénde (&quot;Division&quot;, Legion)
** (&quot;Lesser Division&quot;, Sublegion)
** (&quot;Subdivision&quot;, Infralegion)
** (&quot;Minor Division&quot;, Cohort)
** (&quot;Confederation&quot;, Subcohort)
** (&quot;Union&quot;, Megaorder)
** (&quot;Higher Clan&quot;, Superorder)
* Myatù (&quot;Clan&quot;, Order)
** (&quot;Lesser Clan&quot;, Parvorder)
** (&quot;Subclan&quot;, Hypoorder)
** (&quot;Higher Branch&quot;, Minorder)
* Phéta (&quot;Branch&quot;, Sub-order)
** (&quot;Lesser Branch&quot;, Infraorder)
** (&quot;Subbranch&quot;, Parvorder)
** (&quot;Minor Branch&quot;, Megafamily)
** (&quot;Family&quot;, Grand Family)
** (&quot;Section&quot;, Hyperfamily)
** (&quot;Subsection&quot;, Superfamily)
* Kala Nwage (&quot;Higher Type&quot;, Family)
** (&quot;Intermediate Type&quot;, Subfamily/Tribe)
* Nwage (&quot;Type&quot;, Genus)
* T'raphe (&quot;Kind&quot;, Species)
** (&quot;Lesser Kind&quot;, Subspecies)

In addition, as on Earth, unranked cladistic names are common, and have been growing in popularity.

A few special species-names
*''Minì'' literally &quot;only&quot;, indicates a species which is the only known member of its genus
**Note: ''minì'' has fallen out of use for new species; a number of species that have the ''minì'' designation are not, in fact, the only species in their genus, as later species were discovered after the naming
*''Trùku'' literally &quot;first&quot;, indicates the most common or first known member of a genus

Some sample names
*Human: ''Minì Ñaphe ima Cha-Ñaphe'' (Only human from [those] like humans)

== History ==
There was no single inventor of the standard taxonomy.  Eastern Odirá had long used Classical Blafu for their scientific terminology, and a large number of animals had developed standardized names, usually consisting of two parts, an adjective and a type, the origin of the species-genus.  In Blafu, adjectives can precede or follow their noun, and thus, originally, either order could be used.  Larger groups were sometimes used as well, such as the &quot;higher types&quot; and &quot;grades&quot;.

The taxonomy was regularized by the International Conference on Biological Naming, which set out a procedure to agree upon a single name for every known plant and animal, and a standardized naming for higher groups.  They adopted the bi-/trinomial system, and agreed upon the species-first order (in accordance with the general pattern in Blafu to place small categories first).  The original formalized system contained 6 levels - land, grade, clan, higher type, type, kind.  Initially, the &quot;grade&quot; level was particularly broad, and in some cases included entire phyla or even kingdoms.  Its name is a vestige of a concept similar to Earth's [[Wikipedia:Great chain of being|Great chain of being]].  The &quot;province&quot; level was the first addition, as the number of &quot;grades&quot; increased to inconvenient levels, and especially as many of the &quot;grades&quot; came to be recognized as being excessively broad.  Some of the grades were grouped into provinces, while in other cases, grades were recognized as being provinces, and divided into new grades.  Divisions and branches were added later.

As the [[Xenogenesis theory]] grew in popularity, it became recognized that to group the &quot;new&quot; animals and the &quot;old&quot; animals, likewise the &quot;new&quot; and &quot;old&quot; plants, into single lands was unrealistic, and that it was more sensible to place the &quot;new&quot; plants and animals into a single group together and the &quot;old&quot; plants and animals into another group.  Some argued for replacing the old lands all together and replacing them with that new-old distinction, while others argued that a new level should be added above the land.  The second view won out, and the World level was added.  The &quot;continent&quot; level is the newest addition.

== See Also ==
*[[Galhafan Taxonomic Names]]
*[[Geological History of Galhaf]]

[[Category:Galhaf]]
[[Category:Biology of the Chihazh System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Caeruleancentaur</title>
    <id>2324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44484</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-26T20:08:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi!&lt;br&gt;Please remember to give your pages specific names.  E.g. [[Senjecan lexicon roots a-ð]] rather than just [[Lexicon roots a-ð]]; [[Senjecan colors]] rather than [[Colors]], etc. That first example may not be too much of a problem, but a title like [[Colors]] should be expected to have a more generic view.  (You can use the 'move' tab in the upper toolbar on any page to give it a more appropriate title.) Cf. [[FrathWiki:Naming conventions]].  Thanks! —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:41, 29 May 2006 (PDT)
:Hi!  Just a reminder to keep an eye on this—a couple of bare titles are slipping through again (e.g. [[people]], [[animals]]).  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:08, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

== Cleaned up ==

Hi!

I did the page name moves Muke suggested and also deleted those pages you had blanked.
If you want to delete a page just ask an admin (like me [[User:Melroch|BPJ]]) on his (I think all admins are male!) talk page.  If you just want to rename a page use the 'move' tab at the top of each page, which IIRC is available to non-admins too, or ask an admin about that too.  It is not good to have blank pages hanging around! [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 02:11, 19 February 2008 (PST)


== Suggestion ==

Hi your page is starting to look good, so thumbs up. However, perhaps you should click on the &quot;show preview&quot; button at the bottom of the edit page. This will help make the &quot;recent changes&quot; page less cluttered. Don't worry. I made the same mistake when I first started.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sans</title>
    <id>2325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-29T14:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Testing sans class</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;sans&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Adverbs etc</title>
    <id>2326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T09:50:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Adverbs, Pronouns and Conjunctions==

===Adverbs===

Adverbs agree with the verb they qualify, and thus carry all the same segunakar.

===Pronouns===

The personal pronouns of Khangaþyagon are formed as y+person, where the person ending is the same as that for verbs. They may take the same segunakar as nouns. There is an alternative third person pronoun, de, which is used to avoid repeating &amp;quot;yi&amp;quot; for more than one referent.

===Conjunctions===

Conjunctions in Khangaþyagon have a very strong tendency to be palindromic, eg

;beb:and
;gog:or
;shosh:but 

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Adjectives|Back_name=Adjectives|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Up_name=Morphology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Derivational Morphology|Next_name=Derivational Morphology}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Derivational Morphology</title>
    <id>2327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9367</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T09:57:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Compounding===

Compounding is head last, that is the primary root is the last occurring in the compound, as is typical of Germanic languages, eg

;zaldep:treasure
;ban:stone
;zaldepban:gemstone

===Participles===

Participles can serve as nouns or adjectives. When the sense of the participle is that of &amp;quot;person associated with the action&amp;quot;, the participle compounds with

;það:deed

to form the sense of &amp;quot;action&amp;quot;. When the sense is &amp;quot;action&amp;quot;, it compounds with

;hol:person

or another suitable noun, to form the sense &amp;quot;person associated with the action&amp;quot;.

===Abstract nouns===

Abstract nouns may be formed from adjectives by means of the segunak

;nesh:the property of being X

===Adjectives===

Adjectives may be formed from nouns by the following segunakar

;ek:like, similar to. This segunak is used with numbers to form ordinals.
;l:characterised by. This segunak is used with numbers to form multiplicities.

===Adverbs===

Adverbs may be formed from adjectives by means of the segunak

;wan:in such a manner

This follows antonym formation and degree of comparison on the adjective, and preceeds verb agreement.

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Adverbs etc|Back_name=Adverbs, Pronouns and Conjunctions|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Up_name=Morphology|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax|Next_name=Syntax}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Napalmbrain</title>
    <id>2328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-30T17:49:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Tzenejri]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Khehesen]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Epajan]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Tibëdëyel]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Elimyen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tzenejri</title>
    <id>2329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-04T20:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tzenejri is an agglutinative conlang.

==History==
Tzenejri belongs to small group of languages known to Jen linguists as the Chem languages. Currently, Tzenejri is the only remaining language of this group (Chendash was a fairly common language spojen as recently as 150 years ago in the west of Tzenej, but it was displaced and died out).

Tzenej has in the past spent many years under the rule of foreign powers, and the language reflects this. For example, the &quot;g&quot; sound was not in the language until the country was conquered by the Anik Empire (as such, most common words do contain a &quot;g&quot; sound). Tzenejri has also borrowed certain words from Qazal, the language of neighbouring Qazan.

==Phonology==
===Alphabet===
The Tzenejri alphabet, translated to Latin characters, is:

a &amp;acirc; ch d e f g h i j k l m n o &amp;ocirc; p r s sh t tz u &amp;ucirc; v w y z '

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| ch || tʃ
|-
| d || d, ɾ
|-
| f || f
|-
| g || ɡ
|-
| h || X
|-
| j || dʒ, ʒ
|-
| k || k, x
|-
| l || l
|-
| m || m
|-
| n || n, ɲ
|-
| p || p
|-
| r || ɹ, ɻ
|-
| s || s
|-
| sh || ʃ
|-
| t || t
|-
| tz || ts
|-
| v || v
|-
| w || w, ʍ
|-
| y || j
|-
| z || z
|-
| ' || ʔ
|}

ch: as in &quot;chip&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
h: more pronounced than in English, used in Hebrew and Arabic.&lt;br&gt;
j: usually pronounced like 'j', as in &quot;jump&quot;, but sometimes pronounced like the 's' in &quot;treasure&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
k: usually pronounced like a normal 'k', but rarely pronounced like the 'ch' in &quot;loch&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
n: rarely pronounced like the &amp;ntilde; in &quot;pi&amp;ntilde;ata&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
sh: as in &quot;shop&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
tz: like the 'ts' in &quot;tsunami&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
': glottal stop, found in the middle of the term &quot;uh-oh&quot;.

All other consonants are pronounced the same as in English.

===Vowels===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbols (s)
|-
| a || æ
|-
| &amp;acirc; || eɪ
|-
| e || ɛ
|- 
| i || iɪ, i
|- 
| o || ɒ
|-
| &amp;ocirc; || əʊ
|-
| u || ə, ʌ
|-
| &amp;ucirc; || uɪ
|}

a: as in &quot;attic&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;acirc;: as in &quot;maze&quot;&lt;br&gt;
e: as in &quot;met&quot;&lt;br&gt;
i: as in &quot;mania&quot;&lt;br&gt;
o: as is &quot;top&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;ocirc;: as is &quot;zone&quot;&lt;br&gt;
u: as in &quot;bun&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;ucirc;: like the oo in &quot;boot&quot; or &quot;room&quot;

==Grammar==
Tzenejri is an agglutinative language, which expresses changes to a word (such as tense, plural, etc.) as affixes to that word rather than changing it internally (e.g. in English, the past tense of &quot;I do&quot; is &quot;I did&quot;). It is close to an isolating langauge though, since all of the affixes are words in their own right. There is no case system, no grammatical genders and no definite or indefinite articles. To negate a word, the prefix 'di-' is used (e.g. 'ditzili', meaning 'no people'), while indefiniteness of a word is expressed by the prefix 'zi-' (e.g. 'zitzili, meaning 'some people'). As with English, syllable stress in Tzenejri words are unpredicatble, although it rarely matters much.

===Verbs===
All verbs are derived a noun by adding the suffix '-ti' (meaning &quot;to do&quot;). For example, the Tzenejri word for movement is 'nef', and it is altered to the verb 'nefti', meaning 'to move'.

===Tenses===
Tzenejri has four tenses: present, past, future and (present) continuous. The latter three are added as suffixes to a verb as follows:
*Past tense: '-che'
*Future tense: '-lan'
*Continuous tense: '-le'

Perfect tenses are not used.

===Personal pronouns===
Strictly speaking, there are no personal pronouns in Tzenejri. The terms listed below translate to phrases such as &quot;this person&quot;, &quot;that group&quot;, etc.

*First-person singular: retzi
*Second-person singular: yatzi
*Third-person singular: s&amp;ocirc;tzi
*First-person plural: rem&amp;ucirc;p
*Second-person plural: yam&amp;ucirc;p
*Third-person plural: s&amp;ocirc;m&amp;ucirc;p

===Questions===
The basic word order is Verb Subject Object, however this changes to Verb Object Subject in a question. Questions take the form of a statement with an emphasis on the word being questioned (two analogous examples in English would be &quot;you said ''what''?&quot; or &quot;they went ''shopping''?&quot;). In writing, this can be expressed by adding the symbol ¬ after the questioned word (it is unpronounced).

===Grammatical numbers===
There are three grammatical numbers in Tzenejri: singular, specific plural (for a specific number of things) and unspecific plural (for an unspecific number of things). They are indicating as suffixes to a noun as follows:
*Specific plural: '-vi'
*Unspecific plural: '-li'

Note: even if the number of things is not mentioned, a specific plural is still used if the number is known by the speaker, e.g. &quot;kat&amp;ocirc;'&amp;acirc;zvi&quot; (&quot;the cat's legs&quot;)- I know a cat has 4 legs, so I would use the '-vi' suffix. 

==Sample text==
''Article 1 of the universal declaration of human rights:''

enti tech tzili unajkrez v&amp;acirc; z&amp;ocirc;nti s&amp;ocirc;tzi k&amp;ucirc;zfe'ezra v&amp;acirc; k&amp;ucirc;zunshli. chektile s&amp;ocirc;tzi nuwul achi v&amp;acirc; k&amp;ucirc; v&amp;acirc; gaga ti s&amp;ocirc;tzi ch&amp;ocirc; techko'elli nuwul h&amp;ucirc;ztzili ked.

[[Tzenejri lexicon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tzenejri lexicon</title>
    <id>2330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-13T10:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">one: vij&amp;acirc;&lt;br&gt;
two: chetz&lt;br&gt;
three: k&amp;ocirc;z&lt;br&gt;
four: selj&lt;br&gt;
five: ri'a&lt;br&gt;
six: m&amp;ocirc;j&lt;br&gt;
seven: chol&lt;br&gt;
eight: vih&lt;br&gt;
nine: hwai&lt;br&gt;
ten: dez&lt;br&gt;
sea: jol&lt;br&gt;
river: kal&lt;br&gt;
mountain: san&lt;br&gt;
cave: hwa&lt;br&gt;
forest: &amp;ucirc;'&amp;ocirc;&lt;br&gt;
marsh: nevi&lt;br&gt;
ground: a&lt;br&gt;
field: naz&lt;br&gt;
desert: zon&lt;br&gt;
volcano: we'ek&lt;br&gt;
beach: dea&lt;br&gt;
island: t&amp;acirc;&amp;ocirc;&lt;br&gt;
continent: jush&lt;br&gt;
world, planet: jen&lt;br&gt;
star: kuj&lt;br&gt;
nation: ej&lt;br&gt;
village: wash&lt;br&gt;
town: e'u&lt;br&gt;
city: re'i&lt;br&gt;
capital: deres&lt;br&gt;
trap: zirok&lt;br&gt;
existence: en&lt;br&gt;
knowledge: teli&lt;br&gt;
person: tzi&lt;br&gt;
group: m&amp;ucirc;p&lt;br&gt;
I: retzi&lt;br&gt;
we: rem&amp;ucirc;p&lt;br&gt;
you (sinlgular): yatzi&lt;br&gt;
you (group): yam&amp;ucirc;p&lt;br&gt;
he, she, it: s&amp;ocirc;tzi&lt;br&gt;
they, their: s&amp;ocirc;m&amp;ucirc;p&lt;br&gt;
large: jed&lt;br&gt;
small: sra&lt;br&gt;
book: tzaye</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jen</title>
    <id>2331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-22T18:14:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tzenej</title>
    <id>2332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-22T18:16:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lamu</title>
    <id>2333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-10T02:03:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamuman</username>
        <id>184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Lamuman</title>
    <id>2334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-31T02:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamuman</username>
        <id>184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi there, my conlang is [[Lamu]]

slcconlang@yahoo.com</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lamu Glossary</title>
    <id>2335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T20:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamuman</username>
        <id>184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Working Glossary for [[Lamu]].  All nouns are in their non-plural neutral form.


==Languages==
  {| border=2
  | &lt;u&gt;Lamu&lt;/u&gt;
  | &lt;u&gt;English&lt;/u&gt;
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Dojçësstadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | German
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Frangœsesstadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | French
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Inglësstadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | English
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Lamisstadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Lamu
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Sèmjaledicasstadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Leduç Lamu
  |}

==People==

  {| border=2
  | &lt;u&gt;Lamu&lt;/u&gt;
  | &lt;u&gt;English&lt;/u&gt;
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Lamënadé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Lamu
  |}

==Animals==

 {| border=2
  | &lt;u&gt;Lamu&lt;/u&gt;
  | &lt;u&gt;English&lt;/u&gt;
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Binire&lt;/b&gt;
  | (1) Dog, (2) Canine
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Cunde&lt;/b&gt;
  | Dog
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Cunmèskdé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Puppy
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Gaté&lt;/b&gt;
  | (1) Cat, (2) Feline incl. Big Cats
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Gumeské&lt;/b&gt;
  | Kitty
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Megudé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Cat
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Megumeskdé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Kitten
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Wiskdé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Fish
  |}

==Places==

  {| border=2
  | &lt;u&gt;Lamu&lt;/u&gt;
  | &lt;u&gt;English&lt;/u&gt;
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Çåponé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Japan
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Gælåfornjådé&lt;/b&gt;
  | California
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Gæanådé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Canada
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Låducé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Leduç
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Lamudé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Lamu Republic
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Los Ænçåldé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Los Angeles
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Sald Lejg Sedidé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Salt Lake City
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Vëmèré&lt;/b&gt;
  | Vemer Socialist Republic
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Wimé ßu Vëmèré&lt;/b&gt;
  | Vemersee
  |}

==Other==
  {| border=2
  | &lt;u&gt;Lamu&lt;/u&gt;
  | &lt;u&gt;English&lt;/u&gt;
  |-
  | &lt;b&gt;Lamûdé&lt;/b&gt;
  | Republic
  |}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lexicon roots e-m</title>
    <id>2338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T19:22:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Lexicon roots e-m moved to Senjecan lexicon roots e-m: To make it more explicit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Senjecan lexicon roots e-m]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lexicon roots μ-r</title>
    <id>2339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T19:23:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Lexicon roots μ-r moved to Senjecan lexicon roots μ-r: To make it more explicit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Senjecan lexicon roots μ-r]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lexicon roots s-ź</title>
    <id>2340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-30T19:23:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Lexicon roots s-ź moved to Senjecan lexicon roots s-ź: To make it more explicit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Senjecan lexicon roots s-ź]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athonite Vocabulary: Animals</title>
    <id>2341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44485</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-27T00:26:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Animals]] moved to [[Athonite Vocabulary: Animals]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">elephant - &lt;font color=red&gt;fil&lt;/font&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dice</title>
    <id>2343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-24T14:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">redirect [[Senejan dice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Table of Senjecan correspondences</title>
    <id>2344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-01T11:55:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatomy and physiology</title>
    <id>2345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-31T01:44:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Anatomy and physiology moved to Senjecan anatomy and physiology: To make it more explicit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Senjecan anatomy and physiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Lamuman</title>
    <id>2346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-05-31T03:01:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamuman</username>
        <id>184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Please, in the future, do not keep saving pages after every few words.  Use the preview button if need be.  The [[Special:recent changes|recent changes page]] is dominated by your edits on Lamu and Lamu Glossary.  [[User:Nik|Nik]] 19:51, 30 May 2006 (PDT)


Point taken, I do apologize, I'll make more use of the preview feature.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Wm.annis</title>
    <id>2347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44701</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-19T17:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wm.annis</username>
        <id>185</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Unfamous author of [http://www.lingweenie.org/vaior/ Vaior], thinking of some new languages these days.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Word Order</title>
    <id>2348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>9746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-01T10:54:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Basic word order==

===Basic sentence structure===

Word order in sentences is VSO. This does not vary.

===Infinitive clauses===

Infinitives have no subject, so word order in infinitive clauses is VO.

===Adjectives===

Adjectives follow the noun. This applies to noun phrases qualifying another noun (such as genitives) although in the case of noun phrases there is no agreement with the head noun, i.e. no suffixaufname.

===Adverbs===

Placement of adverbs and adverbial noun phrases is fairly free, but results in a change of emphasis. An adverb may occur clause initially, after the verb, or clause finally. If the adverb is placed at the beginning of the clause, the adverb itself is emphasised. If it is placed immediately after the verb, its applicability to the verb is emphasised. If it is placed clause finally, its apllicability to the entire clause is emphasised.

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Morphology|Back_name=Morphology|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax|Up_name=Syntax|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Subordinate Clauses|Next_name=Subordinate Clauses and Reported Speech}}

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 03:54, 1 June 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Va'díl</title>
    <id>2349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-27T00:40:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wm.annis</username>
        <id>185</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Has fatal flaws.  Must be rethought.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Qazal</title>
    <id>2350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-30T08:01:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Lamu</title>
    <id>2503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-03T17:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamuman</username>
        <id>184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">My tables just went insane---definitely weren't doing this before. I'll try to fix this when I get the chance.[[User:Lamuman|Lamuman]] 10:24, 3 June 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Subordinate Clauses</title>
    <id>2504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-06T09:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Subordinate clauses and reported speech==

===Subordinate Clauses===

These are introduced by the conjunction ū &amp;quot;such that&amp;quot;. For example,

iðuzhang ya rik ū nellodahing yi

{|
|iðuzh ||a ||ng ||ya ||rik ||ū ||nello ||dah ||i ||ng ||yi
|-
| see ||1p ||pt ||1p ||man ||&amp;quot;such that&amp;quot; ||worthy ||be ||3p ||pt ||3p
|}

I saw the man who was worthy.

===Reported speech etc===

This is expressed with a topic-comment structure, the topic being marked with the segunak ku.

tamiting yi mallsheuroshtkur, wiþingar yir zaldep mœza
{|
|tamit ||i ||ng ||yi ||mall ||sheur ||osht ||ku ||r ||wiþ ||ing ||ar ||yi ||r ||zaldep ||mœza
|-
|&amp;quot;believe unfoundedly&amp;quot; ||3p ||pt ||3p ||holy ||seclude ||pp ||about ||pl ||have ||3p ||pt ||pl ||3p ||pl ||treasure ||great
|}

He believed (unfoundedly or insincerely) that the monks had great treasure.

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Word Order|Back_name=Basic Word Order|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax|Up_name=Syntax|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Questions etc|Next_name=Questions, Commands, Conditionals and Counterfactuals}}

--[[User:PeteBleackley|PeteBleackley]] 02:19, 6 June 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Inflection</title>
    <id>2505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48828</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T18:59:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Nouns noomnoes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħoes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;jeþaes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NOM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*STA = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;saaþȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MOT = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кeȝëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VOC = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭotanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirtanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*sg = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;oinemſis&lt;/font&gt;
*pl = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnemſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;perpagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pospagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooqɱerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;menüpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðëminos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
*SJV = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APCP   = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaþneɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL    = collective
*EL     = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;duuras&lt;/font&gt;
*E      = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entiivſŭevsŭenos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPTCL  = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IMPERF = imperfective aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſenüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PRF    = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſenüħwelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPCP   = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiirnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPTCL  = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP    = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPTCL  = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱëɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=Part II. INFLECTION &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemos II. ɱenкos&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''043'''. Senjecas is a combination of both an [[Wikipedia:analytic language|analytic]] or isolating language and an [[Wikipedia:inflection|inflected]] language.  Inflection is a change in the form of a word which is made to express its relation to other words.  It includes the declension of nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns, and the conjugation of verbs.  In the process of inflection, suffixes are added to a root which conveys the fundamental idea underlying the word.
==Verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''044'''. [[Wikipedia:verb|Verbs]] are words that name what the subject of the statement is doing, feeling, ''etc.''.  Senjecas is primarily a verbal language, the verb being considered the most important part of a sentence.  A major portion of the Senjecan vocabulary is based on verbal roots.
*'''045'''. The root of a verb is the verb minus the mood suffix.  As this root is never found alone, in the dictionary the indicative form is used, ''e.g.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱen-a&lt;/font&gt;.  This form is the [[Wikipedia:lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] for verbs.
*'''046'''. The verb has three moods: the [[Wikipedia:indicative|indicative]], the [[Wikipedia:subjunctive|subjunctive]], and the [[Wikipedia:imperative|imperative]].  In the indicative, a statement of fact is made.  In the subjunctive, a statement of unreality or uncertainty is made.  In the imperative, a command is given.  These moods are called finite moods.  The subjunctive is also called a dependent mood.  To the root is added &lt;font color=blue&gt;-a&lt;/font&gt; for the indicative mood, &lt;font color=blue&gt;-o&lt;/font&gt; for the subjunctive mood, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;-e&lt;/font&gt; for the imperative mood.  There is no infinitive.
*'''047'''.  Verbs are not marked for tense.  A preverb [[Wikipedia:grammatical particle|particle]] is used to indicate time when necessary.  &lt;font color=blue&gt;Per&lt;/font&gt; is used to indicate past time.  &lt;font color=blue&gt;Pos&lt;/font&gt; is used to indicate future time.  These particles occur immediately before the verb and are inseparable from it.  The verb unmarked for time is the default for the present.
*'''048'''. The verb has only one [[Wikipedia:grammatical voice|voice]], the active.  In the active voice, the subject is the doer or agent of the action of the verb.  A [[Wikipedia:periphrastic|periphrastic]] middle voice, in which the subject acts upon himself, is formed by using the [[Wikipedia:reflexive pronoun|reflexive pronoun]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;potĭum&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;self,&quot; as the direct object of the verb.  A periphrastic passive voice, in which the grammatical subject is the recipient of the action of the verb, is formed by using the verb &lt;font color=blue&gt;taala&lt;/font&gt; with the patient participle.  An accusative sentence, ''e.g.'', &quot;sheep slaughter easily,&quot; is not possible in Senjecas.  It must be rendered as the periphrastic passive, &quot;one slaughters sheep easily&quot;.
*'''049'''. The verb has two [[Wikipedia:grammatical aspect|aspects]]: the imperfective and the perfective.  The imperfective aspect denotes a verb that expresses its meaning without regard to its beginning or completion.  The perfective aspect denotes a completed action.  The imperfective aspect is unmarked, being simply the root of the verb, plus the mood suffix.  The perfective aspect is indicated by a reduplication of the initial consonant or by a lengthening of the initial vowel.  If the initial vowel is already long, nothing further need be done.  The reduplicated syllable is always pronounced on the basal pitch.
**The weak vowel connecting the reduplicated vowel to the verb is determined by vowel harmony.  Weak i (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ï&lt;/font&gt;) is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the frontals: i, e, and a, e.g., &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱena&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱïɱena&lt;/font&gt;.  Weak u (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ü&lt;/font&gt;) is used when the vowel of the verb is one of the frontals: o, ø, and u, e.g., &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;vüvunda&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''050'''. The verbal noun is known as the [[wikipedia:supine|supine]] (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;).  It is formed by adding &lt;font color=blue&gt;-u&lt;/font&gt; to the verb root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tola&lt;/font&gt;, determine; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tolu&lt;/font&gt;, (to) determine.  It is not to be confused with the deverbative noun, ''e.g.'', determination, which is a noun of the &lt;font color=blue&gt;-as&lt;/font&gt; class, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tolas&lt;/font&gt;, determination.
*'''051'''. Senjecan verbs are divided into two classes:
**a. Class I verbs are those with an initial consonant, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tola&lt;/font&gt;, determine.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|imperfective
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|perfective
|-
! indicative active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tola&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütola&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tolo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütolo&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! imperative active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tole&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! indicative agent participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tolantis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütolantis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive agent participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tolontis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütolontis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! indicative patient participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tolaþis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütolaþis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive patient participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;toloþis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tütoloþis&lt;/font&gt;
|}
**b. Class II verbs are those which begin with a vowel: ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;uða&lt;/font&gt;, own.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|imperfective
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|perfective
|-
! indicative active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uða&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuða&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuðo&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! imperative active
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðe&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! indicative agent participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðantis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuðantis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive agent participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðontis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuðontis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! indicative patient participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðaþis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuðaþis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! subjunctive patient participle
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uðoþis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;uuðoþis&lt;/font&gt;
|}

==Nouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnoes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''052'''. [[Wikipedia:noun|Nouns]] are words that designate a person, a thing, a place or an abstraction.
*'''053'''. Nouns and adjectives have but one root, which is the word minus the declensional ending, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćin-os&lt;/font&gt;, cradle.  This root plus the nominative singular declensional ending is the [[wikipedia:lemma|lemma]] for nouns.
*'''054'''. There are two [[Wikipedia:grammatical number|numbers]], singular and plural.  The singular denotes a single item.  The plural denotes more than one.
*'''055'''. There are four cases, [[Wikipedia:nominative|nominative]], stative, motive, and [[Wikipedia:vocative|vocative]].
*'''056'''. There are six [[Wikipedia:declension|classes]] of nouns, one for each of the vowels.
*'''057'''. The &lt;font color=blue&gt;-is&lt;/font&gt; class contains animate nouns that name plants, and nouns in &lt;font color=blue&gt;-tŭis&lt;/font&gt;, which are, for the most part, vegetable in origin, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aspis&lt;/font&gt;, aspen.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|plural
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspis&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspies&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspiſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspim&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspim&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspin&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspi&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aspii&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''059'''. The &lt;font color=blue&gt;–es&lt;/font&gt; class contains animate nouns that name animals, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱes&lt;/font&gt;, bird.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|plural
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱes&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱees&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱeſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱem&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱem&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱen&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱe&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱei&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''060'''. The '''–as''' class contains inanimate abstract nouns, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;vugas&lt;/font&gt;, flight.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vugas&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vugaſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vugam&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vuga&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''061'''. The '''–os''' class contains inanimate concrete nouns, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ondos&lt;/font&gt;, stone.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|plural
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondos&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondoes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondoſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondom&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondom&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondon&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondoi&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''062'''. The '''–øs''' class contains animate nouns that name aberrant creatures, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerøs&lt;/font&gt;, afreet.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|plural
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerås&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭeråes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭeråſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭeråm&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭeråm&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerån&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerå&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭeråi&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''063'''. The '''–us''' class contains animate nouns that name loquent beings, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;reźus&lt;/font&gt;, policeman.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|singular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|plural
|-
! Nominative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźus&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźues&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Stative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźuſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźum&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Mutative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźum&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźun&lt;/font&gt;
|-
! Vocative
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźu&lt;/font&gt;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;reźui&lt;/font&gt;
|}
*'''064'''. &lt;font color=blue&gt;amas&lt;/font&gt;, mother, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;apas&lt;/font&gt;, father, and their compounds, are declined like regular &lt;font color=blue&gt;-as&lt;/font&gt; nouns.

==Adjectives &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoɱëɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''065'''. Adjectives are words that in some way qualify nouns and pronouns.  They occur in two broad categories, determinate and indeterminate.
*'''066'''. Determinate adjectives are those which single out the noun qualified, rather than describe it.  Determinate adjectives include the cardinal numerals and the interrogative adjectives.  These adjectives, when used attributively, agree with the nouns they modify in class only, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кøſne teures&lt;/font&gt;, the black bull; &lt;font color=blue&gt; vevr' ećŭes&lt;/font&gt;, the brown horse (''note the elision'').
*'''067'''. There is no definite article.
*'''068'''. There is no indefinite article.
*'''069'''. The demonstrative adjectives are &lt;font color=blue&gt;dis&lt;/font&gt;, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nis&lt;/font&gt;, that, referring to what is more remote; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;olnis&lt;/font&gt;, that over there, referring to what is even more remote.  They are seen as appositives to their noun and thus postposed.
*'''070'''. The demonstrative adjectives may be emphasized by affixing an &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ħ-&lt;/font&gt; to the declensional root.  The declension ending then receives the primary accent.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кaϙvaliȝos&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dos&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кaϙvaliȝos&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;doħős&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| book
| this
| book
| this-right-here
|}
*'''071'''. The interrogative adjectives are &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭis&lt;/font&gt;, which, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭotis&lt;/font&gt;, how-, -much, -many.
*'''072'''. Possession is expressed by the personal pronoun in the stative case, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color =blue&gt;muſĭo eenſos&lt;/font&gt;, my sword; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱum reðnos&lt;/font&gt;, our wagon; &lt;font color=blue&gt;muſĭo peelnos кŭaſĭonos eſa&lt;/font&gt;, my cup is wooden.  If it is a centaur, ''e.g.'', who is talking about his cup, he would say, &lt;font color=blue&gt;møſĭo peelnos кŭaſĭonos eſa&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''073'''. Non-determinate adjectives are those which describe a noun or pronoun.  When used attributively they agree with the nouns they qualify in class only, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengu ɱirus&lt;/font&gt;, [the] handsome man; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengu ɱiroſĭ' o&lt;/font&gt;, for [the] handsome man; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengu amamas&lt;/font&gt;, [the] beautiful grandmother; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengu amamaſĭ' o&lt;/font&gt;, for [the] beautiful grandmother.  When used in the predicate they agree in class, case and number, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirus mengus eſa&lt;/font&gt;, [The] man is handsome.
*'''074'''. a. Participles are non-determinate adjectives.  There is a participle for each time, aspect and mood of the verb.
**b. The agent participles are formed by suffixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;-nt-&lt;/font&gt; to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱena&lt;/font&gt;, love, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenantis&lt;/font&gt;, loving.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel.
**c. The patient participles are formed by suffixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;-þ-&lt;/font&gt; to the modal root of the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱena&lt;/font&gt;, love, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenaþis&lt;/font&gt;, loved.  The primary accent remains on the root vowel. 
*'''075'''. a. A characteristic of non-determinate adjectives (and adverbs) is that they can be compared.
**b. There is only one degree of comparison which is used for both the comparative and the superlative.  Adjectives form this comparative degree by qualifying the adjective with the adverb &lt;font color=blue&gt;ovlu&lt;/font&gt;, more, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;maħe ćŭones&lt;/font&gt;, a big dog; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ovlu maħe ćŭones&lt;/font&gt;, a bigger dog; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengu ſentus&lt;/font&gt;, a handsome traveler; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ovlu mengu ſentus&lt;/font&gt;, a more handsome traveler; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćo naauſos&lt;/font&gt;, a swift boat; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ovlu ooćo naauſos&lt;/font&gt;, [the] swiftest boat; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoore ſinϙes&lt;/font&gt;, a fierce lion; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ovlu ȝoore ſinϙes&lt;/font&gt;, [the] fiercest lion.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;, in comparison to.  There are no suppletive forms, ''e.g.'', as in English &quot;good/better&quot;.
**c. Adjectives form the equative degree by adding the suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ſtalis&lt;/font&gt; to the class root of the adjective, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;moðre faafles&lt;/font&gt;, a blue butterfly; &lt;font color=blue&gt;faafles des moðreſtales neſĭo ſoma eſa&lt;/font&gt;, this butterfly is as blue as that one.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;, in comparison to.
**d. Negative comparative adjectives are formed by modifying the adjective with the adverb &lt;font color=blue&gt;liſu&lt;/font&gt;, less, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;daanes des liſu ooćes neĭo ſoma eſa&lt;/font&gt;, this river is less swift than that one.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;, in comparison to.
**e. Negative equative adjectives are formed by using the negative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne&lt;/font&gt; to negate the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;faafles des moðreſtales neſĭo ſoma eſa ne&lt;/font&gt;, this butterfly is not so blue as that one.  The noun or pronoun of comparison is in the stative case followed by the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;, in comparison to.

==Numerals &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſoes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''076'''. The counting system in Senjecas is very regular and is a vigesimal system, although there are both decimal and vigesimal symbols.  These numerals may be seen in [[Appendix IV]].
*'''077'''. In Senjecas words exist for the cardinals numerals 1 through 19, and for 100, for 1,000 and for multiples of 1,000, from 10,000 to 1,000,000,000.  The other numerals are compounds of these or are based on these.  The cardinal numerals are not declined.  The cardinal numerals for 100 and above are nouns.  They are plural in form when used in compound numerals.
*'''078'''. The numbers for the decades are formed by adding &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar&lt;/font&gt;, twenty, to the combining form of the cardinal numeral, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirſar&lt;/font&gt;, 60; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirſar dems&lt;/font&gt;, 70.
*'''079'''. In a similar way, the hundreds after 100 are formed by adding &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćemtoes&lt;/font&gt; to the combining form of the cardinal numeral, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirćemtoes&lt;/font&gt;, 300; &lt;font color=blue&gt;osćemtoes&lt;/font&gt;, 800.
*'''080'''. In a similar way, the thousands after 1,000 are formed by adding &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeſloes&lt;/font&gt; to the combining form of the cardinal numeral, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirħeſloes&lt;/font&gt;, 3,000; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſefħeſloes&lt;/font&gt;, 7,000.
*'''081'''. Million is rendered as &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeſlëħeſlos&lt;/font&gt;; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerħeſlëħeſloes&lt;/font&gt;, 4,000,000.
*'''082'''. The other cardinal numerals are formed by juxtaposing the numbers.
{| border=1
| &lt;center&gt;22&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;49&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;458&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;7,628&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar dŭo
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoſar neun
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerćemtoes dŭoſar dems oć
| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſefħeſloes ſŭeſćemtoes ſar oć
|}
*'''083'''. The ordinal numerals beyond ''tenth'' are formed by juxtaposing the required ordinals, the smaller placed last, and the last element of the number taking the ordinal ending, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſartis&lt;/font&gt;, twentieth; &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitis&lt;/font&gt;, first; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar oitis&lt;/font&gt;, twenty-first.  Tonally they are one word.
*'''084'''. Table of numerals.
{| border=1
|c=01|#
|c=02|cardinal
|c=03|ordinal
|c=04|multiple
|c=05|times
|c=06|collection
|c=07|fraction
|-
|c=01|1
|c=02|oi (oj-)
|c=03|oitis
|c=04|oipelis
|c=05|ois
|c=06|oȝos
|c=07|
|-
|c=01|2
|c=02|dŭo
|c=03|dŭotis
|c=04|dŭopelis
|c=05|dŭos
|c=06|dŭoȝos
|c=07|seemis
|-
|c=01|3
|c=02|tir
|c=03|tirtis
|c=04|tirpelis
|c=05|tirs
|c=06|tirïȝos
|c=07|tirnemos
|-
|c=01|4
|c=02|кŭer
|c=03|кŭertis
|c=04|кŭerpelis
|c=05|кŭers
|c=06|кŭeriȝos
|c=07|кŭernemos
|-
|c=01|5
|c=02|pen
|c=03|pentis
|c=04|penpelis
|c=05|pens
|c=06|peniȝos
|c=07|penënemos
|-
|c=01|6
|c=02|ſŭes
|c=03|ſŭeſtis
|c=04|ſŭeſpelis
|c=05|ſŭeſsës
|c=06|ſŭeſiȝos
|c=07|ſŭeſnemos
|-
|c=01|7
|c=02|ſef
|c=03|ſeftis
|c=04|ſefpelis
|c=05|ſefs
|c=06|ſsefiȝos
|c=07|ſefnemos
|-
|c=01|8
|c=02|oć
|c=03|oſtis
|c=04|oſpelis
|c=05|oćës
|c=06|oćiȝos
|c=07|oſnemos
|-
|c=01|9
|c=02|neun
|c=03|neuntis
|c=04|neunpelis
|c=05|neuns
|c=06|neuniȝos
|c=07|neunënemos
|-
|c=01|10
|c=02|dems
|c=03|demſëtis
|c=04|demſëpelis
|c=05|demſëſ
|c=06|demſiȝos
|c=07|demſënemos
|-
|c=01|11
|c=02|þu
|c=03|þutis
|c=04|þupelis
|c=05|þus
|c=06|þuiȝos
|c=07|þunemos
|-
|c=01|12
|c=02|zal
|c=03|zaltis
|c=04|zalpelis
|c=05|zals
|c=06|zaliȝos
|c=07|zalnemos
|-
|c=01|13
|c=02|кi
|c=03|кitis
|c=04|кipelis
|c=05|кis
|c=06|кiȝos
|c=07|кinemos
|-
|c=01|14
|c=02|ħuþ
|c=03|ħuþtis
|c=04|ħuþpelis
|c=05|ħuþs
|c=06|ħuþiȝos
|c=07|ħuþnemos
|-
|c=01|15
|c=02|max
|c=03|maxtis
|c=04|maxpelis
|c=05|maxs
|c=06|maxiȝos
|c=07|maxnemos
|-
|c=01|16
|c=02|ća
|c=03|ćatis
|c=04|ćapelis
|c=05|ćas
|c=06|ćaiȝos
|c=07|ćanemos
|-
|c=01|17
|c=02|ſem
|c=03|ſemtis
|c=04|ſempelis
|c=05|ſems
|c=06|ſemiȝos
|c=07|ſemnemos
|-
|c=01|18
|c=02|кez
|c=03|кeztis
|c=04|кepelis
|c=05|кezës
|c=06|кeziȝos
|c=07|кeznemos
|-
|c=01|19
|c=02|nuf
|c=03|nuftis
|c=04|nufpelis
|c=05|nufs
|c=06|nufiȝos
|c=07|nufnemos
|-
|c=01|20
|c=02|ſar
|c=03|ſartis
|c=04|ſarpelis
|c=05|ſars
|c=06|ſariȝos
|c=07|ſarnemos
|-
|c=01|21
|c=02|ſar oi
|c=03|ſar oitis
|c=04|ſar oipelis
|c=05|ſar ois
|c=06|ſar oȝos
|c=07|ſar oinemos
|-
|c=01|30
|c=02|ſar dems
|c=03|ſar demſëtis
|c=04|ſar demſëpelis
|c=05|ſar demſës
|c=06|ſar demſiȝos
|c=07|ſar demſënemos
|-
|c=01|40
|c=02|dŭoſar
|c=03|dŭoſartis
|c=04|dŭoſarpelis
|c=05|dŭoſars
|c=06|dŭoſariȝos
|c=07|dŭoſarnemos
|-
|c=01|100
|c=02|ćemtos
|c=03|ćemtëtis
|c=04|ćemtëpelis
|c=05|ćemtës
|c=06|ćemtiȝos
|c=07|ćemtënemos
|-
|c=01|1000
|c=02|ħeſlos
|c=03|ħeſlëtis
|c=04|ħeſlëpelis
|c=05|ħeſlës
|c=06|ħeſliȝos
|c=07|ħeſlënemos
|} 
*'''085'''. Multiplicative numbers expressing &quot;how many times as many&quot; are formed by adding the suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-кŭotis&lt;/font&gt; to the cardinal number, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭotis&lt;/font&gt;, twice as many.  What is being compared is in the stative case with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;.
'''He has twice as many horses as I.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭote&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭe-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-uſĭ'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|twice.as.many
|horse-NM.p
|1s-ST
|compared.to
|3s.ST
|to
|be-IND
|}
*'''086'''. Distributive numbers are formed by repeating the required number.  Notice that, with respect to tone, the two numbers are considered one word.
'''The men crossed the bridge two by two.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vreeɱ-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tar-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-NM.s
|two
|two
|&lt;center&gt;bridge-MO.s&lt;/center&gt;
|PPRT
|cross-IND
|}
*'''087'''. Distributive numbers expressing &quot;at a time&quot; are formed by adding the suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-(ë)snu&lt;/font&gt; to the cardinal number, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;oisnu&lt;/font&gt;, one at a time; &lt;font color=blue&gt;demſëſnu&lt;/font&gt;, ten at a time.
*'''088'''. As with the ordinals, the compound numbers are repeated with the proper ending suffixed to the last element: ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar dŭotis&lt;/font&gt;, twenty-two times; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar dems tirpelis&lt;/font&gt;, thirty-three-fold; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoſar penкŭotis&lt;/font&gt;, forty-five times as many; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoſar dems neunëſnu&lt;/font&gt;, fifty-nine at a time.

==Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivnoomnëɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''089'''. Pronouns are words that can be substituted for nouns.  The following types of pronouns can be found in Senjecas: personal, intensive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite, and reflexive.
*'''090'''. a. The personal pronouns are &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus&lt;/font&gt;, I; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tus&lt;/font&gt;, you; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱus&lt;/font&gt;, we; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝus&lt;/font&gt;, you.  The third person pronouns are &lt;font color=blue&gt;dus&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;olnus&lt;/font&gt;, he, she, it; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;dues&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nues&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;olnues&lt;/font&gt; they, depending on the proximity or remoteness of the person or object.  These pronouns are put into the appropriate class and case of the noun for which they are substituting, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭones&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nes&lt;/font&gt;, [the] dog, it; &lt;font color=blue&gt;iiɱis&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nis&lt;/font&gt;, [the] yew tree, it; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ondos&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nos&lt;/font&gt;, [the] rock, it.  If a human is talking about himself, he says &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus&lt;/font&gt;.  If a centaur is talking about himself, he says &lt;font color=blue&gt;møs&lt;/font&gt;.
**b. There is no implication of gender in the third person pronouns.  To specify the gender, the gender-marking prefixes must be used, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nornus&lt;/font&gt;, he; &lt;font color=blue&gt;iinus&lt;/font&gt;, she.  These are enclitics and the tone remains on the pronoun.
**c. The personal pronouns are declined like the nouns in their proper classes, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus, muſĭo, mum&lt;/font&gt;; etc.
*'''091'''. The intensive pronoun is formed by prefixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;poþ-&lt;/font&gt;, to the personal pronouns, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus per ata&lt;/font&gt;, I went; &lt;font color=blue&gt;poþmus pos ata&lt;/font&gt;, I myself will go.
*'''092'''. The reciprocal pronoun is &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭanĭus&lt;/font&gt;.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (90c).
*'''093'''. The demonstrative pronouns are &lt;font color=blue&gt;dus&lt;/font&gt;, this, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;/font&gt;, that, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;olnus&lt;/font&gt;, that over there.  They are declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (90c).
*'''094'''. a. The interrogative pronoun is &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭus&lt;/font&gt;.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (90c).
**b. There is also a dual interrogative pronoun &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭutérus&lt;/font&gt;, who/which of two.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (90c).
*'''095'''. The indefinite pronoun is &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſemus&lt;/font&gt;, some(one/thing).  The negative indefinite pronoun is &lt;font color=blue&gt;neſmus&lt;/font&gt;, no one, nobody, nothing.  It is declined in the same way as the personal pronouns (90c).
*'''096'''. The reflexive pronoun is &lt;font color=blue&gt;potĭum&lt;/font&gt;.  It is found only in the mutative case, as the direct object of a verb or postposition, or in the stative case as the object of a postposition.

==Adverbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooϙɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''097'''. Adverbs stand in the same relationship to verbs (and adjectives) as adjectives do to nouns, ''i.e.'', in some way they qualify the verb (or adjective).
*'''098'''. Certain words are, of their nature, adverbs, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;iðu&lt;/font&gt;, here.  Adverbs of this type end in &lt;font color=blue&gt;-u&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''099'''. Any non-determinate adjective may be used as an adverb.  When used in this way, the enclitic &lt;font color=blue&gt;-(ë)vi&lt;/font&gt; is added to the root of the adjective.  The primary accent of the adjective is reduced to a secondary accent on the adverb.
'''These brave men fought.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙolvu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;des&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćat-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|brave
|man-NM.p
|this-NM.p
|PPRT
|fight-IND
|}
'''These men fought bravely.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙolv-ë-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćat-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-NM.p
|this-NM.p
|brave-EP-ADV
|PPRT
|fight-IND
|}
*'''100'''. Adverbs form their comparatives and superlatives with the same adverbs that are used for the adjectives, ''i.e.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ólvu&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;líſu&lt;/font&gt;.
'''These men fought more bravely than those.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olvu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙolv-ë-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćat-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-NM.p
|this-NM.p
|that-ST.p
|compared.to
|more
|brave-EP-ADV
|PPRT
|fight-IND
|}
*'''101'''. An adverbial phrase of time precedes an adverbial phrase of place.
'''We will be dining at your mother's home this evening.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſperaſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-aſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amaſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;noma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſpereda.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|evening-ST.s
|this-ST.s
|2s.ST
|mother-ST.s
|at.home.of
|FPRT
|dine-IND
|}

==[[Senjecan Word Formation]]==</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan time and calendar</title>
    <id>2506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41471</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-02T16:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Sun Cycle ſuulĸûlĸas */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]==

==The Eons and Eras &lt;font color=blue&gt;aaȝâesĸŭe&lt;/font&gt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;méħdiitâesĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;==
Senjecan history/mythology is divided into seven eons of 156,000 years each.
*The 1st eon was that of the Self-existent (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſéneſêntus&lt;/font&gt;) and, in reality, stretches back eternally. At the end of that eon, s/he created light. 
*The 2nd eon was that of light. At the end of the 2nd, s/he created the cosmos. 
*The 3rd eon was that of the cosmos. At the end of the 3rd, s/he created the elements. 
*The 4th eon was that of the elements. At the end of the 4th eon, s/he created the loquent beings. 
*The 5th eon was that of the loquent beings. The 5th eon is divided into 6 eras of 26,000 years each. At the beginning of each era, s/he created one of the loquent beings: 
**The 1st era was that of the Children of Air. 
**The 2nd era was that of the Children of Fire. 
**The 3rd era was that of the Children of Water. 
**The 4th era was that of the Children of Earth. 
**The 5th era was that of the Children of Wood. 
**The 6th era was that of the Children of Stone. 
**The 6th eon was the eon of harmony among all the loquent beings. Then came the Great Sundering, during which many fell out of harmony. 
**The 7th eon, begun after allegiances were re-aligned, is the one in which we live today.

==The Day &lt;font color=blue&gt;ââmras&lt;/font&gt;==
All time and calendar references are based on a duodecimal system.  The day is divided into 24 sections known as &lt;font color=blue&gt;tenâes&lt;/font&gt;.  The day begins at sunrise (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuulɱêrðos&lt;/font&gt;).  In modern times this is considered to be 6:00 a.m.  Each of the hours is named for an animal, as follows:
*1st hour (6 a.m.) hoopoe &lt;font color=blue&gt;ópoftênas&lt;/font&gt;
*2nd hour - bear &lt;font color=blue&gt;ǿþćëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*3rd hour - aurochs &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħȝűnütênas&lt;/font&gt;
*4th hour - badger &lt;font color=blue&gt;várĸëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*5th hour - swan &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħólvïtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*6th hour – honey bee &lt;font color=blue&gt;veȝtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*7th hour (noon) eagle &lt;font color=blue&gt;múȝrëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*8th hour - lion &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſínϙëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*9th hour - horse &lt;font color=blue&gt;éćütênas&lt;/font&gt;
*10th hour – wild cat &lt;font color=blue&gt;maltênas&lt;/font&gt;
*11th hour - goose &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħánſëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*12th hour - butterfly &lt;font color=blue&gt;fáfeltênas&lt;/font&gt;
*13th hour (6 p.m.) woodpecker &lt;font color=blue&gt;piixtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*14th hour - wolf &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱélĸütênas&lt;/font&gt;
*15th hour – red deer &lt;font color=blue&gt;élnevtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*16th hour - fox &lt;font color=blue&gt;puxtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*17th hour - heron &lt;font color=blue&gt;árooðtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*18th hour - nightingale &lt;font color=blue&gt;áɱeeðtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*19th hour (midnight) owl &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſimtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*20th hour - leopard &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝárgëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*21st hour - moose &lt;font color=blue&gt;ólćëtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*22nd hour - weasel &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸextênas&lt;/font&gt;
*23rd hour - mallard &lt;font color=blue&gt;áneþtênas&lt;/font&gt;
*24th hour - kingfisher &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêêroltênas&lt;/font&gt;

==The Calendar &lt;font color=blue&gt;áámrënemſêmos&lt;/font&gt;==
===The Sun Cycle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuulĸûlĸas&lt;/font&gt;===
The solar year begins in the middle of winter, ''i.e.'', the winter solstice.  Although there are six seasons, the movement of the sun to the north and the south every year is noticeable.   Therefore, eight celebrations are held in conjunction with the solar year. The primary celebrations are:
*the winter solstice (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħímſuulpêlćas&lt;/font&gt;) (0°/270°) (12/22),
*the vernal equinox (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱéſnëɱôrźas&lt;/font&gt;) (90°/0°) (3/20),
*the summer solstice (&lt;font color=blue&gt;lééþſuulpêlćas&lt;/font&gt;) (180°/90°) (6/20), and
*the autumnal equinox (&lt;font color=blue&gt;óſnëɱôrźas&lt;/font&gt;) (270°/180°) (9/22).
The secondary celebrations are the cross-quarter days of
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſnêϙras&lt;/font&gt; (45°/315°) (2/2),
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;leetêϙras&lt;/font&gt; (135°/45°) (5/5),
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;oſnêϙras&lt;/font&gt; (225°/135°) (8/6) and
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħimêϙras&lt;/font&gt; (315°/225°) (11/6).
These cross-quarter days are not the same as the later Celtic ones:
*Imbolc (45°/315°) (2/1),
*Beltane (135°/45°) (5/1),
*Lughnasadh (225°/135°) (8/1) and
*Samhain (315°/225°) (10/31).

===The Seasons &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeerâes&lt;/font&gt;===
There are six seasons.  Their names with a general description follow.  The names in red are those used when only four seasons are recognized.
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħîmas&lt;/font&gt; (&lt;font color=red&gt;winter&lt;/font&gt;) – cold to freezing; heavy snow, sometimes sleet or rain; heavy cloud cover most of the time. &quot;increasing snow&quot;
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêſnas&lt;/font&gt; (&lt;font color=red&gt;spring&lt;/font&gt;) – rising temperature with melting of ice and snow; frequent and heavy rain with heavy cloud cover; plants begin to flower, trees to leaf. &quot;diminishing snow&quot;
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêmas&lt;/font&gt; – temperature continues to rise; ground begins to dry out; plants are in full bloom and leaf; increased sun and wind; warm days and cool nights. &quot;plant growth&quot;
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêêtas&lt;/font&gt; (&lt;font color=red&gt;summer&lt;/font&gt;) – hot and dry; rains infrequently with little cloud cover; grass turns brown. &quot;great heat&quot;
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôſnas&lt;/font&gt; (&lt;font color=red&gt;autumn&lt;/font&gt;) – cooler; clouds in morning and evening often with light rain; leaves begin to change color; crops ready to harvest. &quot;rains return&quot;
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêngŭas&lt;/font&gt; – temperature continues to fall; leaves begin to fall; increasing rainfall; crisp nights with frost in the morning. &quot;morning frost&quot;

===The Months &lt;font color=blue&gt;meenâes&lt;/font&gt;===
There are twelve months, two in each season.  The first month of each season has 31 days, the second 30 days.  The first month of the last season has 31 days only in a leap year.

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħîmas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸîrmas&lt;/font&gt; (Nov 21–Dec 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸîrmos&lt;/font&gt;, thin covering of snow.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;alûngas&lt;/font&gt; (Dec 22–Jan 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;alûngos&lt;/font&gt;, snow bank.

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêſnas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;lûûnas&lt;/font&gt; (Jan 22–Feb 20) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;lûûnos&lt;/font&gt;, wet snow.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôzgümas&lt;/font&gt; (Feb 21–Mar 23) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ozgŭos&lt;/font&gt;, bud; suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-m&lt;/font&gt;, having.

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêmas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ânþëmas&lt;/font&gt;  (Mar 24–Apr 22) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ânþos&lt;/font&gt;, flower.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrûûqmas&lt;/font&gt; (Apr 23–May 22) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrûûgos&lt;/font&gt;, fruit.

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêêtas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;pôlas&lt;/font&gt; – (May 23–Jun 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;pôlis&lt;/font&gt;, warm.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;êndas&lt;/font&gt; (Jun 22–Jul 22) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;êndos&lt;/font&gt;, heat of the sun.

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôſnas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêſas&lt;/font&gt; (Jul 23–Aug 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêſa&lt;/font&gt;, to glean grain.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðêênas&lt;/font&gt; (Aug 22–Sep 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðêêna&lt;/font&gt;, to harvest fruit. 

*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêngŭas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðrônas&lt;/font&gt; (Sep 22–Oct 21) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðrônis&lt;/font&gt;, many colored.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;gûſas&lt;/font&gt; (Oct 22–Nov 20) &lt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;gûſa&lt;/font&gt;, to fall [''of leaves''].

====Dating====
*The days of the months are numbered using the cardinal number with the name of the month in the stative case.  Thus, July 25th above would be &lt;font color=blue&gt;leſâſĭo tîr&lt;/font&gt;.  The first day of the year, December 22, would be &lt;font color=blue&gt;alúngaſĭ' ôi&lt;/font&gt;. Note the change in pitch on &lt;font color=blue&gt;alúngaſĭ'&lt;/font&gt; caused by the elision with &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;.
*The years are numbered according to their order in the era or eon.  The current era is called the present era and dates from the winter solstice of 10,598 B.C.  Thus the present year is N.M. 12,606. N.M. stands for &lt;font color=blue&gt;nûûna méħdiitâſĭo&lt;/font&gt;, 'of the present era.'

===The Lunar Cycle &lt;font color=blue&gt;meenĸûlĸas&lt;/font&gt;===
A lunar cycle is not reckoned, ''i.e.'', time is not reckoned from new moon to new moon. However, the phases of the moon are used to reckon short time spans.  Each of the phases of the moon begins a new &quot;week,&quot; known as a &lt;font color=blue&gt;meenmêrvas&lt;/font&gt; (moon phase) or &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêrvas&lt;/font&gt; for short.  Thus, the &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêrvas&lt;/font&gt; can vary in length from six to nine days.  The &quot;week&quot; begins and celebrations are held on the day after each phase is at its fullest. The first six days of each phase are named after the avatar reverenced by each of the six loquent beings in the order of their creation:
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;meenââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Moon day)
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ááterââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Aaterus' day)
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;neerââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Neerus' day)
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſeegĭââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Seegyus’ day)
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;perĸŭââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Percwus' day) and
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;puuſââmras&lt;/font&gt; (Puusus' day).
The names of these six days are used for the seven days of the contemporary week, being preceded by &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuulââmras&lt;/font&gt;, Sun's day, a day dedicated to the Self-existent as s/he is in him/herself, not as an avatar.
Additional days in the phase bear the names
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooϙóiââmras&lt;/font&gt;, one-extra day
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooϙdŭââmras&lt;/font&gt; , two-extra day and
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱóóϙtirââmras&lt;/font&gt; three-extra day.

===The Zodiac===
The zodiac is the annual cycle of the sun along the ecliptic that is divided into twelve sections or domains (rêźos&lt;/font&gt;).  There are no tales to explain the names, merely supposed likenesses to star arrangements.  By the Senjecan reckoning, the starting point of the ecliptic is at the winter solstice which is marked 0°, although the vernal equinox is at 0°by contemporary reckoning.

*mark - &lt;font color=blue&gt;mârĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*ostrich - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝâânes&lt;/font&gt;
*unicorn - &lt;font color=blue&gt;îźes&lt;/font&gt;
*horse - &lt;font color=blue&gt;êćŭes&lt;/font&gt;
*mammoth - &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭîȝes&lt;/font&gt;
*argali - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôɱes&lt;/font&gt;
*dragon - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſââros&lt;/font&gt;
*(wooly) rhinoceros - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸîrſes&lt;/font&gt;
*(Bactrian) camel - &lt;font color=blue&gt;tibênges&lt;/font&gt;
*boar - &lt;font color=blue&gt;epêres&lt;/font&gt;
*giant elk - &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrêndes&lt;/font&gt;
*wisent - &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiſôntes&lt;/font&gt;

The Contemporary Zodiac
*Aries = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrêênes&lt;/font&gt;
*Taurus = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſteûres&lt;/font&gt;
*Gemini = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝemûes&lt;/font&gt;
*Cancer = &lt;font color=blue&gt;dénćëĸîîtes&lt;/font&gt;
*Leo = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſînqes&lt;/font&gt;
*Virgo = &lt;font color=blue&gt;iinȝêvaþus&lt;/font&gt;
*Libra = &lt;font color=blue&gt;telûros&lt;/font&gt;
*Scorpio = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ødes&lt;/font&gt;
*Sagittarius = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ârĸŭus&lt;/font&gt;
*Capricorn = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħâdes&lt;/font&gt;
*Aquarius = &lt;font color=blue&gt;áɱdëþlêêȝus&lt;/font&gt;
*Pisces = &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîſĸes&lt;/font&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan translations</title>
    <id>2507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T14:45:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Stories]]

[[Bible]]

[[Other]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bible</title>
    <id>2508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41169</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-22T17:29:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Lord's Prayer (Translated from the Greek) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħôes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþâes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnëȝéþas&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaaþȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кéȝëȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtîîvnoomnôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oítanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭótanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tírtanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêmſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;óinêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;péripagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭóкŭerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;póſpagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱóóϙɱerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ménüpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;mînŭes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðmînos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APL = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱááþnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL  = collective
*EL   = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP   = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;énëſtíívſŭevſŭênos&lt;/font&gt;
*FCL = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IM  = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF   = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPL = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱíírnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*PCL = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*REL = relative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP  = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;úfɱernôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VCL = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱüɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=The Lord's Prayer (''Translated from the Greek'')=

'''O our father in heaven,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ô&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćémel-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;en-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ap-â&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| VCL
| 1p-ST
| heaven-ST.s
| in-EL
| father-VO.s
|}
'''May your name be hallowed.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nôômn-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſâк-aþ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tââl-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-ST
| name-NM.s
| hallow-PPL-NM.s
| become-SUB
|}
'''May your kingdom come.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱált-ë-rêɱ-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;güêm-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-ST
| great-power-EP-region-NM.s
| come-SUB
|}
'''May your will be done on earth as in heaven.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tôl-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;épi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćémel-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;en-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;épi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeet-ôsĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêrź-aþ-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tââl-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-ST
| will-NM.s
| as
| heaven-ST.s
| in-EL
| so
| earth-ST.s
| on
| do-PPL-NM.s
| become-SUB
|}
'''Give us daily our daily bread.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſol-ámr-ë-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſol-âmro&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vargên-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dôôn-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-NM
| 1p-MO
| to
| every-day-EP-ADV
| 1p-ST
| every-day
| bread-MO.s
| give-IMP
|}
'''As we forgive our debtors, so you forgive our debts.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;épi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱu-m&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêl-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûr-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;épi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêl-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûr-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1p-NM
| as
| 1p-ST
| debt-MO.p
| forgive-IND
| 2s-NM
| so
| 1p-ST
| debt-MO.p
| 1p-ST
| forgive-IMP
|}
'''Lead us not into temptation.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðêħϙ-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nîîȝ-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-NM
| tempt-MO.s
| into
| 1p-MO
| lead-IMP
| NEG
|}
'''But deliver us from evil.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ánti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħúðtët-âſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭêv-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-NM
| but
| evil-ST.s
| 1p-MO
| deliver-IMP
|}
'''For the kingdom, the power and the glory'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;méħ-ɱalt-ë-rêɱ-as-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱááti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêк-as-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êrкŭ-os-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| great-power-EP-region-NM.s-and
| for
| power-NM.s-and
| glory-NM.s-and
|}
'''are yours forever. Amen'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ââȝt-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vûnd-aþ-os&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| eternity-MO.s
| into
| 2s-ST
| be-IND
| agree-PPL-NM.s
|}

=The Ave Maria (''Translated from the Greek and Latin'')=

'''Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vênd-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ô&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meeϙ-aþ-û&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ârĭ-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſúna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| rejoice-IMP
| VCL
| favor-PPL-VO.s
| lord-NM.s
| 2s-ST
| with
|}
'''Blessed are you among women.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭen-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;entéra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſúſ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-aþ-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-NM
| woman-ST.p
| among
| well-ADV
| say-PPL-NM.s
| be-IND
|}
'''Blessed is the fruit of your womb.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭelv-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrûûg-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſúſ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-aþ-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-ST
| womb-ST.s
| fruit-NM.s
| well-ADV
| say-PPL-NM.s
| be-IND
|}
'''Holy Mary, Mother of God,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-û&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ô&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;saĸ-û&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;marĭ-û&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;diiɱ-am-â&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2s-VO
| VCL
| holy-VO.s
| Mary-VO.s
| god-mother-VO.s
|}
'''Pray for us sinners,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ag-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lált-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêlð-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1p-ST
| sin-ST.p
| benefit-PREP
| pray-IMP
|}
'''now and at the hour of our death.  Amen.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;núu-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meer-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ten-âſĭo-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vûnd-aþ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| now-and
| 1p-ST
| death-ST.s
| time-ST.s-and
| agree-PPL-NM.s
|}

=The Tower of Babel, Genesis 11:1-9 (''Translated from the Hebrew'')=
'''And was all the earth of language one and of speech one.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôlu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭêêt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeĸ-âſĭo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeĸm-ôſĭo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| all
| earth-NM.s
| language-ST.s-and
| one
| speech-ST.s-and
| one
| PCL
| be-IND
|}
'''And it was as they traveled from the east they found a level valley in the land of Shinar.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;épi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ááus-âſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éħa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſênt-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱ-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćínar-âſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêêpo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸââln-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêêſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.p
| as
| east-ST.s-EL
| from
| PCL
| travel-IND
| that-NM.p
| land-ST.s
| Shinar-ST.s-EL
| from
| level
| valley-MO.s
| PCL
| find-IND
|}
'''And they lived there. And said each one to his neighbor,
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tóru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêêſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſênĭ-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nééɱħë-ɱeeſ-ûſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.p
| there
| PCL
| live-IND
| each-NM.s
| near-live-ST.s-EL
| to
| PCL
| say-IND
|}
'''&quot;Come, let us bake bricks and burn them thoroughly.&quot;'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêm-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;teeg-ônd-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;têêg-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſíl-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nó-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;înð-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źaí&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| &quot;
| we-VO.p
| come-IMP
| we-VO.p
| bake-stone-MO.p
| bake-IMP
| we-VO.p
| ?-ADV
| that-MO.p
| burn-IMP
| &quot;
|}
'''And was to them the brick for stone, and the asphalt it was to them for mortar.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;teeg-ônd-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nu-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ond-ôſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ántĭa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a,&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nâft-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nu-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭum-ôſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ántĭa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| burn-stone-NM.s
| that-ST.p
| to
| stone-ST.s
| for
| PCL
| be-IND
| asphalt-NM.s
| that-ST.p
| to
| mortar-ST.s
| for
| PPRT
| be-IND
|}
'''And they said, Come, let us build for ourselves a city and a tower with its top in the heavens,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱu-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lálta&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rîȝ-om-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-ſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîrĸ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćemel-ôm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙoor-dêm-om-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêm-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.p
| PCL
| say-IND
| &quot;
| we-VO.p
| we-ST.p
| for
| city-MO.s-and
| that-ST.s
| top-NM.s
| heaven-ST.s
| in
| jut-building-MO.s-and
| build-IMP
|}
'''lest we be scattered on the face of all the earth.&quot;'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;metoálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱú-es-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôlo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeet-ôſ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêrć-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;xénd-aþ-ûes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;môl-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źaí&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| lest
| we-NM.p-EP
| all
| earth-ST.s
| face-MO.s
| on
| scatter-PPCP-NM.p
| become-IND
| &quot;
|}
'''And came down JHWH to see the city and the tower which had built the sons of Adam'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;JHWH&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rîȝ-om-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝéti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ádam-ûſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuun-ûes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dë-dêm-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙoor-dêm-om-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôĸŭ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱ-gŭêm-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| JHWH
| city-MO.s-and
| REL
| Adam-ST.s
| son-NM.p
| PCL
| RED-build-IND
| jut-building-MO.s-and
| see-SUP
| PCL
| down-come-IND
|}
'''And said JHWH, &quot;See, the people one and the language one to all them'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;JHWH&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôĸŭ-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;leûð-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ês-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêĸ-as-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sôlu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nu-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| JHWH
| PCL
| say-IND
| &quot;
| you-VO.p
| see-IMP
| people-NM.s
| one
| be-IND
| and
| language-NM.s-EP
| all
| that-ST.p
| to
| one
| be-IND
|}
'''and this they are beginning to do.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vu-ɱêrź-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| and
| that-NM.p
| that-MO.s
| begin-do-IND
|}
'''and now will not be restrained from them all which they have imagined to do.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝéti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêrź-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lë-lâćŭ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſol-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nu-ûm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ápa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;núu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðélϙ-aþ-ûes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tââl-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| and
| REL
| that-NM.p
| do-SUP
| RED-imagine-IND
| all-NM.s
| that-ST.p
| from
| now
| restrain-PPL-NM.p
| FCL
| become-IND
| not
|}
'''you, so that not they can understand one language their neighbor's'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝûs&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;metoála&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nu-úm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nééɱħë-ɱeeſ-ûſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêĸ-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êvź-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mââϙ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| you-VO.p
| lest
| that-NM.p
| that-ST.p
| near-live-ST.s
| one
| language-MO.s
| understand-SUP
| be.able-SUB
|}
'''Come, let us go and mix up there their language&quot;'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêm-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱûs&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ât-e-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tóru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-ſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêĸ-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mĭâân-e-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źaí.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| come-IMP
| we-VO.p
| go-IMP-and
| there
| that-ST.p
| language-MO.s
| mix.up-IMP-and
| &quot;
|}
'''And scattered JHWH them from there, over the face of all the earth;'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;JHWH&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tórþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sôlo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeet-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêrć-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ámva&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-n&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;xênd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| JHWH
| from.there
| all
| earth-ST.s
| face-MO.s
| over
| that-MO.p
| PCL
| scatter-IND
|}
'''and they ceased from building the city.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nú-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rîȝ-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêm-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dûſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-ST.p
| city-MO.s
| build-SUP
| PCL
| cease-IND
|}
'''Therefore was called its name Babel,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-óſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nôômn-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;náári&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;babêl-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nôômn-aþ-os,&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tââl-a,&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-ST.
| name-NM.s
| for.that.reason
| Babel-NM.s
| name-PPP-NM.s
| PCL
| become-IND
|}
'''because there mixed up JHWH the speech of all the earth'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;JHWH&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;úći&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tóru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sòlu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeet-ûſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêĸam&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mĭâân-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| JHWH
| because
| there
| all
| earth-ST.s
| language-MO.s
| PCL
| confuse-IND
|}

'''and from there scattered them abroad JHWH on the face of all the earth.'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;JHWH&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tór-þis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sôlo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeet-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêrć-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;xênd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| JHWH
| there-from
| all
| earth-ST.s
| face-MO.s
| on
| that-MO.p
| PCL
| scatter-IND
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Va'díl Lexicon</title>
    <id>2509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T17:00:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wm.annis</username>
        <id>185</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
&lt;center&gt;
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#D|D]] - [[#E|E]] - [[#H|H]] - [[#I|I]] - [[#K|K]] - [[#L|L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#O|O]] - [[#R|R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T|T]] - [[#U|U]] - [[#V|V]] - [[#W|W]] - [[#Y|Y]] - [[#Z|Z]]
&lt;/center&gt;

== A ==

* '''a&amp;middot;kkin''' ?
* '''anakke&amp;middot;zh''' n. ''man (+g)''
* '''ár&amp;middot;ki''' v. ''cause to go''; m-p. ''go''

== B ==

* '''ba&amp;middot;kku''' v. ''do, make''; m-p. ''become''

== H ==

* '''hir''' n. ''hand''

== I ==

* '''ii&amp;middot;da''' v. ''hear''

== K ==

* '''kam''' n. ''arm''

== L ==

* '''láam&amp;middot;azh''' n. ''star''; pl. '''lámri''' ''stars''
* '''lah''' prep. ''near''

== M ==

* '''máu&amp;middot;zh''' n. ''cat'' (domesticated)
* '''mi'&amp;middot;da''' v. ''see''
* '''mu&amp;middot;r''' v. ''divide, separate''
** '''murel''' n. ''part, section''

== O ==

* '''o&amp;middot;dáá''' v.tr.  ''break''
** '''odál''' n. ''break''

== S ==

* '''saur&amp;middot;azh''' n. ''man''; pl. '''sormi'''

== V ==

* '''va'díí''' v. ''speak''

== Z ==

* '''zhóon''' adj. ''large''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kratal-rul-babel-1024.png</title>
    <id>2510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-09T22:35:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kratal-Rul Babel Text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kratal-Rul Babel Text</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kratal-Rul</title>
    <id>2511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29130</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:04:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== About ==
Kratal-Rul is the reformed version of Modern [[Charos S'fik]].&lt;br&gt;
It was created 6/2006 by me (Pascal A. Kramm).

== Culture ==
The speakers of Kratal-Rul, the Hoka, are living majorly on Hokkaido (Japan's northern-most island), but a good amount of them also live on Honshû (the Japanese main island), and there mostly in the Kantô region. A small amount is still living on the Russian island Sakhalin north of Hokkaido. &lt;br&gt;
Their name stems back from the late 16th century, when they first made contact with westerners (most likely Portuguese) who named them &quot;Hocaidoes&quot;. They eventually adapted the name for themselves, but shortened it to &quot;Hoka&quot;.

== Origin ==
When analyzing their language, and also judging from their original Phoenician-derived script, it seems most likely that the Hoka were originally tribes coming from today's Germany and Scandinavia, as you can still find Germanic-sounding words in their vocabulary, although more recent researches also revealed slight hellenistic influences. From their original habitat, they moved more and more eastwards, crossing all of Russia on the way (which had quite an impact on their language), always looking for a good place to stay. They eventually set over to Sakhalin, and from there to Hokkaido, where they finally started settling down, while some moved on to Honshû and settled mostly in the Kantô region. Their language became strongly influenced by Japanese over time.

== Modernisation ==
Starting with the Meiji Restauration of 1868, the Modernisation also reached the Hoka and eventually gave rise to Modern Charos S'fik.&lt;br&gt;
The new script of Modern Charos S'fik, based upon the old handwriting script, was influenced by the intensive trade and relations with Korea, which also had an strong impact on their language. Also, many started moving over to Korea.&lt;br&gt;
After the end of WW II, Modern Charos S'fik was reformed again, and the result was named '''Kratal-Rul''' which means ''Language of Progress'' (''kratal''=progress is composed of ''krati''=''to go/advance'' and ''taran''=forward, ''rul''=particle for the language of a country or a group). 

== Grammar ==
Sentences have '''SOV''' order.&lt;br&gt;
All words consist of '''syllables''' which are composed like this:&lt;br&gt;
* initial consonant (which can be the null-consonant)
* vowel (which can be the null-vowel after the word-initial consonants '''kh''', '''f''', '''s''')
* final consonant (doesn't always occur, omitted before '''-r-''')
Words with more than two syllables cannot end with a vowel.

== Script ==
[[image:Modern-Tifet-script.png|left|thumb|150px|Modern Tifet Script]] The script used for Kratal-Rul evolved from the original Tifet handwriting script.&lt;br&gt;
In its creation, the Korean Hangul alphabet was taken as a model for the vowels and the syllable stacking.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

== Phonology ==
The Phonology was slightly reformed from Modern Charos S'fik.

===Alphabet===
This table presents the alphabet in its proper order.&lt;br&gt;
It is named '''khakra''', after its first two consonant letters.

Initial = at the beginning of a word&lt;br&gt;
Medial = at the beginning of a syllable inside of a word&lt;br&gt;
Final = at the end of a word or a syllable
{|border=1
! Sound ||  Ipa  || Initial || Medial || Final || Unit by itself
|-
| a || a,ʌ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ä || æ || O || O || O || O
|-
| e || e,ɛ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ei || aɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| i || i,ɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| u || u,ʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| o || o,ɔ || O || O || O || O
|-
| eu || oɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ja || ja,jʌ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jä || jæ || O || O || O || O
|-
| je || je,jɛ || O || O || O || O
|-
| ju || ju,jʊ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jo || jo,jɔ || O || O || O || O
|-
| jeu || joɪ || O || O || O || O
|-
| kh || ç/x || ç || ç || x || ç
|-
| kr || kʁ || O || O || O || O
|-
| k || k || k+voc.r || k || k || -
|-
| t/d || t/d || t || d || t || -
|-
| n || n || O || O || O || -
|-
| f || f || O || O || O || O
|-
| m || m || O || O || O || -
|-
| p || p || p+ja || - || p || -
|-
| j || j || O || O || - || -
|-
| r || ʁ || O || O || - || -
|-
| l || l || O || O || O || -
|-
| sh || ʃ || O || O || O || O
|-
| s || s || O || O || O || O
|-
| h || h || O || O || - || -
|}
* kr is regarded as a single consonant
* '''p''' can only occur as '''p+ja-vowel''' at the beginning of a word
* vocalic '''r''' can only occur after '''t''' or '''k''' and must not be in the last syllable of a word

===Pronunciation rules===
Two consonants have a different pronunciation, depending on their position in the word:
* '''kh''': like '''h''' in ''huge'' if word- or syllable-initial, otherwise like the '''ch''' in Scottish ''Loch''.
* '''t/d''': '''t''' at the beginning or end of a word or syllable, '''d''' at the beginning of a syllable inside of a word.

If consonants are followed by any of the '''ja''' vowels (ja, jä, je...), some change their pronunciation:
* kh+ja -&gt; cja [ʝa] if initial, kha [ça] otherwise
* kr+ja -&gt; kkha [kxa]
* k+ja -&gt; kja [kça]
* n+ja -&gt; nja [ɲa]
* t+ja -&gt; tja [tça]
* d+ja -&gt; dja [dʝa]
.
* f+ja -&gt; fj [fja]
* p+ja -&gt; pj [pja]
* s+ja -&gt; sj [sja]

The consonants m, j, r, l, sh, h cannot be followed by a '''ja''' vowel.


== Babel text ==
[[image:kratal-rul-babel-1280.png|left|thumb|150px|Kratal-Rul Babel text]] '''Note:'''
* The apostrophe (') is used in order to indicate syllable boundaries. After a single consonant it means that the consonant has to be pronounced long (consonant-only syllable).

'''Bereshit''' (Book of Genesis) ''Chapter 11, 1-9''
* '''1''' Khik'im khoncjeu trtif trtakh s'farakh sjam khot'op fe ta ita.
* '''2''' Krti e in jatrkakh kh'mas, manush Shin'ara ni pjoncje ta tarof okh tä shikmin ta kh'mas.
* '''3''' Krot-ul själ ni ta malha: &quot;Jo f'rokh'ot! Nek-ul ishtak jo kh'mas okh mik khot-ul jo naknis!&quot; Krot-ul ishdak f'sam'en tol okh tjäl f'sam'en morat ta suda.
* '''4''' Khet'akh krot-ul ta malha: &quot;Jo f'rokh'ot! Krorot tori fe khankron e nek-ul fa jo khorip, s'da nek-ul khoncjeu jorat ue njet s'ka kha raskrsat.&quot;
* '''5''' Ut'an HaShem-shi kh'ta ta f'rokh'ot fa krorot okh tori fi'djet som sjaram in ta khorip.
* '''6''' HaShem-shi ta malha: &quot;Man'il a'kkhat han sjaram-tul han s'farakh fe krot-ul khon tja nashin kh'mas, nada krot-ul khäfik kh'mas fulkhanun krot-ul fa s'ka ita.
* '''7''' Jo f'rokh'ot! Nek-ul kh'ta jo krati okh s'farakh af krot-ul jo khondon, s'da krot-ul själ njet s'ka kronjat.&quot;
* '''8''' S' HaShem-shi krot-ul khoncjeu jorat ue ta raskrsat, okh krot-ul krorot ta ostanof khorip.
* '''9''' Takha krorot Faf'el ta kha nam, emedan HaShem-shi dä s'farakh af khoncjeu trtif khondon; tä jo'kje, HaShem-shi krot-ul khoncjeu jorat ue ta raskrsat.


'''Literal:''' (word-by-word)
* '''1''' now whole world single language same word with *past* have.
* '''2''' sun towards *continuous* travel make, human Shinar in flat *past* find and there settlement *past* make.
* '''3''' they self to *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! We brick *cohortive* make and much they *cohortive* fire!&quot; they brick instead-of stone and tar instead-of mortar *past* use.
* '''4''' then they *past* say: &quot;*cohortive* come! city tower with sky towards we for *cohortive* build, so-that we whole earth over not *future* *passive* scatter.&quot;
* '''5''' but HaShem-mister down *past* come for city and tower see that man *continuous* *past* build.
* '''6''' HaShem-mister *past* say: &quot;if as one people with one language they this *perfect* begin do, nothing they plan do not-possible they for *future* be.
* '''7''' *cohortive* come! we down *cohortive* go and language of they *cohortive* confuse, so-that they self not *future* understand.&quot;
* '''8''' so HaShem-mister they whole world over *past* scatter, and they city *past* stop build.
* '''9''' therefore city Babel *past* passive* name, because HaShem-mister there language of whole world confuse; there from, HaShem-mister they whole earth over *past* scatter.


'''Translation:'''
* '''1''' Now the whole world had one (a single) language with the same words.
* '''2''' Journeying sunwards, men found a plain in Shinar and settled there.
* '''3''' They said to one another: &quot;Come! Let's make brick and burn them thorougly!&quot; They used bricks instead of stone and tar instead of mortar.
* '''4''' Then they said: &quot;Come! Let's build a city for us with a tower up to the sky, to make a name for us, so that we are not scattered over the whole earth.&quot;
* '''5''' But Mr. HaShem came down to see the city and the tower men were building.
* '''6''' Mr. HaShem said: &quot;If as one people with one language they have begun doing this, nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
* '''7''' Come! Let's go down and confuse their language, so that they will not understand each other.&quot;
* '''8''' So Mr. HaShem scattered them over the whole earth, and they stopped building the city.
* '''9''' Therefore the city was named Babel, because there Mr. HaShem confused the language of the whole world; from there Mr. HaShem scattered them over the whole earth.


== Human Rights ==
[[image:kratal-rul-human-rights.png|left|thumb|150px|Kratal-Rul Human Rights]] '''Unifes shinkroso af manush cjondan'''
* Khisa han
Oloi manush elef okh iso tostoi okh cjondan ni ta kha fodelse. Krot-ul s'kräl okh janshim kha kri'djun okh s'jäl e khänsal af lik'het fe khut händon.


'''Literal:''' (word-by-word)&lt;br&gt;
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
* Article one
all human freedom and equality dignity and rights in *past* *passive* birth. they reason and conscience *passive* endowment and self towards sentiment of kinship *conditional* action.


'''Translation:'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
* Article one
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. 


== Lexicon ==
(coming soon)


== Numbers ==
  1 han
  2 tu
  3 se
  4 fi
  5 pjat
  6 e'kkha
  7 sju
  8 fos'em
  9 tefjat
 10 tikh
 11 tikh han
 12 tikh tu
 13 tikh se
 14 tikh fi
 ...
 20 tu-tikh
 30 se-tikh
 40 fi-tikh
 50 pja-tikh
 60 e-tikh
 70 sju-tikh
 80 fos-tikh
 90 tef-tikh
 99 tef-tikh tefjat
 100 khen
 200 tu-khen
 300 se-khen
 400 fi-khen
 500 pja-khen
 600 e-khen
 700 sju-khen
 800 fos-khen
 900 tef-khen
 999 tef-khen tef-tikh tefjat
 
 1,000 tjon
 10,000 man
 100,000 tikh man
 1,000,000 mijon
 10,000,000 tikh mijon
 100,000,000 khen mijon
 1,000,000,000 mijat
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khehes</title>
    <id>2512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-10T17:54:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Khehes is the largest country on the planet Jen. It takes up much of the eastern half of the continent of Za'al. 

==History==
Khehes has existed since ancient times, and much of its early history is a mystery. According to legend, it was founded when a warrior named Khehes single-handedly defeated the defences of an entire town. When other nearby city-states heard of this, they allied themselves with him thinking that he must be a god, and the country grew steadily from there. It is doubtful that he actually conquered the town single-handedly, as people from Khehes are known to often exaggerate.

==Culture==
Khehes has a strong warrior tradition. Hwatzili make up about a quarter of the population, and though they are naturally stronger than Atzili, but they have a lot of respect for Atzili, who are faster and have a sense of echolocation that is very useful in combat- the national hero Khehes was an Atzili. Males and females are considered equals.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Other</title>
    <id>2513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43244</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-18T13:25:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Xerxes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">(⋅) (:) (⋮) (╹╻)

=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħôes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþâes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnëȝéþas&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaaþȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кéȝëȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtîîvnoomnôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oítanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭótanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tírtanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêmſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;óinêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;péripagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭóкŭerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;póſpagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱóóϙɱerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ménüpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minŭes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðmînos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anïôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APL = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱááþnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL = collective
*EL  = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP  = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;énëſtíívſŭevſŭênos&lt;/font&gt;
*FCL = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IM  = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF  = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPL = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱíírnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*PCL = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*REL = relative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;úfɱernôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VCL = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱüɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;

='''Fear Is the Mind Killer''' &lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîðas miinôrgus êsa&lt;/font&gt;=

'''I must not fear. Fear is the mind-killer.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîð-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸêl-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîð-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;miin-ôrg-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1s-NM
| fear-SUP
| must-IND
| not
| fear-NM.s
| mind-kill-NM.s
| be-IND
|}
'''Fear is the little death bringing total obliteration. I will face my fear.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîð-as-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôla&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙoo-łêϙĭ-am-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrênĸ-anta&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêr-l-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîð-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ânt-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| fear-NM.s-EP
| total
| INT-destroy-MO.s-EP
| bring-APL
| die-DIM-NM.s
| be-IND
| 1s-NM.s
| 1s-ST.s
| fear-MO.s
| FCL
| face-IND
|}
'''I will permit it to pass over me and through me.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-am-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;úpa-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;térĸŭa-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêlć-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vűnd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1s-NM.s
| that-MO.s-EP
| 1s-MO.s
| over-and
| through-and
| pass-SUP
| FPC
| permit-IND
|}
'''And when it has gone past, I will turn the inner eye to see its path.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-am-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;më~mêlć-ant-am-ë,&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-áſĩo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âmź-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-MO.s-EP
| RED~pass-APL-MO.s-EP
| 1s-NM.s
| that-ST.s
| path-MO.s
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôćŭ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ênr-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôćŭ-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêlć-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| see-SUB
| inner-EL
| eye-MO.s
| FCL
| turn-IND
|}
'''When the fear has gone, there will be nothing. Only I will remain.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîð-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;â~ât-ant-am,&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;néĸŭ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vââl-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſ-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſóól-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tŭîł-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| fear-MO.s
| RED~go-APL-MO.s
| nothing-NM.s
| FCL
| there.is-IND
| 1s-NM.s-EP
| alone-ADV
| FPL
| survive-IND
|}

='''The Nine Rings''' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêun âânos&lt;/font&gt;=
'''Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tîr&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âân-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćémel-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nðéra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;púnĭon-meħ-áſur-ûſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| three
| ring-NM.s
| sky-ST.s
| under
| elf-great-prince-ST.s-EL
| for
|}
'''Seven for the Dwarf-lords in the halls of stone,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêf&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ond-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸántï-dem-ôm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óndĭon-arĭ-ûſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| seven
| stone-ST.s
| assemble-build-ST.p
| in
| dwarf.lord-ST.s-EL
| for
|}
'''Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nêun&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêr-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸâſ-aþ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêrɱ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-ûſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| nine
| die-SUP
| doom-PCL
| mortal
| man-ST.p-EL
| for
|}
'''One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rêêm-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;réz-ſed-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;réém-arĭ-ûſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| one
| that-ST.s
| dark
| rule-seat-ST.s
| on
| dark-lord-ST.s-EL
| for
|}
'''In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝéti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſćaaź-ôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêȝ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mórdor-ĸunĭ-âſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| REL
| shadow-NM.p
| lie-IND
| Mordor-land-ST.s-EL
| in
|}
'''One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âân-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sôlo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rêź-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âân-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêêſ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| one
| ring-NM.s
| all
| that-MO.p
| rule-SUP
| one
| ring-NM.s
| that-MO.p
| find-SUP
|}
'''One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âân-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sôl-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-on-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrênĸ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reem-âſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vênð-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| one
| ring-NM.s
| all
| that-MO.p-EP
| bring-SUP
| and
| darkness-ST.s
| in
| that-MO.p
| bind-SUP
|}
'''In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝéti&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſćaaź-ôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêȝ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mórdor-ĸunï-âſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| REL
| shadow-NM.p
| lie-IND
| Mordor-land-ST.s-EL
| in
|}

='''Ozymandias''' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ózimândĭas  &lt;/font&gt;=

'''I met a traveller from an antique land,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêno&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱ-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áfa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſênt-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;môôd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1s-NM-EP
| antique
| land-ST.s
| from
| travel-MO.s
| P
| meet-IND
|}
'''Who said:'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êêg-a:&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.s
| PPTR
| say-IND
|}
'''—&quot;Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭô&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?-rêɱo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vë-ſtemvôro-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ond-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;coſt-őes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaſt-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſâât-a⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| &quot;
| two
| INT-space-and
| PRV-trunk-and
| stone-CL5.ST.s
| leg-CL5.NM.p
| desert-CL5.ST.s
| in
| meet-IND
|}
'''Near them on the sand, Half sunk, a shatter'd visage lies,'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſéémï-gŭââv-aþ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêm-aþ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dêrć-os-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſamþ-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nééɱħa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| half-sink-IND.PPCP-CL5
| shatter-IND.PPCP-CL5
| visage-CL5.NM.s-EP
| sand-CL5.ST.s
| on
| 3-ST.p.
| near
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂe̋ʒ-a⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| lie-IND
|}
'''whose frown And wrinkled lip and sneer of cold command Tell that its sculptor well those passions read, Which yet survive, stamp'd on these lifeless things, The hand that mock'd them and the heart that fed.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;la̋ð-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ténd-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t̮ı̋ł-ant-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ve-z̆ı̋ı̋ʒ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱextőm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dom&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 3-ST.s
| sculpt-CL6-NM.s
| while-ADV
| survive-APCP-CL5
| PRV-life-CL5
| thing-CL5.ST.p.
| this-ST.p.
| on
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;űb-aþ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lőőt-an-ə&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-an&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sús-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðe̋ʒ-a⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| stamp-PPCP-CL5.NM.s
| passion-CL3.MO.p.-EP
| that-CL3.ST.p.
| good-ADV
| PPTC
| read-IND
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-óşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱat-a̋nt-om-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋t-aþ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;la̋vl-os-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 3-CL5.ST.s
| wrinkle-brow-CL5.NM.s.-and
| wrinkle-PPCP-CL5
| lip-CL5.NM.s.-and
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;űqr-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vunð-a̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ga̋ng-os-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dáál-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋e̋g-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| cold-CL3
| command-CL3.ST.s
| sneer-CL5.NM.s-and
| this-ADV
| tell-IND
|-
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-an&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ga̋ng-ant-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħe̋sr-os-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pa̋a̋ð-ant-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂe̋rd-os-c̆e⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 3-CL3.MO.p
| mock-APCP-CL5
| hand-CL5.NM.s.-and
| feeding-APCP-CL5
| heart-CL5.NM.s.-and
|}
'''And on the pedestal these words appear:'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cái&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vaaþn-őes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-óes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂíís-ped-őşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;c̆e̋ʂ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| and
| word-CL5.NM.p
| this-CL5.NM.p
| column-foot-CL5.ST.s
| on
| appear-IND
|}
'''&quot;My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nőőmn-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ózima̋nd̟-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;méħ-ɱaalt-űşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱa̋a̋lt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 1.s-ST
| name-CL5.NM.s
| Ozymandias-CL3.NM.s
| great-prince-CL6.ST.s
| great-prince-CL6.NM.s
| be-IND
|}
'''Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair!&quot;'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;¡ʒ-ű&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalð-űs&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;da̋a̋r-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vűð-e-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;v-qe̋ħ-e-c̆e»!&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 2.p-VO
| mighty-CL6.VO.p
| 1.s-ST
| work-CL5.MO.p
| observe-IMP-and
| PRV-hope-IMP-and
|}
'''Nothing beside remains:'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;néc̆-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱitéru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋n-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| nothing-CL5.NM.s
| beside
| remain-IND
|}

'''round the decay of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare, The lone and level sands stretch far away.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ca̋ɱl-o-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;le̋e̋p-o-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;samþ-őes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;diz-me̋ħ-o-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;v-ce̋e̋rc̆-o-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋a̋st-o-c̆e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| lone-CL5-and
| level-CL5-and
| sand-CL5.NM.p
| wonder-great-CL5-and
| PRV-end-CL5-and
| bare-CL5-and
|-
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;łeq̒-őşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-óşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pűűt-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋ļa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;c̆el-áp-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;re̋e̋ʐ-a⋅&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| wreck-CL5.ST.s
| that-CL5.ST.s
| decay-CL3.MO.s
| &lt;center&gt;around&lt;/center&gt;
| far-away-ADV
| stretch-IND
|}

=Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1 &lt;font color=blue&gt;ertïôna ȝoɱâm ćŭânta êêgas&lt;/font&gt;=

'''&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôlu értïonûesë ſŭêvûesĸŭe ámrëſtaaȝâſïoĸŭe ȝoɱâmĸŭ' éna vilűesĸŭe źêênŭa. núes ɱeeȝâſïoĸŭe ðééseenâſïoĸŭe űða. núesë vraatâſïo ćŭonćâſï' en' ánïanïâſï' o ɱêrźu ĸêla.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;'''


'''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôlu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;értïon-ûes-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭev-ûes-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ámr-ë-ſtaaȝ-âſïo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoɱ-âm-ĸŭ-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vil-űes-ĸe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źêênŭ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| all
| human.being-NM.p-EP
| free-NM.p-and
| grasp-EP-stand-ST.s-and
| rights-ST.p-and.EL
| in
| equal-NM.p-and
| be.born-IND
|}
'''They are endowed with reason and conscience'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeeȝ-âſïo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðééseen-âſïo-ĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;űð-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.p
| reason-ST.s-and
| conscience-ST.s-and
| be.endowed.with-IND
|}

'''and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úes-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vraat-âſïo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭonć-âſï-'[&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;en-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ánïanï-âſï-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêrź-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸêl-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| that-NM.s-EP
| brotherhood-ST.s
| spirit-ST.s-elision
| in
| each.other-ST.s-EL
| towards
| act-SUP
| should-IND
|}
=Xerxes=
Cool! I like that. In Greek that would be διώρυγα του Ξέρξη (diṓruga tou Xérxē). The Athonite dialect has borrowed a lot of Turkish words into their vocabulary, especially with regard to military terms and modern artifacts. They would naturally hear their Ottoman overlords referring in Turkish to the canal that they're revitalizing. The Turkish word for 'canal' is 'suyolu.' Thus, the Athonite translation would be σoυιόλ τυ Ξέρξη (suiól tu Xérxes).

Charlie</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kratal-rul-babel-1280.png</title>
    <id>2514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-10T22:48:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kratal-Ru Babel text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kratal-Ru Babel text</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Questions etc</title>
    <id>2515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-13T12:28:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Questions, commands, conditionals and counterfactuals==

===Questions===

A yes/no question is formed simply by putting the verb in the interrogative mood

nellodahidau rik?
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||dau ||rik
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||int ||man
|}
Is the man worthy?

Yes is ''lœ'', no is ''sheshe''

Negative questions are answered with

;wenu:Indeed not
;ngip:on the contrary, yes

nellodahidaushe rik?
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||dau ||she ||rik
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||int ||neg ||man
|}
Is not the man worthy?

''wenu'' means that the man is not worthy, ''ngip'' that he is worthy.

There are no interrogative pronouns per se, but any noun may be made into a wh- word by the modsegunak ''dau''

nellodahi rikdau?
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||rik ||dau
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||man ||what
|}
Which man is worthy?

nellovlanting rik nazdauol?
{|
|nello ||vlant ||i ||ng ||rik ||naz ||dau ||ol
|-
|worthy ||become ||3p ||pt ||man ||means ||what ||inst
|}

By what means did the man become worthy?

===Commands===

The imperative in Khangaþyagon can be used in any person, and is not pro-drop

iðuzhalt ya sarmneye!
{|
|iðuzh ||a ||lt ||ya ||sarmne ||ye
|-
|see ||1p ||imp ||1p ||friend ||voc
|}
Behold a friend! (Customary greeting between wizards)

ærkriuflt kriāriþon glæstæpontol
{|
|ærkr ||i ||uf ||lt ||kriā ||riþ ||on ||glæs ||tæp ||ont ||ol
|-
|heal ||3p ||pass ||imp ||blood ||flow ||PrP ||spirit ||command ||PrP ||inst
|}

Let the bleeding be healed by conjuration!

===Conditionals and counterfactuals===

A condition is marked with the conditional mood segunak, azh

nellodahiazh rik, yagakh ya yiakh
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||azh ||rik ||yag ||a ||kh ||ya ||yi ||akh
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||cond ||man ||speak ||1p ||ft ||1p ||3p ||recip
|}
If the man is worthy, I will speak to him.

If two conditionally marked clauses occur together without an intervening conjunction, the sentence expresses a counterfactual.

nellodahiazh rik, yagaazh ya yiakh.
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||azh ||rik ||yag ||a ||azh ||ya ||yi ||akh
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||cond ||man ||speak ||1p ||cond ||1p ||3p ||recip
|}
If the man were worthy, I would speak to him.

If two or more conditions occur together, they are separated by a conjunction.

nellodahiazh rik beb yagaazh ya yiakh, gelikh yi.
{|
|nello ||dah ||i ||azh ||rik ||beb ||yag ||a ||azh ||ya ||yi ||akh ||gel ||i ||kh ||yi
|-
|worthy ||be ||3p ||cond ||man ||and ||speak ||1p ||cond ||1p ||3p ||recip |go ||3p ||ft ||3p
|}

If the man is worthy and I speak to him, he will go.

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Subordinate Clauses|Back_name=Subordinate Clases and Reported Speech|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax|Up_name=Syntax|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax misc|Next_name=Syntactical Miscellany}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khehesen</title>
    <id>2516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-15T20:03:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Khehesen is an agglutinative conlang.

==Phonology==
===Pronounication guide===
====Consonants====
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| b || b
|-
| ch || tʃ
|-
| d || d, t
|-
| dl || dɬ
|-
| f || f, θ
|-
| g || ɡ
|-
| h || h
|-
| hl || ɬ
|-
| k || k
|-
| kh || x
|-
| l || l
|-
| m || m
|-
| n || n
|-
| n̄ || ŋ
|-
| p || p
|-
| pf || pf
|-
| r || ɹ
|-
| s || s
|-
| sh || ʃ
|-
| v || v, ð
|-
| y || j
|-
| z || z
|- 
| zh || ʒ
|}

dl: pronounce d and l at the same time.&lt;br&gt;
hl: same as the 'll' sound from Welsh.&lt;br&gt;
kh: like the ch in 'loch'.&lt;br&gt;
n̄: as in 'sing'.&lt;br&gt;
pf: pronounced like p, but with the lower lip touching the upper teeth (this sound occurs in German) &lt;br&gt; 
th: as in 'thin' (not as in 'then').&lt;br&gt;
v: usually as in &quot;van&quot;, but sometimes like the th in &quot;then&quot;&lt;br&gt;
zh: like the s in &quot;treasure&quot;

====Vowels====
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| a || æ
|-
| ā || ɑ
|-
| e || ɛ
|-
| i || ɪ
|-
| o || ɒ
|-
| ö || ɔi
|-
| u || ə, ʌ
|-
| ū || ɜ, ɜɪ, ɜə
|}

a: as in &quot;attic&quot;&lt;br&gt;
ā: as in &quot;father&quot;&lt;br&gt;
e: as in &quot;met&quot;&lt;br&gt;
i: as in &quot;tin&quot;&lt;br&gt;
o: as in &quot;top&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;ouml;: as in &quot;oil&quot;&lt;br&gt;
u: as in &quot;bun&quot;&lt;br&gt;
ū: as in &quot;bird&quot;

==Grammar==
===Sentence structure===
Word order is usually Subject Verb Object, as in English, but this is flexible since cases are indicated. To form a question, the prefix 'dli-' is added to the word being questioned. For example, think of the statement &quot;Ben went out&quot; (ben hlekhol n̄ifba). The questional form depends in what is being questioned, which occurs in English by emphasizing that word- for example, &quot;''Ben'' went out?&quot; (dliben hlekhol n̄ifba) questions whether Ben went out, while &quot;Ben went ''out''?&quot; (ben hlekhol dlin̄ifba) questions whether he went out. It is possible to question more than one word per sentence.

===Declension===
Khehesen has 5 cases, 4 marked by suffixes:
* Nominative: no suffix (indicates a subject)
* Accusative: '-fa' (indicates an object)
* Genitive: '-ga' (indicates the possessor of something)
* Locative: '-ba' (indicates a location)
* Temporal: '-za' (indicates a time)

There are only 3 tenses, for present, past and future. They are indicated by prefixing the verb as follows:
* Present: no prefix
* Past: 'hle-' ('le-' if a word begins with hl)
* Future: 'pfe-' ('pe-' if a words begins with pf)

In addition, a speaker can indicate that they like something by suffixing  '-ār', or dislike something  by suffixing '-ān'.

===Plurals===
The plural of a word is expressed by reduplication, that is repeating the last syllable of that word, with any cases following after the repeated syllable. There are a few words where the repeated syllable is pronounced slightly differently to the stem word, usually for loanwords. A double reduplication implies there are &quot;many&quot; of the said things. 

For example: 
* &quot;lanog&quot; = island 
* &quot;lanognog&quot; = islands 
* &quot;lanognognog&quot; = many islands

===Personal pronouns===
Personal pronouns are treated like any other noun, and follow the same declension rules as necessary. There are no gender specfic pronouns. 

* First person singular: zhe
* First person plural: zhezhe
* Second person singular: she
* Second person plural: sheshe
* Third person singular: al
* Third person plural: alal

===Definiteness===
Khehesen distinguishes 3 articles, the definite, indefinite, and partitive (something part of a greater whole, similar to the words &quot;some&quot; or &quot;part of&quot;). As in most Western European languages, they take the form of separate words.
* Definite: 'izh'
* Indefinite: 'na'
* Partitive: 'opf'</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Graded Sentences</title>
    <id>2517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20992</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-04T14:07:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing all content from page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Cacafire</title>
    <id>2518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-21T19:44:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacafire</username>
        <id>188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I am creating a page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hey, this is my homepage. Hope you like it.

links:

[[Pradavishna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pradavishna</title>
    <id>2519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-21T20:07:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacafire</username>
        <id>188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Continuing edits...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hello. You are currently looking at the homepage of my conlang: Pradavishna. I will be working on this language for quite a while, and I felt that it would be a good idea to get it out there for anyone who wishes to learn it. It is really a fascinating language, and I hope you like it. ^w^

==Pradavishna==

Pradavishna is notable mostly for the longer length of it's words. For example, most nouns in the language contain four syllables. In fact, each part of speech can be characterized by a different syllable count:

*Pronouns can be defined as having a maximum of two syllables. For example, the word ''puta'' is the pronoun for ''I''. Pronouns can end and begin in both a vowel and/or a consonant. Pradavishna is very flexible like that. :D
*As has been said, nouns have four syllables. Generally, nothing gets appended to pradavishna nouns. Instead, if anything is to modify a noun, it get's placed either before or after the noun, depending on which the speaker wishes to modify.
*Verbs are characterized by three syllables. Example: Dravidu. also, it can be ended and begun with any character.

look here for my dictionary: [[Pradavishna Dictionary]]

====Alphabet====

The alphabet of pradavishna is similar to that of english, but here is it is in whole:

Vowels: A I U
Consonants: B D G H J K L N P Q' SH R(spanish) TR VR V ll Z

Well, that's about it. 

====pronunciation====

Same as in sanskrit/spanish</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nrastaist Supreme Matriarch</title>
    <id>2521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24459</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-13T02:33:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Supreme Matriarch''' was the title of the head of the [[Nrastaism|Nastraist Church]].  She was advised, and to a certain extent restricted, by the [[Council of Twelve]], from which she was appointed by the [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]].

The first Supreme Matriarch is considered to have been [[Chinrasta]] herself.  In the early days, the Supreme Matriarch was elected from among the Council by the Council.  This system changed after Supreme Matriarch [[Chalanya]] became Empress, who established the current system.

[[Category:Nrastaist Supreme Matriarchs|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Satirocitan</title>
    <id>2523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41805</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-09T23:52:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Letoc4trel|Letoc4trel]] ([[User talk:Letoc4trel|Talk]]) to last version by [[User:Melroch|Melroch]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Satirocitan
|pronounce=/satirositan/ 
|tu=Earth
|species=Advanced Human
|in=[[Satirocity]]
|no=35
|script=Satirocitan
|tree=Indo-European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Satirocitan&lt;br&gt;
|morph=Inflecting
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=SVO
|creator=[[Prince Jeffrey]]
|date=December 2005}}

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Prince Jeffrey</title>
    <id>2524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-25T20:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funkybrain</username>
        <id>189</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[User:Funkybrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Funkybrain</title>
    <id>2525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-25T20:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funkybrain</username>
        <id>189</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hi. I'm the founder of [[Satirocity]] and am a 10 year old [[micronation]]alist celebrating summer vacation.

Conlangs created:
*[[Satirocitan]]

Or, do you want to see this page in Satirocitan? See [[/Sawterastyan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Funkybrain/Sawterastyan</title>
    <id>2526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-25T20:37:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funkybrain</username>
        <id>189</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">gut_kahm.may_krater_de_[[ons_nati_lagua_spral]]_aso_onsayre_yar_[[mikronashin]]_krater_awn_hawt_brak.

lagua_spral_krater:
*[[ons_nati_lagua_spral]]

ye_do_meer_ons_libra_en_inglese.meer_[[User:Funkybrain]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ons nati lagua spral</title>
    <id>2527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-25T20:38:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funkybrain</username>
        <id>189</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Satirocitan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Main Page/Satirocitan</title>
    <id>2528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45170</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-04T12:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Main_Page_in_other_languages]]
&lt;center&gt;day_es_{{CURRENTDAYNAME}},_{{CURRENTDAY}}_{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}_{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;/center&gt;
{| cellspacing=5 width=100%
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#f3f3f3; padding:8px&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|

gutt_kahm_'''frath_wiki''',_ons_wiki_hahm_shao_hahm's_lagua_spral_de_krated_deert,de_ons_dawt_kala_semaylair.meer_[[FrathWiki:Goals|gals]].

frathwiki_haws_'''{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}'''_libra.

ons_libra_de_frathwiki_de_jafre_(tilk).meer_[[FrathWiki:Copyrights|no_feks]]_dawt.

'''begu:'''_meer_[[Help:How does one start a page|begu_libra]]_de_[[Help:Editing|feks]]no_wikis.oordir_libra_de_[[Help:Contents|oordir_libra]].meer_[[FrathWiki:Naming conventions|lagua_de_ye]]_krat_libra.

'''[[Templates|tempateys]]'''_krated_emir_libra_de_ye.

nee_[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/frathwiki/ yahoogroup]_de_conay.

pwasa,tilk_no_usu_doyn_conay_de_[mailto:muke@frath.net muke].


|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#e0f3e0; padding:8px&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|

'''[[Help:Contents|oordir_libra]]''' - [[FrathWiki:Idle chatter|tilk_no_]] - [[List of mailing lists|oordir_libra_lagua_conay_]] - '''[[List of conlangs|oordir_libra_lagua_sppal_]]'''

|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#e0f3f3; padding:8px&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|

'''lagua_spral_oordir_:''' [[:Category:Grammar|lagua_lada_]] - [[person|ye_]] - [[number|nimbari_]] - [[tense]] - [[aspect]] - [[mood|fakal_emu_]] - [[Swadesh list|swadesh_oordir_libra_]]

|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#FFFFE0; padding:8px&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|

'''Collaborative projects:'''
*[[Hangraphy]]
*[[Sisiwön]]
*[[Homonyms Across Languages]]
*[[Noric]]

|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#fff5f5; padding:8px&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|

'''krated_yeef_oordir_:'''
*[[Henaudute ceremonial calendar]]
*[[New Royce]]
*[[Galhaf]]
*[[Alternate Earth]]
*[[Senjecas]]
''meer [[:Category:Conworlds]]''

&lt;!-- these items should probably be moved or at least rotated, once they get enough to merit a page --&gt;

|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background:#e0f3e0; padding:8px&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
'''Other Conlang Wiki Projects'''

[[ConlangWiki:ConlangWiki|ConlangWiki]] · [[IBWiki:|Ill Bethisad Wiki]] · [[wikibooks:Conlang|Conlang Wikibook]] · [[AltHist:|Althistory Wiki]] &lt;br&gt; [[Wikipedia:P:CL|Wikipedia Constructed languages portal]] · [[conlangcity:|Conlang Wikicity]] · [[Langmaker:|Langmaker Wiki]]

|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Kratal-rul-human-rights.png</title>
    <id>2529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-06-30T20:42:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pakramm</username>
        <id>96</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Kratal-Rul Human Rights</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kratal-Rul Human Rights</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Modern Arithide</title>
    <id>2530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46365</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T12:50:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Dialects of Arithide */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{main|Arithide language}}

'''Modern Arithide''' (Arithide '''''Arithīde Oreris''''' {{IPA|[arɯ'θi:de 'orəris]}}) refers to the varieties of the [[Arithide language]] spoken in the modern era. Arithide is spoken as a first language by over 580 million people in [[Arithia]] and another 170 million across 14 other states in [[Marcasia]] where the language has official status, and of these, more than 600 million are native, ethnic [[Areth]] speakers. A further estimated 350 million speak it as a second or third language, mainly centred in and around [[Dethria]] and southern [[Marcasia]] where the sociocultural influence of the [[Lazeian Empire]] is still felt, bringing the total number of speakers of Arithide to approximately 1.1 billion people today across the world.

The standard and official language of [[Arithia]] is '''Standard Modern Arithide''', essentially the speech of modern [[Lazea]], the capital, but which incorporates and preserves various regional elements, as well as reviving certain [[classicism]]s. The Arithide spoken overseas of [[Arithia]] is generally the standard tongue, except in the 14 [[Marcasia]]n states, where the local . In [[Arithia]] itself, however, there exists a certain diglossia, particularly in the historic cities of northeastern [[Cadaeria]], between the written language, which is universally the standard form, and the spoken one, which is usually the local dialect. Further west and south, however, especially in secondary, regional cities, another phenomenon is prominent: the erosion of the local dialect in favour of the more prestigious standard.

As the standard tongue came into being ''de facto'', by virtue of being the langauge of the capital of the [[Arithia]]n republic, and not through the efforts of any standardisation body, there is no official regulatory body charged with standardising usage, vocabulary, grammar and orthography, unlike the ''Académie française'' for French. Similarly to [[Modern English|English]], however, the language regulates itself through the standardising effects of the print and broadcast media, particularly through the authority of four major dictionaries, the ''[[Renquau Dictionary of the Arithide Language|Renquau]]'', ''[[Anvers Comprehensive Dictionary|Anvers]]'', ''[[Caema Compendium|Caema]]'' and ''[[Complete Dictionary of Modern Arithide|Līs]]''. The first three are compiled and published by eponymous universities, while the last is published by the [[Lazea]]n broadsheet ''Līs Ōrēs'' (hence the common appellation).

==Phonological system==

The phonology of Modern Arithide is notable for its large numbers of both consonants and vowels, although its phonemic repertoire is smaller due to the high degree of allophony.

===Consonants===

The table below represents the sounds present in the standard Modern Arithide, secondarily distinguishing between the 22 phonemic consonants, which are in black, and the 9 non-phonemic (purely allophonic) consonants, which are greyed out. The distinction between the aspirated and unaspirated voiceless plosives (i.e. ''pʰ, tʰ, kʰ'' vs. ''p, t, k''), although not phonemically distinguished&amp;mdash;the former set appears before front vowels, and the latter before others&amp;mdash;is notable for its recreation of the [[Ancient Arithide]] aspirate-unaspirate distinction.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=19 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɱ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɲ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || {{IPA|ŋ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || || || || || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|pʰ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|tʰ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|kʰ}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}} || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɣ}}&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;χ&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;ʁ&lt;/span&gt; || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|dz}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || {{IPA|w}} || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

====Regressive assimilation of frication and phonation====

===Vowels===

Whereas Modern Arithide has 11 vowel letters, the short ''a e i o u y'' and the long ''ā ē ī ō ū'', the true number of its phonemic vowels is twenty, plus 4 vowels occurring only in unstressed position, and 12 diphthongs.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; float: left;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; margin-right: 50px; text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Short Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ʉ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɯ}}&lt;/span&gt; || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɪ}}&lt;/span&gt; || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ʏ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ʊ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ə}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ}} || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|œ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; float: left;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;margin-right: 50px;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Long Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i:}} || {{IPA|y:}} || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #afafaf;&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ʉ:}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || {{IPA|u:}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-high || || || {{IPA|ɪ:}} || {{IPA|ʏ:}} || || || || {{IPA|ʊ:}} || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || {{IPA|ɛ:}} || {{IPA|œ:}} || || || || || || {{IPA|ɔ:}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-low
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Diphthongs
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| Palatal terminus || Palatal onset || Labial terminus || Labial onset 
|-
| ai, aj || ja || au || wa
|-
| ei, ej || je, jɛ || eu || we
|-
| ɔi || jo, jɔ || ou, ow, əʉ
|-
| || ju, jʉ
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: left;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

====Vowel gradation and reductionism====

===Phonotactics===

==Orthography==

===Lazeic Alphabet===

====New letters====

===Romanisation===

The official, and most ubiquitous, romanisation of Arithide is based strictly on the rule of a 1:1 correspondence in orthography between the Roman and Lazeic alphabets, such that any transcript is fully reversible; besides ignoring sound-changes that have occurred since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]], this also leads occasionally to pronunciations strange to the Earthling ear. Alternative romanisations are mainly phonetically-based, and involve less mind-work in pronunciation.

====Consonants====

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
! Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound
|-
| p || [p~pʰ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || f || [f] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| b || [b] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || v || [v, f] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || m || [m, ɱ]
|-
| t || [t~tʰ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || th || [θ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| d || [d, ð] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || dh || [ð, θ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || n || [n, ŋ]
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || s || [s] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || z || [z, dz] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| ti, ch{{footnote|1}} || [ʧ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || sj, sh{{footnote|1}} || [ʃ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| di{{footnote|2}} || [ʤ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || gi{{footnote|1}} || [ʒ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| k || [k~kʰ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || h || [h] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  || 
|-
| g{{footnote|3}} || [g, j, w] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || gn, ng{{footnote|4}} || [ŋ]
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || r{{footnote|5}} || [r, ʁ, s, :]
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || l{{footnote|5}} || [l]
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || j{{footnote|6}} || [j]
|-
|  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || w{{footnote|6}} || [w]
|-
|}
{{footnote|1}} Diphthongal sequences of ''[ti], [tj] + vowel'' gave rise to the new phoneme /ʧ/, which received its own letter in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] period; similarly, from ''[si], [sj] + vowel'' developed /ʃ/, which also gained its own letter at the same time. The new letters are used to indicate the /ʧ/ and /ʃ/ sounds where not historically derived, such as in loanwords; or where the conditioning vowel has been lost, especially at the ends of words. Additionally, [ʃ] deriving from a word- or syllable-finally devoiced /ʒ/ is written with &amp;lt;sh&amp;gt; instead of &amp;lt;gi&amp;gt;.

{{footnote|2}} The sound /ʤ/ only occurs in syllable-initial position due to historical reasons: it arose from the diphthongal sequence ''[di], [dj] + vowel''. When &amp;lt;di&amp;gt; occurs without a subsequent vowel the value of the digraph is the consonant+vowel combination [di].

{{footnote|3}} The post-vocalic [g]-lenition that began in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] with [g] &amp;gt; [ɣ] proceeded further in the modern era to give [j] after [a], [e], [i] (as well as modifying the vowel qualities) and [w] after [o]. Etymological orthographic rules dictate the preservation of &amp;lt;g&amp;gt; in such cases.

{{footnote|4}} From the [gn] and [ng] sequences developed the /ŋ/ phoneme, in the former case by nasalising the [g], and in the latter by velarising the [n] and losing the [g]. Whereas historical [ng] has since received its own letter and is written with it unless the [g] was preserved by a succeeding vowel (in which case the orthographical sequence &amp;lt;ng&amp;gt; is retained), historical [gn] has been preserved in spelling due to the strong retentiveness of the latter [n] element, even where the sequence has coalesced to a simple [ŋ].

{{footnote|5}} In combination with preceding vowels, [r] has been lost, instead giving rise to a host of (mostly) rounded long vowels; the new sounds have retained the traditional orthography using &amp;lt;r&amp;gt;. Analogically, a similar scenario has occurred with [l], albeit without loss of the [l] sound, resulting merely in altered vowel qualities. 

{{footnote|6}} The devocalisation of pre-vocalic [i] to [j] and [u] to [w] that occurred during the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|mediaeval period]] necessitated two new letters due to syllabification ambiguity and stress shifts.

====Vowels====

Monographs represent monophthongs; each letter may be read in up to four different ways depending on its surrounding letters and its level of stress. In the table below, the variants are listed in order of occurrence, then precedence. The last value of each always represents the unstressed realisation of the vowel concerned.

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
! Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound
|-
| a || [a, ɔ, ə] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ā || [a:, a]
|-
| e || [e, ɛ, ə] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ē || [e:~jɛ, e]
|-
| i || [i, ɪ, ɯ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ī || [i:, ɪ]
|-
| o || [o, ɔ, œ, ə] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ō || [o:, œ:, o]
|-
| u || [u, ʉ, ɯ] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ū || [y:, ʏ]
|-
| y || [y, ʏ]{{footnote|1}} 
|}

{{footnote|1}} Prevocalically, &amp;lt;y&amp;gt; has devocalised to [j] uniformly. This proceeded through an intermediate stage where it was pronounced [ɥ]. Postvocalically, it coalesced with its precedent to diphthongise, for which see the following table

Digraphs generally indicate diphthongs. Across the board, however, spelling fossilisation has occurred, leading to irregular sound-letter correspondences even in the native script, such as &amp;lt;oi&amp;gt;:[ei]. [ja] &amp;lt;ja&amp;gt; is the only sound not to have changed at all; besides it, regularly pronounced digraphs, i.e. &amp;lt;eu&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;jo&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;ju&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;ua&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;we&amp;gt; and non-post-consonantal &amp;lt;je&amp;gt; are the result of recent spelling reforms, as is the fact that ''w''-headed digraphs occur only at the beginnings of words, while the post-consonantal allographic equivalent is ''u''-headed.

{|style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
! Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound ||  || Letter || Sound
|-
| ae || [ai] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ea{{footnote|2}} || [a:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ja || [ja] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || {{footnote|5}} || || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ua, wa || [wa] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ay || [au]
|-
| ai || [e:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ei || [i:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || je || [je, e:]{{footnote|4}} || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || oe || [oi] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ue, we || [we] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ey || [ei]
|-
| {{footnote|1}} || || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || {{footnote|3}} || || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || jo || [jo] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || oi || [ei] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || {{footnote|6}}  ||  || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || oy || [ou, əʉ]
|-
| au || [o:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || eu || [eu~jo] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ju || [ju] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || ou || [u:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || uo, wo || [o:] || &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; || {{footnote|7}}
|}

{{footnote|1}} &amp;lt;ao&amp;gt; came to be uniformly spelt with the homophonic &amp;lt;ay&amp;gt; [au] by the early Modern period

{{footnote|2}} In certain proper names, e.g. of cities, the original diphthong was split into two syllables to preserve the distinct [ea] ending

{{footnote|3}} [eo] &amp;lt;eo&amp;gt;merged with [jo] and hence &amp;lt;jo&amp;gt;

{{footnote|4}} In combination with [s], the result is [ʃe:], an amalgam of the ''s''-palatalisation and the siphthong simplification

{{footnote|5}} Where &amp;lt;ua&amp;gt; occurs, it is the result of a spelling reform that replaced all &amp;lt;oa&amp;gt; [ua] with 

{{footnote|6}} [ui] &amp;lt;ui&amp;gt; became [y] and never again arose subsequently

{{footnote|7}} [uy] &amp;lt;uy&amp;gt; merged with [y:] &amp;lt;ū&amp;gt;

==See also==

*[[Arithide language]]
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]

===Dialects of Arithide===

*[[Ajatian langauge]]
*[[Charian language]]
*[[Docau]]
*[[Erdian language]]
*[[Gambrian language]]
*[[Nimaean language]]


[[Category:Ilethes]]
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Arophania]]
[[Category:Marcasia]]
[[Category:Arithide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Zlatiborica</title>
    <id>2531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27173</id>
      <timestamp>2007-12-02T00:03:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: -5px; margin-bottom: -4px; margin-top: 5px; margin-right: -5px; padding: 10px; padding-top: 5px; padding-bottom: 5px; background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{| align=&quot;center&quot; background=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;
|----
| &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; border:solid #fffff0 1px; margin: 1px;&quot;&gt;
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width: 238px; background: #ffffff;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; padding: 4pt; line-height: 1.25em; color: black;&quot; | My name is '''George Božović''',&lt;br&gt;and feel free to call me so! :)
|}&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; border: solid lightgrey 1px; margin: 1px;&quot;&gt;
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width: 238px; color: black; background: #FFFFFF;&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 45px; height: 45px; background: lightgrey; text-align: center; font-size: 14pt;&quot; |ıать
| style=&quot;font-size: 8pt; padding: 4pt; line-height: 1.25em;&quot; | I am a Slavicist by occupation.
|}&lt;/div&gt;
| &lt;div style=&quot;float: left; border: 1px solid black; margin: 1px;&quot;&gt;
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width: 238px; color: black; background: #FFFFFF;&quot;
| style=&quot;background: white; font-size: 8pt; padding: 4pt; line-height: 1.25em;&quot; | ''Im anžainich [[Sethic languages|mobuine sethairain]].''&lt;br&gt;I conlang. ;)
|}&lt;/div&gt;
|}&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Twinkling Wizard.jpg</title>
    <id>2532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-10T01:40:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ђорђе Д. Божовић's portrait, so-called &quot;the twinkle painty&quot; (1801)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Ђорђе Д. Божовић's portrait, so-called &quot;the twinkle painty&quot; (1801)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sethic languages</title>
    <id>2533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29238</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T10:35:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| width=250 style=&quot;float: right; font-size: 90%; margin: 0 0 3em 2em; border: 1px solid #aaa; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- 
| style=&quot;padding: 0.5em; background: #eaeaea; font-size: 120%; text-align: center;&quot; | '''Sethic languages'''
|-
|
{| style=&quot;margin: 0 1em 0 1em; width: 100%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| width=95 | '''spoken in'''
| style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Nadaria,&lt;br&gt;Upper Mercia,&lt;br&gt;Moria
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''genealogy'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | Primitive Sethic&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Old Book Sethic&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Book Sethic
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''writing systems'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | early Sethic runes,&lt;br&gt;the Vandar's script,&lt;br&gt;the Serali script
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''word order'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | SVO and SOV
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''morphology'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | inflecting
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''morphosyntax'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | nominative-accusative
|}
|-
| style=&quot;padding-bottom: 0.5em;&quot; |
{| style=&quot;margin: 0 1em 0 1em; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; width: 100%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top; &quot;
| width=95 | '''created by'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | [[User:Zlatiborica|George Božović]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|'''started'''
|style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em;&quot; | 2006
|}
|}

{{Sethic languages}}

'''Sethic languages''' are a group of several related conlangs spoken in the fictional countries of Nadaria, Mercia, and Moria, created by George Božović.

The adjective &quot;Sethic&quot; originates from the Primitive Sethic root SETH, which means 'word, speech' or 'to speak'. It has evolved into the common Sethic ethnonym &quot;Seth&quot; (meaning 'the one who speaks'), and thus gave name to most Sethic peoples as well as their native languages. In contrast to their own name, most Sethic peoples usually call some of their neighbouring peoples by the name ''gonair'' or similar, which translates as the mute ones, i.e. 'the ones who cannot speak in an understandable language'.

== Genealogy ==
All Sethic languages have descended from the '''Primitive Sethic''' language. Linguists believe it was a spoken language with several minor regional dialects. Following the invention of the early Sethic runes, the first Sethic written language evolved, known as '''Old Book Sethic''', the predecessor of a later common written standard called the '''Book Sethic''' language. After the migration of Sethic tribes from the mountains into the lower plains, the Sethic languages have been divided along the linguistic lines into three main branches: Nadarian, Mercian, and Arbean of Moria.

[[Nadarian]] is a spoken language which forms a rather heterogeneous dialect continuum with about a dozen distinct dialects and many regional subdialects. Over time some of its dialects have influenced the written Old Book Sethic language, and thus formed the regional Common Sethic standard used in Nadaria, which evolved from the earlier Middle Sethic language, the Nadarian recension of Old Book Sethic. Common Sethic has since become language of diplomacy and trade between the various Sethic nations.

[[Mercian|Mercian branch]] arose as a regional subvariety of Sethic languages in the Upper Mercia. Dialects of this branch evolved from the common Proto-Mercian language. Spoken dialects are known as Common Mercian, while the literary standard is called Classical Mercian, itself derived from an earlier Old Mercian written language.

[[Arbean of Moria|Arbean languages]] spoken in Moria consist of two major groups of dialects — High and Low Arbean. The High Arbean dialects served as vernacular for standardization of the local literary norm called Classical Arbean, alongside its earlier stage known as Old Arbean or Book High Arbean.

[[Category:Sethic languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sethic languages</title>
    <id>2534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27207</id>
      <timestamp>2007-12-02T18:36:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style= &quot;clear:right; float:right; margin:0px 0px 15px 15px; border:1px solid black;&quot;
|style= &quot;padding:0px;&quot;|
{|style=&quot;background:transparent; text-align:center; margin:0.5em; margin-bottom:0em; font-size:11px;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|style=&quot;padding:0px; | '''[[Sethic languages]]'''
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | archaic languages
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | [[Sethic languages|Primitive Sethic&amp;nbsp;†]] · [[Sethic languages|Old Book Sethic&amp;nbsp;†]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sethic languages|Book Sethic]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | Nadaria
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | [[Nadarian]] · [[Nadarian|Middle Sethic&amp;nbsp;†]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nadarian|Common Sethic]]
|-
| dialects
|-
| [[Nadarian|Vardavian]] · [[Nadarian|Mervincian]] · [[Nadarian|Oinolostean&amp;nbsp;†]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | Mercia
|-
| style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | [[Mercian|Proto-Mercian&amp;nbsp;†]] · [[Mercian|Old Mercian&amp;nbsp;†]]&lt;br&gt;[[Mercian|Classical Mercian]] · [[Mercian|Common Mercian]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | Moria
|-
| style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | [[Arbean of Moria|Proto-Arbean&amp;nbsp;†]] · [[Arbean of Moria|Old Arbean&amp;nbsp;†]]&lt;br&gt;[[Arbean of Moria|Classical Arbean]]
|-
| dialects
|-
| [[Arbean of Moria|High Arbean]] · [[Arbean of Moria|Low Arbean]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | writing systems
|-
| style=&quot;padding:0px; border-top:solid 1px #aaaaaa;&quot; | [[Sethic alphabet|Sethic runes&amp;nbsp;†]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sethic alphabet|Vandar's script]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sethic alphabet|Serali script]]
|}
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Sethic languages</title>
    <id>2535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-22T06:55:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Seealso|Sethic languages}}
[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sethic</title>
    <id>2536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10717</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-10T19:58:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Sethic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Moynna</title>
    <id>2537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33049</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-17T06:32:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Moynna''' is name of a fictional world created by [[User:Zlatiborica|George Bozovic]].

''Moynna'' is Latinic transcription of [[Sethic]] (Dwarvish) '''Моенна'''. In Sethic and Gonian languages “Моенна” means ''world'', ''Earth''. It is not quite clear when did this word occur in these languages. However, most of the scholars today believe that there wasn’t an appropriate word in [[Common Sethic]] language. Some believe that this word appeared in northern dialect of Common Sethic, during the Big Migrations of Dwarves, but more probably this word is a loan either from Gonian or from the Elvish languages. Nevertheless, [[Elves]] rather use word “Onker” for Earth, than Moynna.

== Geography of Moynna ==
=== Regions ===
Although Moynna is name for the entire world in Sethic languages, it is actually used to name only one subcontinent where the [[Dwarves]] live. Beside them, some human (Gonian) and Elvish (Tartharic) tribes live in Moynna, too.

Moynna is usually divided into five regions. Those are: '''Lands to the South''', '''Old''' or '''Upper Sethia''', '''Nadaron''', '''Moria''' (''Morion''), and '''Gono-Dwarvish''' (''Gono-Sethic'') '''lands'''.

Lands to the South consist of several deserts. They are not settled by any race. Some Sethic tribes (the Southern Dwarves) passed through these lands during the Big Migration, on their way to the human islands in the east.

Old or Upper Sethia is mountainous region in the middle part of Moynna. It’s the place where the first Dwarvish country and culture were born. Capital of Upper Sethia is Limar Noka (Лимар Нока in [[Vandar's script]]), which is [[Upper Sethic]] for ''the Stone Fortress'' ([[Nadarian]] ''Лимард Кнокка'').

Nadaron is a peninsula in the north-eastern part of Moynna. It was inhabited by the Elves at first, but Dwarves settled it during the Big Migration. Nadarian tribes led several wars against the Elves and ever since Dwarves and Elves are big enemies. Capital of Nadaron is a coastal fortress and a harbour Limard Nadaronta (''Лимард Надаронта'' in Vandar’s script), which is [[Nadarian]] for ''the Fortress of Nadaron''.

Moria (in Sethic languages Морион) is coastal land in the west of Moynna. Its capital was Morion, a city in the mountains that separate Moria from the rest of Moynna. Today Moria is a waste land since its population died or emigrated because of vampirism.

Gono-Sethic or Gono-Dwarvish lands are located on the very north of Moynna. They were originally settled by Humans and Elves, and Dwarvish tribes came during the Big Migrations from Old Sethia. Dwarvish and Gonian (human) tribes mixted together, while the Elves stuck to the coast at first and later finally left these lands. Today here lives the Gono-Dwarvish tribe called Mervians.

=== Relief ===
The highest peak of Moynna is Ando Palyata (''Андо Палiата''), which is Nadarian for ''the Grand-Mother’s Head'' at 7900 ft. (2400 m) on the border between Upper Sethia and Nadaron.

== History of Moynna ==
{{Seealso|History of Moynna}}

== See also ==
*[[History of Moynna]]
*[[Moynna ethnographical questionnaire]]
*[[Sethic languages]]

{{wip}}

[[Category:Moynna]]
[[Category:Planets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nadarian</title>
    <id>2538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-11T15:43:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; font-size: 110%;&quot;| &lt;big&gt;мобба надаронион&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Spoken in: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[Moynna]]
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Spoken by: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[Dwarves]]
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Total speakers: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| c. 30,000
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Writing system: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[Vandar's script]]
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Genealogy: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[Sethic languages]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Common Sethic]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;East Sethic&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Newer East Sethic&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Nadarian'''
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| Typology
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Morphology: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| Inflecting
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Morphosyntax: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| Nominative-Accusative
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Word order: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] in the standard language, but [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] and [[Verb Subject Object|VSO]] are also present in some non-literal dialects
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;| Credits
|-
|style=&quot;border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 30%&quot;| Creator: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| [[User:Zlatiborica|George D. Bozovic]]
|-
|style=&quot;width: 30%&quot;| Created: ||style=&quot;border-left: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width: 70%&quot;| July 2006
|}

'''Nadarian language''' is name of a fictional language from the [[Sethic]] family spoken by the [[Dwarves]] in the imaginary world of [[Moynna]], created by [[User:Zlatiborica|Djordje Bozovic]].

{{wip}}

== See also ==
*'''[[Nadarian morphology]]'''
*'''[[Nadarian syntax]]'''
*'''[[Nadarian lexicon]]'''
*'''[[Nadarian corpus]]'''
*'''[[Nadarian textbook]]'''
*[[Vandar's script]]
*[[Moynna]]
**[[History of Moynna]]
**[[Moynna ethnographical questionnaire]]
*[[Sethic languages]]
**[[Common Sethic]]
**[[Upper Sethic]]
**[[Southern Sethic]]
**[[Morian]]
**[[Gono-Sethic]]
**[[Mervic]]
**[[Homonyms across Sethic languages]]
**[[Swadesh list for Sethic languages]]

{{Sethic languages}}

[[Category:Nadarian language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nadarian language</title>
    <id>2539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-22T06:56:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Seealso|Nadarian}}
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]
[[Category:Sethic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:800px-Blank vowel trapezoid.png</title>
    <id>2540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-11T12:50:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khepidjemwa'atnefru</username>
        <id>162</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Blank vowel trapezoid, for use with the International Phonetic Alphabet. (from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Blank vowel trapezoid, for use with the International Phonetic Alphabet. (from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Moynna</title>
    <id>2542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-12T15:20:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Moynna ethnographical questionnaire</title>
    <id>2543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T21:18:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zlatiborica</username>
        <id>190</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* What was the best thing that ever happened to them? */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir and can be found in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo]. It is used for better describing of conworlds and concultures.

__TOC__

== Questions of Place ==
=== Describe the geography of where your society calls home. ===
'''[[Moynna]]''' is a subcontinent situated between the Elvish lands on the north, the lands of the Humans on the east and the Big Ocean on the west. It consists of three regions inhabited by Dwarvish and mixed Human-Dwarvish tribes (Upper Sethia, Nadaron, and Gono-Dwarvish lands), and two waste regions (Lands to the South and Moria). Moynna is mostly mountainous, although there is a big Gonian plain on the north. On the south, there are several waste deserts. Moynna has a lot of woods in its mountainous parts. It is surrounded by seas on west, north and east. There are two main rivers in Moynna, River Mahta and River Brabhon. The highest peak is Ando Palyata at 7900 ft (2400 m).

=== Describe the climate your society deals with. How severe are their seasons? ===
Moynna has a mountainous continental climate. Winters are very cold and with a lot of snow, while the summers are quite warm and dry. Southern parts of Moynna have a little bit warmer climate.

=== What kinds of natural disasters has this society gotten used to? ===
Floods during the spring, when the snow from the mountains starts to melt.

=== What are the most commonly-grown foods? ===
Maize and vegetables, and vine along the coast.

=== What are the most commonly-eaten meats? ===
Fish along the coast and pigs and lambs in the continental parts of Moynna.

=== What foods are considered exotic or expensive? ===
Fruits, since they aren't grown in Moynna because of its climate. Only the royal families imported fruits from the south and ate it on their courts.

=== What forms of alcohol are common? Rare? ===
Wine is common along the coast, but not in the continental regions, while beer is common in the continental regions, but less along the coast. Brandy was also popular on the kings' courts.

=== Is there usually enough food and water for the population? ===
Yes, there is.

=== What is this place's most abundant resource? ===
Maize, vegetables, sheep (and thus wool), wood.

=== What is its most valuable resource? ===
Gold and silver, which is found in Upper Sethia.

=== What resource is it most lacking? ===
Vegetables, which are only grown in Gonian plain and exported to the other regions.

=== How do people travel from one place to another? ===
On foot usually.

=== Are the borders secure? In what way? ===
Quite secure today, since the lands are surrounded by mountains, waters and desert. However, it wasn't hard for the Dwarves to invade Elvish and Human lands on the north in the history.

=== How many people live here? ===
About 80,000: c. 15,000 in Upper Sethia, c. 30,000 in Nadaron and c. 35,000 in the Gonian plain.

=== Where in this place to they congregate? ===
In the plains and along the coast in Nadaron and Gono-Dwarvish lands, and everywhere in Upper Sethia. There are many smaller towns and villages, and only five fortified cities (Limard Knokka in Upper Sethia, Limard Nadaronta in Nadaron, Morion in Moria, and Limard Gondora and Limard Firinno in Gono-Dwarvish lands), one of which is a waste city today (Morion).

=== What part of this place do they avoid? Why? ===
The uninhabited areas on the south (because there are the deserts) and in Moria (because it was wasted by vampirism, and the people still fears of it).

=== What are the most common domesticated animals here? And what are they domesticated for? ===
Sheep, used for food, clothing and leather. Goats, used for milk and leather. Fowl, used for eggs and food. Dogs, used for guarding and herding. Cats, used for mousing. Pigs used for food. Cows and horses are not domesticated.

=== What are the most common wild animals? ===
Several wild beasts are mentioned in the literature. Lions were both feared and admired. Most of the wild animals are now extinct (because of both hunting and the climate getting colder), except for wolves, bears, foxes, and other smaller animals. There are no snakes in Moynna, because of the climate.

=== Which animals are likely to be pets? Which ones won't be? ===
Cats and dogs. Some upper-class people keep singing birds.

== Questions of Time ==
=== How far back does this society's written history go? ===
About 4500 years. 4500 years ago the [[Sethic runes]] were invented. Before that, history was only spoken and sung, for about 2500 years.

=== How far back do its people believe it goes? ===
Since creation, which was, according to the legends, c. 7000 years ago.

=== What is the worst disaster they believe they've faced? ===
Terrible epidemic of vampirism.

=== What was the best thing that ever happened to them? ===
[[History of Moynna|The Golden Age]], about 1500 years ago, when the Dwarvish kingdoms where richer and more powerful than ever.

=== What in their past makes them feel ashamed? ===
A civil war between two brothers of the Braban dynasty, when King Gargna Braban killed his brother and the dynasty of Braban was cursed.

=== What in their past makes them proud? ===
Victory in the war with the Elves in Nadaron.

=== What are they afraid of happening again? ===
Epidemic of vampirism.

=== What are they hoping will happen? Do they think it likely? ===
Nothing.

=== What do they assume the future will hold? ===
The present state of affairs continuing forever, or entering another Golden Age.

=== How has this society changed? Do its current members realize this? ===
From a mining society to an agricultural society. Class distinctions and differences in wealth have increased in the process. The current members are not aware of this; they think the current state of affairs has applied since shortly after creation of world.

=== What are the most popular stories about the past? ===
Heroic poems and songs about brave Dwarvish soldiers who fought the Elves.

=== Who in the past is the greatest hero? The worst villain? ===
Dwarvish soldier Phakna is the greatest hero, while the worst villain is Elvish king Nandollon. In Elvish literature, however, king Nandollon is known as Nandollon the Wise and is celebrated as one of the greatest Elvish kings. Dwarves didn't have a word for stratagem before they met the clever king Nandollon, because nobody was that wily as he was. Thus they started to use adjective ''nandolna'' for ''wily'' and noun ''nandol'' for ''stratagem''.

=== Do people think the present better or worse than the past? ===
Worse if compared with the Golden Age, but better if compared with vampirism.

=== Do people believe the future will be better or worse than the present or past? ===
They have no opinion about the future.

== Questions of Sex and Family ==

=== How many spouses may a man or woman have? ===
Only one at time.

=== Who decides on a marriage? ===
People usually marry between the ages of 15 and 20, and then their parents decide. A man over the age of 25 may decide on his own marriages, and so may in practice a widow over that age. A marriage is more of a legal contract than of a religious matter.

=== Can a marriage end in divorce? How? ===
A man may freely divorce a wife if she isn't good enough for him. A woman usually has to seek divorce through her close male relatives, although cases where a grown woman has left her husband due to physical maltreatment are not unheard of.

=== Who usually takes custody of children if a marriage ends for some reason? ===
Usually the mother takes custody, though the opposite is not unheard of, especially if there are male children.

=== How is adultery defined? What (if any) is the punishment? Who decides? ===
Adultery is defined as a married woman having sex with someone else than her husband. Men may have lovers, although that's kept as a secret. A husband may leave an adulterous wife.

=== How are families named? ===
Family name is quite important. There are several ways in which a family can get its family name:
#by a name of a famous ancestor (Toran's son, Gondora's son, priest's son, etc.)
#by a characteristic of an ancestor (taller than usual, dummier than usual, green-eyed, etc.)
#by a place of living (&quot;the Hill one&quot;, &quot;the Forest one&quot;, etc.)

=== What happens to orphans? ===
They should be taken care of by their father's family. Sometimes it is the mother's family instead, if they have a higher social status, or if they are more willing.

=== How are boy and girl children treated differently? ===
Boys have more freedom.

=== Are premarital relations allowed? ===
In theory they are allowed for men but not for women. In practice, they are very rare. However, nobody exercises any control over widows or divorcées, even comparatively young ones.

=== How does your society define incest? Rape? How do people react to these? ===
Incest is sex between close relatives and is very, very rare. Cousin marriages occur among high nobles and royals. Rape is the taking of someone by violence, and is punishable. Rape of a virgin may even be punished by death, though that would require that she is noble and the rapist is not. Rape within marriage is another matter, though it is generally frowned upon. Paedophilia is punishable and is rare.

=== What, if anything, is considered a good marriage gift? ===
Money, precious metals or stones, land or goods, all depending on the status of the involved families. When a widow or divorcée remarries the marriage gift may be wholly symbolic, like a ring.

=== What secret vice is believed to be widely practiced? ===
Homosexuality among the nobles and bestiality with sheep among country boys.

=== What secret vice actually is practiced? ===
Homosexuality. Bestiality occurs but is not as common as is supposed. Young wives of older men often have male lovers.

=== What sexual habits are widely believed common among foreigners? ===
Bestiality, due to the vampirism which was brought to Moynna by the Human tribes of the east.

=== How do people react to homosexuality? ===
It is frowned upon but not punishable. It is not accepted in the society, although is common among the nobles.

=== How do the genders dress? ===
The common male dress consists of leather pants and sweater. Women wear dresses or skirts and sweaters. City women and noble women would normally not expose their breasts, although peasant women may do so in certain contexts. Male always wear some kind of hat, while older and married women wear kerchief.

=== Is prostitution legal? How are prostitutes viewed? Is this accurate? ===
There is no prostitution.

=== What professions or activities are considered masculine? ===
Being a warrior, a miner and a shepherd are male professions.

=== What professions or activities are viewed as feminine? ===
Looking after children and the household.

=== What inanimate or sexless things are considered male or female? ===
The Sun is considered male and the Moon female, but they are considered animate.

=== What is the biggest sexual taboo? ===
Mother-son incest. It leads to both mother and son being executed, whereas father-daughter incest would normally only lead to the father being executed. Father-son incest would probably be very taboo, but it is not thought of.

=== Does this society connect the ideas of marriage with love? ===
In theory yes, but marriage is often based on land, money or goods. Woman should love her husband even if she didn't love him before the marriage.

=== What does this society mean by the word &quot;virgin&quot; and how important is it? ===
It means an unpenetrated female, and it is quite important at a woman's first marriage.

== Questions of Manners ==

=== Who speaks first at a formal gathering? ===
The most noble, eldest and most influential person.

=== What kinds of gifts are considered in extremely bad taste? ===
Giving money and some invaluable or simple things.

=== How do younger adults address their elders? ===
As ''filya'' (uncle, Nadarian вхилiа) or ''gama'' (aunt, Nadarian гама). Very old people are addressed as ''palya'' (grand-mother, Nadarian палiа) and ''nadko'' (grandfather, Nadarian надко).

=== What colours are associated with power? With virtue? With death? ===
There are no colours associated with power and virtue (although red and yellow are sometimes associated with power), and black is always associated with death.

=== If two men get into a fight, how is this supposed to be resolved? ===
Among young men it would lead to actual fighting. Nobles may duel with swords if grave matters of honour are involved. Normally more sober men are expected to intervene.

=== If two women get into a fight, how should that be resolved? ===
Women are not expected to fight physically. As with men intervention is expected.

=== When is it rude to laugh at something funny? ===
During a ceremony.

=== What kinds of questions cannot be asked in public? In private? At all? ===
Questions about sex are avoided in public and in polite company.

=== How do people demonstrate grief? ===
Crying and screaming is expected for women, but men are not supposed to cry.

=== What does this society do with their corpses? ===
They are buried with a religious ceremony.

=== What kinds of jewelry do people where? And when? ===
Necklaces and rings of precious metals, sometimes with precious stones. They are worn all the time but more at joyous ceremonies and festivities. Women are expected to wear more jewelry than men, and nobles more than common people.

=== Who inherits property? Titles? Position? ===
Sons, or in their absence brothers or brother's sons or unmarried/divorced daughters inherit property. It is usual for a wife to remain in possession of her husband’s property until she dies. Titles and positions are in theory all bestowed rather than inherited, though ones basic social status as nobility is inherited from the father at birth.

=== What happens to those suffering from extreme mental illness? ===
They will be looked after by their relatives. If they have no relatives who are able to look after them they become beggars.

=== What are the most popular games? How important are they? ===
Various board games, ballgames and forms of play and sport exist. The only organized sport is wrestling, which is very popular.

=== What parts of the body are routinely covered? ===
The genitals, the backside, and among noble women or women otherwise concerned about their virtue the breasts. Adult peasant women routinely go with their breasts bare while working in the fields or while feeding their babies.

=== How private are bodily functions like bathing or defecating? ===
Defecating and urinating are private. Men may urinate rather more openly than women. Bathing is not considered private, though most women wouldn't, unlike men or children, bathe entirely naked.

=== How do people react to physical deformity? ===
It depends on the nature of the deformity. If it is a big and rare one, people will be feared.

=== When and how does someone go from child to adult? ===
Usually between age fifteen and age twenty, by marrying.

== Questions of Faith ==

=== Is there a formal clergy? How are they organized? ===
Yes, there is. They are organized into different ranks based on seniority.

=== What do people believe happens to them after death? How, if at all, can they influence this? ===
They believe that their bodies rot and their souls are taken to the Moon, who is goddess of death in their mythology.

=== What happens to those who disagree with the majority on questions of religion? ===
They are frowned upon but left alone as long as they do not protest against the religious habits of the majority.

=== Are there any particular places considered special or holy? What are they like? ===
There are holy stones, springs and caves. Dwarves believe that the holy spirits, some of which are good and some evil, live in the holy caves. They also believe that the holy stones, which are considered holy because they have unusual shape, were made when the holy spirits and gods passed that way. About the holy springs they believe that these springs are healthy and they go early in a holiday morning to drink water from them. Those who can’t see well can get their good sight back if they wash their eyes with this holy water early in a holiday morning.

=== What are the most popular rituals or festivals? ===
The festivals of the solstices. Rituals are performed during the funerals, weddings, and births.

=== What do people want from the god or gods? How do they try and get it? ===
They pray to their gods to give them good harvest. They gather on every Hannardan (middle day of month) and attend priests’ liturgy to the gods.

=== How do their religious practices differ from their neighbours? ===
Humans (Gonians) believe in only one god and several holy spirits. They also believe in reincarnation. Elves believe in several gods, their angels and also several holy spirits. They believe in reincarnation, too.

=== What is the most commonly broken religious rule? ===
Fast. It should be held for a month, from the third Hannardan to the fourth. During the fast Dwarves should eat only vegetables and no meat, eggs, milk or cheese. However, it is most commonly broken.

=== What is the least-violated religious rule? ===
Hannardan gatherings.

=== What factions exist within the dominant religious institutions? How do they compete? ===
The Dwarvish Church is only one, but there are three factions inside it, one representing each Dwarvish country: Upper Sethia, Nadaron, and Gono-Sethic lands. Before there was a Morian faction, too. In the [[History of Moynna#First Age|First Age]], before the Big Migration, the church was unique. These three factions often compete which one is going to be greater and richer when they perform rituals and festivals.

=== Are there monastic groups? What do they do and how are they organized? How do you join one? ===
There is one monastic group and it isn’t connected with the Dwarvish Church. Its members are only men and they live a simple and a poor life. They are not commonly seen in the towns and cities since they live high in the mountains and almost never leave their monastery. Often they are subject of women’s gossiping.

=== How are those who follow different faiths treated? ===
As unbelievers (Nadarian ''iонкежаллое''), those who don’t know the real truth about the gods, the creation of world, and the life after death.

=== What relationship do religious and political leaders have? ===
Although the Church is not formally connected with the royal courts, religious leaders are very influencing in the politics. The political leaders respect them and often ask for their opinion on something.

=== What superstitions are common? What kinds of supernatural events/beings do people fear? ===
There are a lot of supernatural beings in [[Sethic mythology]], including vampires, water spirits, evil horses, ghouls, ghosts, etc. The people are also very superstitious. Every work is started with singing of a spell to protect it from evil magic, etc.

== Questions of Government ==

=== Who decides whether someone has broken a law? How? ===
There are judges (Nadarian ''калмае'', singular ''калма'') in each town. They decide whether someone has broken a law when somebody complains to them. The judges are proclaimed by the King.

=== What kinds of punishments are meted out? By whom? Why? ===
There are two types of punishments: death (for bigger crimes) and slavery (for everything else). Slaves serve at noble and rich people’s households.

=== How are new laws created or old ones changed? ===
There is the Council of the Wise, which can create new laws and change the old ones. Its members are over 55 years old former judges. Every new law and a change of an old one, however, must be allowed by the King.

=== Is there some form of clemency or pardon? What is involved? ===
Judge’s word is last and final. Family of a condemned can complain to the King, but he doesn’t often change the judge’s decision.

=== Who has the right to give orders, and why? ===
The King gives orders: in war for bravery, and in peace for an extraordinary community work.

=== What titles do various officials have? ===
There are only judges and officers. The highest officer is called дотторан (dottoran), and there is only one of them in a kingdom. Smaller officers are called араделiе (aradeliye, plural of арадел) and there are several of them. Simple soldiers are called парθаллое (parthalloy, plural of парθалло), and there is a lot of them. Soldiers are actually mobilized peasants. There is no one official army in a Dwarvish kingdom, but if war happens, the army is made of the male population older than 17. The officials are proclaimed by the King. They are noble and they live in the royal court.

=== How are the rules different for officials as opposed to the common person? ===
Officers are invincible, while people can complain about the judges to the King.

=== How do government officials dress? ===
Same as common people, but their clothes have more colours and they wear more jewelry.

=== Is the law written down? Who interprets it? ===
It is in Nadaron and Gono-Dwarvish lands, but not in Upper Sethia. In Nadaron and Gono-Dwarvish lands the judges have to refer to the law, but in Upper Sethia they can decide on their own opinion.

=== Once accused, what recourse does someone have? ===
None. One can’t get out of slavery nor from death.

=== Is torture allowed? What kinds? ===
There is no mercy for the condemned ones…

=== How are people executed? ===
They are hung up in Gono-Dwarvish lands and in Nadaron and Upper Sethia their heads are cut off.

=== Who cannot rise to positions of leadership? ===
Poor people. Only nobles can have leading positions, and rich people often become noble because they have a lot of money.

=== Is bribery allowed? Under what circumstances? ===
Usually not, but there are numerous examples of judges being bribed.

=== What makes someone a bad ruler in this society? What can be done about it? ===
A bad ruler doesn’t appear in public and doesn’t make speeches and sing patriotic songs. During the wartime, a bad ruler is the one who isn’t winning.

=== What are the most common or dangerous forms of criminal? ===
Stealing is the most common.

== Questions of War ==

=== Who declares war? ===
The King.

=== Who has the power to declare conditions of peace? ===
The King, but in practice the commander in the field would be the one actually negotiating the terms.

=== What happens to prisoners taken in battle? ===
They are either executed or taken to slavery, but if peace happens they can be returned.

=== What form of warfare does this society use? ===
From our point of view, Dwarvish wars would look like our medieval wars.

=== Who are the Elite warriors? What distinguishes them? ===
There are no elite warriors. Soldiers who gain order for bravery are more respected.

=== How does someone get command of troops? ===
The King proclaims the officers and they are usually noble or rich.

=== Where do the loyalties of military units lie? ===

=== Are there professional soldiers? Do they make up the bulk of the military? ===
There are no professional soldiers.

=== Has this society ever attacked another? Do they want to? What would make them do so? ===
They had one civil war and one war with the Elves.

=== Who are their enemies? Who's winning? ===
Elves are their biggest enemies. The Dwarves won.

=== What do soldiers do when there's no war? ===
Live normal life.

== Questions of Education ==

=== Does this society have its own language? Its own writing? ===
There are three Dwarvish [[Sethic languages]] that are written in [[Vandar's script]] and in [[Sethic runes]].

=== How common is literacy? How is literacy viewed? ===
Literacy isn’t common and people who can read and write are much respected.

=== What form and value are books? ===
The books are rare and are respected, although they are useless for the simple people.

=== Who teaches others? How do they teach? ===
Usually only future priests learn to write. Elder priests teach them. In the cities noble and rich people learn to write, too. They hire a priest to teach them.

=== Who decides who learns to read or write? Who teaches professions, like carpenter or scribe? ===
Usually only future priests learn to write and elder priests teach them. If somebody wants to become a carpenter or blacksmith, etc. they go to current carpenters and blacksmiths and learn from them. There are no scribes.

=== Are foreigners ever brought in to teach new skills? Who does that? ===
No, not ever, except that some Dwarvish tribes mixed with Human (Gonian) tribes and Gonian linguist Vandar has created a new alphabet for Dwarves. The Gonians have also taught Dwarves how to work in fields. They are the first and the only one other nation that Dwarves accepted as friends and neighbours.

=== How do this society's doctors try to treat wounds and sickness? ===
Priests and old women serve as doctors. They pray to gods, put some herbs on wounds, say spells to beat the evil magic, etc.

=== Which medical assumptions of this society are wrong? ===
They believe that every sickness is an act of evil magic and they heal it by singing spells.

== Questions of Art ==

=== What are the favorite art forms? ===
Sculptures and music.

=== What are the least-favorite? ===
Paintings.

=== How respected are artists? ===
There are no artists, but people themselves make sculptures. Those who sing nice are beloved.

=== Do artists require official or unofficial protection? ===
Nope.

=== What kinds of trouble are artists in particular likely to find themselves in? ===
There are no artists.

=== How might a very successful artist live? ===
Once again, there are no artists…

=== What forms of theatre does your society have? ===
They don’t, except in the cities of Limard Gondora and Limard Firinno, where some kind of theatre does exist. They sing patriotic and heroic songs and poems during some ceremonies and amuse noble and rich people for money.

=== How naturalistic or stylized is your society's art? ===
Songs and poetry is usually patriotic and heroic, while the sculptures usually represent kings, heroes and nobles.

=== What shapes are most common in your society's arts, like embroidery or architecture? ===
Square.

=== Which art forms get the most and least respect? ===
Music and poetry are the most respected, while painting is the least.

=== What form does censorship take? ===
New poems and songs. One can go to slavery if sings unpatriotic songs.

=== Who may not be an artist? ===
Everybody can.

=== What qualities equal &quot;beauty&quot; in this society? ===
Music.

=== What makes a man or woman especially beautiful? ===
Jewelry and colourful clothes.

=== How do people react to tattoos? Piercing? Facial hair? Make-up? ===
There are no such things.

== Questions of sex and marriage ==

=== Is sex confined to marriage? ===
It should be, but sex can sometimes happen out of marriage and that’s not so terrible.

=== Or, is it supposed to be? What constitutes aberrant behavior? ===
It should be, but sex can sometimes happen out of marriage and that’s not so terrible.

=== Is there anything about this culture or religion in that culture that specifically addresses sexual conduct? ===
No, there isn’t, except that a married pair should always have at least one child.

=== Are there laws about it? What about prostitution? ===
There is no prostitution.

=== How old should someone be in your culture to be having sex? ===
One should be married, but sex can occur before marriage at about age of 15 to 17.

=== What is considered too great a difference in age for a couple? ===
Although nobody can stop someone to marry an older woman or man, such marriages are sometimes subject of gossiping. However, it is normal for a man to be up to ten years older than woman (e. g. she’s 17 and he’s 30). Marriages with a big difference in age of the spouses are not uncommon at all.

=== Do relationships allow multiple partners? ===
Nope.

=== Should sex be a one-to-one experience? Or are groups allowed? ===
One-to-one.

=== And, of course, what about homosexuality? Is it frowned on? Encouraged? ===
It is frowned on, but occurs with nobles sometimes and that’s kept as a secret.

== Questions of death and burial ==

=== What is their understanding of death and dying? ===
Death is the final end of life. After it, the souls are taken to Moon, where the goddess of death lives. From there they can see their relatives what are they doing in Moynna.

=== Do they cremate their dead? Or, how are dead bodies disposed of? ===
They don’t perform cremation, but bury their dead bodies in their family cemetery in the backyard.

=== Is the family responsible for the body? ===
Yes, they should bury it, or they will be cursed.

=== What part do the priests play? ===
They have to be on the funeral to say a prayer to God and some spells so the soul can find its way towards Moon and the family is not going to be cursed.

=== Are there cemeteries at all? ===
Yes, there are family cemeteries in the backyards of their houses.

=== Or, does everyone have a crypt in back with all the relatives in it? ===
Exactly, just as I have already said above…

=== Do people visit the dead? If so, how often and why? ===
The middle day of the year – the sixth Hannardan – is the day for visiting dead. On that day, the family brings some food and drink to their family cemetery and eats some of it there and some leaves for the dead. They should do it on every sixth Hannardan (which is also called карраллоедхан, “day of the dead”), or they are going to be cursed and the souls of their dead will be angry on them, but if they really can’t make it, never mind. They also wear black robes when visiting dead. Priests are not necessary in this ceremony.

== Questions of suicide ==

=== What do people in this culture think about suicide? ===
It is a terrible thing. Suicides are not buried in the family cemetery, but out of town, and priests don’t come to pray for their souls. Their souls are cursed. Only the gods can give and take lives, mortals do not have right to do that.

Murdered people are buried in the family cemetery and priests do pray for them, and if family knows who has killed their beloved one, then he’s executed. Executed people are not prayed for and their bodies are buried out of town. Their souls are cursed too, and they can’t reach the Moon, but stay on Earth as vampires, evil ghosts, etc.

=== Is it the greatest sin one can commit? Or is it a sin at all? ===
Not the greatest, but sure is a very, very big one.

=== Is it the great and last comfort of a tormented soul? ===
No, it isn’t.

=== Is it worse than murder? ===
Yes, it is.

[[Category:Moynna]]</text>
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        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nıbuzıgu is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* musical tone language
* isolating
* only one open lexical class (substantives)
* heavy use of serial verb constructions (SVC)

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s21/ Nıbuzıgu Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Þrjótrun</title>
    <id>2549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-13T12:28:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theiling</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Þrjótrun is one of [[User:Theiling|Henrik Theiling's]] conlangs.  Its
main features are:

* naturalistical a-posteriory language
* derived from Vulgar Latin
* sound changes of Icelandic

== External Links ==

* [http://www.kunstsprachen.de/s17/ Þrjótrun Home Page]
* [http://www.theiling.de/ Henrik Theiling's Home Page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire</title>
    <id>2550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45997</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-12T14:33:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* XIII. Questions of Law, Justice and Police */ cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir to help in the description of [[conculture]]s, and can be found in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo].

To make it easier (and encourage) to fill it out I &amp;mdash; [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] &amp;mdash; have created a [[Templates|template]] formatting the questions as wiki headings.  To use template
create a page named e.g. '''''Your conculture'' Ethnographical Questionnaire''' and enter the text

  &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Ethnographical Questionnaire|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;em&gt;Your conculture&lt;/em&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

into the edit box &amp;mdash; most easily done by copy-pasting the test in the box above, replacing the words &lt;tt&gt;&lt;em&gt;Your conculture&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; with the actual name of your conculture &amp;mdash;, then save the page and then open the edit window again.  Now the edit box questions will contain the list of questions formatted as wiki headings, with vertical space between for you to fill in your answers. (I put this page here for three reasons: (a) to show it as David Zahir originally wrote it, (b) to provide an easy way to read through the questions, and (c) to advertice and describe the use of [[Template:Ethnographical Questionnaire|the template version]].)

''Don't'' copy-paste the contents of this page into your own page; the formatting won't be as nice, and you'll have to do a lot of editing to make it look nice, and ''don't under '''any''' circumstances'' enter your answers into the template editing page, since that will ruin the template for others!

== I. Questions of Place ==

(a) Describe the geography of where your society calls home.&lt;br&gt;
(b) Describe the climate your society deals with. How severe are their seasons?&lt;br&gt;
(c) What kinds of natural disasters has this society gotten used to?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What are the most commonly-grown foods?&lt;br&gt;
(e) What are the most commonly-eaten meats?&lt;br&gt;
(f) What foods are considered exotic or expensive?&lt;br&gt;
(g) What forms of alcohol are common? Rare?&lt;br&gt;
(h) Is there usually enough food and water for the population?&lt;br&gt;
(i) What is this place's most abundant resource?&lt;br&gt;
(j) What is its most valuable resource?&lt;br&gt;
(k) What resource is it most lacking?&lt;br&gt;
(l) How do people travel from one place to another?&lt;br&gt;
(m) Are the borders secure? In what way?&lt;br&gt;
(n) How many people live here?&lt;br&gt;
(o) Where in this place to they congregate?&lt;br&gt;
(p) What part of this place do they avoid? Why?&lt;br&gt;
(q) What are the most common domesticated animals here? And what are they domesticated for?&lt;br&gt;
(r) What are the most common wild animals?&lt;br&gt;
(s) Which animals are likely to be pets? Which ones won't be?&lt;br&gt;

== II. Questions of Time ==

(a) How far back does this society's written history go?&lt;br&gt;
(b) How far back do its people believe it goes?&lt;br&gt;
(c) What is the worst disaster they believe they've faced?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What was the best thing that every happened to them?&lt;br&gt;
(e) What in their past makes them feel ashamed?&lt;br&gt;
(f) What in their past makes them proud?&lt;br&gt;
(g) What are they afraid of happening again?&lt;br&gt;
(h) What are they hoping will happen? Do they think it likely?&lt;br&gt;
(i) What do they assume the future will hold?&lt;br&gt;
(j) How has this society changed? Do its current members realize this?&lt;br&gt;
(k) What are the most popular stories about the past?&lt;br&gt;
(l) Who in the past is the greatest hero? The worst villain?&lt;br&gt;
(m) Do people think the present better or worse than the past?&lt;br&gt;
(n) Do people believe the future will be better or worse than the present or past?&lt;br&gt;

== III. Questions of Sex and Family ==

(a) How many spouses may a man or woman have?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Who decides on a marriage?&lt;br&gt;
(c) Can a marriage end in divorce? How?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Who usually takes custody of children if a marriage ends for some reason?&lt;br&gt;
(e) How is adultery defined? What (if any) is the punishment? Who decides?&lt;br&gt;
(f) How are families named?(g) What happens to orphans?&lt;br&gt;
(h) How are boy and girl children treated differently?&lt;br&gt;
(i) Are premarital relations allowed?&lt;br&gt;
(j) How does your society define incest? Rape? How do people react to these?&lt;br&gt;
(k) What, if anything, is considered a good marriage gift?&lt;br&gt;
(l) What secret vice is believed to be widely practiced?&lt;br&gt;
(m) What secret vice actually is practiced?&lt;br&gt;
(n) What sexual habits are widely believed common among foriegners?&lt;br&gt;
(o) How do people react to homosexuality?&lt;br&gt;
(p) How do the genders dress?&lt;br&gt;
(q) Is prostitution legal? How are prostitutes viewed? Is this accurate?&lt;br&gt;
(r) What professions or activities are considered masculine?&lt;br&gt;
(s) What professions or activities are viewed as feminine?&lt;br&gt;
(t) What inanimate or sexless things are considered male or female?&lt;br&gt;
(u) What is the biggest sexual taboo?&lt;br&gt;
(v) Does this society connect the ideas of marriage with love?&lt;br&gt;
(w) What does this society mean by the word &quot;virgin&quot; and how important it it?&lt;br&gt;

== IV. Questions of Manners ==

(a) Who speaks first at a formal gathering?&lt;br&gt;
(b) What kinds of gifts are considered in extremely bad taste?&lt;br&gt;
(c) How do younger adults address their elders?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What colors are associated with power? With virtue? With death?&lt;br&gt;
(e) If two men get into a fight, how is this supposed to be resolved?&lt;br&gt;
(f) If two women get into a fight, how should that be resolved?&lt;br&gt;
(g) When is it rude to laugh at something funny?&lt;br&gt;
(h) What kinds of questions cannot be asked in public? In private? At all?&lt;br&gt;
(i) How do people demonstrate grief?&lt;br&gt;
(j) What does this society do with their corpses?&lt;br&gt;
(k) What kinds of jewelry do people where? And when?&lt;br&gt;
(l) Who inheirits property? Titles? Position?&lt;br&gt;
(m) What happens to those suffering from extreme mental illness?&lt;br&gt;
(n) What are the most popular games? How important are they?&lt;br&gt;
(o) What parts of the body are routinely covered?&lt;br&gt;
(p) How private are bodily functions like bathing or defecating?&lt;br&gt;
(q) How do people react to physical deformity?&lt;br&gt;
(r) When and how does someone go from child to adult?&lt;br&gt;

== V. Questions of Faith ==

(a) Is there a formal clergy? How are they organized?&lt;br&gt;
(b) What do people believe happens to them after death? How, if at all, can they influence this?&lt;br&gt;
(c) What happens to those who disagree with the majority on questions of religion?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Are there any particular places considered special or holy? What are they like?&lt;br&gt;
(e) What are the most popular rituals or festivals?&lt;br&gt;
(f) What do people want from the god or gods? How do they try and get it?&lt;br&gt;
(g) How do their religious practices differ from their neighbours?&lt;br&gt;
(h) What is the most commonly broken religious rule?(i) What is the least-violated religious rule?&lt;br&gt;
(j) What factions exist within the dominant religious institutions? How do they compete?&lt;br&gt;
(k) Are there monastic groups? What do they do and how are they organized? How do you join one?&lt;br&gt;
(l) How are those who follow different faiths treated?&lt;br&gt;
(m) What relationship do religious and political leaders have?&lt;br&gt;
(n) What superstitions are common? What kinds of supernatural&lt;br&gt;
events/beings do people fear?

== VI. Questions of Government ==

(a) Who decides whether someone has broken a law? How?&lt;br&gt;
(b) What kinds of punishments are meted out? By whom? Why?&lt;br&gt;
(c) How are new laws created or old ones changed?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Is there some form of clemency or pardon? What is involved?&lt;br&gt;
(e) Who has the right to give orders, and why?&lt;br&gt;
(f) What titles do various officials have?&lt;br&gt;
(g) How are the rules different for officials as opposed to the common person?&lt;br&gt;
(h) How do government officials dress?&lt;br&gt;
(i) Is the law written down? Who interprets it?&lt;br&gt;
(j) Once accused, what recourse does someone have?&lt;br&gt;
(k) Is torture allowed? What kinds?&lt;br&gt;
(l) How are people executed?&lt;br&gt;
(m) Who cannot rise to positions of leadership?&lt;br&gt;
(n) Is bribery allowed? Under what circumstances?&lt;br&gt;
(o) What makes someone a bad ruler in this society? What can be done about it?&lt;br&gt;
(p) What are the most common or dangerous forms of criminal?&lt;br&gt;

== VII. Questions of War ==

(a) Who declares war?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Who has the power to declare conditions of peace?&lt;br&gt;
(c) What happens to prisoners taken in battle?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What form of warfare does this society use?&lt;br&gt;
(e) Who are the Elite warriors? What distinguishes them?&lt;br&gt;
(f) How does someone get command of troops?&lt;br&gt;
(g) Where do the loyalties of military units lie?&lt;br&gt;
(h) Are there professional soldiers? Do they make up the bulk of the military?&lt;br&gt;
(i) Has this society ever attacked another? Do they want to? What would make them do so?&lt;br&gt;
(j) Who are their enemies? Who's winning?&lt;br&gt;
(k) What do soldiers do when there's no war?&lt;br&gt;

== VIII. Questions of Education ==

(a) Does this society have its own language? Its own writing?&lt;br&gt;
(b) How common is literacy? How is literacy viewed?&lt;br&gt;
(c) What form and value are books?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Who teaches others? How do they teach?&lt;br&gt;
(e) Who decides who learns to read or write?(f) Who teaches professions, like carpenter or scribe?&lt;br&gt;
(g) Are foreigners ever brought in to teach new skills? Who does that?&lt;br&gt;
(h) How do this society's doctors try to treat wounds and sickness?&lt;br&gt;
(i) Which medical assumtions of this society are wrong?&lt;br&gt;

== IX. Questions of Art ==

(a) What are the favorite artforms?&lt;br&gt;
(b) What are the least-favorite?&lt;br&gt;
(c) How respected are artists?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Do artists require official or unofficial protection?&lt;br&gt;
(e) What kinds of trouble are artists in particular likely to find themselves in?&lt;br&gt;
(f) How might a very successful artist live?&lt;br&gt;
(g) What forms of theatre does your society have?&lt;br&gt;
(h) How naturalistic or stylized is your society's art?&lt;br&gt;
(j) What shapes are most common in your society's arts, like embroidery or architecture?&lt;br&gt;
(k) Which artforms get the most and least respect?&lt;br&gt;
(l) What form does censorship take?&lt;br&gt;
(m) Who may not be an artist?&lt;br&gt;
(n) What qualities equal &quot;beauty&quot; in this society?&lt;br&gt;
(o) What makes a man or woman especially beautiful?&lt;br&gt;
(p) How do people react to tattoos? Piercings? Facial hair? Make-up?&lt;br&gt;

== X. Questions of sex and marriage ==

(a) Is sex confined to marriage?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Or, is it supposed to be?  What constitutes aberrant behavior?&lt;br&gt;
(c) Is there anything about this culture or religion in that culture that specifically addresses sexual conduct?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Are there laws about it?  What about prostitution?&lt;br&gt;
(e) How old should someone be in your culture to be having sex?&lt;br&gt;
(f) What is considered too great a difference in age for a couple?&lt;br&gt;
(g) Do relationships allow multiple partners?&lt;br&gt;
(h) Should sex be a one-to-one experience? Or are groups allowed?&lt;br&gt;
(i) And, of course, what about homosexuality?  Is  it frowned on? Encouraged?&lt;br&gt;

== XI. Questions of death and burial ==

(a) What is their understanding of death and dying?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Do they cremate their dead? Or, how are dead bodies disposed of?&lt;br&gt;
(c) Is the family  responsible for the body?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What part do the priests play?&lt;br&gt;
(e) Are there cemeteries at all?&lt;br&gt;
(f) Or, does everyone have a crypt in back  with all the relatives in it?&lt;br&gt;
(g) Do people visit the dead?  If so, how often and why?&lt;br&gt;

== XII. Questions of suicide ==

(a) What do people in this culture think about suicide?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Is it the greatest sin one can commit?  Or is it a sin at all?&lt;br&gt;
(c) Is it the great and last comfort of a tormented soul?&lt;br&gt;
(d) Is it worse than murder?&lt;br&gt;

== XIII. Questions of Law, Justice and Police ==

(a) Is there a civilian police force, or is law enforcement the province of the military?&lt;br&gt;
(b) Is the police force a nationalised one, or are there multiple regional forces?&lt;br&gt;
(c) How &quot;military&quot; are they?  Are they usually/ever armed?&lt;br&gt;
(d) What is the extent of their authority?  Can they shoot you? Can they use magic? Can they torture or otherwise force a confession? Can they use telepathy?&lt;br&gt;
(e) Are there individuals or groups who are above the law?&lt;br&gt;
(f) Is there a secret police?&lt;br&gt;
(g) What is the role of police informants, if any?&lt;br&gt;
[[Category:Source material]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Ethnographical Questionnaire</title>
    <id>2551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-15T12:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Changed to expanded author note -- should it perhaps go into a template of its own?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">= {{{1}}} Ethnographical Questionnaire =

'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir to help in the description of [[conculture]]s, and can be found in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo].

__TOC__

== Questions of Place ==

=== Describe the geography of where your society calls home. ===


=== Describe the climate your society deals with. How severe are their seasons? ===


=== What kinds of natural disasters has this society gotten used to? ===


=== What are the most commonly-grown foods? ===


=== What are the most commonly-eaten meats? ===


=== What foods are considered exotic or expensive? ===


=== What forms of alcohol are common? Rare? ===


=== Is there usually enough food and water for the population? ===


=== What is this place's most abundant resource? ===


=== What is its most valuable resource? ===


=== What resource is it most lacking? ===


=== How do people travel from one place to another? ===


=== Are the borders secure? In what way? ===


=== How many people live here? ===


=== Where in this place to they congregate? ===


=== What part of this place do they avoid? Why? ===


=== What are the most common domesticated animals here? And what are they domesticated for? ===


=== What are the most common wild animals? ===


=== Which animals are likely to be pets? Which ones won't be? ===


== Questions of Time ==

=== How far back does this society's written history go? ===


=== How far back do its people believe it goes? ===


=== What is the worst disaster they believe they've faced? ===


=== What was the best thing that every happened to them? ===


=== What in their past makes them feel ashamed? ===


=== What in their past makes them proud? ===


=== What are they afraid of happening again? ===


=== What are they hoping will happen? Do they think it likely? ===


=== What do they assume the future will hold? ===


=== How has this society changed? Do its current members realize this? ===


=== What are the most popular stories about the past? ===


=== Who in the past is the greatest hero? The worst villain? ===


=== Do people think the present better or worse than the past? ===


=== Do people believe the future will be better or worse than the present or past? ===


== Questions of Sex and Family ==

=== How many spouses may a man or woman have? ===


=== Who decides on a marriage? ===


=== Can a marriage end in divorce? How? ===


=== Who usually takes custody of children if a marriage ends for some reason? ===


=== How is adultery defined? What (if any) is the punishment? Who decides? ===


=== How are families named?(g) What happens to orphans? ===


=== How are boy and girl children treated differently? ===


=== Are premarital relations allowed? ===


=== How does your society define incest? Rape? How do people react to these? ===


=== What, if anything, is considered a good marriage gift? ===


=== What secret vice is believed to be widely practiced? ===


=== What secret vice actually is practiced? ===


=== What sexual habits are widely believed common among foriegners? ===


=== How do people react to homosexuality? ===


=== How do the genders dress? ===


=== Is prostitution legal? How are prostitutes viewed? Is this accurate? ===


=== What professions or activities are considered masculine? ===


=== What professions or activities are viewed as feminine? ===


=== What inanimate or sexless things are considered male or female? ===


=== What is the biggest sexual taboo? ===


=== Does this society connect the ideas of marriage with love? ===


=== What does this society mean by the word &quot;virgin&quot; and how important it it? ===


== Questions of Manners ==

=== Who speaks first at a formal gathering? ===


=== What kinds of gifts are considered in extremely bad taste? ===


=== How do younger adults address their elders? ===


=== What colors are associated with power? With virtue? With death? ===


=== If two men get into a fight, how is this supposed to be resolved? ===


=== If two women get into a fight, how should that be resolved? ===


=== When is it rude to laugh at something funny? ===


=== What kinds of questions cannot be asked in public? In private? At all? ===


=== How do people demonstrate grief? ===


=== What does this society do with their corpses? ===


=== What kinds of jewelry do people where? And when? ===


=== Who inheirits property? Titles? Position? ===


=== What happens to those suffering from extreme mental illness? ===


=== What are the most popular games? How important are they? ===


=== What parts of the body are routinely covered? ===


=== How private are bodily functions like bathing or defecating? ===


=== How do people react to physical deformity? ===


=== When and how does someone go from child to adult? ===


== Questions of Faith ==

=== Is there a formal clergy? How are they organized? ===


=== What do people believe happens to them after death? How, if at all, can they influence this? ===


=== What happens to those who disagree with the majority on questions of religion? ===


=== Are there any particular places considered special or holy? What are they like? ===


=== What are the most popular rituals or festivals? ===


=== What do people want from the god or gods? How do they try and get it? ===


=== How do their religious practices differ from their neighbours? ===


=== What is the most commonly broken religious rule?(i) What is the least-violated religious rule? ===


=== What factions exist within the dominant religious institutions? How do they compete? ===


=== Are there monastic groups? What do they do and how are they organized? How do you join one? ===


=== How are those who follow different faiths treated? ===


=== What relationship do religious and political leaders have? ===


=== What superstitions are common? What kinds of supernatural ===


events/beings do people fear?

== Questions of Government ==

=== Who decides whether someone has broken a law? How? ===


=== What kinds of punishments are meted out? By whom? Why? ===


=== How are new laws created or old ones changed? ===


=== Is there some form of clemency or pardon? What is involved? ===


=== Who has the right to give orders, and why? ===


=== What titles do various officials have? ===


=== How are the rules different for officials as opposed to the common person? ===


=== How do government officials dress? ===


=== Is the law written down? Who interprets it? ===


=== Once accused, what recourse does someone have? ===


=== Is torture allowed? What kinds? ===


=== How are people executed? ===


=== Who cannot rise to positions of leadership? ===


=== Is bribery allowed? Under what circumstances? ===


=== What makes someone a bad ruler in this society? What can be done about it? ===


=== What are the most common or dangerous forms of criminal? ===


== Questions of War ==

=== Who declares war? ===


=== Who has the power to declare conditions of peace? ===


=== What happens to prisoners taken in battle? ===


=== What form of warfare does this society use? ===


=== Who are the Elite warriors? What distinguishes them? ===


=== How does someone get command of troops? ===


=== Where do the loyalties of military units lie? ===


=== Are there professional soldiers? Do they make up the bulk of the military? ===


=== Has this society ever attacked another? Do they want to? What would make them do so? ===


=== Who are their enemies? Who's winning? ===


=== What do soldiers do when there's no war? ===


== Questions of Education ==

=== Does this society have its own language? Its own writing? ===


=== How common is literacy? How is literacy viewed? ===


=== What form and value are books? ===


=== Who teaches others? How do they teach? ===


=== Who decides who learns to read or write?(f) Who teaches professions, like carpenter or scribe? ===


=== Are foreigners ever brought in to teach new skills? Who does that? ===


=== How do this society's doctors try to treat wounds and sickness? ===


=== Which medical assumtions of this society are wrong? ===


== Questions of Art ==

=== What are the favorite artforms? ===


=== What are the least-favorite? ===


=== How respected are artists? ===


=== Do artists require official or unofficial protection? ===


=== What kinds of trouble are artists in particular likely to find themselves in? ===


=== How might a very successful artist live? ===


=== What forms of theatre does your society have? ===


=== How naturalistic or stylized is your society's art? ===


=== What shapes are most common in your society's arts, like embroidery or architecture? ===


=== Which artforms get the most and least respect? ===


=== What form does censorship take? ===


=== Who may not be an artist? ===


=== What qualities equal &quot;beauty&quot; in this society? ===


=== What makes a man or woman especially beautiful? ===


=== How do people react to tattoos? Piercings? Facial hair? Make-up? ===


== Questions of sex and marriage ==

=== Is sex confined to marriage? ===


=== Or, is it supposed to be?  What constitutes aberrant behavior? ===


=== Is there anything about this culture or religion in that culture that specifically addresses sexual conduct? ===


=== Are there laws about it?  What about prostitution? ===


=== How old should someone be in your culture to be having sex? ===


=== What is considered too great a difference in age for a couple? ===


=== Do relationships allow multiple partners? ===


=== Should sex be a one-to-one experience? Or are groups allowed? ===


=== And, of course, what about homosexuality?  Is  it frowned on? Encouraged? ===


== Questions of death and burial ==

=== What is their understanding of death and dying? ===


=== Do they cremate their dead? Or, how are dead bodies disposed of? ===


=== Is the family  responsible for the body? ===


=== What part do the priests play? ===


=== Are there cemeteries at all? ===


=== Or, does everyone have a crypt in back  with all the relatives in it? ===


=== Do people visit the dead?  If so, how often and why? ===


== Questions of suicide ==

=== What do people in this culture think about suicide? ===


=== Is it the greatest sin one can commit?  Or is it a sin at all? ===


=== Is it the great and last comfort of a tormented soul? ===


=== Is it worse than murder? ===


== Questions of Law, Justice and Police ==

=== Is there a civilian police force, or is law enforcement the province of the military? ===


=== Is the police force a nationalised one, or are there multiple regional forces? ===


=== How &quot;military&quot; are they?  Are they usually/ever armed? ===


=== What is the extent of their authority?  Can they shoot you? Can they use magic? Can they torture or otherwise force a confession? Can they use telepathy? ===


=== Are there individuals or groups who are above the law? ===


=== Is there a secret police? ===


=== What is the role of police informants, if any? ===</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conculture</title>
    <id>2552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11114</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''conculture''' ''n.'' (Truncation of ''constructed culture''.) An imaginary race, people or species invented as a diversion or as background for a work of fiction.

If you are looking for help to start describing your conculture, have a look at [[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]!

[[Category:Terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Latin Pinyin</title>
    <id>2553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18068</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-05T00:05:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''r'' == '''z''' doesn't seem likely a likely choice for a Latin speaker of Imperial times, as Latin grammarians say that {{sc|z}} is pronounced {{sc|sd}} or {{sc|ds}}, and it is frequently used in Vulgar Latin inscriptions for the reflex of {{sc|dj &lt; dĭ, dĕ}} before a vowel, so you get spellings like {{sc|zabvlvs}} for '''diabolus''' and even {{sc|Zodorvs}} for '''Theodorus'''!  Later it was even used for palatalized {{sc|g}} and affricized {{sc|j}} — witness the name of the pretender Maximinus, whose cognomen is variously written '''Daia''' and '''Daza''', presumably pronounced {{IPA|[dadʒa]}}.  (One wonders where the name came from.  Can it have been Illyrian?)  These spellings suggest that if one goes for 'Latin' letter values '''z''' must be something like {{IPA|[dz]}} or possibly {{IPA|[dʒ]}}, and something {{IPA|[z]}}-like won't be likely at all.
(Also note that all of Italian, Old High German, Old French and Old Spanish use '''z''' for dental affricates!)  FWIW I've always found the ''r'' mapping to be the main attraction of Pinyin (and GR! {{-)}})  I think a Roman would definitely hear {{IPA|[ɻ]}} as '''r''' — a strange '''r''' to be sure, but definitely not a '''z'''.

These considerations of course affect the spellings of ''z, c, zh, zh''.  It doesn't seem right to me to conflate ''c'' and ''s'' — if anything should be conflated it is the ''zh'' series vs. ''z'' series distinctions, since that is not observed by quite a lot of Chinese speakers.  Therefore I suggest:

{|
| ''z'' || '''t(i)/z''' || || ''c'' || '''th(i)/z''' || || ''s'' || '''s'''
|-
| ''zh'' || '''t(i)''' || || ''ch'' || '''th(i)''' || || ''sh'' || '''s(i)''' || || ''r'' || '''r'''
|}

NB '''z''' as alternative spelling for both ''c'' and ''z'': the Romans would probably regard aspiration as simply unexpressable after '''z'''!

BTW wouldn't it be better to use '''u''' rather than '''v''' as an initial?  After all that is the more authentic Latin spelling: '''V''' as capital and '''u''' as minuscle.

As for the finals I would use '''o''' for ''ou'', since {{IPA|[o]}} when it occurs is merely an allophone of {{IPA|/ɤ/}} which is normally written ''e''. In fact Pinyin ''o'' outside ''uo'' or ''ou'' occurs only after labial, e.g. ''bo'', where it writes {{IPA|[uo]}}, or at any rate {{IPA|/uɤ/}}. Many older transcriptions  use '''''o''''' for ''uo'' or for some instances of {{IPA|/ɤ/}}.  Taking Latin and Vulgar Latin orthographic values into account I think it likely to adopt '''uo''' which at least occurred in some Latin words like {{sc|duo}}, but avoid '''ou''', and then '''o''' is ''{{sc|the}}'' choice, IMHO, in order to keep it distinct from '''u'''.

I also have the feeling that ''ü'' should be written '''iu''', since {{sc|y}} was generally merged with {{sc|i}} in Latin, and ''iu'' of course would be '''io'''.  I definitely feel '''cy''' for ''qu'' against '''cu''' for ''ku'' is somewhat weird, but I also appreciate that weirdness may be something to appreciate.

As for ''ng + t'' the obvious solution is '''nchth''', since that is how a Greek γχθ would have been rendered in Latin — NB that χτ was unorthographic in ancient Greek.  I remain to be convinced that a stop before an aspirated stop was actually released and aspirated, but that was at any rate how they were written!

BTW IMO your '''Author''' box merits a template!

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 07:36, 15 July 2006 (PDT)

:Well, this whole deal is something I haven't touched in some time (and I know a lot more about Latin phonology and the spelling of borrowed foreign words in later periods by now).  As for V/u, that's really more a medieval thing: the classical period didn't have minuscules, and modern spelling (at least, so far as I'm familiar with) uses V as consonantal and U as vocalic (or for labiovelars, as in ''quo'' and ''sanguis'').  The other things are reasonable.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:10, 15 July 2006 (PDT)


Just wondering why the &lt;o&gt; in &lt;ionle&gt; not &lt;iunle&gt;. Anyone help? :-) [[User:Xipirho|Xipirho]] 17:41, 3 January 2007 (PST)

:Because at the time I didn't understand the reconstructed classical Latin phonetic system well enough to know [ʊ] sounded more like short |u| than a kind of |o|.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 16:05, 4 January 2007 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Word Formation</title>
    <id>2554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48830</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T19:03:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Denominative nouns from simple nouns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħoes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;jeþaes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NOM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*STA = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;saaþȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MOT = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кeȝëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VOC = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭotanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirtanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*sg = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;oinemſis&lt;/font&gt;
*pl = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnemſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;perpagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pospagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooqɱerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;menüpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðëminos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
*SJV = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APCP   = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaþneɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL    = collective
*EL     = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;duuras&lt;/font&gt;
*E      = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entiivſŭevsŭenos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPTCL  = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IMPERF = imperfective aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſenüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PRF    = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſenüħwelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPCP   = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiirnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPTCL  = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP    = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPTCL  = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱëɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=Part III. Word Formation &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemos III. ɱermervas&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''102'''. Senjecas has a well-developed system of word formation in which roots are modified by various prefixes and suffixes to form new words.  ''E.g.'', the root &lt;font color=blue&gt;ed-&lt;/font&gt; may give &lt;font color=blue&gt;eda&lt;/font&gt;, eat; &lt;font color=blue&gt;edos&lt;/font&gt;, food; &lt;font color=blue&gt;edĭis&lt;/font&gt;, edible; &lt;font color=blue&gt;eðdemos&lt;/font&gt;, restaurant; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nedĭis&lt;/font&gt;, inedible; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;edus&lt;/font&gt;, eater.

=Word Structure=
*'''103'''. A root is that part of a word which remains after its formative elements are removed.  It gives the meaning or abstract idea apart from its relations.  It is not necessarily a monosyllable.
*'''104'''. A simple word is formed from a single root.  A compound word is formed by combining two or more roots.
*'''105'''. The verb is the most important part of speech in Senjecas.  A major part of the Senjecan vocabulary is derived from verbs.  To the verbal root are added prefixes and suffixes to form other words, such as nouns and adjectives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemva&lt;/font&gt;, steam; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemvos&lt;/font&gt;, steam; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemvëmis&lt;/font&gt;, steamy. In many modern languages, including English, this example would seem to be that of a noun which has given rise to a verb.  It is not understood that way in Senjecas.  Words that are not derived from verbs are known as non-derivative words.
*'''106'''. Other parts of speech formed from a verbal root are called deverbatives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;rezreɱan&lt;/font&gt;, principality, from &lt;font color=blue&gt;reźa&lt;/font&gt;, rule.
*'''107'''. There are eight categories of words in Senjecas.
**a. The verb with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-a&lt;/font&gt;, defy; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-as&lt;/font&gt;, defiance; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-is&lt;/font&gt;, defiant; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-u&lt;/font&gt;, nevertheless; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-a&lt;/font&gt;, despite; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirſ-i&lt;/font&gt;, although.
**b. The non-derivative noun with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruðſ-os&lt;/font&gt;, metal; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruðſaagus&lt;/font&gt;, metalworker; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruðſis&lt;/font&gt;, metallic.
**c. The non-derivative adjective with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſunt-is&lt;/font&gt;, alert; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſunt-ëtan&lt;/font&gt;, alertness.  Any non-derivative adjective can be used as a verb, &lt;font color=blue&gt;muſë ſunta&lt;/font&gt;, I am alert.
**d. The non-derivative adverb with its derivatives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aar-u&lt;/font&gt;, so, thus; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aar-i&lt;/font&gt;, therefore.
**e. The non-derivative pronoun, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus&lt;/font&gt;, I.
**f. The non-derivative postposition, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;, in.
**g. The non-derivative conjunction, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱo&lt;/font&gt;, or.
**h. The non-derivative interjection, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱai&lt;/font&gt;, woe.
*'''108'''. The basic form of the Senjecan verb is called the triphonetic root.  In its simplest form, it consists of a consonant, a vowel(s), and a consonant (CVC, &lt;font color=blue&gt;кup-&lt;/font&gt;); or a null, a vowel(s), and a consonant (ØVC, &lt;font color=blue&gt;em-&lt;/font&gt;).
*'''109'''. A lengthened triphonetic root can be formed by inserting a non-plosive consonant (N) before the last consonant (CVNC, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćemb-&lt;/font&gt;; ØVNC, &lt;font color=blue&gt;oln-&lt;/font&gt;). 
*'''110'''. Compound verbs may be formed by adding a proclitic element to the triphonetic root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;pu-ata&lt;/font&gt;, return.  These proclitic elements may be any part of speech.  As with enclitics, the proclitic element is intoned on the basal pitch.
*'''111'''. To this triphonetic root are added the various prefixes and suffixes to form compound words, ''e.g.'', nouns from verbs.
*'''112'''. Pronouns, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus&lt;/font&gt;; non-derivative adverbs and postpositions, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;anta&lt;/font&gt;; and non-derivative nouns and adjectives, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;volnos&lt;/font&gt;, have their own forms independent of any triphonetic root.  To these also may be added the various prefixes and suffixes to form other parts of speech, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;v-źemvis&lt;/font&gt;, toothless.

=Compounding Rules=
*'''113'''. If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a vowel, the second element is added to the root of the first element, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiir-a&lt;/font&gt;, scrape, + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ondos&lt;/font&gt;, stone, = &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirondos&lt;/font&gt;, scouring stone; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooć-is&lt;/font&gt;, swift, + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ores&lt;/font&gt;, hawk = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćores&lt;/font&gt;, goshawk.
*'''114'''. If the first element in the compound word ends in a single consonant and the initial letter of the second element is a consonant, the second element is added to the root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aabel-os&lt;/font&gt;, apple + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeelos&lt;/font&gt;, wine = &lt;font color=blue&gt;aabelħeelos&lt;/font&gt;, cider.  But remember lenition, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ed-a&lt;/font&gt;, to eat + &lt;font color=blue&gt;leepos&lt;/font&gt;, plane = &lt;font color=blue&gt;eðleepos&lt;/font&gt;, table.
*'''115'''. If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a consonant, an epenthetic '''ë''' is added for euphony, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;moðr-is&lt;/font&gt;, blue, + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruðſos&lt;/font&gt;, metal, = &lt;font color=blue&gt;moδrëruδſos&lt;/font&gt;, cobalt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðorn-is&lt;/font&gt;, many-colored + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħelnos&lt;/font&gt;, glass = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðornëħelnos&lt;/font&gt;, stained glass.
*'''116'''. If the root of the first element ends in a double consonant and the second element begins with a vowel, the second is added to the root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;orv-a&lt;/font&gt;, inherit, + &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitos&lt;/font&gt;, unit = &lt;font color=blue&gt;orvoitos&lt;/font&gt;, gene.
*'''117'''. If the first element in the compound word ends with a palatalized consonant, the palatal indicator is changed into the short vowel known as &lt;font color=blue&gt;livi&lt;/font&gt; (weak i), ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħolvĭ-es&lt;/font&gt;, swan + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaałes&lt;/font&gt;, chick = &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħolvïħaałes&lt;/font&gt;, cygnet.
*'''118'''. If the first element in the compound word ends with a labialized consonant and the second element begins with a consonant the labial indicator is changed into the short vowel known as &lt;font color=blue&gt;livu&lt;/font&gt; (weak u), ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;minŭ-is&lt;/font&gt;, little + &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaaɱes&lt;/font&gt;, owl = &lt;font color=blue&gt;miinüćaaɱes&lt;/font&gt;, little owl.

=Denominatives=
*'''119'''. Denominative words are compound words built on the root of a noun.
==Denominative nouns from simple nouns==
*'''120'''. a. Most of the names of animals have only one word for both sexes; these are known as epicene words, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;olćes&lt;/font&gt;, moose.  In order to designate the sex of epicene words, a prefix is added.
**b. To designate a male animal, the prefix is &lt;font color=blue&gt;nor-&lt;/font&gt;, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭes&lt;/font&gt;, horse; &lt;font color=blue&gt;norećŭes, &lt;/font&gt;stallion.
**c. To designate a female animal, the prefix is &lt;font color=blue&gt;ii-&lt;/font&gt;, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭes&lt;/font&gt;, horse; &lt;font color=blue&gt;iiećŭes&lt;/font&gt;, mare.
*'''121'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-aagus&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes one who works with or is concerned with what is named in the noun root or one who makes or composes what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoinos&lt;/font&gt;, wine; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoinaagus&lt;/font&gt;, vintner.
*'''122'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-aźes&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes various kinds of small ungulates, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙooretos&lt;/font&gt;, ridge of a mountain; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙooretaźes&lt;/font&gt;, chamois.
*'''123'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ćeeɱas&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes an inflammation of the body part named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙelondos&lt;/font&gt;, stomach; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙelondëćeeɱas&lt;/font&gt;, gastritis.
*'''124'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-demos&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes the residence of that which is named in the noun root or a building pertaining to that which is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱes&lt;/font&gt;, bird; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdemos&lt;/font&gt;, aviary.
*'''125'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-eðlos&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes a place frequented by what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aroodes&lt;/font&gt;, heron; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aroodeðlos&lt;/font&gt;, heronry.
*'''126'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-es&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes animals that are characterized by what is named in the verb, noun or adjective root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;lać-is&lt;/font&gt;, speckled; &lt;font color=blue&gt;laćes&lt;/font&gt;, salmon.
*'''127'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-iȝos&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denotes a collective noun, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeln-os&lt;/font&gt;, glass; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħelniȝos&lt;/font&gt;, glassware.
*'''128'''. The noun suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;-l-&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ĸ-&lt;/font&gt; when added to the root denote diminutives of or terms of endearment for what is named in the noun base.  Because these suffixes are enclitics, the primary intonation remains on the original syllable of the root word.  When both are added to the noun base, &lt;font color=blue&gt;-l-&lt;/font&gt; precedes &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ĸ-&lt;/font&gt;, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaaɱ-es&lt;/font&gt;, eagle owl; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaaɱles&lt;/font&gt;, Scops owl; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaaɱlëĸes&lt;/font&gt;, pygmy owl.
*'''129'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-lĭes&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the young of mammals, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭones&lt;/font&gt;, dog; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭonlĭes&lt;/font&gt;, puppy.
*'''130'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-meþros&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the instrument that measures what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ten-as&lt;/font&gt;, time; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tenmeþros&lt;/font&gt;, clock.
*'''131'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-arĭus&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the person in charge of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aþal-os&lt;/font&gt;, family; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aþalarĭus&lt;/font&gt;, head of the family.
*'''132'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-rus&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes a person connected with, belonging to, a resident of, or of the nationality of the place named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭor-os&lt;/font&gt;, mountain; &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭorërus&lt;/font&gt;, mountaineer.
*'''133'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-temus&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes a person who works with the metal named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aauſ-os&lt;/font&gt;, gold; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aauſtemus&lt;/font&gt;, goldsmith.
*'''134'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-tas&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the noun root, -ty, -ness, -tude, -hood, ''etc.'', ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;am-as&lt;/font&gt;, mother; &lt;font color=blue&gt;amtas&lt;/font&gt;, motherhood.
*'''135'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-iimos&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes a solution of what is named in the noun base, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſal-os&lt;/font&gt;, salt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaliimos&lt;/font&gt;, salt water, brine.
*'''136'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ɱidas&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the science, theory or study of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;man-us&lt;/font&gt;, human; &lt;font color=blue&gt;manɱidas&lt;/font&gt;, anthropology.
*'''137'''. The patronymic is formed by prefixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;źoon-&lt;/font&gt; to the noun or name, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;źoontemus&lt;/font&gt;, son/daughter of the smith.

==Denominative nouns from simple adjectives==
*'''138'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-os&lt;/font&gt; when added to the adjective root denotes a concrete noun related to the adjective root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱ-is&lt;/font&gt;, extensive; &lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱos&lt;/font&gt;, country.
*'''139'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-tas&lt;/font&gt; when added to the adjective root denotes the state, quality, or condition of being what is named in the adjective root, -ty, -ness, -tude, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðis&lt;/font&gt;, red; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðtas&lt;/font&gt;, redness.
*'''140'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-iȝos&lt;/font&gt; when added to cardinal numerals denotes inanimate nouns of quantity, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭes&lt;/font&gt;, six; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭeſiȝos&lt;/font&gt;, hexad.
*'''141'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-iȝus&lt;/font&gt; when added to cardinal numerals denotes animate nouns of quantity, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭes&lt;/font&gt;, six; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭeſiȝus&lt;/font&gt;, sextet.
*'''142'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-us&lt;/font&gt; when added to the adjective root denotes a person possessing the quality named in the adjective root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;maϙ-is&lt;/font&gt;, young; &lt;font color=blue&gt;maϙus&lt;/font&gt;, youth.
*'''143'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-uros&lt;/font&gt; when added to the adjective root denotes a metal possessing the quality named in the adjective root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooź-is&lt;/font&gt;, shining; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooźuros&lt;/font&gt;, silver.

==Denominative adjectives from nouns.==
*'''144'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-onis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the palatalized root of the noun, denotes made of the material named in the noun, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;alɱ-os&lt;/font&gt;, tin; &lt;font color=blue&gt;alɱĭonis&lt;/font&gt;, made of tin, tinny, stannic.
*'''145'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-mervis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes having the shape or form of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðuv-os&lt;/font&gt;, wedge; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðuvmervis&lt;/font&gt;, wedge-shaped.
*'''146'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-mis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes the existence of, possession of, or a relationship to what is named in the noun root, -(e)y, -(e)d, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;el-os&lt;/font&gt;, stripe; &lt;font color=blue&gt;elmis&lt;/font&gt;, striped.
*'''147'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ɱis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes pertaining to, connected with, belonging to, of the nature of, or characteristic of what is named in the noun root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭon-es&lt;/font&gt;, dog; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭonɱis&lt;/font&gt;, canine, doggish. (Cf. 148)
*'''148'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-nis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes similarity, likeness or resemblance to what is named in the noun root, -ish, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭon-es&lt;/font&gt;, dog; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭonënis&lt;/font&gt;, doggish, resembling a dog. (Cf. 147)
*'''149'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-paſtis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes imperviousness to or the ability to resist or withstand what is named in the noun root, -proof, -tight, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱd-es&lt;/font&gt;, water; &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdëpastis&lt;/font&gt;, waterproof, watertight.
*'''150'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ris&lt;/font&gt; when added to the noun root denotes being full of what is named in the noun root, -ful, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;vert-as&lt;/font&gt;, (good) luck, fortune; &lt;font color=blue&gt;vertëris&lt;/font&gt;, lucky, fortunate.

==Denominative adjectives from adjectives.==
*'''151'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ëſtis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the adjective root denotes somewhat or rather like what is named in the adjective root, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;moðr-is&lt;/font&gt;, blue; &lt;font color=blue&gt;moðrëſtis&lt;/font&gt;, bluish.

=Deverbatives=
*'''152'''. Deverbative words are compound words built on the root of a verb.
==Deverbative nouns from verbs.==
*'''153'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-as&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes an abstract noun derived from the verb, -ment, -ness, -tion, -tude, -ty, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mizð-a&lt;/font&gt;, pay; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mizðas&lt;/font&gt;, expense.
*'''154'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-daros&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes the place where the action of the verb occurs, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerĭ-a&lt;/font&gt;, buy; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭerïdaros&lt;/font&gt;, marketplace.
*'''155'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-demos&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes a building where the action of the verb occurs, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;alŭa&lt;/font&gt;, brew; &lt;font color=blue&gt;alüdemos&lt;/font&gt;, brewery.
*'''156'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-es&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes an animal that is characterized by the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;goɱ-a&lt;/font&gt;, to caw; &lt;font color=blue&gt;goɱes&lt;/font&gt;, crow.
*'''157'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-os&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root forms a concrete noun related to the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mizð-a&lt;/font&gt;, to pay; &lt;font color=blue&gt;mizðos&lt;/font&gt;, wages.
*'''158'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-tŭis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root names a medicine or other substance used to perform the action expressed by the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;loɱ-a&lt;/font&gt;, to wash; &lt;font color=blue&gt;loɱtŭis&lt;/font&gt;, soap.
*'''159'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-aþus&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes the recipient of the action expressed in the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;кol-a&lt;/font&gt;, imprison; &lt;font color=blue&gt;кolaþus&lt;/font&gt;, prisoner.  Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel.  This is, in fact, the patient participle used as a noun.
*'''160'''. The noun suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-us&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes the agent of the action of the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;dem-a&lt;/font&gt;, build; &lt;font color=blue&gt;demus&lt;/font&gt;, builder.

==Deverbative adjectives from verbs.==
*'''161'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ëstis&lt;/font&gt; when added to the verb root denotes having a tendency toward or inclination to perform the action expressed in the verb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;derg-a&lt;/font&gt;, attract; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dergëstis&lt;/font&gt;, attractive.  Note that the primary pitch remains on the root vowel.
*'''162'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-is&lt;/font&gt;, added to the palatalized root of the verb, indicates the capability of the action expressed in the verb to be performed, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ið-a&lt;/font&gt;, to burn; &lt;font color=blue&gt;iðĭis&lt;/font&gt;, combustible.  Note that this forms a &quot;passive&quot; adjective: &quot;able to BE burned&quot;, not &quot;able to burn.&quot;

=Adjectives from postpositions.=
*'''163'''. The adjectival suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ris&lt;/font&gt; is used to form an adjective from a postposition.  This adjective may then, in turn, be used to form other parts of speech, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;be&lt;/font&gt;, outside; &lt;font color=blue&gt;beris&lt;/font&gt;, outer; &lt;font color=blue&gt;berus&lt;/font&gt;, foreigner.
=[[Senjecan Syntax I]]=</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Syntax</title>
    <id>2555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T12:27:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Pronunciation Guide=
*[[Wikipedia:IPA|IPA]]:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:labial consonant|Labial]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:dental consonant|Dental]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
| [[Wikipedia:plosive|Plosive]]
| p
| b
| t
| d
| &amp;#678;
| &amp;#675;
| k
| g
|-
| [[Wikipedia:fricative|Fricative]]
| ɸ
| β
| θ
| ð
| s
| z
| ç
| ʝ
|-
| [[Wikipedia:sonorant|Sonorant]]
| ?
| m
| ?
| l
| ɾ
| n
| ?
| j
|}

*[[Wikipedia:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]]:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t_d
| d_d
| ts)
| dz)
| c
| J\
|-
| Fricative
| p\
| B
| T_d
| D_d
| s
| z
| C
| j\
|-
| Sonorant
| m_0
| m
| l_0_d
| l_d
| _0
| n
| j_0
| j
|}

*Standard orthography:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ʂ
| ʐ
| c
| g
|-
| Fricative
| f
| v
| þ
| ð
| s
| z
| x
| q
|-
| Sonorant
| ɱ
| m
| ł
| l
| r
| n
| ħ
| j
|}

=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħőes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ʒeþőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnəʒe̋þos&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;saaþʒe̋þos&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;céʒəʒe̋þos&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱʒe̋þos&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;stı́ı́vnoomnőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oı́tanħe̋no&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dútanħe̋no&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tı́rtanħe̋no&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋msos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;óine̋mso&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulne̋mso&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Noun Classes &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnəreʂa̋es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*CL1 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-is&lt;/font&gt;, plant class &lt;font color=blue&gt;muulre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;
*CL2 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-es&lt;/font&gt;, animal class &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðúsloɱre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;
*CL3 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-as&lt;/font&gt;, abstraction class &lt;font color=blue&gt;mexre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;
*CL4 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-os&lt;/font&gt;, object class &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱéxtəre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;
*CL5 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-øs&lt;/font&gt;, mutant class &lt;font color=blue&gt;miþre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;
*CL6 = &lt;font color=blue&gt;-us&lt;/font&gt;, person class &lt;font color=blue&gt;ánħenre̋ʂas&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pérıpagőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ğenpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ʒoorpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eqpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*PPX = past prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;perpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dúc̆erpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;póspagőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooqvááþnəpa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ménypa̋gos&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vűnðmi̋nos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeermı̋nos&lt;/font&gt;
*REL = relative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ʒeþmı̋nos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeermı̋nos&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋ņo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APCP = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱááþnemva̋a̋þnos&lt;/font&gt;
*EL = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;dűűras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entı̋ı̋vs̆evs̆e̋nos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPRT = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;posɱı̋ðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IPF = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nsényħ̮e̋lgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;sényħ̮e̋lgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPCP = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱı̋ı̋rnemva̋a̋þnos&lt;/font&gt;
*PPRT = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱı̋ðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*VN = verbnoun &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufvááþnənőőmnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPRT = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱəɱı̋ðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=Part IV. Syntax &lt;font color=blue&gt;IV. ne̋mos. vááþnəre̋ʂan&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''164'''. Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, post-positional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify.  The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.
==Word Order &lt;font color=blue&gt;vááþnəre̋ʂan&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''165.'''Sentence order is: subject + adverbial time phrase + adverbial place phrase + other postpositional phrase + object + finite verb (+ negative).
'''sweet honey / / old man's gray hair'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;s̆a̋a̋do&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋ln-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʐeer-űşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂa̋sn-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|sweet
|honey
|/
|/
|old.man_CL6.ST.s
|gray.hair-CL5.NM.s
|}
'''The millstone under the tree is heavy.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dorı̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;únda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;miil-őnd-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ğe̋r-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|tree-CL2-ST.s
|under
|mill-stone-CL5.NM.s
|heavy-CL5.NM.s
|be-IND
|}
'''The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-éşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂer-őes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vérʐ-aþ-őes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-i&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nor-ʒőrc-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʂa̋t-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-CL2.ST.s
|antler-CL5.NM.p
|break-PPCP-CL5.NM.p
|be-REL
|MPX-deer-CL2.NM.s
|fight-IND
|}
*'''166'''. As with all finite verbs, when a verb is in the imperative mood, it is placed last in the sentence.
'''Throw the ball. // Let's go to the ocean'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;¡t-ű&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ge̋lom&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sı̋mte!&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;¡ɱ-ű&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tı̋ı̋rt-em&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋t-e!&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2s-VO
|ball-CL5.MO.s
|throw-IMP
|/
|/
|3p-VO
|ocean-CL2.MO.s
|toward
|go-IMP
|}
'''Don't come near me!'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;¡t-ű&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋e̋ɱħ-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me!&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2s-VO
|1s-MO
|approach-IMP
|not
|}       
*'''167'''. In an OV language titles are postposed.
'''King William I reigned 21 years.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oı̋tu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiļa̋m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱa̋lt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sar&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ői&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱe̋t-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;re̋e̋ʐ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|first
|William-CL6.NM.s
|great-prince-CL6.NM.s
|twenty
|one
|year-CL5.ST.s
|PPCP
|reign-IND
|}
*'''168'''. Elements which depend on one another must be next to each other.
'''He is richer than I in cattle.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;qa̋a̋v-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ğose̋m  &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3s.NM
|?-ADV
|rich-CL6.NM.s
|1s-ST
|compared.to
|cattle-CL3.ST.p
|be-IND
|}

not:                                                                 

{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;qa̋a̋v-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ğose̋m&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3s.NM
|?-ADV
|rich-CL6.NM.s
|cattle-CL3.ST.p
|1s-ST
|compared.to
|be-IND
|}

==Definitions. &lt;font color=blue&gt;tólcyma̋es&lt;/font&gt;==

*'''169'''. A sentence expresses a thought in words.  Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation.  Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.

*'''170'''. Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.  The subject is that about which something is stated.  The predicate is that which is stated about the subject.  ''E.g.'', in the sentence &lt;font color=blue&gt;maacı̋es ánþomı̋es e̋sa&lt;/font&gt;, the poppies are in bloom, &quot;the poppies&quot; is the subject and &quot;are in bloom&quot; is the predicate.

*'''171'''. A verb with its pronoun subject prefix makes the simplest form of sentence: &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus ʂe̋rsa&lt;/font&gt;, He runs.
**There are some impersonal sentences, having to do with the weather, that contain only a predicate, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱe̋rsa&lt;/font&gt;, it is raining.

*'''172'''. A simple sentence contains only one clause.

*'''173'''. When any part of &lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋sa&lt;/font&gt;, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;múşo ħesre̋es uqre̋es e̋sa&lt;/font&gt;, my hands are cold.  The copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.

*'''174'''. That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object.  The object may be either direct or indirect, ''e.g.'', in &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus tı̋r ternőşo me̋ton núş' o lűqa&lt;/font&gt;, he promised him three measures of wheat, &quot;three measures&quot; is the direct object and &quot;him&quot; the indirect object.

*'''175'''. Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive.  In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be both transitive and intransitive.

==Subject and Predicate &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋a̋tosc̆e eega̋þosc̆e&lt;/font&gt;==

===Subject &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋a̋tus&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''176'''. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋ʂ̮es ʂe̋rsa&lt;/font&gt;, the horse runs.
*'''177'''. The subject of a dependent finite verb is in the motive case, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus num a̋to ɱe̋ʂa&lt;/font&gt;, I wanted him to go.

===Subject and Verb &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋a̋tos ufva̋a̋nosc̆e&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''178'''. A finite verb is marked only for mood, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus sa̋rta&lt;/font&gt;, I hoe; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nue̋s sa̋rte&lt;/font&gt;, let them hoe.

===Predicate Noun and Adjective===
*'''179'''. With verbs signifying &quot;to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded&quot;, ''etc''., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus túşo vaatőşo éħo me̋ļaþus tıta̋a̋la&lt;/font&gt;, he has become angered by your speech.  These verbs are called copulative verbs.

'''This man is king.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱı̋r-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱa̋lt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-CL6.NM.s
|this-CL6.NM.s
|great-prince-CL6.NM.s
|be-IND
|}
'''These apples taste good.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áábelőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vaadőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źe̋e̋sa.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|apple-CL5.NM.s
|this-CL5.NM.s
|good-CL5.NM.s
|taste-IND
|}
'''He wants his sons to be wise.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sűűnun&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱı̋dun&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋su&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱe̋ʂa.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NM.s
|3-ST.s
|son-CL6.MO.p
|wise-CL6.MO.p
|be-VN
|want-IND
|}
*'''180'''. a. The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.
'''That girl is very pretty.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ğe̋n-l-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;méħ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋ng-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋sa.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|woman-DIM-CL6.NM.s
|that-CL6.NM.s
|great-ADV
|pretty-CL6.NM.s
|be-IND
|}
*b. A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.
'''This custom is popular with the young people.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;űc-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maqűm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lűð-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋sa.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|custom-CL3.NM.s
|this-CL5.NM.s
|youth-CL6.ST.p
|with
|popular-CL6.NM.s
|be-IND
|}
*'''181'''. The predicate of a dependent finite verb with its subject in the motive case is also in the motive case.
'''He wants his son to be strong.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sűűn-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋lð-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱe̋ʂ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-ST.s
|son-CL6.MO.s
|strong-CL6.MO.s
|be-VN
|want-IND
|}

==Apposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋e̋ɱħətas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''182'''. A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case.  This is called apposition.  The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.
'''I, the prince, have given an order.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋lt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vűnð-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vy-vűnð-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NM.s
|prince-CL6.NM.s
|order-CL3.MO.s
|RED-order-IND
|}
*'''183'''. A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English &quot;as&quot; or a like word would be used.
'''Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sémus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋ʂ̆en&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋ndom&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;suule̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ḑe̋ȝɱum&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋nda.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|one-NM.s
|horse-CL6.MO.p
|sacrifice-CL5.MO.s
|sun-CL2.ST.s
|god-CL6.ST.s
|to
|sacrifice-IND
|}
*'''184'''. The appositive of material or contents, denotes that of which anything consists, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;veerűrosə s̆a̋a̋de a̋ɱdes&lt;/font&gt;, a spring of fresh water; &lt;font color=blue&gt;du metőes miilnőes&lt;/font&gt;, two measures of flour.

==Adjectives==
===Agreement of Adjectives===

*'''185'''. Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only.  This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűðo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;citőlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűðe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋ɱes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűði&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋nþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|red
|box
|/
|/
|red
|bird
|/
|/
|red
|flower
|}
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűðo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cı́tolőes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűðe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱe̋es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rűűði&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;anþı̋es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|red
|boxes
|/
|/
|red
|birds
|/
|/
|red
|flowers
|}

*'''186'''. If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋le ɱa̋ces&lt;/font&gt;, white cow; but &lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋les qomőşo éna ɱa̋ces&lt;/font&gt;, the white cow in the stable.

*'''187'''. Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number.  They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;alvűnes a̋les e̋sa&lt;/font&gt;, the dove is white.

*'''188'''. An attributive adjective qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðe̋vaþe e̋ʂ̆esc̆e re̋ðusc̆e&lt;/font&gt;, the injured horse and rider.

*'''189'''. A predicate adjective qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋ʂ̆esc̆e re̋ðusc̆e ðe̋vaþus e̋sa&lt;/font&gt;, the horse and rider are injured.

===Adjective Used as a Substantive===

*'''190'''. An attributive adjective may be used as a substantive.  It is put in the class of the missing substantive, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;pőrus&lt;/font&gt;, just man; &lt;font color=blue&gt;meerőes&lt;/font&gt;, important things.

==Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;stı́ı́vnoomnőes&lt;/font&gt;==
===Demonstrative Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;dı̋ʂo stı́ı́vnoomnőes&lt;/font&gt;===

*'''191'''. The demonstrative pronouns are &lt;font color=blue&gt;dus&lt;/font&gt;, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;/font&gt;, that, referring to what is more remote; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;álnus&lt;/font&gt;, that over there, referring to what is even more remote.

*'''192'''. The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas.  Instead a participle is used.
'''I saw those who were going.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋t-ant-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;őc̆a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1s-NM
|PPTC
|go-APCP-CL6.MO.p
|PPTC
|see-IND
|}
'''I saw those who had gone.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋~a̋t-aþ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;őc̆a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1s-NM
|PPTC
|go-APCP-CL6.MO.p
|PPTC
|see-IND
|}
===Relative Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;stı́ı́vnoomnőes&lt;/font&gt;===

*'''193'''. There are no relative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs in Senjecas.  Instead, the verb in the relative clause is put in the relative mood and preposed to the substantive that it modifies.
'''The man who is here is my father.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ı́ðu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱı̋r-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋p-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋-sa.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|here
|be-REL
|man-CL6.NM.s
|1s-ST
|father-NM.s
|be-IND
|}
==The Cases ȝeþma̋es==
===The Nominative Case nóómnєȝe̋þmas===

186. The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after verbs signifying to be, etc.

            ɱı̋rus per ğe̋ma.   ɱirűes per  ğe̋ma.
                                                                  man   ptc. came.         men   ptc. came.
                                                                The man came.           The men came.

===The Stative Case saaþȝe̋þmas===

187. The main function of the stative case is to limit the meaning of a noun or adjective with respect to a noun.  The primary use of the stative case is to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.  Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source.

	  A substantive in the stative case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various re-lations, many of which are denoted by &quot;of&quot; or by the possessive case in English.

188. The Stative with Nouns.  The stative that depends on a substantive is called attributive.  It has the following functions:

	 a. The stative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of posi-tion.

 ve̋naðe    dı̋ґes  dorı̋şo únða  pos sa̋a̋ta.
                            wounded  antelope tree   under  ptc. stand.
                                                        The wounded antelope stood under a tree.

	b. The place at which something happens is put in the stative with the postposition éna.

dű  nertőes   ğorőşo    vuðőşo éna pos pa̋a̋lca.
                      two  armies of-mountain   base    at   ptc. clash.
                                             The two armies clashed at the bottom of the mountain.

	c. The time at which something happens is put in the stative with the postposition éna.

núes ɱésnєdaaȝnőşo éna pos mőőda.
                                they spring-festival   at    ptc. meet.
                                                              They met at the spring festival.

	d. The Possessive Stative, i.e., possession or other close relationship.

  apa̋şo  ɱe̋e̋sos
                                                   father's  house
                                                       the house of the father, or the father's house
ɱirűm śe̋rðas
                                                   men's  lineage
                                                                       the lineage of the men.

	e. The Subjective Stative, i.e., the subject of an action or feeling.

 luðűşo  ɱe̋nas   núşo  me̋ħɱaltűşo o  me̋ħas e̋sa.
                    people's  love    of-them      king       for  great    is.
                               The love of the people (i.e., that the people have) for their king is great.

	f. The Objective Stative, i.e., the object of an action or feeling.

 pisśűşo  núşo   le̋das
                                              enemy's of-him hatred
                                                          his hatred of (i.e., felt toward) the enemy.

	g. The Stative of Measure marks substantives which measure space, time or value, e.g., tı̋r ḑeȝa̋m sen-tos, a three days' journey; őśє pedőm dőris, an eight-foot tree; śm̋tos oȝőm éś̮en, a horse worth 100 sheep.

	h. The Causal Stative indicates the cause or origin of a thing.

meħo     degőm    me̋źas
                                         great  of-offenses  anger
                                                                       anger at great offenses

	i. The Partitive Stative indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.

    ȝecűm  menґűes
                                               of-orators  many
                                                                            many of the orators

	j. The Familial Stative indicates the clan into which one is born in the naming of the Children of Stone.  The patronymic is first, then the clan name.

                           méħśame̋şo da̋a̋ȝmos
                                                       of-aurochs      clan
                                                                                        the aurochs clan

189. śm̋tos, hundred, and ħe̋slos, thousand, are nouns.  They and their compounds are used with a stative plural noun, e.g., c̆er nááusőes, four ships, but, naausőm c̆érśmtőes, 400 ships.

190. As the attributive stative stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so a sta-tive may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb.

	 Verbs signifying to be, to become, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate stative expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive:


	a. Possessive: me̋dos dos ɱaltűşo (e̋sa).
                     law    this  of-prince   is.
                                     This law is the prince's.

	b. Material: arga̋mos dos  ondőşo  de̋maþos (e̋sa).
                    wall       this  of-stone     built      it-is.
                                This is a wall built of stone.

	c. Measure:  mus s̆ésdemśőes c̆e̋r ɱetőm  (e̋sa).
                      I       sixty     -four of-years   am.
                               I am sixty-four years old.

	d. Origin: tus     toálu    anerűm  ve̋e̋ɱa.
                you of-such ancestors spring. 
                       From such ancestors are you sprung.

	e. Partitive: sémus sőlonum se̋f   ɱidu  ɱirűm pos nőmna. 
                    One    Solon   seven    wise  of-men ptc. called.
                                           Solon was called one of the Seven Wise Men.

191. Any verb may take a partitive stative if its action affects the object only in part.

                                                  nus  cőŗun ve̋nca.     but    nus      coŗűm    ve̋nca.
                                                  he soldiers sends.          he  of-soldiers sends.
                                                  He sends the soldiers.              He sends some of the soldiers.

192. The verbs ge̋ma, seize; dűca, pull; se̋lca, drag; and nı̋ı̋ja, lead, may have an object mutative with a sta-tive of the part taken hold of, the stative coming before the mutative object.

                       sı̋nґes coste̋şo num    pos gєge̋ma.
                                              lion    by-leg  him    ptc. had-seized.
                                                                       The lion had seized him by the leg.

               du  tóverűes    śamőm  ɱa̋xļem  per nı̋ı̋ȝa.
                               two priestesses by-horns  heifer    ptc. lead.
                                                       The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.

193. The verbs śűűla, hear; me̋nða, learn; pe̋ɱa, seek; and ı̋ca, request, may take a mutative of the thing heard, etc., and a stative of the person heard from.

                       lűðus    ɱalþűşo   ı̋ðam pos pe̋ɱa.
                                        people from-prince ruling ptc. sought.
                                                                 The people sought a ruling from the prince.


194. Expressions of fulness or want take the stative of material.

                       núes    me̋nґo    iiħőm      ņı̋ħa.
                                              they of-many necessities  lack
                                                                               They lack many necessities.

195. The verbs pe̋e̋la, fill; va̋rx̆a, stuff; and sa̋ta, sate, take the mutative of the thing filled and the stative of material.

núes   étenőşo   c̆a̋şon  pos pe̋e̋la.
                                  they with-grain  baskets ptc.  fill.
                                                            They filled the baskets with grain.

196. The verbs paűsa, release; s̆e̋va, free; dűűra, remove; dűsa, cease; műta, deprive; ca̋da, rob; and ta̋a̋ja, steal, take the mutative of the thing or person released and the stative of separation of the thing re-leased from.

núes   núşo   catesnőm    cólaþun  pos  paűsa.
                       they of-them from-chains prisoners  ptc. release.
                                                 They released the prisoners from their chains.

197. Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a stative denoting the crime with a mutative of the person.

                            mus orga̋şo   núm pos ántaȝe̋ca.
                                                                    I of-murder  him  ptc. accused.
                                                                                 I accused him of murder.

198. The objective stative follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 195 and 196.

nus  ħuðtєta̋m pe̋e̋lus pos e̋sa.    lűðus  edőşo  ı̋ı̋ħɱus pos e̋sa.
           he   of-evils     full   ptc. is.        people in-food  lacking ptc. are.
                              He was full of evils.                                        The people were lacking in food.

199. Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees have a stative of separation with the postposition sóma.  The word order is standard, marker, and adjective/adverb.

                                         nı̋bes  ȝaane̋şo        sóma     ólvu őősvi śe̋rsa.
                          cheetah ostrich in-comparison-to more fast  runs.
                                                            The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.

200. The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the stative with the postposition o.

                   tus dőőne menðűş' o  lűvrom nom.
                                        you   give   student  to   book   that.
                                                                        Give that book to the student.


201. The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the stative with the postposition ħo.

 sőlu  va̋a̋du  a̋pa   núşo  źoonaþűm ħo  śe̋ma.
                        every  good  father of-him children   for  toils.
                                                       Every good father labors for his children.

202. The concept of &quot;to have&quot; is expressed with the verb &quot;to be&quot; with the possessor in the stative case with o.  That which is possessed is the subject of &quot;to be.&quot;

                         tı̋r  ɱace̋es múş' o e̋sa.
                                               three    cows     me   to  are.
                                                                                     I have three cows.

===The Mutative Case miþȝe̋þmas===

203. The main function of the mutative case is to limit the meaning of a noun or adjective with respect to a verb.  The primary use of the mutative case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.

204. The mutative case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.

źóónaþűes ɱe̋e̋som éħa   pos śe̋rsa.
                                  children     house   out-of  ptc.  run.
                                                              The children ran out of the house.

205. The mutative case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.

ɱus         dőn       ɱe̋rźa.
                                           we  these things    do.  
                                                                         We do these things.

206. Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification.  This object re-peats the meaning already contained in the verb.  An example in English is &quot;to sing a song.&quot;  Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be &quot;make, have, get&quot; and &quot;hold.&quot;

                   nus   mı̋n̆o renðőşo éna  tı̋r   sı̋ɱon  pos sı̋ɱa.
                                she small    tear     in  three  stitches ptc. stitch.
                                                              She took three stitches in the small tear.

207. The mutative case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.

                   źóónaþűni ve̋e̋r̆om pos  ta̋ra.
                                               children    bridge   ptc. cross.
                                                                        The children crossed the bridge.


208. The mutative case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.

ɱe̋e̋sos sőla ḑe̋ȝam pos   ı̋ða.
                                       house  whole   day    ptc. burn.
                                                                 The house burned all day long.

209. Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, to regard, etc., take a predicate mu-tative besides the object mutative.
   
meħɱa̋ltus num coŗőnum pos  nőőmna.
                                      king      him  general  ptc. appointed.
                                                                 The king appointed him general.

===The Vocative Case ħaɱȝe̋þmas===

210. The vocative case, accompanied by the vocative particle ő, is used to mark direct address.

ő coŗa̋a̋gu, sémun  túşo  vűnðon    pos   sese̋n̆a.
                        o    general,    one    of-you orders  ptc. has-completed.
                                                     General, your orders have been carried out.

==Postpositions póstiiva̋aþþnos==

211. Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sen-tence.  These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern.  Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the mutative or stative case.  If the postposition in-dicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the mutative case.  If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the stative case.

             terse ğose̋es da̋a̋nem   o   pos  a̋ta.
                                   thirsty cattle    river  toward ptc. went.
                                                            The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.           

                                                        ğose̋es   daane̋şo éna sate̋es pos e̋sa.
                                       cattle      river     at   sated   ptc.  is.
                                                                     The cattle at the river were sated.

212. The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, e.g., &quot;he went with his friends,&quot; is not used in Senjecan as it is in many modern languages.  The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, e.g., &quot;he accompanied his friends.&quot;

===213. List of postpositions===

	a. áða denotes in association or connection with.
		a custom popular among(st) the people
		a custom popular with the people.
		it is not within my power to free you.

	b. áfa denotes separation from support, attachment or position.
		one of us.
		the horse shied and he fell off it.
		the mayor was removed from office.

	c. áļa denotes to or on the farther side of time or space literally or figuratively.
		the time is after/past midnight.
		the army arrived behind schedule.
		it is beyond the time for sowing.
		your plan is beyond/past my understanding.
		he drove the wagon by/past the fortress.
		the soldier's brave action was outside his duty.
		please stay with us over the holidays.
		the child couldn't count past 10.

	d. ámva denotes encirclement or in or to various directions or locations.
		About/On all sides of/All about the living room were many chairs.
		We wandered about/around the market.
		The prince built a wall around his castle.
		The singing could be heard (all) over the whole camp.
		The king said we might wander through the castle.

	e. áɱa denotes change to, toward or at a lower place either literally or figuratively.
		The monkey climbed down the tree.
		He has been my friend down through the years.
		The two otters followed our boat down the river.

	f. ána denotes change to, toward or at an elevated place literally or figuratively.
		She ran up the hill.
		The sailors will row their boat up the river.
		You'll find the inn up the road.

	g. ánta denotes in a position forward of.
		He stood in front of the church.
		His shadow advanced before/ahead of him.
		The child stood facing the wall.

	h. ánţa denotes in opposition to, in contact with, in exchange for or in place of, literally or figuratively.
		They had to row against the current.
		We saw the exhausted runner leaning against the tree.
		I do this against my better judgment.
		He lost his struggle against his illness.
		This is contrary to my better judgment.
		The rowers had to use boards for oars.
		Run for your life!
		The child does not yet know good from bad.
		I will give you three apples for your bow.
		The workman ran into the tree.
		The attack on the castle was planned for tomorrow.
		They were opposed to his going to war.
		He climbed the tree opposite the store.
		The woman played opposite her husband.
		They had to sail the boat up wind.
		He spent the day fighting with his brother.

	i. ápa denotes removal from or location at a certain place or time either literally or figuratively.
		The herd of red deer ran away from the prowling lion.
		He is away from home during the summer months.

	j. be denotes on or toward the exterior of.
		There was a noise outside the door.
		He stood without the room while we decided.

	k. cémta denotes in a parallel direction.
		They walked along the road.
		The dog ran alongside me all the way.

	l.  cóma denotes physical proximity.
		He is about the house.
		He sat beside her on the hill.
		They lived in a home by/on the lake.
		The barn is so close to the house that you can hear the animals.
		The village lies near the edge of the forest.
		He was standing next to the tree when it fell.

	m. déś̮a denotes to or on the side of a person or thing toward the south when facing east.
		The princess sat to the right of her father the king.

	? éga denotes having a lack of something.
		They traveled for three days without water.

	n. éħa denotes movement or direction from the inside to the outside.
		They ran from the burning building.
		They were looking out (of) the window when he rode by.

	o. éna denotes stationary position, location within, or movement from without to within.
		The boulder came to rest at the bottom of the hill.
		Please put the dishes in the cupboard.
		Inside each baked apple was a walnut.
		He put the clothing into the box.
		You'll find your book on the.
		Horses are not permitted within the city.

	p. énta denotes movement or direction from the outside to the inside.
		We heard the sound of fighting from within the fortress.

	q. entéra denotes situation or partition between two or more entities.
		There is no honor among(st) thieves.
		The beehives are between the house and the barn.
		This book has passed through many hands.

	r. épa denotes accordance with.
		She rode her horse after the manner of the nomads. 
		He carved a statue after the image of his wife. 
		At the general's command the troops charged.
		It was clear that she was behind the plan.
		We learned of his actions by his story.
		We seized the cargo on the authority of the governor.
		According to what she said, they should have known what to do.
		Under the king's new law, that would not be allowed.
		I am in accord/agreement with him on this policy.
		We left at sunset in conformity to the rules.

	s. éva denotes inclusion within or position on top of literally or figuratively.
		We found the missing items in the closet. 
		The hat was on the ??? where I had left it. 
		They applied paint to the wagon.
		The tree landed upon their house.
		She put a cloth over the table.

	t. ħo denotes causality.
		At his request, we opened the door.
		Because of the rain we could not go.
		By working nights, he was able to buy the gift.
		She was famous throughout the land for her beauty.
		There was a famine and they died of hunger.
		On account of the flood, we could not cross the river.
		We raised the money on behalf of the students.
		Out of fear, the people stayed in their homes.
		They were arguing over the money he had spent. 
		Owing to his poor directions, we got lost.
		But through the skill of our guide, we soon were on the  right road.
		Under these circumstances, we should turn back.
		At the sight they went pale with fear.

	u. lálta denotes done for the benefit or interest of someone.
		We are here on behalf of the people.

	v. láɱa denotes to or on the side of a person or thing toward the north when facing east.
		We turned to the left when we came to the stream.

	w. með- denotes the middle; the exact meaning is determined by the postposition to which it is joined.
		She stood in the middle of the room and cried.

	x. móóda denotes possibility.
		In case of rain, we'll have the party in the barn.

	y. ɱééla denotes instrumentality.
		By means of a knife he was able to open the door.
		He killed the enemy with his sword.

	z. ɱóóga denotes addition.
		Besides a mother, he has a sister to support.
		In addition to the toll there was a special tax.

	α. nééɱħa denotes with respect or regard to or concern for.
		In/with regard to your letter, I will answer tomorrow.
		With respect to your knowledge, I disagree.
		He knew nothing concerning/regarding/as regards the stolen money.
		I am sure your wife will be pleased with this gift.
		The Committee on Orthography.

	β. ńda denotes at or to a lower level than something else literally or figuratively.
		He broke his leg below the knee.
		Beneath that stern visage beats a kindly heart.
		The farmer buried his treasure under(neath) the floor.

	γ. nóma denotes location at someone's home.
		We will meet you at the home of the mayor.

	δ. o denotes motion toward literally or figuratively.
		He threw the rock at the bear.
		These flowers are for you.
		The herd moved off in the direction of the river.
		Tomorrow the herd will move into the mountains.
		He ran into the house on the left. 
		Go (un)to the party and have a good time.
		If you walk toward(s) the river, you will see the children playing.

	ε. ólna denotes motion from one side to the other.
		They waded across the stream at its shallowest part.
		Please put the chair on the other side of the room.
		The defeated troops fled over the bridge.

	ζ.  péga denotes position at or movement towards the side of something.
		They sat at the side of the room.
		They ran to the side of the room.

	η. pérsa denotes at or during a time anterior to.
		They arrived before the meeting started.
		Be here by/no later than sunset.
		twenty minutes of/to five.
		To this very day, he insists he was right.

	θ. pórsa denotes up to a limit.
		She stood at the edge of the cliff, then jumped.
		We will go with you as far as the river.
		You may have as many as five apples.
		The apple tree grew to a height of eight feet.
		We will wait for you until/till sunup.
		He filled my cup (up) to the brim.
		We are about to land.

	ι. pósa denotes posterior to in time or space.
		It was after noon when we finally arrived.
		I could see the smoke of the fire behind me.
		The general threatened to take the fortress apart piece by piece.
		Following the battle, the women looked for survivors.

	κ. re̋e̋źa denotes the dimension to which something is extended..
		He is shorter than she by two inches.

	λ. síída denotes direct movement toward.
		After arriving home late, she headed straight to her bed.

	μ. sóma denotes comparison.
		Compared to last year, this was not a hot summer.
		A horse is bigger than a cow.

	ν. súna denotes accompaniment in time or space.
		They went with their parents to the beach.
		I went along with their plan.
		The trader in company with three associates robbed the store.

	ξ. s̆a denotes exception.
		Apart from that one storm, our vacation was wonderful.
		Your statement is beside the point.
		There's no one here besides Bill and me.
		But for his brave deed, we would have lost the battle.
		They were all there except/save me.
		They served the army three oxen and five sheep, not to speak  of/mention the many chickens.
		I have no money other than the few coins in my pocket.
		Outside her beauty, she has nothing going for her.

	ο. tééla denotes a means of conveyance.
		They went on the train.

	π. térc̆a denotes duration or extension through time or space literally or figuratively.
		We worked very hard during the harvest.
		He was sick for a long time.
		He completed his work in only ten minutes.
		We are in the process of building a home.
		They came through their ordeal with few injuries.
		Throughout the nation there was great joy.
		Under the rule of that king, new laws brought justice.

	ρ. tíírsa denotes disregard for.
		He went hunting despite his lack of experience.
		In spite of the bad weather, we decided to begin our journey.
		He is a good worker for having only one arm.
		In the face of opposition, he succeeded in his task.
		Notwithstanding his objection, we took the horse.

	ς. tííva denotes replacement or preference.
		Instead of beef we had lamb for supper.
		He gave us three chickens in lieu of cash for his rent.
		I used apples rather than pears in this cake.

	τ. úpa denotes at a higher level than something else literally or figuratively.
		He held the sword above his head.
		at the upper part of
		Please put the bowl on top of the cabinet for me.
		The osprey hovered over the lake.

	υ. véér̆a denotes at or to the two sides of a place or thing.
		The boy perched astraddle the fence.
		She sat astride her horse.
		The town was on both sides of the river.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epajan</title>
    <id>2556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-14T09:32:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Epajan is an isolating conlang used in Narawan.

==Phonology==
The Epajan &quot;alphabet&quot; is actually an abugida, similar to Devanāgarī script (used to write Sanskrit and Hindi). Each character represents a consonant, and a diacritcal mark indicates a vowel following it. A solitary vowel may only occur at the start of a word (e.g. the 'e' in Epajan), and two vowels cannot occur together. In addition, 'm' and 'n' may appear at the end of a word instead of a vowel (e.g. 'n' in Epajan).

Consonants in Epajan are fairly simple and are only pronounced in one way. Apart from 'j', which is pronounced like the s in &quot;treasure&quot;, they are all pronounced as in English.

Consonants: b, d, f, g, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, z

By contrast vowels are variable, not always pronounced in the same way.

Vowels: a, e, i, o, u, ū

* a: as in &quot;attic&quot; or &quot;father&quot;
* e: as in &quot;met&quot;
* i: as in &quot;tin&quot;
* o: as in &quot;on&quot;, or like the 'a' in &quot;about&quot;
* u: as in &quot;bun&quot;, or like the 'a' in &quot;about&quot;
* ū: as in &quot;zoom&quot; or &quot;book&quot;

Note: a word cannot end with 'i'.

==Grammar==
Like Chinese, Epajan is an isolating language which has no case system, instead relying on word order to determine the subject, object or verb in a sentence.

===Number===
There are no plurals in Epejan, so the words for a single and a plural of something are the same.

===Mood===
There are a number of grammatical particles used to express the &quot;mood&quot; of a sentence (i.e. if it is a command, a question, if the speaker is unsure of something, etc.), occuring after the word it refers to. Questions are asked like a normal statement, with one of these particles after the word being questioned. Below is a list of the particles which describe the grammatical mood:

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Particle !! Meaning
|-
| sū || statement of fact
|-
| gu || expresses opinion
|-
| te || expresses a plea or a wish
|-
| je || expresses uncertaintity
|-
| ke || used in a question to determine what the speaker is questioning
|-
| ra || expresses a command
|-
| pa || negates a word
|-
| zu || expresses a generalisation
|-
| kū || expresses sarcasm
|-
| le || indicates the speaker likes something
|- 
| ne || indicates the speaker dislikes something
|}

===Pronouns===
Epajan is a null-subject language, so unless needed pronouns in the subject are usually dropped. Note that like nouns, pronouns in Epajan have no case declensions and no plurals, so the word for &quot;I&quot; is also the word for &quot;we&quot;.

* First person (I, we): ba
* Second person (You): bu
* Third person (He, she, they): bū

===Word order===
Epajan uses Subject Object Verb word order. Because it is an isolating language, it relies heavily on this to distinguish subjects from objects.

===Time===
There are no tenses in Epajan. Instead the time an event took place can either be stated explicitly as an adverb or just not mentioned. Notably, the Epajan language has many different words for expressing time, something considered important in Narawan culture.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Free Unicode fonts</title>
    <id>2557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37078</id>
      <timestamp>2008-09-01T07:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Other free Unicode fonts listed at Wikipedia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Since many pages on this wiki make use of more or less arcane Unicode characters [[User:Melroch|I]] put together this list of freely available Unicode fonts.  Some of it is still just links to links culled from Wikipedia; I'll fix that eventually.  I will also update the style class used by [[Template:IPA]] accordingly.  You should use the IPA template &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{IPA|[laɪk ˈðɪz]}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; to make at least your IPA visible to Internet Explorer users...

== Freeware Unicode fonts listed at Wikipedia ==
* The [http://dejavu.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page DejaVu fonts] are highly recommended for legibility, although somewhat lacking in non-Latin characters (but contains basic Cyrillic and [polytonic] Greek). It is also very readable on screen under Windows, unlike many other fonts listed here.
** [http://dejavu.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Download Download page]
** [[Wikipedia:DejaVu fonts|DejaVu fonts]] Wikipedia article
* [http://junicode.sourceforge.net/ Junicode] is especially cool if you like Old English and/or old typography
** [[Wikipedia:Junicode|Junicode]] Wikipedia article
* [[Wikipedia:ClearlyU|ClearlyU]] Wikipedia article
* [[Wikipedia:Free UCS Outline Fonts|Free UCS Outline Fonts]] Wikipedia article &amp;mdash; Times/Arial lookalike

==Other free Unicode fonts listed at Wikipedia ==
* [[Wikipedia:Bitstream Cyberbit|Bitstream Cyberbit]] Wikipedia article (free for non-commercial use only)
* [[Wikipedia:Bitstream Vera|Bitstream Vera]] Wikipedia article
* [http://scholarsfonts.net/cardofnt.html Cardo] (free for non-commercial and non-profit uses) &amp;mdash; Times lookalike
** Download is [http://scholarsfonts.net/cardo98.zip here] (hard to find on the page!)
** [[Wikipedia:Cardo (typeface)|Cardo]] Wikipedia article 
* [http://www.code2000.net/ Code2000] is shareware &amp;mdash; not the world's most elegant font, but with extremely good coverage.
** [[Wikipedia:Code 2000|Code 2000]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://scripts.sil.org/Gentium Gentium] is very good looking and has good Latin and Greek coverage. Has italic but no bold style.  The combining palatal and retroflex hooks are interchanged (the developers are notified of this.)
** [[Wikipedia:Gentium|Gentium]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://www.mufi.info/ The Medieval Unicode Font Initiative] defines several useful characters in the [[Wikipedia:Unicode|Unicode]] [[Wikipedia:Private Use Area]]. See the MUFI [http://www.mufi.info/fonts/ font page] for fonts that cover it.  ATM [http://www.mufi.info/fonts/#Andron Andron Scriptor Web] has the best MUFI coverage, although its coverage of other useful Unicode ranges like IPA is less than satisfying.  Careful use of [[Template:MUFI]] for just those characters included in MUFI is advised!
** [[Wikipedia:MUFI|MUFI]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL] is good if you want a Times lookalike. The new version is much improved with correct stacking of diacritics.
** [[Wikipedia:Doulos SIL|Doulos SIL]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL] is awesome, with the same coverage as Doulos SIL plus italic/bold/bold italic styles, and correct diacritic stacking.  Somewhat heavy looking.
** [[Wikipedia:Charis SIL|Charis SIL]] at Wikipedia.
* [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/framee.htm?/software/softwa.htm#Etabelle TITUS Cyberbit Basic] (page disfigured by frames!)
** [[Wikipedia:TITUS Cyberbit Basic|TITUS Cyberbit Basic]] Wikipedia article
* [[Wikipedia:Y.OzFontN|Y.OzFontN]] Wikipedia article

== Other ==

* [ftp://ftp.io.com/pub/usr/hmiller/fonts/ Thryomanes] by conlanger [[User:Teamouse|Herman Miller]] contains a selection of Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and IPA characters. Archives with the suffix &lt;code&gt;.zip&lt;/code&gt; are for Windows and those with &lt;code&gt;.suit&lt;/code&gt; are for Macintosh.
* [http://everywitchway.net/linguistics/fonts/chrysuni.html Chryſanþi Unicode] &amp;mdash; so spelled! {{-)}}
* [http://www.languagegeek.com/font/fontdownload.html#Full_Unicode Aboriginal Serif] from [http://www.languagegeek.com languagegeek.com] has good support for diacritics.

== Special fonts for conlangs ==
* [[Andersonic alphabet font]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Vulgar Latin</title>
    <id>2558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42438</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-30T20:36:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I began a [[User:Melroch/Vulgar Latin Phonology|phonology]], but it seems my sources were too contradictory, and old, so that they didn't distinguish sufficiently between phonological, morphological and analogical changes, or at least had a different idea about them from modern sources.
Anyway my first attempt at ''anything'' tends to get messy! {{-)}}

== Vowels{{ref|Theiling}} ==

{| class=&quot;gridtable IPA&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center !important; border: none !important; width: 90%; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
|+ Stressed vowels
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 0px 0px !important; width: 0.5em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px; width: 0.5em;&quot; |
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right; width: 1.5em;&quot; | 0)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left; width: 12em !important;&quot; | Latin
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ī
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ĭ
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ē
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ĕ
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ā
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ă
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ŏ
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ō
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ŭ
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f; width: 2em; text-align: center !important;&quot; | ū
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px; width: 0.5em;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;  width: 0.5em;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 2px 2px 0px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right;&quot; | 1)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Sard/African{{ref|African}} V.L.
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right&quot; | 2)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Corsican V.L.{{ref|Corsican}}
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f50;&quot; | ɛ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f50;&quot; | ɛ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #e06;&quot; | ɔ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #e06;&quot; | ɔ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 2px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right&quot; | 3)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Early V.L.
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #fd0;&quot; | ɪ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f50;&quot; | ɛ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #e06; background-color: #e06;&quot; | ɔ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #c0f;&quot; | ʊ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 2px;&quot; |
|-
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 2px 2px 0px 2px;&quot; |
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right&quot; | 4)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Sicilian V.L.
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 2px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right&quot; | 5)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Western V.L.
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f50;&quot; | ɛ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #e06;&quot; | ɔ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 2px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: right&quot; | 6)
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; text-align: left&quot; | Eastern V.L.
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #ff0;&quot; | i
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f80;&quot; | e
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f50;&quot; | ɛ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #f00;&quot; | a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #e06;&quot; | ɔ
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #d0b;&quot; | o
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-width: 0.5px; background-color: #06f;&quot; | u
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 2px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 2px 2px 0px;&quot; |
|-
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
| style=&quot;border-color: #000; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 0px;&quot; |
|}

=== Comments ===

All attested Romance vowel systems presuppose an early Vulgar Latin system (3) where the length distinction of the Latin (0) was replaced by distinctions of quality, or by a distinction of tenseness. The exception is the Sard-African system (2) where the length distinction was simply lost.

All of (2, 4, 5, 6) can be derived from (3), although in the case of (2) it is more reasonable to assume that it derives directly from (0) through loss of the length distinction.  In the case of the Corsican system (2) it is however most likely that it derives from a system parallel to (1) where {{SC|ĭ}} had merged with {{SC|ĕ}} and {{SC|ŭ}} had merged with {{SC|ŏ}} before the loss of the length distinction.

=== Old French (and Rhodrese) vowel developments in stressed open syllables ===

{| class=&quot;gridtable IPA&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Western V.L.
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | e
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɛ
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | a
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɔ
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | o
! style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | u
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | VL
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | &amp;nbsp;iː&amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | eː
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɛː
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | aː
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɔː
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | oː
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | uː
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | pre-French
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ei
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | iɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | æ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | uɔ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ou
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | u
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Old French
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ei&gt;oi
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | iɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | æ/ɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | yœ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | øy
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | y
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Mdn French
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | wa
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | jɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ø
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ø
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | y
|- style=&quot;border-top: 1px dashed #000 !important;&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Old Rhodrese
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ei
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | iɛ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | æə
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | uɔ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ou
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | u
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Old Rh. i-uml
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɛə
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | yœ
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | øy
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | y
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Old Rh. u-uml
| || ||
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ɔə || ||
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left !important&quot; | Mdn Rhodrese
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | aj/i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | jɛ/i
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | ja/jɛ/wa/ø
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | wɔ/ø
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | aw/y
| style=&quot;text-align: center !important&quot; | u/y
|}

== References ==

*{{note|Theiling}} I owe the ideas of connecting lines to show the interrelationships of the vowel systems and of color-coding the vowel qualities to [http://www.conlang.info/latin.html Henrik Theiling's page about Latin vowel shifts].  He in turn derived his data from this page; I guess that's share-alike as it should be!  
: In case anyone wonders why my colors differ from his it is because I once read somewhere that most people with vowel → color [[wp:synesthesia|synesthesia]] percieve {{IPA|[i]}} as yellow, {{IPA|[u]}} as blue, {{IPA|[a ɑ]}}-like sounds as red and intermediate sounds as interwediate colors.  I avoided to use green colors because my forgotten source reported that most vowel → color synesthetics associate green hues with front rounded vowels and brown hues with central and back unrounded vowels, neither of which occur in this chart.  Not surprisingly {{IPA|[ə]}} was reported to be associated with gray!
*{{note|African}} &quot;Afrae aures de correptione vocalium vel productione non iudicant&quot;. Augustine ''De doctrina christiana'' 4.24
*{{note|Corsican}} My only reference for such a system in Corsican, which seems to be contradicted by other sources, is a somewhat unclear passage in 
*:Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm. ''Einführung in das Studium der romanischen Sprachwissenschaft.'' Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1920, § 90 p. 105.
*:(In the [http://www.archive.org/download/einfhrungindas00meyeuoft/einfhrungindas00meyeuoft_bw.pdf edition at the Internet Archive &amp;#91;PDF&amp;#93;] it is on pp. 133-134.)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Vulgar Latin Phonology</title>
    <id>2559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>10921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-17T16:07:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Vowels in hiatus */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">= Syllabification and stress =

== Stress in Classical Latin ==

Old Latin had fixed stress on the initial syllable of a word.  In Classical Latin this had been replaced by a movable (but not free) stress.  The well-known Classical Latin stress rule is that the stress falls on the penultimate (next to last) syllable of the word if that syllable is long, but on the antepenultimate (third from the end) syllable if the penultimate is short.

=== Syllable length and syllable boundaries in Classical Latin ===

In Classical Latin a syllable was long if its vowel nucleus was long or diphthongal, or if it was a short vowel followed by more than one consonant, including a [[geminate]] or double consonant, thus e.g. ''boniˈtātem, deˈlĕcto, ˈcompŭto''.  If a vowel was followed by more than one consonant the first of these belonged to the preceding syllable, which then counted as [[Closed syllable|closed]].  A single consonant between vowels belonged to the following syllable, e.g. ''ˈpo-si-tus'''.

A syllable with a short vowel followed by a consonant cluster is called &quot;long by [[Positional length|position]]&quot;; the vowel is said to &quot;be in position&quot; and the consonant cluster is said to &quot;make position&quot;.  While the term &quot;long by position&quot; and &quot;positional length&quot; are still in common use the terms &quot;to be in position&quot; and &quot;to make position&quot; are now somewhat old-fashioned and will be avoided in the following.

=== ''Muta cum liquida'' ===

The main exception to these rules in Classical Latin was when a vowel was followed by a single consonant followed by a [[liquid consonant]] (''l'' or ''r''), the so-called ''muta cum liquida'' rule: in this case the entire stop + liquid combination belonged to the following syllable, and did not attract stress, thus ''ˈtenebrae, ˈvolucres, ˈpharetra, 'cathedra'' etc.

== Stress in Vulgar Latin ==

The stress in Vulgar Latin normally remained in the position determined by the Classical Latin quantitative stress rule even after changes in vowel quality and quantity had obliterated the old quantity system.  Vulgar Latin thus acquired [[distinctive stress]].

=== Exceptions to the Classical stress placement in Vulgar Latin ===

==== ''Muta cum liquida'' in Vulgar Latin ====

In Vulgar Latin a stop + liquid usually attracted stress, i.e. the ''muta cum liquida'' rule was '''not''' operative.  Thus e.g. ''caˈthedra''.  Interestingly pre-classical poets and dramatists didn't observe the ''muta cum liquida'' rule — e.g. Naevius accents ''inˈtegram'' on the penultimate syllable.  Even classical poets sometimes let a ''muta cum liquida'' attract stress, so obviously there was dialectal variation in pre-classical Latin, and between dialects contemporary with Classical Latin.

==== Vowels in hiatus ====

In Vulgar Latin ''i, e'' and ''u'' followed by a vowel became a semivowel ''j'' &lt; ''i, e'' ({{IPA|[j]}}) or ''v'' &lt; ''u'' {{IPA|[w]}}).  Since the ''j'' or ''v'' counted as a consonant the stress had to shift.  For some reason the accent shifted to the following vowel in the case of ''j'' but to the preceding vowel in the case of ''v'': 
:''muˈlĭĕrem &gt; mulˈjerem; ''
:''puˈtĕŏlis &gt; putˈjolis'' ({{SC|pvteo‍́lis}} is attested in an inscription); 
:''paˈrĭĕtes &gt; par'jetes'' 
but 
:''bat(t)ˈŭĕre &gt; *ˈbattuere &gt; ˈbattere; ''
:''conˈsŭĕre &gt; *ˈconsuere &gt; ˈconsere; ''
:''haˈbŭĕrunt &gt; *ˈhabuerunt &gt; ˈhaberunt; ''
:''teˈnŭĕram &gt; *ˈtenueram.  ''
Probably there was analogy with forms like ''ˈbattuo, ˈhabuit, ˈtenui'' where the stress fell on the first syllable according to Classical rules.  Also note that the ''u'' &gt; {{IPA|[w]}} was lost in these words.

Does Spanish ''muˈjer'' come from the accusative but Italian ''ˈmoglie'' from the nominative, or was there dialectal variation in accentuation of hiatus words?</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran phonology</title>
    <id>2560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-12T16:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Consonants */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Roesan ==
=== Consonants ===
{|
| p || t ||    ||   ||   ||    ||  k 
|-
| b || d ||    ||   ||   ||    || ɡ 
|-
| f || s || ʃ || tʃ || ç || cç || h
|-
| v || z || ʒ || dʒ || ʝ || ɟʝ ||
|-
| m || n ||    ||   || ɲ ||    ||  ŋ
|}

* l ɾ kʲ fʲ

(Currently a raw phonetic inventory.  The contrast between the shibilants is questionable, as is that between voiced and voiceless fricatives, that of /h/, and if the apparent /fʲ/ of [ˈplyfʲ] ‘rain’ is genuine, the status of other palatalized consonants may require investigation.)

=== Vowels and diphthongs ===
{|
| i iː ĩ || y ỹ yː || ũ uː ũː
|-
| e || œ œː || o oː õ õː
|-
| ɛ ɛ̃ || ə || ɔ ɔː ɔ̃
|-
| a aː ãː || ɐ̃ || ɑ ɑ̃
|}

* aj ɛj œj 

== Paysan ==

{{stub}}
[[Category:Ibran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan lexicon roots p-r</title>
    <id>2562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45730</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-26T22:41:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* r / ρ / р / ռ / რ / ר  / र */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]==

==p / π / п  / պ / პ / פּ / प==

# '''paada''', ''t.v.'' pocket.
# '''paaða''', ''t.v.'' feed, fodder.
# '''paalga''', 1) ''t.v.'' beat, strike, hit, dash. 2) ''i.v.'' beat, strike, hit, dash, rap, clash.
# '''paalta''', 1) ''t.v.'' spread (out), make broad, broaden (out). 2) ''i.v.'' spread, broaden.
# '''paaſa''', ''t.v.'' be related to, be kin to.
# '''paata''', 1) ''t.v.'' feed, nourish, provide-, supply-, -with nourishment; keep, support, maintain. 2) ''i.v.'' feed; keep up.
# '''paatĭos''', winter boot.
# '''pada''', ''t.v.'' deck with flags.
# '''padĭos''', measure of weight [&lt;font color=red&gt;Meas.&lt;/font&gt;]; basic coin.
# '''paðos''', dike, dam, barrage. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;pato&lt;/font&gt;, dam)
# '''paga''', 1) ''t.v.'' fasten, fix, hitch, tighten, draw tight, consolidate, make secure, latch; steady, settle. 2) ''i.v.'' fasten, tighten; steady, settle.
# '''paĸa''', ''i.v.'' fuss.
# '''palba''', 1) ''t.v.'' chatter, prattle, jabber. 2) ''i.v.'' chatter, prattle, jabber.
# '''palqos''', village. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;palvo&lt;/font&gt;, ''in toponyms'')
# '''paluϙos''', drum handle.
# '''pandos''', bathhouse.
# '''panga''', ''i.v.'' swell, rise, increase, tumefy.
# '''panos''', texture, tissue.
# '''pantos''', bouquet.
# '''papa''', 1) ''t.v.'' suckle, nurse. 2) ''i.v.'' suckle, nurse.
# '''papas''', pappa, daddy.
# '''paϙneϙes''', caribou bull.
# '''para''', ''t.v.'' show, point-, -at, -out, exhibit, display, indicate, bespeak.
# '''pariiĸus''', courtesan.
# '''paſtis''', ''adj.'' firm, solid, hard.
# '''patos''', comb of a loom.
# '''paþϙa''', 1) ''t.v.'' slap [with the hand]. 2) ''i.v.'' slap.
# '''pauſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' let-, -loose, -on, -go off, -out, release; let off, decant; tap, broach, rack; launch. 2) ''i.v.'' launch.
# '''peeća''', ''t.v.'' pluck-, pull-, -(the) hair, -wool; fleece.
# '''peeda''', ''t.v.'' put (s.th. in a container).
# '''peela''', 1) ''t.v.'' fill-, (-up), (-in); charge; occupy [''space or time''], take (time), comply. 2) ''i.v.'' fill (up).
# '''peelðŭus''', commoner, bourgeois(e).
# '''peelɱos''', basis, bowl, tureen.
# '''peema''', 1) ''t.v.'' suffer, bear, endure, stand, undergo. 2) ''i.v.'' suffer, bear (up), endure.
# '''peeɱis''', ''adj.'' tangy, zesty.
# '''peenſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' dust, make dusty. 2) ''i.v''. become dusty.
# '''peera''', 1) ''t.v.'' sell (out), offer for sale. 2) ''i.v.'' sell.
# '''peeta''', 1) ''t.v.'' fly. 2) ''i.v.'' fly.
# '''peda''', 1) ''t.v.'' step, set-, place-, have-, -one's foot on. 2) ''i.v.'' step.
# '''pega''', 1) ''t.v.'' flank- (-on). 2) ''i.v.'' flank.
# '''peȝa''', ''t.v.'' lard.
# '''peĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' write, record, take down, drop [a note]. 2) ''i.v.'' write, record.
# '''peĸŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' cook, stew. 2) ''i.v.'' cook, stew.
# '''pel-''', ''adj. prefix'' for pale colors, ''e.g.'', '''pelbadis''', pale yellow.
# '''pela''', 1) ''t.v.'' fold, pleat, crease. 2) ''i.v.'' fold, crease.
# '''pelabos''', figure made of stone or clay, statue, figurine.
# '''pelća''', 1) ''t.v.'' turn-, (-around), (-over), (-up), (-away); invert, reverse. 2) ''i.v.'' turn.
# '''peliſos''', crag, cliff.
# '''pelĸos''', plate, dish.
# '''pelmos''', palm [of hand] [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''peltos''', pap, porridge, gruel.
# '''pelŭa''', ''i.v.'' float [in the wind], undulate, wave, stream [''of hair''].
# '''pempelus''', giant.
# '''peɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' seek, look for, search-, (-for); investigate, inquire-, search-, -after, -into, research, study, look into, take up. 2) ''i.v.'' seek, investigate, research, study.
# '''pen''', ''adj.'' five.
# '''pena''', 1) ''t.v.'' spin. 2) ''i.v.'' spin; purr.
# '''penĸos''', mud, slime, mire; sludge, silt, ooze.
# '''penta''', ''t.v.'' meet-, fall in-, -with; hit upon, come across, run-,-across, -into.
# '''penŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' breathe, inhale. 2) ''i.v.'' breathe, inhale.
# '''peϙa''', ''t.v.'' cover with stones.
# '''pera''', 1) ''t.v.'' attempt, try; (put to the) test, experiment on; try on [''a garment'']. 2) ''i.v.'' try, endeavor, aspire; (put to the) test, experiment.
# '''perća''', 1) ''t.v.'' ask, inquire, interrogate, question. 2) ''i.v.'' ask, inquire, question.
# '''perda''', ''i.v.'' fart loudly.
# '''perga''', 1) ''t.v.'' frighten, scare. 2) ''i.v.'' be-, -frightened, -scared. 
# '''peris''', ''adj.'' earlier, prior, previous, former, past, erstwhile, whilom, once.
# '''perĸiſtos''', ember, gleed.
# '''perma''', 1) ''t.v.'' ferry; bring-, carry-, ferry-, -over, -across, -to the other side. 2) ''i.v.'' ferry.
# '''perpeterŭis''', ''adj.'' insolent, impudent.
# '''perſa''', ''postp.'' before, by, no later than, of, to.
# '''perſelos''', winepress.
# '''perſenos''', heel [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''perta''', ''t.v.'' reward, compensate, recompense.
# '''pertŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' warn, caution, forewarn; beware (of), look out for, ware. 2) ''i.v.'' warn, forewarn.
# '''pertĭis''', ''adj.'' equivalent, commensurate (to, with, '''méta''').
# '''perþus''', scion.
# '''peru''', ''adv.'' forth, out(side).
# '''perŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' pant, puff, snort. 2) ''i.v.'' pant, puff, snort, breathe heavily.
# '''peſos''', penis [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''peſta''', ''i.v.'' sneeze.
# '''peta''', 1) ''t.v.'' lead-, drive-, -to pasture, graze, tend. 2) ''i.v.'' graze.
# '''pezda''', ''i.v.'' fart silently.
# '''piila''', 1) ''t.v.'' flap. 2) ''i.v.'' flap.
# '''piilća''', 1) ''t.v.'' tear-, break-, pull-, wrench-, -off, take apart, dismantle. 2) ''i.v.'' break away, snap.
# '''piima''', 1) ''t.v.'' fatten. 2) ''i.v.'' fatten, batten.
# '''piipa''', ''i.v.'' chirp, cheep, peep.
# '''piira''', ''t.v.'' like, be fond of, go in for.
# '''piirſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' powder, pulverize, triturate. 2) ''i.v.'' pulverize, powder.
# '''piitos''', sap, syrup.
# '''piizdos''', female genitalia, pudendum, vulva [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''pićus''', enemy, foe.
# '''pida''', ''t.v.'' bear, bring forth, give birth to [''of humans''].
# '''piȝros''', animal’s stomach, crop. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;püra&lt;/font&gt;, second stomach)
# '''piĸa''', ''t.v.'' pitch, caulk.
# '''pila''', ''i.v.'' lose-, shed-, -hair.
# '''pinćos''', peacock’s tail.
# '''pinϙa''', ''i.v.'' be good weather.
# '''pintos''', outward appearance, lay [''of the land'']; surface; exterior.
# '''pinus''', mother’s younger sister.
# '''piϙenϙos''', insole.
# '''piϙlaϙos''', sled runner.
# '''pira''', 1) ''t.v.'' bless. 2) ''i.v.'' bless.
# '''piſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' tread-, trample-, -down. 2) ''i.v.'' stampede.
# '''piſĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' fish (for). 2) ''i.v.'' fish.
# '''piſda''', ''t.v.'' mint, coin.
# '''pitedos''', topaz.
# '''pixos''', node, nodule; knob, ganglion [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''pizuĸos''', cow dung.
# '''pooȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' drink, imbibe. 2) ''i.v.'' drink, imbibe.
# '''pooĸa''', ''i.v.'' do mischief.
# '''poota''', ''t.v.'' watch (out for), tend, keep, mind, keep an eye on.
# '''poba''', ''i.v.'' squat.
# '''poga''', 1) ''t.v.'' strangle. 2) ''i.v.'' strangle.
# '''poȝmos''', stocking.
# '''poĸos''', felt stocking.
# '''pola''', 1) ''t.v.'' (make) warm. 2) ''i.v.'' be warm.
# '''pomŭa''', ''i.v.'' walk with difficulty through snow, water, grass, ''etc''.
# '''poɱĭas''', soul.
# '''poϙla''', ''i.v.'' have hands stiff with cold.
# '''poris''', ''adj.'' just, honest, sincere, straightforward, candid, frank.
# '''porma''', ''t.v.'' pioneer, explore.
# '''porſa''', ''postp.'' at-, to-, -the edge of, as far as, as many as, to, until (till), up to, about to (+ ''sup.'').
# '''porta''', 1) ''t.v.'' pass-, go-, -through. 2) ''i.v.'' pass-, go-, -through.
# '''poru''', ''adv.'' forward(s), onward, to-, toward-, -the front.
# '''poſa''', ''postp.'' after, behind, by, following.
# '''potus''', husband.
# '''potĭ-''', ''adj. prefix'' self.
# '''poxtos''', summer grazing ground.
# '''pøća''', ''t.v.'' grub-, root-, -up.
# '''puuĸis''', ''adj.'' little, not much; a few.
# '''puura''', ''t.v.'' stone [''fruit''], take out the kernel.
# '''puuſus''', God of the Children of Stone.
# '''puuta''', 1) ''t.v.'' rot, decompose, decay, putrefy. 2) ''i.v.'' rot, decompose, decay, putrefy, spoil, addle.
# '''pu''', ''adv.'' back, backward(s), aback, behind, in the rear, retro-.
# '''pubagos''', sticks supporting the upper rim of a yurt.
# '''puća''', 1) ''t.v.'' crowd-, press-, -together, compress, concentrate, condense, consolidate; reduce [&lt;font color=red&gt;Cook.&lt;/font&gt;]. 2) ''i.v.'' mat; concentrate, condense, consolidate.
# '''puda''', 1) ''t.v.'' be-, -busy with, -involved-, -engaged-, -in. 2) ''i.v.'' be-, -busy, -involved, -engaged.
# '''pugis''', ''adj.'' pure, unmixed, unalloyed, undefiled, sterling, sound.
# '''puȝa''', ''t.v.'' nauseate.
# '''puĸa''', ''t.v.'' outsmart, outwit, outfox.
# '''puĸos''', antimony, kohl.
# '''pulis''', ''inan. adj.'' much, many; a great deal of; a lot of
# '''pulĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' flake, chip. 2) ''i.v.'' flake, chip off, scale.
# '''pulmnos''', lung [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''pulos''', straight hair.
# '''pulſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' cover with-, adorn with-, -feathers. 2) ''i.v.'' grow feathers.
# '''pultos''', awning, tilt. 
# '''pumćuϙos''', snowshoe.
# '''puɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' suffocate. 2) ''i.v.'' suffocate. (&gt; Estonian &lt;font color=green&gt;poo-&lt;/font&gt;, hang)
# '''puna''', 1) ''t.v.'' incinerate, ignite, set-, -fire to, -on fire, fire [''furnace, etc.''], light [''candle, match, etc.''], detonate. 2) ''i.v.'' kindle-, start-, -a fire, incinerate, ignite, catch fire, fire [''furnace, etc.''].
# '''puϙla''', ''i.v.'' surface, come up.
# '''puϙos''', hollow in a tree.
# '''purĸa''', ''t.v.'' lasso.
# '''purneϙos''', dough.
# '''purſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' freeze. 2) ''i.v.'' freeze.
# '''putos''', anus [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''putuĸŭes''', big toe [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''puvałos''', whaling feast.
# '''pĭaala''', strap.
# '''pĭalagos''', Lithan settlement.
# '''pĭanĸos''', door-, -post, -jamb.
# '''pĭaros''', one centimeter [&lt;font color=red&gt;Meas.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''pĭoſos''', threshold.
# '''pĭuĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' embroider. 2) ''i.v.'' embroider.
# '''pĭűſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' sprinkle, besprinkle. 2) ''i.v.'' sprinkle.
# '''pĭurſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' result in. 2) ''i.v.'' do s.th. right, come about, succeed, manage, turn out to be, work (out).
total: 165/87+6/56%

==q / Ϟ / г̀  / ղ / ღ / ג / घ==
# '''ϙaava''', ''t.v.'' enrich.
# '''ϙala''', ''t.v.'' have skill in, know how to, be cut out for.
# '''ϙaɱa''', 1). ''t.v.'' falsify, forge, counterfeit; adulterate. 2) ''i.v.'' falsify, forge, counterfeit; adulterate.
# '''ϙaϙlos''', gunwale.
# '''ϙaſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' delay, linger- (-away, -out), loiter- (-away), postpone, put off, set aside. 2) ''i.v.'' delay, linger, loiter, tarry, defer.
# '''ϙatos''', wooly hair.
# '''ϙava''', 1) ''t.v.'' hold, bear. 2) ''i.v.'' hold, bear.
# '''ϙavla''', 1) ''t.v.'' fork, impale. 2) ''i.v.'' fork, branch off, bifurcate, ramify.
# '''ϙeda''', ''i.v.'' shoot [''as stars''], swoop, dart, rush-, tear-, -along.
# '''ϙeðſa''', ''i.v.'' spiral.
# '''ϙelða''', ''t.v.'' covet. 
# '''ϙelħa''', ''t.v.'' braze.
# '''ϙelondos''', stomach [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;]. 
# '''ϙelta''', 1) ''t.v.'' pay, remunerate, disburse, expend, requite. 2) ''i.v.'' pay-, (-back).
# '''ϙelunos''', jaw [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ϙena''', 1) ''t.v.'' eat away, erode, corrode; etch. 2) ''i.v.'' erode, corrode.
# '''ϙepa''', 1) ''t.v.'' usurp, appropriate. 2) ''i.v.'' usurp, appropriate.
# '''ϙera''', ''t.v.'' induce, instigate, promote, inspire, stimulate.
# '''ϙeredos''', rubble, gravel, boulders, pebbles, scree, detritus.
# '''ϙerta''', ''t.v.'' (make) butter.
# '''ϙerva''', 1) ''t.v.'' guess; estimate. 2) ''i.v.'' guess.
# '''ϙeſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' perplex, disconcert, confound, dis-may, bemuse, bewilder, puzzle, abash, muddle, befuddle. 2) ''i.v.'' puzzle, muddle.
# '''ϙevlos''', gable(-end); pediment.
# '''ϙiira''', 1) ''t.v.'' smear, besmear, bedaub. 2) ''i.v.'' smear.
# '''ϙiða''', ''t.v.'' pawn, mortgage.
# '''ϙia''', ''t.v.'' hunt up, seek out, search-, look-, -for, locate, go in quest of, go to see, quest-, -after, -for; look up [a person].
# '''ϙlaga''', 1) ''t.v.'' curse, execrate, beshrew. 2) ''i.v.'' curse.
# '''ϙlaxta''', 1) ''t.v.'' milk; press out, drain off. 2) ''i.v.'' give milk, lactate.
# '''ϙleɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' make fun of. 2) ''i.v.'' jest, joke, have fun.
# '''ϙoora''', ''i.v.'' stand out, jut-, -out, -forth, tower up, protrude.
# '''ϙooſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' consume, devour, eat up; use up, waste, spend, expend. 2) ''i.v.'' consume, spend.
# '''ϙoda''', 1) ''t.v.'' unite, join, connect, ally (o.s.) with, follow, become an adherent to. 2) ''i.v.'' be well-matched, go well together; get together.
# '''ϙolis''', ''adj.'' high-spirited, in high spirits, in good humor, merry, playful.
# '''ϙolva''', ''t.v.'' brave.
# '''ϙoma''', 1) ''t.v.'' stable, kennel. 2) ''i.v.'' stable.
# '''ϙoɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' consider, take into-, -consideration, -account, have regard-, -for, -to, have-, show-, -consideration for, reck, bethink. 2) ''i.v.'' consider, reck.
# '''ϙorſa''', ''i.v.'' sprout, shoot; spring-, come-, -from.
# '''ϙoſta''', 1) ''t.v.'' extend hospitality to. 2) ''i.v.'' extend hospitality.
# '''ϙraafus''', earl, count, countess.
# '''ϙraſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' gnaw, nibble-, (-at, -on). 2) ''i.v.'' gnaw, nibble.
# '''ϙreða''', ''i.v.'' stride, pace, stalk.
# '''ϙrema''', ''t.v.'' scrape-, scratch-, -off; strike out, erase, efface, expunge, delete.
# '''ϙrena''', ''t.v.'' rub away, erase.
# '''ϙrooda''', ''i.v.'' hail.
# '''ϙroma''', ''i.v.'' make a-, -din, -deafening noise, -uproar, create a turmoil.
# '''ϙronðos''', framework of a roof, rafters.
# '''ϙrudos''', cheek [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;]; sidepiece.
# '''ϙrunos''', grain of sand.
# '''ϙruſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' gnash. 2) ''i.v.'' gnash.
# '''ϙuuħa''', ''i.v.'' effect a mysterious and knowing air, keep secret.
# '''ϙuura''', ''i.v.'' fall-, cave-, -in, collapse, fall down.
# '''ϙuris''', ''adj.'' frightening, frightful.
# '''ϙuva''', ''i.v.'' bend, bow, make –a bow, -obeisance.
total: 53/41+3/83

==r / ρ / р / ռ / რ / ר  / र==
# '''raaſĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' croak. 2) ''i.v.'' croak.
# '''raćos''', lattice. (&gt; Hungarian &lt;font color=green&gt;rács&lt;/font&gt;, lattice)
# '''rava''', ''i.v.'' rage, rave, storm.
# '''reeba''', 1) ''t.v.'' belch, burp, eruct. 2) ''i.v.'' belch, burp, eruct.
# '''reeda''', 1) ''t.v.'' cheer-, (-up, -on), encourage, hearten. 2) ''i.v.'' cheer (up).
# '''reeða''', 1) ''t.v.'' make ready, prepare, equip, furnish, supply, provide, make out, set [''table'']. 2) ''i.v.'' get ready, prepare.
# '''reeĸa''', ''i.v''. neigh, chortle.
# '''reema''', 1) ''t.v.'' darken, deepen, make dark. 2) ''i.v.'' darken, deepen, grow dark.
# '''reepa''', 1) ''t.v.'' sneak, steal, prowl. 2) ''i.v.'' slink, sneak, skulk, steal, prowl.
# '''reeta''', 1) ''t.v.'' roar. 2) ''i.v.'' roar.
# '''reeitos''', shoulder joint [''of an animal''].
# '''reeźa''', 1) ''t.v.'' extend; rack. 2) ''i.v.'' extend.
# '''reća''', 1) ''t.v.'' arrange, (set-, put-, -in) order, classify, sift, sort; settle, organize, decide; marshal, dispose, array [troops for a battle], assemble, put together. 2) ''i.v.'' adjust.
# '''rećiſmus''', buffoon, jester.
# '''reda''', ''i.v.'' gutter, trickle down; elapse, lapse [''of time''].
# '''reða''', ''i.v.'' go [''in a vehicle''], drive, ride, sail; fare; pass.
# '''reĸos''', porridge. (&gt; Udmurt &lt;font color=green&gt;ǯuk&lt;/font&gt;, gruel)
# '''rema''', ''t.v.'' lath, batten.
# '''remva''', ''t.v.'' be-, -due to, -up to.
# '''reɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' expand, extend. 2) ''i.v.'' expand, extend.
# '''renða''', 1) ''t.v.'' tear-, rip-, (-up). 2) ''i.v.'' tear, rip.
# '''renĸa''', ''i.v.'' snore.
# '''repa''', ''t.v.'' snatch (up), grab, carry off, rape, abduct.
# '''reſa''', ''t.v.'' stab, puncture; spur on, prod, goad.
# '''reſĸos''', fetlock.
# '''reſĭas''', ill will, malevolence, enmity.
# '''reþa''', 1) ''t.v.'' roll (up), trundle. 2) ''i.v.'' roll, trundle.
# '''reva''', ''t.v.'' roof.
# '''revĭa''', ''t.v.'' rib.
# '''rezga''', 1) ''t.v.'' wind, reel. 2) ''i.v.'' wind.
# '''reźa''', 1) ''t.v.'' rule. 2) ''i.v.'' reign, rule.
# '''riina''', ''t.v.'' fix boundaries, demarcate, survey.
# '''riȝaðros''', waterfall.
# '''riȝos''', city.
# '''rila''', ''postp.'' at the age of.
# '''ringos''', threshing floor.
# '''rinos''', snow on trees.
# '''rira''', ''i.v.'' quake, waver, palpitate.
# '''riva''', 1) ''t.v.'' ring, peal. 2) ''i.v.'' ring, peal.
# '''riźa''', ''t.v.'' tether.
# '''rooba''', 1) ''t.v.'' hollow out, excavate, chamfer, flute, undermine, burrow. 2) ''i.v.'' excavate, burrow.
# '''rootos''', rafter joint.
# '''romba''', ''t.v.'' (apply) lace (to).
# '''roſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' bedew. 2) ''i.v.'' fall as dew.
# '''roźa''', ''t.v.'' tear-, rip-, burst-, wrench-, force-, fling-, -open.
# '''ruuða''', 1) ''t.v.'' redden, color-, make-, -red. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -red; blush, flush.
# '''ruuna''', 1) ''t.v.'' spell. 2) ''i.v.'' spell.
# '''ruba''', 1) ''t.v.'' vomit, heave, throw up, spew. 2) ''i.v.'' vomit, be sick, heave, throw up, spew.
# '''rućos''', cocoon.
# '''ruða''', ''t.v.'' root out, clear [''a wood''], make arable.
# '''ruðla''', 1) ''t.v.'' coarsen. 2) ''i.v.'' coarsen.
# '''ruðſos''', metal.
# '''ruga''', ''i.v.'' rush out, break through, sally forth, debouch.
# '''rupa''', 1) ''t.v.'' pluck (out), tear out, pull (up), pick. 2) ''i.v.'' pluck, pick.
# '''ruϙma''', 1) ''t.v.'' add cream. 2) ''i.v.'' form cream.
# '''ruſa''', ''i.v.'' chew the cud, ruminate.
# '''rutos''', stomach.
# '''rŭeeta''', 1) ''t.v.'' crowd, swarm with, throng, mob. 2) ''i.v.'' swarm, crowd, throng.
total: 58/43/74</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Tarnawa</title>
    <id>2563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T21:08:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarnawa</username>
        <id>196</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[tarnawa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan lexicon roots s-ś</title>
    <id>2566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29224</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T09:54:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Lexicon roots s-ś]] moved to [[Senjecan lexicon roots s-ś]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}
==Consonants==

The [[Senjecas|Senjecan]] [[Wikipedia:consonant|consonant]] [[Wikipedia:phoneme|phonemic inventory]] consists of twelve pairs of consonants, each pair containing a [[Wikipedia:voiceless|voiceless]] and a [[Wikipedia:voiced|voiced]] consonant as follows:
*[[Wikipedia:IPA|IPA]]:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
! [[Wikipedia:plosive|Plosive]]
| p
| b
| t
| d
| {{IPA|&amp;#678;}}
| {{IPA|&amp;#675;}}
| k
| g
|-
! [[Wikipedia:fricative|Fricative]]
| ɸ
| β
| θ
| ð
| s
| z
| ç
| ʝ
|-
! [[Wikipedia:sonorant|Sonorant]]
| ?
| {{IPA|m}}
| ?
| {{IPA|l}}
| ?
| {{IPA|n}}
| ?
| {{IPA|j}}
|}

*[[Wikipedia:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]]:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
! Plosive
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|b}}
| {{IPA|t_d}}
| {{IPA|d_d}}
| {{IPA|ts)}}
| {{IPA|dz)}}
| {{IPA|c}}
| {{IPA|J\}}
|-
! Fricative
| {{IPA|p\}}
| {{IPA|B}}
| {{IPA|T_d}}
| {{IPA|D_d}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|C}}
| {{IPA|j\}}
|-
! Sonorant
| {{IPA|m_0}}
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|l_0_d}}
| {{IPA|l_d}}
| {{IPA|4_0}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| {{IPA|j_0}}
| {{IPA|j}}
|}

*Standard orthography:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
! Plosive
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ʂ
| ʐ
| c
| g
|-
! Fricative
| f
| v
| þ
| ð
| s
| z
| x
| q
|-
! Sonorant
| ɱ
| m
| ł
| l
| r
| n
| ħ
| j
|}
# According to contemporary phonetics, &lt;ʂ&gt; and &lt;ʐ&gt; are [[Wikipedia:affricate|affricates]].  The Senjecans consider them to be plosives.
#&lt;þ&gt; and &lt;ð&gt; are dental consonants, not interdental as in English.
#In this Wikifrath [[Wikipedia:lexicon|lexicon]], the Latin order of the [[Wikipedia:grapheme|graphemes]] is used.
#In the standard orthography [[Wikipedia:yogh|yogh]] is used for &lt;j&gt; and is ordered after &lt;ħ&gt;.
#A [[Wikipedia:breve|breve]] is placed over or under a consonant to indicate [[Wikipedia:labialization|labialization]].  The breve below is not yet available in wikifrath, so a circumflex below, &lt;d̬&gt;, is used.
#A [[Wikipedia:cedilla|cedilla]] is placed under (or a [[Wikipedia:comma (punctuation)|comma]] over) a consonant to indicate [[wikipedia:palatalization|palatalization]].

==Vowels==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; width=&quot;100px&quot;
|align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|front unrounded
|align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|back rounded
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|i  /i,i/
|align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|u  /u,u/
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|e  /e,e/
|align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|ø  /ɔ,O/
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|a  /a,a/
|align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;|o  /o,o/
|}
#The Senjecan vowels are ordered &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, &lt;e&gt;, &lt;a&gt;, &lt;o&gt;, &lt;ø&gt;, and &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;u&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; and are placed after the consonants.
#The grapheme is doubled to indicate a long vowel.
#A double acute accent is used to indicate the primary tone: a̋, e̋, ı̋, ő, ø̋, and ű.
#A single acute accent is used to indicate the secondary tone: á, é, í, ó, ǿ, and ú.

*&lt;u&gt;Underlined&lt;/u&gt; entries are taken from a source other than PIE.


==s / σ / с / ս / ს / ס / स==
#sââga, 1) ''t.v.'' trace, track (down), trail, follow the track of, investigate. 2) ''i.v.'' trace, track
#sââja, ''t.v.'' disable.
#sââla, 1) ''t.v.'' soothe, calm, becalm, mollify. 2) ''i.v.'' soothe, calm down.
#sáámi, ''conj.'' though.
#sâânis, ''adj.'' well, healthy, beneficial, salutary, salubrious.
#sââta, ''i.v.'' stand (still).
#&lt;u&gt;sâ&lt;/u&gt;, sixteen.
  S008 sa̋bos, horsehide container.
  S009 sa̋ca, t.v. hallow, sanctify, sanction.
  S010 sa̋la, t.v. salt [for preserving], cure; salt [add for taste].
  S011 sa̋lcis, willow (Salix sp.) [Bot.].
  S012 sa̋mþa, t.v. sand.
  S013 sa̋pa, 1) t.v. protect, screen, guard, defend, stand up for; escort, convoy [Mil.]. 2) i.v. defend.
+S014 sa̋r, adj. twenty.
  S015 sa̋rta, 1) t.v. hoe. 2) i.v. hoe.
  S016 sa̋şa, 1) t.v. crop, produce, yield, give off. 2) i.v. crop, produce, yield.
  S017 sa̋ta, 1) t.v. fill, sate, satisfy, slake, quench,  satisfy.
  S018 saűsa, 1) t.v. dry- (-up, -out), desiccate. 2) i.v. dry-  (-up, -out), desiccate.
  S019 sa̋xris, henbane (Hyoscyus niger) [Bot.].
  S020 sca̋mva, t.v. prop, stay, support, shore up, brace, uphold.
  S021 sce̋e̋ta, 1) t.v. ejaculate. 1) i.v. gush-, spout-, (-forth,      -up); ejaculate.
  S022 sce̋nða, 1) t.v. dip, plunge, submerge; immerse; imbue. 2) i.v. dive, plunge; submerge.
  S023 scı̋ı̋ra, 1) t.v. log. 2) i.v. log.
  S024 scı̋mva, 1) t.v. hobble. 2) i.v. (walk with a) limp, be-, go-, -lame, hobble.
  S025 scı̋þlos, box, case.
  S026 scőrðos, pan, cauldron.
  S027 se̋e̋ca, 1) t.v. relax, mitigate, remit; temper, anneal. 2) i.v. relax, mitigate, remit, loaf; temper.
  S028 se̋e̋ga, t.v. drop, sow, inseminate, impregnate.
  S029 seeı̋ba, t.v. render.
  S030 se̋e̋ȝa, t.v. sift, sieve, strain, bolt, riddle, filter.
  S031 se̋e̋la, t.v. descend from, be descended from.
  S032 se̋e̋m̧a, t.v. halve, bisect.
  S033 se̋e̋ra, 1) t.v. continue, persist in. 2) i.v. continue, persist; keep on (+ inf.).
  S034 se̋ca, t.v. cut. 
  S035 se̋c̆a, 1) t.v. follow (after), ensue from, succeed (to). 2) i.v. follow, ensue, succeed.
  S036 se̋d-a, 1) t.v. seat. 2) i.v. sit (down), perch.
  S037 se̋f, adj. seven.
  S038 se̋fźa, i.v. use magic energy.
  S039 se̋la, i.v. creep, crawl, cringe, sneak, fawn.
  S040 se̋lca, 1) t.v. drag, tow, haul, tug. 2) i.v. drag, haul, tug.
  S041 se̋lsos, swamp, bog, fen, marsh, morass, quagmire.
  S042 se̋ma, i.v. flood [of the tide].
+S043 se̋mf, adj. seventeen.
  S044 se̋ma, i.v. pass-, spend-,    -the early summer.
  S045 se̋mus, indef. pron. someone.
  S046 se̋ɱa, 1) t.v. relinquish, abdicate, part with, let go of; abandon, forsake, withdraw (from), back out of; surrender, hand over, give up, waive. 2) i.v. abdicate, let go; withdraw; sur-render, give up.
  S047 senðőros, slag, dross, scoria, cinders, clinker, sediment, scum.
  S048 se̋nğa, i.v. pass-, spend-, -the late summer.
  S049 se̋nis, adj. ancient, antique, archaic, olden.
  S050 se̋nca, 1) t.v. scorch, singe, water [of fabric]; toast; calcine, carbonize. 2) i.v. water, cal  cine.
  S051 se̋nğa, i.v. pass the late autumn.
  S052 se̋nła, 1) t.v. sing. 2) i.v. sing.
  S053 se̋nris, medlar (Mespilus germanica) [Bot.].
  S054 se̋nta, 1) t.v. travel, journey, voyage. 2) i.v. travel, journey, voyage.
  S055 se̋n̆a, 1) t.v. work out, complete, finish (off), bring to a close, terminate, adjourn, break off, perfect, consummate, elaborate, carry-, fill-, -out, get through. 2) i.v. finish, terminate, elaborate, be over, get through; have just (+ patient part.).
  S056 se̋ņus, each (one). adj. each; separate(d), distinct, discrete.
  S057 se̋pa, i.v. concern-, occupy-, -o.s. (with, épa).
  S058 se̋qna, t.v. noose.
  S059 se̋ra, 1) t.v. color-, make-, reddish-orange. 2) i.v. turn-, become-, -reddish-orange.
  S060 se̋rca, t.v. wattle.
  S061 se̋rḑa, i.v. make cheese. 
  S062 se̋rpa, t.v. cut with a sickle.
  S063 se̋ħa, 1) t.v. defeat, over- come, subdue, vanquish, con- quer, subjugate, overpower, over-whelm, get over. 2) i.v. overcome, conquer, triumph.
  S063 sfe̋la, i.v. glitter, glisten, sparkle.
  S064 sfe̋lħos, spleen [Anat.].
  S065 sfe̋ltos, board, plank; tray.
  S066 sfűda, 1) t.v. argue (about). 2) i.v. argue, debate.
  S067 sı̋ı̋ca, 1) t.v. achieve, acquire, procure, catch up with. 2) i.v. catch up.
  S068 sı̋ı̋ða, 1) t.v. head toward, be bound for. 2) i.v. go straight to the-, -goal, -objective, -destination.
  S069 sı̋ı̋ma, 1) t.v. carve, cut, slice, knife. 2) i.v. carve, cut, knife.
  S070 sı̋ba, 1) t.v. drip. 2) i.v. drip.
  S071 sı̋c̆a, i.v. run off, flow down; subside [of water]; ebb [of the tide].
  S072 sı̋fa, i.v. thrive, flourish, prosper, batten.
  S073 silőrses, sheatfish, Wels catfish (Silurus glanis) [Zoo.].
  S074 sina̋pis, mustard (Brassica nigra) [Bot.].
#&lt;u&gt;sînqes&lt;/u&gt;, lion (''Panthera leo spelaea'') ['''Zoo.''']; Leo ['''Zod.'''].
#sîpa, ''t.v.'' pen (in), corral, coop up.
#sîsca, 1) ''t.v.'' hay. 2) ''i.v.'' make hay.
#sîta, ''t.v.'' represent, symbolize, stand for.
  S078 sı̋ɱa, 1) t.v. sew, stitch, tack. 2) i.v. sew, stitch.
  S079 slı̋ı̋ɱa, 1) t.v. make-, col- or-, -greenish-blue. 2) i.v. turn-, become-, -greenish- blue.
  S080 slı̋ga, t.v. chop, hash, mince, hack.
  S081 slűga, 1) t.v. serve, work for, minister to, wait on, bestead. 2) i.v. serve, be of service.
  S082 slűśa, i.v. glide, slide; skate.
  S083 sme̋e̋ȝa, 1) t.v. grease, lubricate. 2) i.v. lubricate.
  S084 sme̋ra, 1) t.v. remember, recall, think-, be mindful-,     -of, keep in-, bear in-, call  to-, -mind, commemorate; intend, design, propose, plan. 2) i.v. recollect, intend.
  S085 smı̋ı̋ca, 1) t.v. crumble. 2) i.v. crumble, become crumbly.
  S086 smı̋ta, 1) t.v. throw, cast, fling, toss, pitch, hurl, heave, project. 2) i.v. cast, toss, pitch, heave.
  S087 smőxros, chin [Anat.].
  S088 sműxa, 1) t.v. smoke. 2) i.v. smoke, fume.
  S089 sna̋ða, t.v. cut into, incise.
  S090 sna̋ţa, i.v. bound, skip.
  S091 sne̋e̋pa, t.v. sheave.
  S092 sne̋e̋ta, t.v. thread.
  S093 sneeɱe̋nos, sinew [Anat.].
  S094 sne̋rta, 1) t.v. dance. 2) i.v. dance.
  S095 snı̋ła, i.v. snow
  S096 snűda, i.v. doze, nap.
  S097 snűða, 1) t.v. mist, fog, befog. 2) i.v. mist, fog.
  S098 snűva, t.v. woo, court.
  S099 sőőlis, adj. only, sole, unique.
  S100 sőőros, calf [Anat.]. 
  S101 sőlis, adj. all, whole, complete, total, aught, pan-, omni-; every [sg.].
  S102 sőma, t.v. liken; compare (néɱħa, to).
  S103 sőra, 1) t.v. sour; displease, vex. 2) i.v. (go-) -sour.
  S104 spa̋ca, 1) t.v. point, dot, spot, stipple; punctuate. 2) i.v. dot, spot; punctuate.
  S105 spa̋rɱes, house sparrow (Passer domesticus) [Zoo.].   -is, adj. passerine.
  S106 spe̋nda, t.v. bring, offer, make [a sacrifice].
  S107 spe̋śa, 1) t.v. witness, detect, espy, descry. 2) i.v. scout, reconnoiter; be on the lookout.
  S108 spőnða, 1) t.v. bail (out). 2) i.v. bail.
  S109 spűðna, i.v. engage in business, run a business.
  S110 sre̋e̋nos, thigh [Anat.], shank; side [of an angle].
  S111 sre̋ga, 1) t.v. draw, illustrate. 2) i.v. draw, illustrate.
  S112 sre̋nca, i.v. snore.
  S113 sre̋va, 1) t.v. sip, lap, swig. 2) i.v. sip, lap, swig.
  S114 srı̋ı̋ga, 1) t.v. frost. 2) i.v. frost.
  S115 srőma, 1) t.v. paralyze. 2) i.v. paralyze.
  S116 srűpos, scurf.
  S117 sśa̋a̋ȝa, 1) t.v. shade, shadow. 2) i.v. cast a shadow.
  S118 sta̋a̋ga, t.v. set-, put-, place-, -in the right place.
  S119 sta̋a̋ȝa, 1) t.v. melt, fuse, smelt, dissolve, liquefy. 2) i.v. melt, fuse, smelt, dissolve, liquefy, deliquesce.
  S120 -sta̋lis, adj. suffix forming the equative degree of adjectives; (just) as __ as, (just) so __ as.
  S121 ste̋e̋ba, 1) t.v. insult, affront.
  S122 ste̋e̋pa, 1) t.v. dock. 2) i.v. dock, wharf.
  S123 ste̋e̋va, 1) t.v. surprise, take-, -by surprise, -una- wares, -aback. 2) i.v. be surprised, be taken aback.
  S124 ste̋ma, i.v. stammer, stutter.
  S125 stembőris, white clover (Trifolium repens) [Bot.].
  S126 stemvőros, trunk, bole.
  S127 ste̋nos, chest, bosom, thorax [Anat.].
  S128 ste̋qa, t.v. strike with the flat of a blade.
  S129 ste̋rca, t.v. tend, nurse, care for, attend to, take care of, look after.
  S130 ste̋rðis, adj. fruitless, infertile, unfruitful, unprofitable, unproductive, barren, sterile.
  S131 stere̋ncis, adj. tense, tight, taut; straight.
  S132 ste̋res, [anim.] star.
  S133 ste̋rņos, forehead, brow [Anat.].  
  S134 stı̋ı̋va, t.v. put, place, set, situate, locate.
  S135 stı̋ȝa, 1) t.v. thicken, solidify, liquefy [a gas], compact. 2) i.v. thicken, solidify, liquefy [a  gas].
  S136 stőres, European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) [Zoo.].
  S137 stűris, adj. old, antiquated, out-of-date, outmoded, obsolete, old-fash- ioned. 
  S138 sűűles, [anim.] sun.
  S139 sűűnus, son.
  S140 sűűra, 1) t.v. (make-), -bitter, embitter. 2) i.v. (become-), -bitter.
  S141 sűűsa, i.v. bluster, blow hard, howl, sough.
  S142 sűla, t.v. (extract the-) -juice.
  S143 sűɱes, sow [Zoo.].
  S144 sűna, t.v. go with, accompany, escort, chaperon.
  S145 sűnca, 1) t.v. swing, swivel, pivot, whirl round, flourish, brandish, wield, wave, toss [a salad]; thresh, flail, swingle, scutch. 2) i.v. swing, swivel, pivot, whirl round, flourish, wave; thresh, flail, swingle.
  S146 sűncis, adj. clumsy, unwieldy, awkward, cumbersome.
  S147 sűnsus, daughter-in-law.
  S148 sűntis, adj. alert, nimble, agile, brisk.
  S149 sűpa, i.v. sleep, slumber, be asleep.
  S150 sűqta, 1) t.v. suffer from, be ill with. 2) i.v. fall ill, sicken, become-, get-, -sick.
  S151 sursı̋nos, gland [Anat.].
  S152 sűsca, 1) t.v. parch, calcine. 2) i.v. parch, calcine.
  S153 sűsis, adj. well, all right, O.K.
  S154 sxe̋la, i.v. stumble, trip.
  S155 sx̆őȝos, needle [of plants].
  S156 sűta, 1) t.v. simmer. 2) i.v. simmer.
  S157 s̆a̋a̋da, 1) t.v. sweeten, sugar; 2) i.v. sweeten, sugar.
  S158 s̆a, postp. apart from, beside, besides, but (for), except (for), not to-, -speak of, -mention, other than, outside, save, without.
  S159 s̆a̋rda, 1) t.v. laugh at. 2) i.v. laugh. 
  S160 s̆ecűrus, brother-in-law.
  S161 s̆e̋e̋das, character, nature.
  S162 s̆e̋e̋ða, t.v. accustom, habituate; inure, familiarize, get used to.
  S163 s̆e̋e̋ris, adj. strong, stout, tight, fast, rigid.
  S164 s̆ĕ̋ȝa, 1) t.v. whistle. 2) i.v. whistle.
  S165 s̆e̋la, 1) t.v. char. 2) i.v. smolder, char.
  S166 s̆e̋ļa, 1) t.v. be related by marriage to. 2)  i.v. be related by marriage.
  S167 s̆e̋lpos, sulfur, brimstone.
  S168 s̆e̋ma, 1) t.v. swim. 2) i.v. swim, welter.
  S169 s̆e̋na, 1) t.v. sound, resound. 2) i.v. sound, resound.
  S170 s̆e̋ra, i.v. hum, buzz.
  S171 s̆e̋rva, t.v. sweep.
  S172 s̆es, adj. six.
  S173 s̆e̋sra, t.v. adopt as a sister.
  S174 s̆e̋va, t.v. (set) free, liberate, deliver.
  S175 s̆e̋x̆a, t.v. resin, rosin, pitch.
  S176 s̆ı̋ı̋cis, adj. taciturn, reserved, uncommunicative.
  S177 s̆ı̋da, 1) t.v. sweat, perspire. 2) i.v. sweat, perspire.
  S178 s̆őőla, i.v. move-, travel-,    -south.
  S179 s̆oı̋ņus, spouse's sister's husband, brother-in-law. 
  S180 s̆őmbes, sponge (Spongilla lacustris) [Zoo.].
  S181 s̆őrdis, adj. [shining] black.
  S182 s̆ús̆u, adv. even, likewise, in like manner,  so.
  S183 şe̋e̋rus, husband's brother.
total: 183

==ś / ς / ц / ծ / ც / צ / त==
  Ś001 śa̋a̋bes, common lizard (Lacerta zooteca vivapara) [Zoo.].
  Ś002 śa̋a̋da, 1) t.v. distress, concern. 2) i.v. worry, fret.
  Ś003 śa̋a̋ra, t.v. antler.
  Ś004 śa̋a̋sa, 1) t.v. show the way, direct; steer, helm. 2) i.v. steer.
  Ś005 śa̋da, i.v. excel.
  Ś006 śa̋ðra, i.v. lightning.
  Ś007 śa̋ga, 1) t.v. emaciate. 2) i.v. be emaciated.
  Ś008 śa̋la, 1) t.v. deepen. 2) i.v. deepen.
  Ś009 śa̋ma, t.v. gore, horn.
  Ś010 śarsa̋a̋cos, torrent.
  Ś011 śa̋rta, i.v. rotate, twirl.
  Ś012 śa̋sna, 1) t.v. grizzle. 2) i.v. grizzle.
  Ś013 śa̋ta, 1) t.v. fight, combat; contend-, do battle-,  -with. 2) i.v. fight, combat.
  Ś014 śe̋e̋lca, 1) t.v. squirt, syringe, inject. 2) i.v. spurt, splash.
  Ś015 śe̋e̋ɱ-a, i.v. become inflamed.
  Ś016 śe̋e̋ra, 1) t.v. grow, cultivate, farm, raise. 2) i.v. farm.
  Ś017 śeerőles, common kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) [Zoo.].
  Ś018 śe̋bes, Persian gazelle (Gazela subgutturosa) [Zoo.].
  Ś019 śe̋ca, i.v. have power to.
  Ś020 śe̋c̆a, i.v. defecate, shit.
  Ś021 śe̋da, 1) t.v. hate, loathe, detest, abhor. 2) i.v. hate.
  Ś022 śe̋ȝa, 1) t.v. put to bed. 2) i.v. lie (down), rest, repose, be recumbent, go to bed, settle; be situated; encamp.
  Ś023 śe̋la, t.v. veil, wrap-, (-a- round, -up), envelop.
  Ś024 śe̋lba, 1) t.v. help, aid, assist, succor. 2) i.v. help, aid, assist.
  Ś025 śe̋lpa, 1) t.v. steal, thieve, pilfer, filch  (from, ápa). 2) i.v. steal, thieve, pilfer (from, ápa).
  Ś026 śe̋ļus, fallen Child of Air; also known as semȝa̋zus.
  Ś027 śe̋ma, i.v. make great exertion, exert o.s., labor, toil.
  Ś028 śeme̋los, heaven(s), firmament, welkin.
  Ś029 śe̋ɱa, i.v. stagger, reel, totter, wobble; pitch, toss [of ships].
  Ś030 śe̋na, t.v. nullify, void, invalidate, annul,  revoke, rescind, cancel, repeal, abolish, call off.
  Ś031 śe̋nca, i.v. hang, be suspended, dangle.
  Ś032 śe̋nsa, 1) t.v. announce, proclaim, publish, pronounce [a judgment], make known. 2) i.v. pub-lish, pronounce.
  Ś033 śe̋nta, 1) t.v. tilt. 2) i.v. tilt, joust.
  Ś034 śe̋rdos, heart [Anat.].
  Ś035 śe̋rða, 1) t.v. line (-up), align; string [beads]. 2) i.v. line (-up), stand in line.
  Ś036 śe̋res, biting animal.
  Ś037 śe̋rsa, i.v. run; course.
  Ś038 śe̋rta, 1) t.v. interweave, interlace. 2) i.v. interlace.
  Ś039 śe̋sa, t.v. engrave.
  Ś040 śe̋xlis, lotus (Nymphaea alba) [Bot.].
  Ś041 śı̋ı̋ca, i.v. swing o.s., skip, vault.
  Ś042 śı̋ı̋mes, bug.
  Ś043 śı̋ı̋nis, grass.
  Ś044 śı̋ı̋pos, flint knife.
  Ś045 śı̋ı̋sos, column, pillar.
  Ś046 śı̋ca, t.v. strap, leash, sling.
  Ś047 śı̋la, 1) t.v. lean, recline, rest; arrange in layers, stratify. 2) i.v. lean, recline, rest.
  Ś048 śı̋mos, village.
  Ś049 śı̋ɱa, 1) t.v. color, dye, stain, paint (over), bedaub. 2) i.v. color, dye, stain, paint.
  Ś050 śı̋na, t.v. cradle, rock in a cradle.
  Ś051 śı̋pa, t.v. brush, wag [the tail].
  Ś052 śiśe̋ris, pea (Pisum sativum) [Bot.].
  Ś053 śı̋ta, 1) t.v. lair. 2) i.v. den, lair.
  Ś054 śe̋mtos, hundred.
  Ś055 śőőla, 1) t.v. rinse, flush, irrigate, wash away. 2) i.v. flush.
  Ś056 śőőɱra, i.v. move-, travel-, -north.
  Ś057 śőlma, t.v. thatch.
  Ś058 śőmros, stone hammer.
  Ś059 śomśı̋ȝos, pickaxe.
  Ś060 śőɱa, 1) t.v. warn, caution, forewarn. 2) i.v. warn, fore- warn.
  Ś061 śőnxes, bivalve (Bivalvia) [Zoo.].
  Ś062 śőrcos, silica.
  Ś063 śőrma, 1) t.v. pain, hurt. 2) i.v. pain, hurt, be painful, suffer, ache.
  Ś064 śőrɱes, raven (Corvus corax) [Zoo.].
  Ś065 śorőmnos, lye.
  Ś066 śorűdes, crested lark (Ga-lerida cristata) [Zoo.].
  Ś067 śø̋nos, helmet.
  Ś068 śø̋snes, hornet (Vespa sp., Vespula sp.) [Zoo.].
  Ś069 śűűla, 1) t.v. hear; listen to. 2) i.v. hear; listen.
  Ś070 śűűrus, hero, heroine, champion.
  Ś071 śűbis, brier.
  Ś072 śűða, 1) t.v. soil, dirty, befoul, begrime; sully, besmirch. 2) i.v. soil, dirty.
  Ś074 śűga, i.v. gape, yawn, be ajar.
  Ś075 śűlnos, hip, haunch [Anat.].
  Ś076 śűna, 1) t.v. spear. 2) i.v. spear.
  Ś077 śunðőnis, angelica (Angelica sylvestris) [Bot.].
  Ś078 śűsa, i.v. pant, gasp, puff, wheeze.
  Ś079 śűsnis, cornelian cherry tree (Cornus mas) [Bot.].
  Ś080 śűśa, 1) t.v. whirl-, swirl-, (-around), eddy; trill. 2) i.v. whirl-, swirl-, (-around), eddy, turn; warble; roll [of drums].
  Ś081 š̮a̋ntis, adj. entire, total, thorough, utter, universal.
  Ś082 ś̮e̋e̋rnes, rook (Corvus frugilegus) [Zoo.].
  Ś083 ś̮e̋ȝ-a, 1) t.v. play [the pipes], blow [a whistle]. 2) i.v. play [the pipes], blow [a whistle].
  Ś084 ś̮e̋na, 1) t.v. celebrate. 2) i.v. celebrate.
  Ś085 ś̮ı̋ı̋na, 1) t.v. cost, price, charge. 2) i.v. cost, set a price.
  Ś086 ś̮ı̋ı̋nis, swamp grass (Carex spp.) [Bot.].
  Ś087 ś̮ı̋s-a, i.v. gleam, burn, glare.
  Ś088 ś̮itőnos, lime, limestone, chalk.
  Ś089 ś̮őna, t.v. dog, hound.
  Ś090 ś̮őnśus, spirit.
  Ś091 śűɱra, 1) t.v. hole, make a hole in. 2) i.v. hole, make a hole.
  Ś092 ş́e̋ma, 1) t.v. color-, make-, -dark gray. 2) i.v. turn-, be-come-, -dark gray.
total: 92</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan lexicon roots t-ź</title>
    <id>2567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45733</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-27T14:58:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* t / τ / т / տ / ტ / תּ / ट */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]==

==t / τ / т / տ / ტ / תּ / ट==

# '''taaba''', 1) ''t.v.'' shoe, provide with shoes. 2) ''i.v.'' put on shoes.
# '''taabŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' obey, mind. 2) ''i.v.'' obey, mind.
# '''taada''', 1) ''t.v.'' do on purpose. 2) ''i.v.'' act on purpose.
# '''taaȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' melt, fuse, smelt, dissolve, liquefy. 2) ''i.v.'' melt, fuse, smelt, dissolve, liquefy, deliquesce.
# '''taaĸa''', ''t.v.'' fix, plant, erect, put-, set-, -up; wager, stake, bet; compose [''music''].
# '''taala''', ''i.v.'' become.
# '''taaɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' unravel, ravel, fray (out); solve, reduce [''fractions''], resolve [''discord'']; analyze [&lt;font color=red&gt;Chem.&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=red&gt;Gram.&lt;/font&gt;], break [''a spell''], dissolve [''partnership, marriage''], disband [''troops'']. 2) ''i.v.'' unravel, ravel, fray.
# '''taanos''', nasal ala [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''taatŭa''', ''i.v.'' break out (in a rash).
# '''taba''', 1) ''t.v.'' barter. 2) ''i.v.'' barter.
# '''taga''', 1) ''t.v.'' touch ([up]on), contact, be contiguous to, adjoin. 2) ''i.v.'' touch, contact.
# '''taȝros''', raft made of skins.
# '''taĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' silence, shut up. 2) ''i.v.'' be-, -silent, -quiet, keep silence, say nothing, hold one's tongue, shut up.
# '''taĸuros''', provisions for a journey.
# '''talbos''', outer side.
# '''talŭos''', split sinew.
# '''tama''', 1) ''t.v.'' pearl. 2) ''i.v.'' pearl.
# '''tambos''', tree stump; stock.
# '''tangos''', mother-of-pearl, nacre.
# '''tapa''', 1) ''t.v.'' humble. 2) ''i.v.'' humble o.s.
# '''tara''', 1) ''t.v.'' cross, traverse. 2) ''i.v.'' cross, traverse.
# '''teeda''', 1) ''t.v.'' burn [''of the sun'']. 2 ''i.v.'' burn.
# '''teega''', ''t.v.'' cauterize; distill [''spirits'']; bake [''bricks'']; roast [''grain''].
# '''teeĸĭis''', ''adj.'' separate(d), distinct, discrete.
# '''teela''', ''i.v.'' sober up, come to one’s senses.
# '''teema''', 1) ''t.v.'' raft. 2) ''i.v.'' raft.
# '''teengos''', lowlands, alluvial plain.
# '''teera''', ''t.v.'' compare ('''neeɱħa''', to).
# '''tega''', 1) ''t.v.'' shelter. 2) ''i.v.'' shelter.
# '''tegŭa''', ''t.v.'' plug, stop up, pack, caulk.
# '''teĸa''', ''i.v.'' stretch out the hand; shake hands.
# '''tela''', 1) ''t.v.'' weigh, poise, balance; ponder. 2) ''i.v.'' weigh, poise, balance; ponder.
# '''telĸa''', ''t.v.'' rap, toll, knell.
# '''telĸiȝos''', visor.
# '''telɱis''', ''adj.'' shallow, superficial.
# '''telpa''', 1) ''t.v.'' clear away. 2) ''i.v.'' make-, leave-,  -room (for, '''o'''), admit [''3rd person only''] (of, '''o'''), clear away.
# '''tema''', 1) ''t.v.'' hammer, forge. 2) ''i.v.'' hammer, forge.
# '''temſoris''', ''adj.'' glum, gloomy, morose, dour, saturnine.
# '''teɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' attend (to), pay attention to, heed, give-,  pay-, -heed to, reck, mind. 2) ''i.v.'' attend, pay attention, give-, pay-, -heed, mind.
# '''tena''', 1) ''t.v.'' thunder. 2) ''i.v.'' thunder.
# '''tenas''', time, division of the day; tense [&lt;font color=red&gt;Gram.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''tenda''', ''t.v.'' while (away).
# '''tenga''', 1) ''t.v.'' thank (for, '''anta'''), appreciate. 2) ''i.v.'' give thanks, appreciate.
# '''tenĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' curdle, coagulate, congeal, clot, clabber. 2) ''i.v.'' curdle, coagulate, congeal, clot, clabber.
# '''tentolos''', net(ting), gauze; network.
# '''tenta''', ''t.v.'' string [beads, an instrument].
# '''tenŭis''', ''adj.'' thin, fine; flimsy; rare [''of gases'']; polite, courteous, cultivated, refined.
# '''tepis''', ''adj.'' lukewarm, tepid; mild [''weather'']; indifferent, half-hearted.
# '''teϙaϙes''', rutting seal.
# '''tera''', ''i.v.'' cackle, cluck.
# '''terga''', 1) ''t.v.'' strain. 2) ''i.v.'' strain.
# '''tergŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' threaten, menace, intimidate. 2) ''i.v.'' threaten, menace.
# '''terĸŭa''', ''postp.'' during, for, in, in the process-, -course-, -of, on, through, throughout, under.
# '''terſa''', ''i.v.'' thirst, be thirsty (for, '''o''').
# '''teris''', ''adj.'' delicate, fragile, frail, fine.
# '''teþća''', 1) ''t.v.'' plait, braid; wreathe, entwine, twine, coil-, wind-, twist-, -together. 2) ''i.v.'' wreathe.
# '''teupa''', ''i.v.'' crouch, cower.
# '''teutas''', folk, people.
# '''teva''', ''t.v.'' establish, ascertain, determine, confirm, identify.
# '''texra''', ''i.v.'' have an erection.
# '''tiira''', 1) ''t.v.'' scrape, grate, scour, rasp, rub; extort. 2) ''i.v.'' scrape, scour, rasp, rub.
# '''tiirtes''', ocean.
# '''tigis''', ''adj.'' sarcastic, caustic, biting.
# '''tir''', ''adj.'' three.
# '''tiſos''', tent roof of birch bark. (&gt; Komi &lt;font color=green&gt;tisa&lt;/font&gt;, birch bark roof)
# '''toolća''', ''t.v.'' narrate an epic.
# '''toolos''', incoming tide.
# '''toores''', young camel.
# '''toorŭos''', birch cover for a bow.
# '''tooſĭos''', blaze on animal’s forehead.
# '''toaaru''', ''adv.'' then, so, accordingly, in that case; as I was saying.
# '''toalis''', ''adj.'' such.
# '''todis''', ''adj.'' full [''of the stomach''].
# '''toðperu''', ''adv.'' perhaps, belike.
# '''togos''', width of four fingers [&lt;font color=red&gt;Meas.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''toĸos''', edible root.
# '''toĸŭa''', ''t.v.'' buckle- (-on, -up).
# '''toĸĭa''', celebrate a-, -religious ceremony, -ritual.
# '''tola''', 1) ''t.v.'' will, determine, decree. 2) ''i.v.'' decree.
# '''tolĸŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' lay down, state, set forth, explain, expound, make clear, define. 2) ''i.v.'' explain, expound.
# '''tomos''', boat made of planks.
# '''topa''', 1) ''t.v.'' reach, arrive-, show up-, -at, get to. 2) ''i.v.'' arrive, show up.
# '''toϙaros''', dhal.
# '''tora''', 1) ''t.v.'' louden. 2) ''i.v.'' louden.
# '''toru''', ''adv.'' there.
# '''toþa''', 1) ''t.v.'' stutter, stammer. 2) ''t.v.'' stutter, stammer.
# '''toverus''', priestess.
# '''toza''', 1) ''t.v.'' worship, adore. 2) ''i.v.'' worship, adore.
# '''tøsta''', 1) ''t.v.'' witness to, testify to. 2) ''i.v.'' witness, testify.
# '''tuuȝĸa''', ''i.v.'' make a sign with the hand.
# '''tuula''', 1) ''t.v.'' bore. 2) ''i.v.'' be bored.
# '''tuuta''', 1) ''t.v.'' coo. 2) ''i.v.'' coo.
# '''tuȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' banquet, feast, fête. 2) ''i.v.'' (give a) feast.
# '''tuĸa''', ''t.v.'' lace-, tie-, -up, cord.
# '''tuĸaϙtos''', harpoon line.
# '''tula''', ''t.v.'' pipe.
# '''tulĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' divine, foresee. 2) ''i.v.'' divine, foresee.
# '''tulϙa''', ''t.v.'' hit with tusks.
# '''tuma''', 1) ''t.v.'' drum. 2) ''i.v.'' drum.
# '''tumgos''', base of a tree trunk.
# '''tundos''', piece of cloth.
# '''tungos''', window.
# '''tupa''', 1) ''t.v.'' tattoo. 2) ''i.v.'' tattoo.
# '''tura''', ''t.v.'' hedge-, fence-, -in.
# '''turba''', ''i.v.'' make a noise.
# '''tus''', you [''2nd personal pron. sing.''].
# '''tuſa''', ''t.v.'' empty, evacuate, drain, vacate. 2) ''i.v.'' empty, evacuate, drain.
# '''tuſna''', 1) ''t.v.'' billow. 2) ''i.v.'' billow, surge.
# '''tuvtos''', labret.
# '''tŭaaĸa''', ''t.v.'' enclose, surround; invest, besiege.
# '''tŭaĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' bathe. 2) ''i.v.'' bathe.
# '''tŭeȝa''', ''t.v.'' shake violently, convulse.
# '''tŭelos''', oarpin.
# '''tŭenϙa''', ''t.v.'' oppress, persecute.
# '''tŭera''', 1) ''t.v.'' spin, twist. 2) ''i.v.'' spin, twist.
# '''tŭeſa''', ''t.v.'' excite, rouse, incite, provoke, agitate, irritate, stir up [''fear, etc.''], raise [''hopes''], bestir.
# '''tŭiła''', 1) ''t.v.'' survive, live through, endure, go through, stick to. 2) ''i.v.'' endure to the end, persevere, persist, hold out, survive.
# '''tŭiva''', 1) ''t.v.'' open, unseal; introduce.
# '''tĭaĸa''', ''t.v.'' funnel.
# '''tĭega''', 1) ''t.v.'' shun, avoid, shrink from, eschew, keep out of. 2) ''i.v.'' shy.
# '''tĭoola''', 1) ''t.v.'' reflect, mirror. 2) ''i.v.'' reflect. 
# '''tĭoora''', ''t.v.'' hire.
# '''tĭolgos''', dogsled.
# '''tĭolgŭes''', last quarter moon.
# '''tĭőpa''', ''t.v.'' cover-, fill with-, -straw.
# '''tĭora''', ''t.v.'' cultivate [''earth''].
# '''tĭotos''', beehive.
# '''tĭuuĸos''', body hair.
# '''tĭuutes''', female camel.
# '''tĭudas''', appointed time.
# '''tĭuga''', 1) ''t.v.'' dock. 2) ''i.v.'' dock, wharf.
# '''tĭura''', ''t.v.'' cinch.
total: 132/80+8/67

==þ / θ / &amp;#1106; / թ / თ / ת / ठ==

# '''þafnos''', chalice.
# '''þĸŭera''', ''t.v.'' crack [''a nut''].
# '''þleeȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' bear, carry, convey; wear, have on. 2) ''i.v.'' bear, carry; wear.
# '''þrapos''', fireplace.
# '''þreema''', 1) ''t.v.'' trample. 2) ''i.v.'' trample.
# '''þrepa''', ''i.v.'' tread, walk.
# '''þriiſta''', ''t.v.'' defy.
# '''þroobos''', structure, edifice.
# '''þrudeſos''', leprosy.
# '''þruna''', 1) ''t.v.'' exercise sovereignty over. 2) ''i.v.'' exercise sovereignty.
# '''þu''', ''adj.'' eleven.
total: 11/6/55

==u / υ / у / ու / უ / וּ / ऊ==

# '''uuðos''', udder.
# '''uurus''', craftsman.
# '''uba''', 1) ''t.v.'' push (down), press (down), squeeze, squash, strain, extrude; stamp; dun; depress, repress, suppress, stress, put down 2) ''i.v.'' press (on).
# '''uća''', 1) ''t.v.'' cause, motivate, occasion, bring about, produce, accomplish, do, carry out; make [''with inf.'']; have, make [''s.o. do s.th.'']. 2) ''i.v.'' produce, cause, have an affect.
# '''uda''', ''postp.'' up.
# '''uderos''', belly, abdomen [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;]; hold.
# '''uða''', ''t.v.'' possess, own, be endowed with.
# '''uðta''', ''t.v.'' bridle, rein in, curb, check.
# '''uflis''', ''adj.'' bad, ill, wicked, base, fell.
# '''uĸa''', ''t.v.'' be-, get-, -in the habit of, be-, become-, -accustomed to.
# '''uĸŭos''', clan.
# '''ula''', ''i.v.'' hoot.
# '''ulŭos''', hundred billion.
# '''umiros''', large skin boat.
# '''ungos''', canopy.
# '''unliϙus''', person from another tribe or clan.
# '''untos''', tide.
# '''upis''', ''adj''. upper, higher, chief, principal, senior.
# '''uϙos''', nape-, back-, scruff-, -of the neck [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''uϙra''', 1) ''t.v.'' chill, make cold. 2) ''i.v.'' become-, turn-, -cold.
# '''uris''', ''adj.'' piebald.
# '''uſa''', ''t.v.'' draw [''water'']; ladle, lade, bale, dip, scoop out.
# '''uſos''', ear [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''uta''', 1) ''t.v.'' feel, sense, be sensitive to, become aware of. 2) ''i.v.'' feel.
# '''uvris''', ''adj.'' real, genuine.
total: 25/9+4/52

==v / β / в / վ / ვ / ו / व==

# '''vaaa''', ''i.v.'' converse, discuss, talk over.
# '''vaadis''', ''adj.'' good.
# '''vaala''', ''i.v.'' leaf, produce leaves, put forth foliage.
# '''vaangos''', forearm [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat., Meas.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''vaga''', ''t.v.'' assign, allot, allocate, distribute, apportion; impute, ascribe, attach, post, appoint [&lt;font color=red&gt;Mil.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''varða''', ''i.v.'' grow a beard.
# '''vargenos''', bread [''unleavened''].
# '''varis''', conifer [&lt;font color=red&gt;Bot.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''varxŭa''', ''t.v.'' cram, stuff, fill [''a pipe''].
# '''vaſĸa''', ''t.v.'' bundle; truss.
# '''vatis''', ''adj.'' unmarried.
# '''vaxra''', ''t.v.'' contract, covenant.
# '''vdela''', ''t.v.'' absorb.
# '''veeða''', ''t.v.'' plague, torment; worry, harass.
# '''veeϙa''', ''i.v.'' squabble, dispute, wrangle, disagree, brawl.
# '''veeris''', ''adj.'' brown [''of animals''].
# '''veða''', 1) ''t.v.'' dig, spade. 2) ''i.v.'' dig.
# '''vega''', ''t.v.'' batter.
# '''veȝa''', ''i.v.'' keep bees.
# '''veĸa''', ''i.v.'' hiccough.
# '''vela''', 1) ''t.v.'' roar. 2) ''i.v.'' roar.
# '''velća''', ''t.v.'' joist.
# '''velća''', ''t.v.'' cushion, pad.
# '''velða''', ''i.v.'' go astray, lose one's way, get lost.
# '''velſa''', ''t.v.'' cork.
# '''vena''', 1) ''t.v.'' wound. 2) ''i.v.'' wound.
# '''venda''', ''i.v.'' rejoice, exult.
# '''venða''', 1) ''t.v.'' bind, tie-, (-up, -down, -on), lash; hoop [''a cask'']. 2) ''i.v.'' set, harden.
# '''venĸa''', ''t.v.'' send, dispatch, ship, transport; transmit, mail, post.
# '''veϙa''', ''i.v.'' desert.
# '''vera''', 1) ''t.v.'' lift-, raise-, (-up), hold up, elevate. 2) ''i.v.'' arise, get-, stand-, -up.
# '''verða''', 1) ''t.v.'' saw. 2) ''i.v.'' saw.
# '''verga''', ''i.v.'' bark; hack [''cough''].
# '''verħa''', 1) ''t.v.'' save, secure; salvage, rescue, recover, help. 2) ''i.v.'' save; recover.
# '''verϙis''', ''adj.'' tall, lofty.
# '''verſis''', ''adj.'' rapid, swift, fleet, speedy.
# '''vertas''', (good) luck, fortune.
# '''verźa''', ''t.v.'' break-, (-up), (-through), (-down), breach, fracture, quarry.
# '''veſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' breathe out, exhale; aspirate. 2) ''i.v.'' exhale.
# '''veta''', ''t.v.'' push, shove, jostle.
# '''vetu''', ''adv.'' out(side), outwardly, without, out of doors.
# '''vevra''', 1) ''t.v.'' embrown, brown. 2) ''i.v.'' brown.
# '''viiða''', 1) ''t.v.'' fear, be afraid of, have an aversion to. 2) ''i.v.'' stand in fear, fear, be afraid.
# '''viila''', 1) ''t.v.'' befriend, make friends with. 2) ''i.v.'' make friends.
# '''viira''', 1) ''t.v.'' carve, sculpt, whittle [''wood'']. 2) ''i.v.'' carve, sculpt, whittle.
# '''viirĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' top, culminate in. 2) ''i.v.'' culminate.
# '''viiþla''', ''t.v.'' kill with an arrow.
# '''viða''', ''t.v.'' cooper.
# '''vila''', ''t.v.'' equal, equalize, equate; correspond, conform.
# '''viſĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' color-, make-, -purple, empurple. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -purple.
# '''vlaagis''', ''adj.'' silly, foolish, absurd.
# '''vlaϙma''', ''i.v.'' preside, officiate [''as a priest''].
# '''vleeća''', 1) ''t.v.'' color-, make-, -shining white. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -shining white.
# '''vleera''', 1) ''t.v.'' color-, make-, -orange. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -orange.
# '''vleda''', ''i.v.'' hiss, fizz, fizzle, whiz.
# '''vleȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' overflow. 2) ''i.v.'' overflow, flow over.
# '''vleɱa''', ''i.v.'' boil over.
# '''vlooris''', ''adj.'' blond, fair.
# '''vloĸos''', oakum, tow.
# '''vo''', ''inter. particle'' expressing protest or assertion.
# '''voga''', ''i.v.'' stream.
# '''voĸa''', ''i.v.'' flame; blaze, flare.
# '''vola''', 1) ''t.v.'' mist, fog. 2) ''i.v.'' mist, fog (up).
# '''volna''', ''t.v.'' bottle.
# '''voɱa''', ''t.v.'' grill, broil, bake.
# '''voreðes''', post horse.
# '''voris''', ''adj.'' disagreeable, unfavorable, unfriendly, unkind, ungracious, unpleasant, uncharitable.
# '''voſa''', ''i.v.'' train naked, practice gymnastics.
# '''vraatus''', brother.
# '''vraga''', 1) ''t.v.'' perfume, cense. 2) ''i.v.'' smell good, be fragrant, exhale fragrance, cense.
# '''vraĸos''', trousers, pants, breeches, trewes.
# '''vranϙa''', 1) ''t.v.'' hoarsen. 2) ''i.v.'' hoarsen.
# '''vraſta''', 1) ''t.v.'' disdain, despise, scorn, show-, have-, contempt for. 2) ''i.v.'' have contempt.
# '''vreeɱa''', ''t.v.'' bridge, span, straddle, bestraddle.
# '''vreća''', 1) ''t.v.'' belie. 2) ''i.v.'' (tell a) lie.
# '''vrena''', ''t.v.'' edge.
# '''vrenĸa''', ''t.v.'' bring, fetch, come for.
# '''vreſa''', ''i.v.'' crackle, rustle, rattle.
# '''vriiga''', 1) ''t.v.'' fry. 2) ''i.v.'' fry.
# '''vriſĸis''', ''adj.'' tart, acrid, pungent. 
# '''vroða''', 1) ''t.v.'' ford, wade. 2) ''i.v.'' wade.
# '''vruuga''', 1) ''t.v.'' fruit. 2) ''i.v.'' (bear) fruit, fructify.
# '''vruunos''', membrane of an egg.
# '''vruuſos''', eyebrow [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''vrudos''', vegetable.
# '''vruĸa''', ''i.v.'' spring, snap, fly-, -back, -off with a jerk.
# '''vrunos''', cornice, molding.
# '''vuula''', ''i.v.'' there-, -is, -are.
# '''vuða''', ''t.v.'' examine, inspect, check up, look-, -over, -on.
# '''vuðmos''', floor, flooring, base, bottom [''of the sea''].
# '''vuga''', ''i.v.'' flee, take flight, run away, retreat.
# '''vulas''', iridiscence.
# '''vunda''', 1) ''t.v.'' agree upon, allow, permit, admit of, pass, let. 2) ''i.v.'' assent, consent, accede, concur, give in, be in accord (with/to, '''ϙóma''').
# '''vunða''', ''t.v.'' command, order, require, bid.
# '''vunos''', chalet.
# '''vuϙa''', 1) ''t.v.'' clean (out), cleanse, purify, purge. 2) ''i.v.'' clean, purify, purge.
# '''vura''', 1) ''t.v.'' scrape-, grind-, -off, wear-, -down, -out, -off, sand. 2) ''i.v.'' wear-, -out, -off.
# '''vurnos''', shelf, ledge, berm.
# '''vuta''', 1) ''t.v.'' pitch [''a tent'']; camp, encamp. 2) ''i.v.'' tent; camp, encamp.
# '''vuźes''', buck, male goat; male of any small ungulate, ''e.g.'', saiga.
# '''vŭeetos''', world, earth.
total: 101/71+9/79

==x / χ / х / խ / ხ / ח / ख==

# '''xata''', 1) ''t.v.'' pop, puff; cuff, thump, whack. 2) ''i.v.'' pop, puff; thump, whack.
# '''xenda''', 1) ''t.v.'' disperse, dissipate, diffuse, disseminate, spread, scatter, strew, bestrew, dispel, banish [''fear, etc.'']. 2) ''i.v.'' disperse, dissipate, diffuse, spread, scatter.
# '''xerda''', 1) ''t.v.'' splinter, chip. 2) ''i.v.'' splinter, chip.
# '''xlaibos''', bread [''leavened''].
# '''xrusta''', ''i.v.'' form a scab.
# '''xrŭata''', ''t.v.'' leech.
# '''xuta''', ''i.v.'' huddle.
total: 7/6/86

==z / ζ / з / զ / ზ / ז / ज़==

# '''zaĸta''', ''t.v.'' cushion, pad.
# '''zal''', ''adj.'' twelve.
# '''zeeras''', lunar year.
# '''zgŭeſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' put out, turn off, extinguish. 2) ''i.v.'' go out, be extinguished.
# '''zilþus''', praetor.
# '''zɱaɱos''', avalanche.
# '''zqŭela''', ''i.v.'' pour (down).
# '''zuuntes''', fawn.
# '''zŭera''', ''i.v.'' collect [''tribute, toll''].
# '''zŭiiȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' vivify, give life, enliven, animate. 2) ''i.v.'' be alive.
# '''zoðgos''', camel’s beard, dewlap.
# '''zĭaĸa''', ''i.v.'' droop.
# '''zĭoϙnos''', sleeve.
# '''zĭuĸos''', yogurt.
total: 14/6/43

==ź / Ϡ / ѕ / ձ / ძ / צּ / द==

# '''źaala''', 1) ''t.v.'' invite, ask in. 2) ''i.v.'' invite.
# '''źaara''', ''t.v.'' challenge.
# '''źaba''', 1) ''t.v.'' make a show of, assume, affect; look-, -at, -upon, -out for, gaze upon; contemplate. 2) ''i.v.'' look, gaze, view.
# '''źai…źai''', ''quotative particle''.
# '''źanges''', new moon.
# '''źapos''', bolt, quarrel.
# '''źarus''', sister-in-law.
# '''źeeȝa''', ''i.v.'' germinate; arise, develop, stir.
# '''źeela''', 1) ''t.v.'' smile. 2) ''i.v.'' smile (at, upon, o).
# '''źeena''', ''t.v.'' recognize, discern, distinguish, tell apart, take cognizance of, acknowledge, admit; diagnose; detect; know, acquaint, be acquainted with; have cognizance of; betoken.
# '''źeenŭa''', ''i.v.'' be born.
# '''źeera''', ''i.v.'' grow old, age.
# '''źeeſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' taste. 2) ''i.v.'' taste.
# '''źefa''', ''i.v.'' eat [''of animals'']; feed.
# '''źemva''', 1) ''t.v.'' bite (through), crunch, break with the-, -teeth, -beak. 2) ''i.v.'' bite, crunch.
# '''źeɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' hasten, hurry, speed, rush. 2) ''i.v''. make haste, hasten, (be in a) hurry, hurl, hurtle, speed, rush.
# '''źenðos''', jawbone, mandible [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''źentas''', nature, disposition, constitution; temperament, temper, frame of mind.
# '''źentus''', son-in-law.
# '''źena''', ''i.v.'' kneel, be-, -kneeling, -on one's knees.
# '''źera''', ''i.v.'' ripen, mature.
# '''źerſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' distort, misshape, contort, warp, gnarl, deform; pervert. 2) ''i.v.'' distort, contort, warp, deform.
# '''źida''', 1) ''t.v.'' digest, assimilate. 2) ''i.v.'' digest, assimilate.
# '''źiibos''', fireplace, hearth.
# '''źila''', 1) ''t.v.'' run up to, rush against; call at, touch [''a port'']. 2) ''i.v.'' make land.
# '''źipos''', musk.
# '''źiros''', anvil.
# '''źiſos''', quartz.
# '''źoolɱus''', spouse's sister.
# '''źoona''', ''t.v.'' procreate, beget; generate, engender, raise, breed, reproduce.
# '''źooźa''', ''i.v.'' quarrel.
# '''źoϙos''', bush, shrub.
# '''źuba''', ''t.v.'' grit the teeth.
# '''źuga''', ''t.v.'' carry on the back.
# '''źuſa''', ''t.v.'' enjoy, have the use of, relish.
# '''źŭera''', ''i.v.'' emit light and be hot.
# '''źĭaĸa''', ''t.v.'' rent.
# '''źĭooros''', ten million. 
# '''źĭolŭes''', river bed.
# '''źĭonga''', 1) ''t.v.'' echo. 2) ''i.v.'' echo. 
# '''źĭula''', ''t.v.'' (put a) halter (on).
# '''źĭura''', ''t.v.'' skim.
total: 42/27/64

Grand Total: 2385/1540/65%</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conlang-L FAQ</title>
    <id>2568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48600</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-23T14:25:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AlexFink</username>
        <id>3</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* A brief history of the list */ there's the word I wanted</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Where to get Conlang-L==

The official archives are at http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html . From there, you can search the archives, get an RSS feed, manage your subscription, etc.

It's also the ONLY place you can go to sign up and post things to the list.

A read-only archive with a nicer user interface is at http://archives.conlang.info/ .  [As of April 2009 this archive has ceased mirroring new messages.  Henrik Theiling knows about the problem and has said he's planning to fix it but hasn't had time to do so yet.]

Conlang-L is also &lt;i&gt;mirrored&lt;/i&gt; as a Yahoo group, but there is no way to have posts to the Yahoo group sent to the actual list.  Do &lt;b&gt;not&lt;/b&gt; subscribe to the Yahoo group.  It has no admin anymore.  Go to http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html instead!

==A brief history of the list==

The list evolved from some informal email conversations among an early group of language enthusiasts. The earliest mail mirror was run by John Ross out of the BU physics department, and was up and running by 29 July 1991. It moved to Denmark on 23 March, 1993.

The original note reads in part:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;''By agreement with John Ross, the CONLANG mailing list has been moved to diku.dk, the mail hub of the CS Department of the University of Copenhagen. Send all submissions to CONLANG at diku dot dk. The address at buphy still works, but it is just an alias for the new list.''&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;''Lars Mathiesen (U of Copenhagen CS Dept)  (Humour NOT marked)''&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

(Note that the submission address in that historical note '''NO LONGER WORKS'''.)

Later, growing traffic and changes at the university necessitated a move. In January&amp;ndash;February of 1997 the list moved to its current home at Brown University's LISTSERV server. David Durand made the move and actively moderated the list from that point on.

Before the move, threads centered on debates on the relative merits of [[auxlang]]s had become common on CONLANG; these were often incendiary and irritated many listmembers.  Accordingly, when the new CONLANG list was set up at Brown, a sister list AUXLANG was set up to cater to participants of these threads, and auxlang advocacy was banned from CONLANG.  It still is.  (Dispassionate discussion of auxlangs is welcome.)

In ??? John Cowan took over actual moderation duties, as &quot;Lord of the Instrumentality&quot;.

Later the torch was passed to Henrik Theiling.

==Subject Topic Tags==
In the subject line of a post, you can mark the post with one of the following tags.  Tags are only recognised if a colon follows and not other decoration (e.g. brackets) are used. Any 'Re:' etc. is irrelevant -- the software skips it.

Good tag syntax:

  CHAT: Is the world really round?

Bad tag syntax:

  [CHAT]: Is the world really round?

These are the official tags the listserv software can be instructed to
filter automatically.  There are currently exactly three:
* CHAT: off-topic stuff of the conversational sort
* USAGE: natural language usage (all of the YAEPT and similar should use this)
* THEORY: linguistic theory discussions
Only the above three tags are official and configured for filtering. However, most advanced mail clients can be set to have extra filters, such as for the following unofficial tags:

* OT: should not be used, use CHAT instead as some software had problems with 'OT'
* OFFLIST: not actually seen on-list, this tag is added to make explicitly clear that you are taking a subject offlist (i.e. you're emailing someone directly about it)

The following are explicitly not included in the list of filterable tags:
* META: threads about CONLANG-L itself
* TECH: technical issues (e.g. email programs, list-related technical problems, etc)

Finally, there are two meta-tags:
* [CONLANG]: This should not be actually added when starting a new subject; you can make the listserv prepend it automatically to all email (so that you can set your mail client to filter all list traffic)
* &quot;was&quot;: used to change the subject, or more commonly, to indicate that the subject of a thread changed a while ago and you're no longer pretending it's about the original topic

Example:
  
  JAMA says flat earth leads to flat [@] (was CHAT: Is the world really round?)

Note that tags ARE included after the &quot;was&quot;, but &quot;Re:&quot; is NOT, nor is [CONLANG].

==Posting limits==
As a traffic-limiting measure, if the list receives more than 99 messages in a given day (in Brown's time zone), all subsequent messages will be automatically held and not delivered until the admin unblocks the list.  

Sometimes, during longer periods of high traffic, a further limit is imposed restricting each person to five posts a day.  ''This restriction is currently in force.''  Posters are encouraged, during such periods but also in general, to consolidate several shorter replies on a single topic into a single message.

==Acronyms==
List of acronyms specific to the Conlang Mailing List:

* AFMCL - &quot;As for my conlang..&quot;
** AFMOCL - &quot;As for my own conlang&quot;
* ANADEW - &quot;A natlang's already dunnit, except worse&quot;
* ANADEWism - Something you thought was unique, but ANADEW
* LCC - the [http://conlangs.berkeley.edu Language Creation Conference]
* NLF2DWS or NLWS - Non-linear [fully 2-dimensional] writing system
* YAEPT (the original acronym) - Yet Another English Pronunciation Thread
** YADPT ... Dutch Pronunciation ...
** YAGPT ... German Pronunciation ...
** YAEGT ... English Grammar ...
** general pattern: YA(Language)(Topic)T

==Other conlang-specific vocabulary==

From [http://cassowary.free.fr/Linguistics/Conlang%20Dictionary/ here] and [http://arthaey.mine.nu/~arthaey/conlang/faq.html here].  See also [http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/Conlang_terminology Conlang terminology] at Conlang Wikia.

con__
* constructed __ (generally a contraction): conlang, conworld, conhistory, conculture, ...

__lang
* a language characterised by ___ (generally a contraction): conlang, artlang, auxlang, ...

[[artlang]]
# A language constructed for the beauty or fun of doing so. [From art(istic) + lang(uage)] 
# (See conlang) [From art(ificial) + lang(uage)] 

[[auxlang]]
* A language constructed to replace or complement natlangs to facilitate cross-linguistic communication. [From aux(iliary) + lang(uage)] 

concultural [From con(structed) + cultur(e) + al]
* Adjective form of &quot;conculture&quot;.

[[conculture]] [From con(structed) + culture]
* A fictional culture created as a backdrop to a conlang. See also &quot;conworld&quot;.

[[conlang]] [From con(structed) + lang(uage)] 
# n. A constructed language 
# v. To construct a language 

[[CONLANG]] (all caps), conlang-l, Conlang-L, or CONLANG-L
* A very active conlang mailing list hosted by brown.edu, and currently operated by Henrik Theiling

[[conworld]] [From con(structed) + world]
* A fictional world created to host a conlang or conculture. See also &quot;conculture&quot;.

[[engelang]] /ˈendʒlæŋ/ [From eng(ineered) + lang(uage)]
* A conlang that is designed to certain criteria, such that it is objectively testable whether the criteria are met or not. This is different from claiming that the criteria themselves are 'objective'. For example, the Lojban/Loglan roots are designed to be maximally recognisable to the speakers of the (numerically) largest languages in the world in proportion to the number of speakers. It is not a matter of taste whether this criterion is met; it is something that can be tested. (by John Cowan) [From eng(ineered) + lang(uage)] 

etabnannery /raːmnænəɹi/ (rare)
* The state of appearing entirely unpredictable, but, upon closer analysis, failing at even being that. [From Etá̄bnann(i), a conlang by Tristan McLeay, which was supposed to have an unpredictable orthography, but ended up just having a confusing one. Damn people trying to make patterns everywhere. At least it's a bugger to typeset!... errm... back to the derivation + -ery] 

maggelity /mə&quot;gɛːlIti/ (rare) [From Maggel, a conlang by Christophe Grandsire which has a rarely predictable orthography] 
# The state of being entirely unpredictable. (Tristan McLeay)
# The state of being regularly unpredictable, such as to horribly confuse anyone unfamiliar with the language, lulling them into a full sense of security before pointing out, cartoon-character-style, that the ground no longer exists where they're standing. (Tristan McLeay and H. S. Teoh) 

Maggel's Paradox (rare)
* Your radical ideas have already occurred to others. (Muke Tever)

[[natlang]] [From nat(ural) + lang(uage)]
# A natural language, i.e., one that naturally developed in the world, as opposed to a conlang.

ObConlang
* Just before something about conlanging in an otherwise off-topic post.
* From ob(ligatory) + conlang (i.e., an obligatory on-topic comment about conlangs just so that the post isn't completely off-topic).

[[translation relay]]
* A game similar to Telephone or Chinese Whispers, wherein the participants translate a passage one at a time, in serial, into their own languages - and then marvel at how far from the original the translations have gotten.

==CXS (Conlang X-SAMPA)==
[[CXS]] is a version of X-SAMPA for use on the CONLANG mailing list. X-SAMPA is a way to write the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) using normal plain-ASCII text that everyone can read.

* [http://www.theiling.de/ipa/ Theiling Online: Conlang X-Sampa (CXS)] - includes CXS-to-IPA conversion chart
* [http://ca.geocities.com/vixcafe/jasminese/cxs.html CXS (Conlang Modified X-SAMPA)]

==Resources==

* [http://www.arthaey.com/conlang/faq.html Arthaey's Conlang FAQ]
* [http://www.langmaker.com LangMaker] - repository of many conlang &quot;biographies&quot;
* [http://wiki.frath.net Frath Wiki] - a similar site, and host of the Conlang-L (wikified) FAQ
* [http://www.omniglot.com Omniglot] - which has information on more writing systems than you thought could exist

[[Category:Conlanging culture]]
[[Category:Terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Conlang-L FAQ</title>
    <id>2569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-09T21:46:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saizai</username>
        <id>197</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Well done, Henrik.
Thank you.
----
Could you add a link to CXS aka CONLANG X-SAMPA?
----
Thanks again.
----
eldin

Whee, wikis. Time for me to go to bed, I think I've added enough for one night. :-) --[[User:Saizai|Sai]] 01:20, 19 July 2006 (PDT)

Needed revisions:
* history of the list
* resources - edit the dumb description (mine :P) --[[User:Saizai|Sai]] 14:46, 9 August 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan lexicon roots a-b</title>
    <id>2570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48620</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-26T15:51:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* a / α  / а / ա / ა / א / अ */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Introduction==
*The entries in this dictionary include only the basic words of Senjecas.  Derivations, compounds, proper names, and onomatopoetic words are not included.
*Names of plants and animals have their own dictionaries.
*At the end of each section are three numbers.  The first is the number of words in the section.  The second is the number of verbs plus the number of adjectives that may be used as verbs in the section.  The third is the percentage of verbs to total entries.

==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide|Pronunciation]]==

==a / α  / а / ա / ა / א / अ==
# '''aa''', inter. ah! [''exclamation denoting pleasure or admiration''].
# '''aafra''', 1) ''t.v.'' beach. 2) ''i.v.'' beach.
# '''aagĭa''', ''t.v.'' acidify.
# '''ai''', ''inter.'' ''exclamation of wonder or surprise''.
# '''aaȝa''', ''i.v.'' last, perdure.
# '''aaȝra''', ''i.v.'' morning is breaking.
# '''aalĭos''', sausage. 
# '''aamra''', ''i.v.'' pass-, spend-, -the day.
# '''aana''', 1) ''t.v.'' ring, encircle, surround. 2) ''i.v.'' form a ring or rings.
# '''aanda''', 1) ''t.v.'' hurt, (do) wrong. 2) ''i.v.'' hurt.
# '''aanta''', ''i.v.'' set up a warp; contrive a plot, scheme, intrigue, conspire.
# '''aaſna''', ''t.v.'' ennoble.
# '''aauſa''', ''i.v.'' move-, travel-, -east.
# '''aaźus''', wife of younger brother.
# '''abŭos''', alveolar ridge [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''aća''', ''t.v.'' point, sharpen, taper.
# '''aćenos''', fish-lure.
# '''ados''', watercourse.
# '''aða''', ''postp.'' among(st), with, within.
# '''afa''', ''postp.'' off, from.
# '''aga''', 1) ''t.v.'' sin. 2) ''i.v.'' sin (against, '''anta''').
# '''agulos''', wilderness.
# '''agiros''', colostrum.
# '''agŭeſa''', ''i.v.'' brandish a battle-axe.
# '''aħa''', 1) ''t.v.'' gestate. 2) ''i.v.'' be pregnant (''of non-loquent beings'').
# '''ai''', ''inter.'' soon, then, apparently [''in expressions of astonishment, disapproval, or sarcasm''].
# '''aȝa''', ''t.v.'' grant, accord, concede, vouchsafe, yield, give up.
# '''aȝeſos''', ore.
# '''aȝos''', copper.
# '''aȝra''', ''i.v.'' prepare-, make-, -kumiss.
# '''aĸuvos''', waterproof garment, raincoat.
# '''alaa''', ''inter.'' hello [''expression of greeting'']; ahoy.
# '''ala''', 1) ''t.v.'' whiten, bleach, blanch.
# '''alaqos''', tasty dish, delicacy.
# '''alća''', ''t.v.'' ward (off), avert, repulse, repel, set back; parry.
# '''aldas''', fathom [&lt;font color=red&gt;Meas.&lt;/font&gt;]
# '''alða''', 1) ''t.v.'' gutter. 2) ''i.v.'' gutter.
# '''alga''', 1) ''t.v.'' sieve, filter, strain. 2) ''i.v.'' sieve, filter, strain. 
# '''alła''', ''t.v.'' earn; win; deserve, merit.
# '''alpa''', 1) ''t.v.'' subtract, deduct; depreciate. 2) ''i.v.'' abate, decrease, diminish, reduce, subtract, subside, die down, go down [of prices], lose weight, decline, fall off, recede, let up.
# '''altes''', female animal.
# '''alungos''', snow bank.
# '''alutos''', alum.
# '''alŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' brew. 2) ''i.v.'' brew.
# '''alĭa''', ''t.v.'' alienate, estrange (from, '''éħa''').
# '''ałna''', ''i.v.'' lamb.
# '''amas''', mother, dam.
# '''ambalos''', cooked rice.
# '''ambis''', ''adj.'' heavy, weighty, ponderous.
# '''amilgos''', fibula [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''amla''', ''i.v.'' be of importance, matter.
# '''amra''', 1) ''t.v.'' hold (on), take hold of, grip. 2) ''i.v.'' hold.
# '''amvis''', ''adj.'' both, ambi-.
# '''amźa''', 1) ''t.v.'' make-, open-, -a way, pave the way for. 2) ''i.v.'' (walk a) path.
# '''aɱa''', ''i.v.'' bird; trap-, shoot-, catch-, -birds.
# '''aɱa''', ''postp.'' down (through).
# '''aɱda''', 1) ''t.v.'' water, irrigate; dilute, water (down). 2) ''i.v.'' alight on water.
# '''aɱſa''', ''i.v.'' stay overnight, pass-, spend-, -the night.
# '''ana''', ''postp.'' up. 
# '''analos''', drift-ice.
# '''anćaϙos''', wind off the land.
# '''anða''', 1) ''t.v.'' blind. 2) i.v. be-, become-, -blind.
# '''anerus''', ancestor.
# '''anetes''',  duck.
# '''anga''', 1) ''t.v.'' untie. 2) ''i.v.'' untie.
# '''angalĸŭus''', shaman.
# '''angarus''', courier, envoy, emissary.
# '''angetos''', midden.
# '''angu''', ''inter.'' stop!, cut it out!, don’t do it!
# '''angŭa''', ''i.v.'' writhe, wriggle, slither.
# '''anĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' bend, curve, bow. 2) ''i.v.'' bend, warp.
# '''anϙa''', 1) ''t.v.'' poke about (in), poke, rake, stir [''a fire'']; pick [''the teeth'']. 2) ''i.v.'' poke about, poke, rake.
# '''anϙenus''', person, personage, character.
# '''anſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' favor, indulge, please. 2) ''i.v.'' indulge, please.
# '''anſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' loop. 2) ''i.v.'' loop.
# '''anta''', 1) ''t.v.'' oppose, face. 2) ''i.v.'' oppose, face.
# '''antas''', life force, the soul that leaves the body at death [''one of the three souls''], personhood; ba.
# '''anteris''', ''adj.'' other of two.
# '''anþa''', ''i.v.'' flower, bloom, blossom (forth), open, effloresce.
# '''anĭa''', ''t.v.'' make something another's, alienate.
# '''apa''', ''t.v.'' father, sire.
# '''apelos''', force, vigor, energy.
# '''apis''', ''adj.'' away, absent.
# '''apućus''', elder sister.
# '''aϙa''', ''t.v.'' depress [''emotionally''], dispirit, dishearten.
# '''aϙla''', ''i.v.'' disagree, dissent, dispute.
# '''aϙrutos''', mixture of animal fat or oil.
# '''ara''', 1) ''t.v.'' turn down, refuse, deny, decline, reject, disavow, gainsay, recant, retract, abjure, renounce, negate. 2) ''i.v.'' refuse, decline, recant, retract.
# '''arða''', ''t.v.'' bar, bolt.
# '''arga''', 1) ''t.v.'' close, shut, lock- (-in, -up); block, obstruct, blockade. 2) ''i.v.'' close, shut, lock; block, be in the way.
# '''arĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' keep, preserve, pickle, put away, set-, lay-, -aside, save. 2) ''i.v.'' keep, preserve, save.
# '''arĸŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' shoot [''an arrow'']. 2) ''i.v.'' release an arrow from a bow.
# '''arla''', 1) ''t.v.'' advise, counsel, recommend. 2) ''i.v.'' counsel.
# '''aros''', nut.
# '''arpa''', ''t.v.'' predict, foretell, prophesy, prognosticate, vaticinate. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;arpa&lt;/font&gt;, lot)
# '''arϙŭas''', windward.
# '''aru''', ''adv.'' scarcely, hardly, barely.
# '''arutos''', seal skin.
# '''arźos''', field, meadow, common.
# '''arŭa''', ''t.v.'' eviscerate, disembowel.
# '''arĭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' be in charge of. 2) ''i.v.'' be in charge.
# '''aſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' revere, reverence. 2) ''i.v.'' revere. 
# '''aſurus''', prince. (&gt; Mondovian &lt;font color=green&gt;azoro&lt;/font&gt;, lord)
# '''ata''', 1) ''t.v.'' traverse, pace off, frequent. 2) ''i.v.'' go, proceed.
# '''atungos''', sole [''of shoe''].
# '''aþala''', ''i.v.'' run the household, keep house.
# '''au''', ''inter.'' ''exclamation of pain, confusion, or anger''.
# '''auða''', ''t.v.'' perceive.
# '''auga''', ''i.v.'' glitter, glisten, sparkle.
# '''auſa''', ''t.v.'' gild.
# '''auta''', ''t.v.'' give away, dispose of, confer, bestow (on, '''ena'''), dispense.
# '''averos''', bedding.
# '''avis''', ''adj.'' rash, impetuous. 
# '''avla''', ''i.v.'' spread the legs.
# '''avris''', ''adj.'' violent.
# '''avŭos''', ingredient.
# '''axriibis''', ''adj.'' exact, accurate, precise.
# '''axſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' hew-, cleave-, -with an axe. 2) ''i.v.'' brandish an axe.
# '''axtes''', castrated camel.
# '''azda''', ''i.v.'' glow.
# '''aźa''', ''t.v.'' put-, set-, -in motion, move, stir, set working, drive, force; activate, actuate, affect, promote, turn on; emboss, work, chase, raise [''metals'']; put forth [''leaves, branches, etc.''].
#'''aźos''', axle-tree, shaft; axis [&lt;font color=red&gt;Math.&lt;/font&gt;], pole.
total: 122/63/52%

==b / ϐ / б / բ / ბ / ב / ब==

# '''baaba''', ''i.v.'' bleat.
# '''baaĸos''', tongs, pincers; tweezers, forceps.
# '''baaĸŭos''', flock of sheep and goats.
# '''baalus''', baby, infant.
# '''baara''', ''t.v.'' cover with curtains, hang, drape.
# '''bada''', 1) ''t.v.'' (color-, make-), -yellow. 2) ''i.v.'' (turn-, become-), -yellow.
# '''badĭa''', ''t.v.'' form.
# '''bagŭis''', ''adj.'' gray [''of hair''].
# '''baiðra''', 1) ''t.v.'' canoe. 2) ''i.v.'' canoe.
# '''baȝa''', ''t.v.'' enjoy, be happy.
# '''baĸa''', ''t.v.'' stab, thrust, jab, foin.
# '''baĸŭa''', ''i.v.'' erect the central pole of a tent.
# '''bala''', 1) ''t.v.'' revolve, orbit. 2) ''i.v.'' revolve, orbit.
# '''balba''', 1) ''t.v.'' babble. 2) ''i.v.'' babble.
# '''balpa''', ''t.v.'' cover with-, roof with-, -slate.
# '''baɱa''', ''i.v.'' bay.
# '''banda''', 1) ''t.v.'' bead. 2) ''i.v.'' bead.
# '''banga''', 1) ''t.v.'' kick. 2) ''i.v.'' kick.
# '''bara''', 1) ''t.v.'' thicken, solidify, liquefy [''a gas''], compact. 2) ''i.v.'' thicken, solidify, liquefy [''a gas''].
# '''baſa''', ''t.v.'' lend, loan.
# '''baſma''', ''t.v.'' spice, season.
# '''bata''', ''t.v.'' coat.
# '''baźis''', ''adj.'' early, advance.
# '''beeda''', ''i.v.'' split pulse.
# '''beelos''', waist, waistline; lap.
# '''beeźa''', ''t.v.'' lavish, shower.
# '''beeźŭos''', hundred thousand.
# '''be''', ''postp.'' outside, without.
# '''beðra''', 1) ''t.v.'' center, focus. 2) ''i.v.'' center, focus.
# '''bega''', ''i.v.'' brew millet beer.
# '''beȝa''', ''t.v.'' give birth to [''of animals'']; kindle, foal.
# '''bela''', ''t.v.'' cut out, excise; leave out, except, exclude.
# '''bena''', ''i.v.'' dig [''red clay''].
# '''benda''', 1) ''t.v.'' project. 2) ''i.v.'' stand-, stick-, -out, be prominent.
# '''bilos''', arm muscle, deltoid [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''bira''', ''t.v.'' entice. (&gt; Georgian &lt;font color=blue&gt;bir-&lt;/font&gt;, entice)
# '''biſlos''', gall, bile [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''bodĭos''', platform.
# '''boga''', ''i.v.'' miscarry.
# '''boȝa''', ''t.v.'' esteem.
# '''boĸos''', sternum, breastbone, [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;]; keel.
# '''bola''', 1) ''t.v.'' lump. 2) ''i.v.'' lump.
# '''boϙa''', ''t.v.'' store in a barn.
# '''borĸos''', hat.
# '''buuĸos''', island.
# '''buća''', ''t.v.'' dry under the sun.
# '''buda''', ''t.v.'' attach, affix, append.
# '''buĸa''', ''t.v.'' doubt, distrust.
# '''bulos''', gelatin. 
# '''bunga''', ''i.v.'' howl.
# '''butos''', rope made of bark. 
# '''buxros''', cone [''of an evergreen''].
# '''bŭangus''', elder brother.
# '''bĭaga''', ''i.v.'' be a full moon.
# '''bĭaſeros''', decking.
# '''bĭoĸos''', patina.
# '''bĭoſos''', mountain slope.
# '''bĭuuĸos''', side, flank [''of body''].
# '''bĭudos''', down, fluff, fuzz.
# '''bĭugos''', (saddle)pommel.
# '''bĭuĸos''', gourd.
# '''bĭula''', ''i.v.'' trim [''a wick''].
# '''bĭura''', ''t.v.'' abandon, forsake.
total: 63/38+2/63%</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan lexicon roots c-ð</title>
    <id>2571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45707</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-26T12:05:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* ć / ς / ц / ծ / ც / צ / त */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]==

==ć / ς / ц / ծ / ც / צ / त==

# '''ćaada''', 1) ''t.v.'' distress, concern. 2) ''i.v.'' worry, fret.
# '''ćaaȝos''', sandbar.
# '''ćaama''', ''i.v.'' hesitate.
# '''ćaana''', ''t.v.'' chisel.
# '''ćaara''', ''t.v.'' antler.
# '''ćaaſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' show the way, direct; steer, helm. 2) ''i.v.'' steer.
# '''ća''', ''adv.'' just, but a little distance.
# '''ćaba''', 1) ''t.v.'' put on a hat. 2) ''i.v.'' wear a hat.
# '''ćaćos''', sleeping-, -pallet, -shelf.
# '''ćada''', ''i.v.'' excel.
# '''ćaðas''', female rutting season. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;suoti&lt;/font&gt;, be in heat)
# '''ćaðra''', ''i.v.'' lightning.
# '''ćaga''', 1) ''t.v.'' emaciate. 2) ''i.v.'' be emaciated.
# '''ćaȝgŭos''', tunnel entrance.
# '''ćaĸimos''', rib cage [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćaĸos''', ulna [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćala''', 1) ''t.v.'' deepen. 2) ''i.v.'' deepen.
# '''ćała''', 1) ''t.v.'' relax. 2) ''i.v.'' relax.
# '''ćałma''', ''t.v.'' patch.
# '''ćalpes''', Pleiades [&lt;font color=red&gt;Astr.&lt;/font&gt;]
# '''ćama''', ''t.v.'' gore, horn.
# '''ćanga''', ''i.v.'' change directions, turn aside.
# '''ćapa''', ''i.v.'' dig [''white clay''].
# '''ćaϙvĭos''', fluke, tail of sea mammal.
# '''ćaros''', bare foot.
# '''ćarſaaĸos''', torrent.
# '''ćarta''', ''i.v.'' rotate, twirl.
# '''ćaſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' grizzle. 2) ''i.v.'' grizzle.
# '''ćata''', 1) ''t.v.'' fight, combat; contend-, do battle-, -with. 2) ''i.v.'' fight, combat.
# '''ćavegos''', harpoon head.
# '''ćaxmu''', ''adv.'' downriver.
# '''ćaxos''', twig.
# '''ćaźos''', cheekbone [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćeeĸos''', shirt, blouse.
# '''ćeelĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' squirt, syringe, inject. 2) ''i.v.'' spurt, splash.
# '''ćeempos''', breast milk.
# '''ćeeɱa''', ''i.v.'' become inflamed.
# '''ćeepŭos''', boil, furuncle.
# '''ćeera''', 1) ''t.v.'' grow, cultivate [''plants''], farm, raise. 2) ''i.v.'' farm.
# '''ćeća''', ''i.v.'' set a noose [''for birds, hare, etc.'']. (&gt; Sammi &lt;font color=green&gt;šiešše&lt;/font&gt;, frame from branches for noosing birds)
# '''ćeda''', 1) ''t.v.'' hate, loathe, detest, abhor, disagree with [''of food'']. 2) ''i.v.'' hate.
# '''ćeȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' put to bed. 2) '''i.v.''' lie (down), rest, repose, be recumbent, crouch, go to bed, settle; be situated.
# '''ćeĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' empower. 2) ''i.v.'' have power to.
# '''ćeĸŭa''', ''i.v.'' defecate, shit.
# '''ćela''', ''t.v.'' veil, wrap-, (-around, -up), envelop, swaddle.
# '''ćelba''', 1) ''t.v.'' help, aid, assist, succor. 2) ''i.v.'' help, aid, assist. 
# '''ćelgŭos''', flipper.
# '''ćelpa''', 1) ''t.v.'' steal, thieve, pilfer, filch (from, '''apa'''). 2) ''i.v.'' steal, thieve, pilfer (from, '''apa''').
# '''ćema''', 1) ''t.v.'' exert. 2) ''i.v.'' make great exertion, exert o.s., labor, toil, strain.
# '''ćemelos''', heaven(s), firmament, welkin.
# '''ćemtos''', hundred.
# '''ćeɱa''', ''i.v.'' stagger, reel, totter, wobble; pitch, toss [''of ships''].
# '''ćena''', ''t.v.'' nullify, void, invalidate, annul,  revoke, rescind, abrogate, cancel, repeal, abolish, call off.
# '''ćenĸa''', ''i.v.'' hang, be suspended, dangle.
# '''ćenſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' announce, proclaim, publish, pronounce [''a judgment''], make known. 2) ''i.v.'' publish, pronounce.
# '''ćenta''', 1) ''t.v.'' tilt. 2) ''i.v.'' tilt, joust.
# '''ćepos''', ten billion.
# '''ćerdos''', heart [Anat.].
# '''ćerða''', 1) ''t.v.'' line (-up), align; string [beads]. 2) ''i.v.'' line (-up), stand in line.
# '''ćeres''', biting animal.
# '''ćerĸutos''', sty.
# '''ćerſa''', ''i.v.'' run; course.
# '''ćerta''', 1) ''t.v.'' interweave, interlace. 2) ''i.v.'' interlace.
# '''ćeſa''', ''t.v.'' engrave.
# '''ćiiĸa''', ''i.v.'' urinate.
# '''ćiimes''', bug.
# '''ćiinis''', grass.
# '''ćiipos''', flint knife.
# '''ćiiſos''', column, pillar.
# '''ćiĸa''', ''t.v.'' leash.
# '''ćila''', 1) ''t.v.'' lean, recline, rest; arrange in layers, stratify. 2) ''i.v.'' lean, recline, rest.
# '''ćiluϙos''', dorsal fin.
# '''ćimćiros''', scimitar.
# '''ćimos''', [''Human''] encampment.
# '''ćiɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' color, dye, stain, paint (over), bedaub. 2) ''i.v.'' color, dye, stain, paint.
# '''ćina''', ''t.v.'' cradle, rock in a cradle.
# '''ćinga''', 1) ''t.v.'' consider. 2) ''i.v.'' consider.
# '''ćipa''', ''t.v.'' brush, wag [''the tail''].
# '''ćita''', 1) ''t.v.'' lair. 2) ''i.v.'' den, lair.
# '''ćivos''', cracklings, greaves.
# '''ćixlŭos''', frozen meat.
# '''ćixnis''', ''adj.'' jealous.
# '''ćooĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' peck. 2) ''i.v.'' peck.
# '''ćoola''', 1) ''t.v.'' rinse, flush, irrigate, wash away. 2) ''i.v.'' flush.
# '''ćooɱra''', ''i.v.'' move-, travel-, -north.
# '''ćoĸa''', ''i.v.'' trot.
# '''ćolos''', front, façade, face [''of a coin''].
# '''ćolma''', ''t.v.'' thatch.
# '''ćolĭos''', area with many small lakes.
# '''ćomćiȝos''', pickaxe.
# '''ćomros''', stone hammer.
# '''ćomu''', ''adv.'' together.
# '''ćoɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' warn, caution, forewarn, admonish. 2) ''i.v.'' warn, forewarn, admonish.
# '''ćoϙmos''', temporary shelter used by Human herders. (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;ćom&lt;/font&gt;, children's playhouse)
# '''ćorĸos''', silica.
# '''ćorma''', 1) ''t.v.'' pain, hurt. 2) ''i.v.'' pain, hurt, be painful, suffer, ache.
# '''ćoromnos''', lye.
# '''ćøna''', ''t.v.'' helmet.
# '''ćuula''', 1) ''t.v.'' hear; listen to. 2) ''i.v.'' hear; listen.
# '''ćuurus''', hero, heroine, champion.
# '''ćubis''', brier.
# '''ćuća''', 1) ''t.v.'' whirl-, swirl-, (-around), eddy; trill; roll [''of drums'']. 2) i.v. whirl-, swirl-, (-around), eddy, turn; warble; roll [''of drums''].
# '''ćuða''', 1) ''t.v.'' soil, dirty, befoul, begrime; sully, besmirch. 2) ''i.v''. soil, dirty.
# '''ćuga''', ''i.v.'' gape, yawn, be ajar.
# '''ćulnos''', hip, haunch [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćumpos''', birch bark drinking vessel. (&gt; Hung. &lt;font color=green&gt;csobolyó&lt;/font&gt;, keg)
# '''ćuna''', 1) ''t.v.'' spear. 2) ''i.v.'' spear.
# '''ćunros''', area between the eyebrows.
# '''ćuϙeϙŭos''', swollen wound.
# '''ćurĸos''', current [''water, electricity''].
# '''ćuſa''', ''i.v.'' pant, gasp, puff, wheeze.
# '''ćűſĸa''', ''i.v.'' whine.
# '''ćutos''', knuckle bone [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;]. (Hung. &lt;font color=green&gt;csont&lt;/font&gt;, knuckle bone)
# '''ćuviϙnĭos''', bad odor of an animal.
# '''ćuvϙos''', baleen, whale-bone.
# '''ćŭanta''', 1) ''t.v.'' total, add (up), sum (up), amount to. 2) ''i.v.'' add up, total.
# '''ćŭeȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' play [''the pipes''], blow [''a whistle''] [&lt;font color=red&gt;Mus.&lt;/font&gt;]. 2) ''i.v.'' play [''the pipes''], blow [''a whistle''] [&lt;font color=red&gt;Mus.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćŭena''', 1) ''t.v.'' celebrate. 2) ''i.v.'' celebrate.
# '''ćŭiſa''', ''i.v.'' gleam, burn, glare.
# '''ćŭitonos''', lime, limestone, chalk.
# '''ćŭona''', ''t.v.'' dog, hound.
# '''ćŭonćus''', spirit.
# '''ćŭuma''', ''t.v.'' mortar.
# '''ćŭuɱra''', 1) ''t.v.'' hole, make a hole in. 2) ''i.v.'' hole, make a hole.
# '''ćĭaatos''', icicle.
# '''ćĭaga''', ''i.v''. become frozen [''of snow''].
# '''ćĭaĸos''', temple [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ćĭala''', ''i.v.'' open wide.
# '''ćĭema''', 1) ''t.v.'' color-, make-, -dark gray. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -dark gray.
# '''ćĭoga''', ''t.v.'' exchange, interchange.
# '''ćĭoĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' agree. 2) ''i.v.'' agree.
# '''ćĭola''', ''t.v.'' hobble.
# '''ćĭopos''', overcoat, outer garment.
# '''ćĭuga''', ''t.v.'' bandage, dress [''a wound''].
# '''ćĭumos''', hundred trillion.
# '''ćĭuunos''', pulse.
total: 132/75/57

==d / δ / д / Դ / დ / דּ /  द==
# '''daaiɱrus''', spouse's brother.
# '''daaȝa''', ''t.v.'' cut-, -in pieces, -into shreds; dissect.
# '''daana''', ''i.v.'' flow, run.
# '''daapa''', ''i.v.'' cross (a mountain).
# '''daara''', 1) ''t.v.'' work. 2) ''i.v.'' work.
# '''da''', ''conj.'' if, provided that, whether [''with subj.''].
# '''dabos''', [''Pyran''] village.
# '''dagos''', shoulder blade, scapula [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''daĸŭos''', blanket.
# '''dala''', 1) ''t.v.'' roast. 2) ''i.v.'' roast.
# '''daras''', suitable time.
# '''daſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' govern, have authority over. 2) ''i.v.'' have authority.
# '''deeća''', 1) ''t.v.'' split, rupture; lacerate, mutilate, mangle. 2) ''i.v.'' split.
# '''deega''', ''t.v.'' pack (up), bale; pounce on; affect, impress.
# '''deela''', 1) ''t.v.'' stretch. 2) ''i.v.'' stretch.
# '''deelĭa''', ''t.v.'' collar.
# '''deeɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' drive-, push-, -on, propel; urge on. 2) ''i.v.'' press-, push-, -forward, forge ahead, gain ground.
# '''deera''', 1) ''t.v.'' skin, flay. 2) ''i.v.'' cast the skin.
# '''deeſa''', ''t.v.'' find (out), discover, look up, think up, concoct, invent; coin.
# '''deća''', ''t.v.'' ornament, decorate, deck, garnish.
# '''dećŭos''', right hand.
# '''defa''', 1) ''t.v.'' pound, stamp, beat, tamp. 2) ''i.v.'' stamp [''the foot''], trudge; paw (the ground).
# '''dega''', ''t.v.'' push away, cast off; give offense to, offend (against); reject, repudiate, expel, banish, divorce; disown.
# '''deħa''', ''t.v.'' inflict, afflict.
# '''deħma''', 1) ''t.v.'' bevel, chamfer. 2) ''i.v.'' incline, slope, be sloped; tend, incline.
# '''deȝa''', ''i.v.'' strive, struggle.
# '''dela''', 1) ''t.v.'' drive at, refer-, advert-, -to, cite, adduce. 2) ''i.v.'' take aim (o, at); aspire (o, to).
# '''delća''', 1) ''t.v.'' curl, ruffle [''feathers''], ripple [''water''], make rough [''sea'']. 2) ''i.v.'' curl, become rough.
# '''dema''', ''t.v.'' build; construct; erect, put-, set-, -up, raise.
# '''demles''', caterpillar; grub.
# '''demra''', 1) ''t.v.'' march, parade, prance. 2) ''i.v.'' march, file, parade, prance.
# '''dems''', ''adj.'' ten.
# '''deɱa''', ''i.v.'' sink in; give way; slip-, slide-, glide-, -in.
# '''denća''', ''t.v.'' pick up, hold, extract [''with tongs, etc.''].
# '''denħŭa''', 1) ''t.v.'' tongue. 2) ''i.v.'' tongue.
# '''denſa''', ''t.v.'' teach, instruct, educate.
# '''derba''', ''i.v.'' trip, patter.
# '''derća''', 1) ''t.v.'' glimpse (at); scan, read over. 2) ''i.v.'' glance.
# '''derħoſos''', faggot.
# '''derɱa''', ''i.v.'' swarm in a tree [''of bees''].
# '''derva''', ''t.v.'' chain.
# '''diiȝa''', ''i.v.'' shine brightly.
# '''diitas''', period, stage, term.
# '''dića''', ''t.v.'' demonstrate, present, set forth.
# '''diga''', ''i.v''. revolt, rebel, mutiny.
# '''diħa''', 1) ''t.v.'' prick, prickle, sting, itch. 2) ''i.v.'' prick, prickle, sting, itch.
# '''dila''', 1) ''t.v.'' disclose, reveal, manifest, let on; interpret. 2) ''i.v.'' signify, mean; bode.
# '''dirpes''', livestock.
# '''diſa''', ''t.v.'' guard.
# '''divla''', ''t.v.'' hem.
# '''diźa''', ''t.v.'' wonder.
# '''doona''', 1) ''t.v.'' give (out), present, donate, deliver; emit; render, submit, hand in; lead to; deal (out). 2) ''i.v.'' give.
# '''dooros''', hand's width, ten centimeters [&lt;font color=red&gt;Meas.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''doća''', ''t.v.'' (reduce to) pulp, mash, purée.
# '''dola''', ''t.v.'' dress, square [''timber, stone, etc.''] artistically.
# '''dolϙa''', ''t.v.'' splint.
# '''doma''', ''t.v.'' tame, domesticate, break in [''a horse'']; subdue, check, curb, control, master, dominate.
# '''donĸos''', withers.
# '''doris''', tree.
# '''dorvos''', lawn, sward; grass (plot).
# '''doſos''', upper arm [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''duuda''', ''t.v.'' mention the name of.
# '''duura''', ''t.v.'' remove, take-, -off, -away, -out, omit, detach, clear [''the dishes, the snow, etc.''] (from, '''eħa'''); eliminate; elide; forgive, pardon, excuse, spare, absolve (from, '''eħa''').
# '''duĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' pull, draw, trail, attract, dray, warp, kedge. 2) ''i.v.'' pull, draw, trail, attract, warp, kedge.
# '''dumbos''', tail; queue, string [''of people'']; train [''of dress''].
# '''dupa''', ''t.v.'' muffle.
# '''durϙa''', ''t.v.'' stunt.
# '''dus''', ''demon. pron.'' this one.
# '''duſ-''', ''adj.'' mis-, dis-.
# '''duſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' cease, stop, end, discontinue, desist-, refrain-, keep-, -from, leave off, drop out of, give up, put an end to, shut off; ''inf.'' + ~, stop-, quit-, -~ing.
# '''duſtes''', first quarter moon.
# '''duta''', ''t.v.'' accede to, comply with, gratify, grant [''a wish'']; humor.
# '''dŭo''' ''adj.'' two, twain.
# '''dĭaanos''', terrace [''between steppe and riverbank''].
# '''dĭoxtos''', sock.
total: 75/51/68%

==ð / ϑ / ђ / դ / ჯ / ד / ध==
# '''ðala''', 1) ''t.v.'' (make-, color-) -green. 2) ''i.v.'' (turn-, become-,) -green.
# '''ðama''', grammie, nana, grandma.
# '''ðaɱa''', 1) ''t.v.'' retch. 2) ''i.v.'' retch.
# '''ðava''', 1) ''t.v.'' astonish, stupefy. 2) ''i.v.'' be-, -astonished, -amazed, -speechless, -dumbfounded (at, '''upera''').
# '''ðavra''', 1) ''t.v.'' make suitable, befit, beseem, adapt, adjust, accommodate (to, '''eħa'''), fit, suit, go with. 2) ''i.v.'' make suitable, adapt, adjust (to, '''efa'''), accommodate (to, '''efa'''), fit, suit.
# '''ðeeȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' gestate. 2) ''i.v.'' be pregnant [''of loquent beings''].
# '''ðeema''', ''t.v.'' obscure.
# '''ðeena''', 1) ''t.v.'' produce [''a crop of fruit'']. 2) ''i.v.'' produce [''a crop of fruit''].
# '''ðeeſ-''', ''prefix for words with a spiritual or religious meaning''.
# '''ðebis''', ''adj.'' thick-set, stocky, squat, sturdy.
# '''ðeðnos''', sour milk.
# '''ðeiħa''', ''i.v.'' pug, knead clay and-, -build-, -smear, -with it.
# '''ðeȝa''', 1) ''t.v.'' read. 2) ''i.v.'' read.
# '''ðela''', ''i.v.'' tremble, shiver, shake, quiver, thrill, vibrate, shudder (at, '''ħo'''; away from, '''apa''').
# '''ðelga''', ''t.v.'' pin. 
# '''ðelna''', 1) ''t.v.'' pale, blanch. 2) ''i.v.'' pale, blanch.
# '''ðelϙa''', 1) ''t.v.'' bind, engage, oblige, restrain. 2) ''i.v.'' be-, -obliged, -bound,  -indebted.
# '''ðelva''', 1) ''t.v.'' strike-, beat-, -out. 2) ''i.v.'' burst forth, spring up.
# '''ðeła''', ''i.v.'' have a fever.
# '''ðema''',  1) ''t.v.'' pump out water, bail (out). 2) ''i.v.'' bail.
# '''ðemva''', ''t.v.'' bury, inter.
# '''ðeɱis''', ''adj.'' unconscious, senseless.
# '''ðena''', 1) ''t.v.'' race, course. 2) ''i.v.'' (run a) race, course.
# '''ðenis''', ''adj.'' sultry, close, oppressive.
# '''ðera''', 1) ''t.v.'' hold, keep (back), retain; detain, arrest; hold out against, insist (on), maintain, allay [''pain''], stave off [''hunger'']. 2) ''i.v.'' hold out, stand firm.
# '''ðerɱa''', ''i.v.'' rumble, roar, boom, drone.
# '''ðerſa''', 1) ''t.v.'' chance, hazard. 2) ''i.v.'' take a chance, hazard.
# '''ðervis''', ''adj.'' viscid, viscous, thick [''of liquids''].
# '''ðeuva''', ''t.v.'' (fasten-, split-, -with a) wedge.
# '''ðeva''', 1) ''t.v.'' harm, injure, damage, impair. 2) ''i.v.'' damage.
# '''ðiiȝa''', ''t.v.'' fix [''a day, etc.''], arrange, stipulate, lay down as a rule, found.
# '''ðilos''', nipple [&lt;font color=red&gt;Anat.&lt;/font&gt;].
# '''ðlaſa''', ''t.v.'' bruise, contuse.
# '''ðooɱa''', ''t.v.'' rope (off), cable.
# '''ðola''', 1) ''t.v.'' dome. 2) ''i.v.'' dome.
# '''ðora''', ''i.v.'' soar, drop [''of leaves''].
# '''ðraafnos''', tools, implements, equipment, utensils.
# '''ðrarća''', ''i.v.'' tear.
# '''ðreħis''', ''adj.'' indignant, exasperated.
# '''ðreϙa''', ''t.v.'' charm, attract, allure; tempt.
# '''ðreulos''', snout, muzzle, mouth, jaws [''of animals'']; spout, nozzle.
# '''ðrevos''', grapeskins; draff, dregs, lees.
# '''ðrivos''', birthmark, mole.
# '''ðrona''', ''t.v.'' fleck, variegate.
# '''ðuuϙa''', ''t.v.'' press-, squeeze-, -out, express [''oil'']; express, utter.
# '''ðuĸa''', ''t.v.'' fan.
# '''ðumbos''', hollow-, depression-, -in the earth.
# '''ðuna''', 1) ''t.v.'' fortify, reinforce. 2) ''i.v.'' fortify.
# '''ðuϙus''', daughter.
# '''ðura''', 1) ''t.v.'' shut the door on (s.o./s.th.), close the entrance-, -to, -of. 2) ''i.v.'' shut the door.
# '''ðuſa''', ''i.v.'' storm, be stormy.
# '''ðuſĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' color-, make-, -dark brown. 2) ''i.v.'' turn-, become-, -dark brown.
# '''ðuſloɱes''', animal, beast.
# '''ðuſĭas''', ego, I, genius, daimos, &quot;neti… neti.&quot;
# '''ðŭeeĸa''', 1) ''t.v.'' vaporize, volatilize. 2) ''i.v.'' evaporate, pass off in vapor, volatilize.
# '''ðŭela''', ''t.v.'' make-, -thick,  -muddy; cloud, tarnish.
# '''ðŭena''', 1) ''t.v.'' waft. 2) ''i.v.'' waft, fly about [''like dust''], rise up.
# '''ðŭera''', 1) ''t.v.'' cheat, dupe, swindle. 2) ''i.v.'' cheat, swindle; prove fallacious.
# '''ðŭimos''', carcass.
total: 59/42+4/78%</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Saizai</title>
    <id>2572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T07:13:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saizai</username>
        <id>197</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Howdy.

I am known to most people as Sai.

My main conlang-related endeavors are:
* the [http://conlangs.berkeley.edu Language Creation Conference], which I started and ran nearly by myself, 
* the [http://conlangs.livejournal.com LiveJournal Conlangs community], which I started and still own and moderate,
* teaching the [http://conlangs-decal.livejournal.com UC Berkeley Conlangs DE-Cal] class for two years (the first and so far only college-level semester-long class on conlanging that I know of),
* a [http://saizai.livejournal.com/657391.html non-linear fully two-dimensional writing system] thesis-in-making, and
* an old essay [http://community.livejournal.com/conlangs/14524.html on the design of an ideal language].

I am mostly a meta-conlanger; I am interested primarily in conlang as technology, that is, as a means of pushing the boundaries of what language is capable of doing. In my organizer role, however, I am supportive of all sorts of conlanging (not just my own), and try to encourage diverse perspectives on linguistics, conlanging, and the world in general.

I'm currently organizing the 2nd LCC. If you or your nearby institution(s) can possibly host it, or if you could speak on a topic (large or small), please let me know.

If you want to know more about me personally, see [http://saizai.livejournal.com/666120.html the post on my LiveJournal] about that very thing.

--[[User:Saizai|Sai]] 00:08, 19 July 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Terminology</title>
    <id>2574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:42:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Concultures</title>
    <id>2575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:43:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Economics</title>
    <id>2576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:44:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Altaic conlangs</title>
    <id>2577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:56:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Amerindian conlangs</title>
    <id>2578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:45:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Chinese</title>
    <id>2579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:47:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Chinese conlangs</title>
    <id>2580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:18:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Cities</title>
    <id>2581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:12:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Italic conlangs</title>
    <id>2582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44076</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-12T15:52:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recat as IE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Indo-European conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Koum-Tauf</title>
    <id>2583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:50:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Latin</title>
    <id>2584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47556</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-23T12:04:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>cat:IE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Natlangs]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Lein Saga</title>
    <id>2585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:00:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Frac</title>
    <id>2586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-19T08:53:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;sup&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;{{{2}}}&lt;/sub&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tibëdëyel</title>
    <id>2587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-01T17:10:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Tibëdëyel is a conlang spoken in Tibëdë.

==Phonology==
===Alphabet===
The Tibëdëyel alphabet, translated into Latin characters, is:

a b c d dh e &amp;euml; f g i k l m n ŋ o &amp;ouml; p q s sh t th v y z

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| b || b
|-
| c || ts
|-
| d || d
|- 
| dh || ð
|-
| f || f
|-
| g || ɡ
|-
| k || k
|-
| l || l
|-
| m || m
|-
| n || n
|-
| ŋ || ŋ
|-
| p || p
|-
| q || x
|-
| s || s
|-
| sh || ʃ
|-
| t || t
|- 
| th || θ
|-
| v || v
|-
| y || j
|-
| z || z
|}

Note: There is no 'r' is Tibëdëyel- 'l' takes its place.&lt;br&gt;
Note 2: 'ŋ' can only appear at the end of a syllable.

===Vowels===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| a || æ, ə
|-
| e || ɛ
|-
| ë || i, iɪ
|-
| i || ɪ
|-
| o || ɒ
|- 
| ö || ɔɪ
|}

Note: a word cannot end with the letter 'o' or 'i'.

==Grammar==

===Case system===
Tibëdëyel uses an ergative-absolutive case system, where the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb are the same, but the subject of a transitive verb is different. Cases are always marked by suffixes. Tibëdëyel recognises four cases: absolutive (no suffix), ergative (-'lel'), genitive (-'yel'), and locative (-'vib').

===Word order===
The most commonly used word order is Subject Verb Object, but since cases are marked it is not very important. In fact, it is not uncommon to see Verb Subject Object and Subject Object Verb, though the latter is seen as somewhat archaic by speakers (like saying words like 'thee' and 'thou' in English).

===Tense===
Verbs are unaltered in the present tense. Past tense is indicated by adding the prefix 'e-' to the verb (if the first letter is a consonant), morphing the first letter into 'e' (if the first letter is a vowel except 'e') or by prefixing the letter 'n-' (if the first letter is 'e'). The method of indicating the future tense is the same, except 'o' is used instead of 'e'.

===Syllable stress===
The second syllable of a word is normally stressed (e.g. Ti-BË-dë-yel).

===Plurals===
Words do not inflect to indicate plurals. Instead, one expresses a plural by preceding the word with the number of things, or the word 'den' (meaning- &quot;plural&quot;, &quot;more than one&quot;).

===Reduplication===
Reduplication of the last syllable in a word is used to express &quot;more&quot; of an adjective, the same way '-er' and '-est' are sometimes used in English. For example:

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! English !! Tibëdëyel
|-
| green || semin
|-
| greener || seminmin
|-
| greenest || seminminmin
|}

===Questions===
A question is formed by adding the grammatical particle 'ce' to the end of a sentence. The word order stays the same as it would be for a statement.

===Pronouns===
The basic personal pronouns are listed below: 
First person singular: iken
Second person singular: shad
Third person singular: azanë

Personal pronouns are treated like any other nouns, i.e. 'den iken' means 'we', 'ikenyel' means 'mine', etc. It is important to remember the language is ergative-absolutive, so this applies to pronouns as well, e.g.: &quot;I see you&quot; is &quot;ikenlel yava shad&quot;, and &quot;I slept&quot; is &quot;iken egesheq&quot;.

==Sample text==
''Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights''

yem den taniklel etidil shë e ked sesh vösolme e den veleshov. den azanëlel idrö maëb e shlen e sillë zezel sesh neshë abicnesyel.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-4</title>
    <id>2589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12803</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T19:04:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''X-4'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||n.a.
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||a priori experimental language
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||[[User:WeepingElf|Jörg Rhiemeier]]||2006
|}

'''X-4''' is an [[X-languages|experimental language]] designed to be both speakable and playable on a musical instrument.  To achieve this, the language uses a set of phonemes that correspond to musical notes.

==Phonology==

X-4 uses five consonants and two vowels.  The consonants are '''b''', '''c''', '''d''', '''f''' and '''g'''.  The vowels are '''a''' and '''e'''.  All letters have their IPA values except '''c''' which is [k].  These make a tiny and unnatural but workable spoken phonology.  The maximal syllable structure is CVC.


To play an X-4 utterance on a musical instrument, you just play the notes indicated by the letters.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dozenal</title>
    <id>2590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11176</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T04:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dozenal''', also known as '''duodecimal''', refers to a system of counting using twelve, rather than ten, as a base.  Thus, there are words for multiples of twelve and for powers of twelve, such as 144 (12&amp;sup2;), 1728 (12&amp;sup3;), and so on.

See [[Wikipedia:Duodecimal|wikipedia]] for more information

[[Category:Terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Linguistic morphology</title>
    <id>2591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T04:57:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Linguistic typology</title>
    <id>2592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T04:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Loglangs</title>
    <id>2593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T04:59:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Razaric</title>
    <id>2594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:02:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Protolanguages</title>
    <id>2595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:03:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nobalingos</title>
    <id>2596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:09:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nordaþ</title>
    <id>2597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:11:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nytal</title>
    <id>2598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:12:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Oktosïï</title>
    <id>2599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T05:13:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Germanic conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:International Phonetic Alphabet</title>
    <id>2600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:10:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Is it really necessary to have this article?  Couldn't we just redirect to Wikipedia? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 00:10, 20 July 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Semiotics</title>
    <id>2601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Slavic languages</title>
    <id>2602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11197</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Sound changes</title>
    <id>2603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:13:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Syntax</title>
    <id>2604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:14:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Uralic conlangs</title>
    <id>2605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:17:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:A posteriori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Uto-Aztecan natlangs</title>
    <id>2606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:18:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Language families]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Yellow Empire</title>
    <id>2607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-20T07:23:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Arda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Table of Correlatives</title>
    <id>2608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20991</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-04T14:05:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Table */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Senjecan Pronunciation Guide=
==Consonants &lt;font color=blue&gt;árgæs̆enőes&lt;/font&gt;==
*Latin orthography:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t
| d
| c
| ʒ
| к
| g
|-
| Fricative
| f
| v
| þ
| ð
| s
| z
| x
| q
|-
| Sonorant
| ƿ
| m
| ł
| l
| r
| n
| ħ
| j
|}

*Cyrillic orthography:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| п
| б
| т
| д
| ц
| ѕ
| к
| г
|-
| Fricative
| ф
| в
| ɵ
| ђ
| c
| з
| x
| г̀
|-
| Sonorant
| м̀
| м
| л̀
| л
| p
| н
| ы
| j
|}

*Greek orthography:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| π
| ϐ
| т
| δ
| ς
| Ϡ
| к
| γ
|-
| Fricative
| ф
| β
| θ
| ђ
| σ
| ζ
| χ
| Ϟ
|-
| Sonorant
| μ̀
| μ
| ƛ
| λ
| ρ
| ν
| ħ
| j
|}

*[[Wikipedia:IPA|IPA]]:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:labial consonant|Labial]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:dental consonant|Dental]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
| [[Wikipedia:plosive|Plosive]]
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ts
| dz
| k
| g
|-
| [[Wikipedia:fricative|Fricative]]
| ɸ
| β
| θ
| ð
| s
| z
| ç
| ʝ
|-
| [[Wikipedia:sonorant|Sonorant]]
| ?
| m
| ?
| l
| ɾ
| n
| ?
| j
|}

*[[Wikipedia:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]]:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t_d
| d_d
| ts)
| dz)
| c
| J\
|-
| Fricative
| p\
| B
| T_d
| D_d
| s
| z
| C
| j\
|-
| Sonorant
| m_0
| m
| l_0_d
| l_d
| _0
| n
| j_0
| j
|}

==Vowels &lt;font color=blue&gt;s̆évs̆enőes&lt;/font&gt;==
* Latin orthography

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| i
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| œ
| /ɯ M/
| u
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ı
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;œ&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| e
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| o
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| æ
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ø
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| a
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

* Cyrillic orthography

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| и
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| ъ
| /ɯ M/
| у
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ь
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;ъ&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| е
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| о
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| э
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ѫ
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| а
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=red&gt;After a labialized consonant&lt;/font&gt; и = i; e = ε; a = я; o = ё; y = ю

* Greek orthography

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| ι
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| ϋ
| /ɯ M/
| υ
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ϊ
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;ϋ&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| η
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| ω
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| ε
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ο
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| α
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

=Table=
* suppletive forms are &lt;u&gt;underlined&lt;/u&gt;.
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=en|interro-&lt;br&gt;gative&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋rca&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=01|proximal&lt;br&gt;deixis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋e̋ƿħa de̋las&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=02|medial&lt;br&gt;deixis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋ða de̋las&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=03|distal&lt;br&gt;deixis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;c̆e̋la de̋las&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=04|indefinite&lt;br&gt;exclusive&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;næne̋e̋vra be̋la&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=05|indefinite&lt;br&gt;inclusive&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;næne̋e̋vra ge̋ra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=06|universal&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;c̆a̋nta&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=07|negative&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋ra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=08|individual&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;s̆e̋e̋da&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|person&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;anqe̋nus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|who, which&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆us, к̆is&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|this one&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|that one&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yon one&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólnus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|someone, some&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sémus, se̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|anyone, any&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆énus,к̆e̋nis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|everyone; every&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sólus,sőlis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|no one; none, no&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;néк̆us,ne̋к̆is &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each one, each&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;séņus,se̋ņis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|thing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿe̋xtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|what&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|this thing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|that thing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yon thing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;őlnos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|something&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;se̋mos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|anything&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆e̋nos &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|everything&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sőlos &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|nothing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋к̆os &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each thing&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;se̋ņos &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|kind&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ı̋mos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|what kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆ı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|this kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|that kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yon kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olnı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|some kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;se̋mı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|any kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enı̋mis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|every kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;solı̋mis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|no kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne̋к̆ı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each kind of&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;seņı̋mis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|place&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;stı̋ı̋vos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|where&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|here&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ı́ðu&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|there&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;tóru&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yonder&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólnu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|somewhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sémк̆u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|anywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆énк̆u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|everywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sólк̆u &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|nowhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;néк̆u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each place&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sénıк̆u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|place from&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;stı̋ı̋vþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|whence&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆uþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|hence&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ı́ðþim&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|thence&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;tórþim&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yonder&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólnæþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|from somewhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;semк̆úþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|from anywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enк̆úþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|from everywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;solк̆úþim &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|from nowhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neк̆úþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|from each place&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sénıк̆úþim&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|place to&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;stı̋ı̋vþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|whither&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆uþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|hither&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ı́ðþis&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|thither&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;tórþis&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|yonder&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólnæþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|to somewhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;semк̆úþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|to anywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enк̆úþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|to everywhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;solк̆úþis &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|to nowhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neк̆úþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|to each place&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sénıк̆úþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|time&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;te̋ndas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|when&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|now&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;núu&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|then&lt;i&gt;(p)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;péru&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;then&lt;i&gt;(f)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;pósu&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03|then&lt;i&gt;(p)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ólnæpéru&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;then&lt;i&gt;(f)&lt;/i&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ólnæpósu&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04|sometime&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sémк̆um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|anytime&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆énк̆um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|everytime&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sólк̆um &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|never&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;néк̆um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each time&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sénıк̆um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|amount&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pűlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|how much&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆őtis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|this much&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dőtis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|that much&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nőtis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|that much&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olnőtis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|however much&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enőtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|all&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sőlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|no amount&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neőtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each time&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;seņőtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|manner&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lı̋ı̋gas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|how&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆áálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|thus&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dáálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|thereby&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;náálu&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|thereby&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olnáálu&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|somehow&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;semáálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|anyhow&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enáálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|every way&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;soláálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|nowise&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neáálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|each way&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;seņáálu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No|reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿa̋a̋tas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=en|why&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆ááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01|for this reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02|for that reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nááru&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|for yon reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olnááru&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|for some reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;semááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05|forany reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆enááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=06|for every reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;solááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07|for no reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=08|for each reason&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;seņááru&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sounds of Old Adpihi</title>
    <id>2609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48178</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T21:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Old Adpihi's Consonants */ linkfix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Proto-Adpihi's Consonants==

Most of Proto-Adpihi's consonants, like all of Old and Middle Adpihi's and Reptigan's consonants, were on an egressive pulmonic airstream.

'''Pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
| || Bilabial || Labiodental || Dental || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Retroflex || Palatal || Velar || Uvular || Pharyngeal || Glottal
|-
| Plosive || [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]] ||  || [[Voiceless dental stop|t̪]] [[Voiced dental stop|d̪]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]]  || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] ||  || || [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]
|-
| Nasal || [[Bilabial nasal|m]] ||  || [[Dental nasal|n̪]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] ||  ||  || [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || 
|-
| Trill ||  || ||  || [[Alveolar trill|r]] ||  || || || 
|-
| Tap or Flap || || ||  ||  ||  || [[Retroflex flap|ɽ]]
|-
| Fricative ||   || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || [[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]  || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]] [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]  ||  ||  || [[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] 
|-
| Lateral fricative || || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| Approximant || [[Bilabial approximant|β̞]] ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || [[Palatal approximant|j]] ||  ||  || 
|-
| Lateral approximant || || ||  || [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] ||  ||  ||  || 
|}

Proto-Adpihi apparently had one ejective consonant.

'''Non-pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
| Clicks || Voiced Implosives || Ejectives
|-
|  ||  || 
|-
|  ||  || 
|-
|  ||  || 
|-
|  ||  || [[Velar ejective|kʼ]] Velar
|-
|  ||  || 
|}

Also there were, apparently;
[[Aspirated voiceless velar stop|kʰ]] 
[[Aspirated voiceless bilabial stop|pʰ]] 
[[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|t̠ʃ]] 
[[Voiced postalveolar affricate|d̠ʒ]]

==Old Adpihi's Consonants==

All of Old and Middle Adpihi's and Reptigan's consonants, were on an egressive pulmonic airstream.

'''Pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
| || Bilabial || Labiodental || Dental || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Retroflex || Palatal || Velar || Uvular || Pharyngeal || Glottal
|-
| Plosive || [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]] ||  || [[Voiceless dental stop|t̪]] [[Voiced dental stop|d̪]] || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]]  || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] ||  || || [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]
|-
| Nasal || [[Bilabial nasal|m]] ||  || [[Dental nasal|n̪]] || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] ||  ||  || [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || 
|-
| Trill ||  || ||  || [[Alveolar trill|r]] ||  || || || 
|-
| Tap or Flap || || ||  ||  ||  || [[Retroflex flap|ɽ]]
|-
| Fricative ||   || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || [[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]  || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]  ||  ||  || [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]  ||  ||  || [[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] 
|-
| Lateral fricative || || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| Approximant || [[Bilabial approximant|β̞]] ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || [[Palatal approximant|j]] ||  ||  || 
|-
| Lateral approximant || || ||  || [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] ||  ||  ||  || 
|}

Old and Middle Adpihi had no ejective consonants.

Old and Middle Adpihi had no aspirated consonants, nor any affricates.

==Old Adpihi's Vowels==


'''Vowels'''
{|
| || Front || || Central || || Back
|-
| Close || i  || ||  || ||  u
|-
| || ||  || || 
|-
| Close-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
|  || ɛ̝ || || || ||  ɔ̝  
|-
| Open-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
| ||  || || 
|-
| Open ||  || || ɐ̞ || || 
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sounds of Reptigan</title>
    <id>2610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48176</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-07T21:51:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* The Consonants of Reptigan */ linkfixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==The Consonants of Reptigan==

All of the consonants of Reptigan are on an egressive pulmonic airstream.


'''Pulmonic Consonants'''
{|
| || Bilabial || Labiodental || Dental || Alveolar || Postalveolar || Retroflex || Palatal || Velar || Uvular || Pharyngeal || Glottal
|-
| Plosive || [[Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] [[Voiced bilabial stop|b]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] [[Voiced alveolar stop|d]] ||  || [[Voiceless retroflex stop|ʈ]] [[Voiced retroflex stop|ɖ]] || [[Voiceless palatal stop|c]] [[Voiced palatal stop|ɟ]] || [[Voiceless velar stop|k]] [[Voiced velar stop|ɡ]] ||  || || [[Glottal stop|ʔ]]
|-
| Nasal || [[Bilabial nasal|m]] ||  ||  || [[Alveolar nasal|n]] ||  || [[Retroflex nasal|ɳ]] || [[Palatal nasal|ɲ]] || [[Velar nasal|ŋ]] || 
|-
| Trill ||  || ||  ||  ||  || || || 
|-
| Tap or Flap || || ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| Fricative || [[Voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]] [[Voiced bilabial fricative|β]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ||  || [[Voiceless retroflex fricative|ʂ]] [[Voiced retroflex fricative|ʐ]] || [[Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]] || [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] [[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] ||  ||  || [[Voiceless glottal fricative|h]] [[Voiced glottal fricative|ɦ]]
|-
| Lateral fricative || || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| Approximant ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || 
|-
| Lateral approximant || || ||  || [[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]] ||  || [[Retroflex lateral approximant|ɭ]] || [[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]] || [[Velar lateral approximant|ʟ]]
|}

==The Vowels of Reptigan==


'''Unwidened Vowels'''
{|
| || Front || || Central || || Back
|-
| Close || i · y || || ɨ · ʉ || || ɯ · u
|-
| || ||  || || 
|-
| Close-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
| || ɛ̝ · œ̝ || || ə · ɞ̝ || || ʌ̝ · ɔ̝
|-
| Open-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
| ||  || || 
|-
| Open || a · ɶ || || ɐ̞ · ɐ̜̞ || || ɑ · ɒ
|}


'''Widened Vowels'''
{|
| || Front || || Central || || Back
|-
| Close || i̘ · y̘ || || ɨ̘ · ʉ̘ || || ɯ̘ · u̘
|-
| || ||  || || 
|-
| Close-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
| || ɛ̝̘ · œ̝̘ || || ə̘ · ɞ̝̘ || || ʌ̝̘ · ɔ̝̘
|-
| Open-mid ||  || ||  || || 
|-
| ||  || || 
|-
| Open || a̘ · ɶ̘ || || ɐ̞̘ · ɐ̜̞̘ || || ɑ̘ · ɒ̘
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Bodhraneoir</title>
    <id>2611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T18:36:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bodhraneoir</username>
        <id>199</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''MacKenzie''', Lord of Chaos

Incoming law-student extraordinary and creator of the &quot;quasi-converse&quot; (conceived by me but incorporating the real universe as well) containing the conlangs and concultures of the [[homo antiquus]] races.

Languages include:

* [[Redhrácic]]
* [[Calleronian]]
* [[Cironean]]
* [[Rhosan]]

Races include:

* [[Opwajwa]]
* [[Dark Opwajwa]]
* [[Calleronians]]
* [[Cironeans]]
* [[Rhosans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homo antiquus</title>
    <id>2612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-01T19:28:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bodhraneoir</username>
        <id>199</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''('''Homo antiquus''' and the associated languages and cultures exist in the conworld devised by MacKenzie Rohlfing and is the intellectual property thereof)''


''Homo antiquus'' is the general taxonomic term applied to a group of commonly-derived human races who originated somewhere outside the Local Group of the Milky Way galaxy and possibly even outside of the Virgo Supercluster.  They are genetically compatible with ''Homo sapiens'' and virtually indistinguishable from their terrestrial cousins, apart from certain secondary characteristics such as eye coloration and physical/mental capabilities.

==History==

All the ''Homo antiquus'' races derive from a common ancestry.  At a point in their common development, a cataclysmic event known as the Sundering took place, causing the division into the extant three sub-races: the [[Calleronian]]s, the [[Cironean]]s, the [[Rhosan]]s, as well as a purely conjectural race called the [[Dark Opwajwa]] whose existence has yet to be definitively proven.  Of these four, the most populous and dominant race is that of the Cironeans.

[[Opwajwa]] is the name given in the Cironean language to the original ''Homo antiquus'' race and literally means &quot;Ancient Ones.&quot;  In their own language, [[Redhrácic]], they were '''ár Eíferi''', literally &quot;the people of Eífe.&quot;

===Origins===

It is not known whether the original Opwajwa home world survives or whether it was destroyed in the Sundering.  It was called by it's inhabitants '''Tháladán''', or the &quot;Garden World&quot;; in Cironean, it is called '''Chulastrone'''.

The rise of the Opwajwa and their history up to the end of The Darkening is recorded by the Cironean Joivar in the '''Shóredó Gazoi''', the [[Song of Hope]], a collection of hymns to Aive (the Cironean form of Eífe) and lays to the first generations of the Opwajwa, the &quot;ancient heroes&quot; who fought evil in the Sundering and preserved &quot;the loyal remnant&quot; who became the Cironeans.

====Cosmology====

Redhrácic and its successor tongues all have a complex structure of cognates denoting existance.  An Opwajwa could state the fact of his existence or life by using the verb ''esnit'' - e.g., ''Sá úrdhú esnitmúsásh'', I exist/live to serve.  This would be an abnormal utterance in daily conversation and was mainly a ritual verb used in prayers.  More common were the &quot;alpha&quot; and &quot;beta&quot; copulae.  These reflect a bisection of the terrestrial ''to be'' into extrinsic and intrinsic aspects, respectively.  Thus, one would say ''Sá tháladúr mánipethásád'' (I had been a gardener) since being a gardener is not integral to one's essence; however, one would say ''Sá áden mónepethaesád'' (I am a man) because gender is an essential characteristic.

However, Redhrácic languages also have a verb that describes an &quot;act of existence&quot; in dramatically different terms.  ''Mán'' and ''món'' are effectively aspectual verbs of the more comprehensive conceptual ''esnit''.  These three verbs are applicable to any noun in the language but one.  This exceptional noun is a cognate derived from a verb: ''eífe''; it is incapable of direct translation, although through a roundabout method a definition can be obtained.  ''Eífe'' is descriptive of an act of existence, but one that is unbounded in either direction - an eternal existence.  More than that, though, one must understand ''eífe'' as meaning &quot;to exist eternally, and therefore uncatalytically; and in such a way as to call forth into existence other things.&quot;  Therefore, a very simple definition might read thus: &quot;to be, uncaused, that from which ω comes to be where ω is the unboundable set of all things that exist.&quot;  The only noun to which this verb is applicable is in fact derived from the verb and in its base form is identical to the verb's infinitive form: ''Eífe''.  While one could define the proper noun ''Eífe'' as analogous to the English word ''God'' or its various terrestrial parallels, these stand in relation to ''Eífe'' in much the same way as the Hebrew term ''Adonai'' or its synonyms relate to the Tetragrammaton.

=====The First-Parents and the Age of Expansion=====

The history of the Opwajwa begins with Eífe.  According to their histories, Eífe created the universe (in Redhrácic, '''Terradon''') and amidst it placed Tháladán, creating it fertile and full of life.  Amidst all the plants and animals, He then raised up the parents of the ''Homo antiquus'' races, known in Cironean as Hazar First-Father and Harin First-Mother.  The pair lived on Tháladán as the sole human rulers for some time, and while they traversed the planet often considered the place of their creation - '''Aedan Aethoegá''', the Mount of Beginning - as their proper home.

At some time while they remained alone upon the planet, Eífe permitted Hazar and Harin to undergo a test.  Some prohibition had been laid upon them; the nature of it was never passed on, possibly because the First Parents considered it to be irrelevant and prone to swell their pride.  What is known, as conveyed by Joivar in the ''Shóredó Gazoi'', is that they were approached by a being identified with '''Eznitinar''', the First Being called from the Void by Eífe.

======The Time Before Time======

According to the traditions of the Cironeans, Eznitinar (the name means &quot;first being&quot; in Cironean; his &quot;true&quot; name is unknown) was the first of the fourteen '''Nuchoni''', Masters of Light.  He is spoken of as being the greatest of the '''Eznitri''' in every respect, and looked on first at the summoning of his fellow ''Nuchoni'' and then of the remaining ''Eznitri'' in the expectation of being granted primacy and dominion over his fellows.  Instead, Eífe divided the ''Eznitri'' into seven groups, and placed one of the first seven ''Nuchoni'' at their head and one of the latter seven beneath as a lieutenant.  He then sent them to discuss among themselves what ought next be summoned from the Void.  This is seen by Joivar as a test of His creations' purity, as if they chose to love their Maker they would seek to outdo each other in glorious thoughts; whereas if they thought first of themselves they would think of any new creation as a threat to their own special status and offer ideas of mediocre and undesirable caliber.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jashan</title>
    <id>2613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35008</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-06T13:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jashan</username>
        <id>200</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Jashan A'al'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Summary:'''
||Late 20s Caucasian female (lesbian) conlanger &amp; original fiction/fantasy writer.  Jashan is originally from Oklahoma, USA, but has resided in Flanders, Belgium since June 2007.
|-
|-
|valign=top|'''Birth:'''
|| 1979; Oklahoma, USA
|-
|valign=top|'''Profession:'''
|| Web developer (PHP, Plone)
|-
|valign=top|'''Natural languages:'''
|| English (native), Dutch, French
|-
|valign=top|'''Created conlangs:'''
|| [[Tsaran]]

[[Ilushan]]

[[Ilythiiri Alurl]]

[[Musbrek]]

[[Etora]]

[[Continental English]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Other conlangs:'''
|| None
|-
|valign=top|'''Interests:'''
|| Languages, vegetarianism, martial arts, fitness/health, gay/lesbian studies, RPGs (D&amp;D)
|}

''Jashan A'al'' is a name itself taken from an unnamed (and now lost) conlang, meaning &quot;twilight&quot; or &quot;bridge.&quot;  I am primary a conlanger and dabble in concultures, rather full-scale conworlds. 


I study and create conlangs with a variety of aims: to create aesthetically pleasing languages, to learn more about a specific type of language, to experiment with the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, or for religious designs. I have been seeking a &quot;perfect&quot; (used very loosely) conlang for the expression of my religious and philosophical ideas, for several years. 


My two most establish conlangs are [[Etora]] and Psharádi (Modern [[Tsaran]]). They share a nearly-identical vocabulary but are radically different in grammatical structure. Etora is gendered [human/animate/inanimate], case-declining [nom/acc/dat/abl], and SOV structure; Psharádi is ungendered, uncased, and SVO order (save in certain situations). 


===External Links===</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continental English</title>
    <id>2614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35610</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-14T16:48:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Language'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||Unknown (Europe)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||N/A
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||1000-3000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Indo-European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Germanic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;West Germanic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Continental English'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Isolating/Inflecting
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]] ||2005
|}

Continental English was a conlang sketch by [[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]].  It was designed as a form of english which diverged from standard [[Modern English]] around the 1300-1400 CE time period. 


===Phonology / Orthography===
The phonology of the language has been lost.  Some reconstruction may be possible from surviving samples.


===Noun Morphology===
Case has been lost for nouns except for genitive (-es). Pronouns retain nominative, accusative/dative (object case), and genitive. Plurals are formed by addition of -s/-es, as in [[Middle English]]. The &quot;-en&quot; endings (ox, oxen; child, children) have been lost, but irregular
plurals (foot, feet) remain.

The personal pronouns '''y''' (&quot;I&quot;) and '''thu''' (&quot;you&quot;, sg.), for example:

'''Y''' (&quot;I&quot;)
{|border=1
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Case''||''Sg.''||''Pl.''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Nom.||y {{IPA|[i]}}||we {{IPA|[wɛ]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Obj.||me {{IPA|[mɛ]}}||us {{IPA|[ʌs]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Gen.||myn {{IPA|[min]}}||ur {{IPA|[ʌr]}}
|}


'''Thu''' (&quot;you, thou&quot;)
{|border=1
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Case''||''Sg.''||''Pl.''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Nom.||thu {{IPA|[θʌ]}}||ye {{IPA|[jɛ]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Obj.||the {{IPA|[θɛ]}}||yeu {{IPA|[jɛʌ]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Gen.||thyn{{IPA|[θin]}}||yeur {{IPA|[jɛʌr]}}
|}


'''Example Noun Declension:'''

'''nam''' (&quot;name&quot;)
{|border=1
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Case''||''Sg.''||''Pl.''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Nom.||nam {{IPA|[nam]}}||names {{IPA|[naməs]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Obj.||nam {{IPA|[nam]}}||names{{IPA|[naməs]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Gen.||names {{IPA|[naməs]}}||nameses {{IPA|[namzəs]}}
|}

'''stawn''' (&quot;stone&quot;)
{|border=1
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Case''||''Sg.''||''Pl.''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Nom.||stawn {{IPA|[stɔn]}}||stones {{IPA|[stonəs]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Obj.||stawn {{IPA|[stɔn]}}||stones{{IPA|[stonəs]}}
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Gen.||stawnes {{IPA|[stɔnəs]}}||stoneses {{IPA|[stonzəs]}}
|}


===Verb Morphology===

Continental English retains at least five classes of strong verbs, with the following
patterns. While many verbs weakened over time, some weak verbs also became strong by analogy.  The chart below shows the vowel gradation for the strong verbs:

{|border=1
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Verb Class'''||'''Present'''||'''Past'''||'''Past Participle'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''I''||y||aw||i
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''II''||i||æ||u
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''III''||e||æ||o
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''IV''||e||æ||e
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|''V''||''exact rule unknown''
|}


'''Examples:'''

I: shyn &gt; shawn &gt; shin (&quot;shine&quot;)

II: fris &gt; fræs &gt; frus (&quot;freeze&quot;)

III: stel &gt; stæl &gt; stol (&quot;steal&quot;)

IV: sprec &gt; spræc &gt; sprec (&quot;speak&quot;)


===Sample Passage===
'''Chaucer''' ''(original)''

The double sorwe of Troilus to tellen,&lt;br&gt;
That was the kyng Priamus sone of Troye,&lt;br&gt;
In lovynge, how his aventures fellen&lt;br&gt;
Fro wo to wele, and after out of joie.&lt;br&gt;


'''Chawser''' ''(Continental English)''

The tyuwfald car of Troyilus tu tel,&lt;br&gt;
Thæt wæs the cyng Priyamus of Troy his sun&lt;br&gt;
On lufyng, hu his hap fyaled&lt;br&gt;
Ut wawf tu wel, ond æfter ut frawm glædnes.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Musbrek</title>
    <id>2615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35217</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-09T13:54:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 class=bordertable style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Musbrek'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n/a
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n/a
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||n/a
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Indo-European&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Germanic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Musbrek'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Isolating
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]] ||2004
|}

Musbrek is a Germanic language which shares many characteristics with the Eastern Germanic language family. Many of the word structures and basic grammar, syntax, and pronunciation are very similar and will be familiar to German and English speakers. Much of the grammar is very simplified and regular, making the language easier and quicker to learn than a strictly 'naturalistic' language. Word-building is done through compound words and affixes, with regular manners of forming nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 


This language was formulated as a 'stealth language.' Its design principles are to be similar enough to [[Modern English]] to be easy for a native English speaker to learn, yet individual enough and unique enough to obscure the casual listener or reader from deciphering the conversation. Its vocabulary is drawn primarily from Proto-Germanic and Gothic.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Continental English</title>
    <id>2616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35211</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-09T13:40:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">How did its speakers end up in Europe? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 10:14, 22 July 2006 (PDT)

I have to say, historically speaking, It was probably [[Middle English]] at 1300-1400 CE, maybe with the first signs of the [[Great Vowel Shift]], so it might bleed into the [[Early Modern English]] era.  Either way, it's not pure [[Modern English]].  But if you have any questions about the era or the language(s) of English, feel free to ask me.  Sorry.
--[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 13:39, 9 August 2008 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Government</title>
    <id>2617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-22T17:57:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tsaran</title>
    <id>2618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35009</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-06T13:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jashan</username>
        <id>200</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Language'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||NE United States / Eastern Canada
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||Modern day, Non-specific alternate earth
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||&lt; 1000
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||''Unknown isolate''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Agglutinative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]] ||1985-current
|}

'Tsaran' refers to any of the various forms of the Tsaran language throughout history.  It is spoken by the [[Tsara]] people, a nomadic and xenophobic tribal people thought to have originated in the area of present-day Romania.  The language is at root a linguistic isolate, but has borrowed a great deal of Gallo-Romance vocabulary and features due to the Tsara's length stay in France.


===History===
The origins of the Tsaran language are a mystery. Lack of any known sister or parent languages, as well as lack of documented material prior to the Elder Tsaran period, has proven a formidable blockade.

Without a doubt, the Tsaran tongue is a linguistic isolate, related none of its surrounding neighbors, Indo-European or otherwise. The features of the language do resemble a neighbor have quickly been found to have been borrowed or coincidental. It is supposed from the Tsaran oral history that the Tsendashai may have spoken either a related language or a distinct dialect of Tsaran itself; however, without written records or samples of this speech, this is purely hypothetical.


===Proto-Tsaran===
The sole known example of pre-Elder Tsaran speech was found on a fragment of pottery found near Galati, Romania in 1963 (although it remained unidentified until 1998). Whether or not it was written by the Tsara or a neighboring people is unknown. It consists of a single line:

::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Ky taan ky derentah sul&lt;/font&gt;


A possible partial translation was found nearby in 1967:

::''...(the) moon the ...(mid)night sun....''


It is interesting to compare this to the Elder Tsaran equivalent:

::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Taandais, sana-elanadais eiah&lt;/font&gt;

Assuming that it is accurate that the older inscription (dated to approximately 500 BC, four hundred years before the mark of &quot;classical&quot; Elder Tsaran) is indeed a precedessor of Tsaran and not, as some believe, an extinct relative, one can only guess as to what changes and influences must have taken place in the following centuries.


===Elder Tsaran (Ley Arah)===
The true &quot;Elder Tsaran&quot; period of the language begins at approximately 200 C.E. and extends through the last decades of the Genocide in the late seventh century. This marks the first structured and recorded instances of the Tsaran language. 

Elder Tsaran is marked by an extremely agglutinative structure both in its nominal and verbal systems; words ranging up to 7 or more syllables are common place. Suffixes are predominant, with only a few prefixes being present. In very early Elder Tsaran, there is evidence of a split first-person plural; an &quot;inclusive we&quot; (the speaker and the person spoken to) and an &quot;exclusive we&quot; (the speaker and some other person, but not the person being spoken to). This distinction was lost early in the history of the language. Also appearing sporadically in Elder Tsaran is a base-nine numbering system, although by the time of &quot;Classical Elder Tsaran&quot; (from which the majority of linguistic evidence comes) the numbering method had been replaced by a decimal (base-ten) system. Elder Tsaran was primarily a V-S-O language, with some instances of S-V-O.

Elder Tsaran survives to an extent as a scholarly and learned language among well-educated Tsara today (similar to Latin or Sanskrit for Europeans), although it is increasingly rare.


'''Example:'''
::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Selah'dais isalem arapahjes uun arah, oi'eldahel isalem arapahjes rogana&lt;/font&gt;
::[Long ago] the whole world had one language, and the people had a common speech


===Middle Tsaran===
The Middle Tsaran period began with the destruction of the Elder Tsaran linguistic records and literature, and the Scattering of the Tsaran people. The lack of literacy and geographic isolation encouraged linguistic variation and change. Middle Tsaran was marked by a gradual preference towards shorter, more analytical constructions, although the inherent agglutinativeness of the language was still extremely apparent. Suffixes and prefixes became more regularized and simplified in their usage. The word order entered a state of flux, becoming about equally V-S-O and S-V-O.

The most striking result of the Middle Tsaran period was simplifications of diphthongs into their initial vowel sound. Diphthongs throughout the language first lengthened (&quot;ai&quot; becoming &quot;aai&quot;), then dropping the final component (&quot;aa&quot;), and finally shortening in length (&quot;a&quot;). The pronominal system was affected most drastically by this and other sound changes, which set the stage for the elimination of the native pronominal system in favor of a Gallo-Roman one in later years.


'''Example:'''
::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Seladais is arapjhes un ara, o'eldahel is arapjhes rogana.&lt;/font&gt;  (Early Middle)

::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Selade as aravajhis un ara, o'eldahel as aravajhis rowana.&lt;/font&gt;  (Late Middle [Eastern])


===Dialect Divergence===
After the Crossing of the La'esh Na, the Tsaran people were effectively split into two major groups -- the free Eastern population, and the Western population trapped in Pomeillean territory. The two eventually established distinct dialects, although the Western dialect went extinct with the death of the Western Tsara in approximately 750 C.E.

Within Eastern Tsaran itself, several minor dialects arose and flourished for a period of time. However, with the Renaissance and re-standardization of the Tsaran language between 900 and 1000 C.E., the majority of dialects became moribund in favor of the standardized speech. Nowadays, &quot;dialect&quot; is more a term of accent and a few small vocabularic differences.


'''Example:'''

::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Selade as aravajhis un ara, o'eldahel as aravajhis rowana. &lt;/font&gt; (Late Middle Eastern Tsaran)

::&lt;font color=&quot;purple&quot;&gt;Ara cojhes seladas is un ara, o'ara cojhes rogana ela is&lt;/font&gt; (Late Middle Western Tsaran)


===Gallo-Romance Influence===
Linguistic &quot;contamination&quot; was inevitable when the Tsaran began re-establishing ties with the neighboring nations after their arrival in Gaul. A prime factor in this was the Tsaran sound changes -- Tsaran words were primarily mono- or duo-syllabic, and the simplification of diphthongs and softening of intervocalic sounds created a vast amount of homophones in the language. Instead of retaining two identical words (or nearly-identical words) for different concepts, often a neighboring word would be adopted and modified to more easily fit a Tsaran tongue.

A very prominant result of these sound shifts was the elimination of the native pronominal structure. With the sound shifts, the distinction between the 2nd and 3rd person was effectively nullified. To counteract this, many speakers began using the local Gallo-Romance pronouns. Increasing contact and extention of this practice gradually resulted in a completely new, completely Gallo-Romance pronoun system -- genitive, nominative, and objective.

Gallo-Romance has also served to standardize the somewhat chaotic word order in Tsaran. Originally V-S-O, it had developed tendancies towards S-V-O as well as S-O-V, depending on the structure of the sentence and what words were being used! Under analogy with the local French dialects, the word order has settled firmly into S-V-O, with the exception of direct objects. Like French, Middle Tsaran placed its direct objects between the subject and the verb when the direct objects were pronouns themselves. That is, one said &quot;I him see&quot;, not &quot;I see him.&quot; This pattern was independantly developed of the Gallo-Romance languages, but was reinforced by the contact.

While originally a great number of terms regarding non-Tsaran technologies and items were adopted from the surrounding languages, it quickly became a favored method to create new terms out of the native lexicon instead. Thus while ''elís'' (church) was adopted from the French ''eglise'' (the Tsara had no notion of a specific building in which to worship before contact with Christianity), the more modern ''socára'' (telephone) is a straightforward coinage (''soc'' - long; ''ára'' - speech)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Yasaro-alphabet.png</title>
    <id>2619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:05:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The Yasaro alphabet (lelimi)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Yasaro alphabet (lelimi)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lelimi-b.png</title>
    <id>2620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:17:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The letter &quot;b&quot; in the Lelimi script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The letter &quot;b&quot; in the Lelimi script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lelimi-d.png</title>
    <id>2621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:18:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The letter &quot;d&quot; in the Lelimi script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The letter &quot;d&quot; in the Lelimi script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lelimi-dh.png</title>
    <id>2622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:18:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The letter &quot;dh&quot; in the Lelimi script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The letter &quot;dh&quot; in the Lelimi script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lelimi-g.png</title>
    <id>2623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:18:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The letter &quot;g&quot; in the Lelimi script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The letter &quot;g&quot; in the Lelimi script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lelimi-j.png</title>
    <id>2624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-23T21:18:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teamouse</username>
        <id>37</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The letter &quot;j&quot; in the Lelimi script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The letter &quot;j&quot; in the Lelimi script</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lelimi</title>
    <id>2625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22397</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-12T09:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/MwkCt0|MwkCt0]] ([[User_talk:MwkCt0|Talk]]); changed back to last version by [[User:Teamouse|Teamouse]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Lelimi is a writing system used for writing a number of [[Zireen]] languages, including [[Yasaro]] and related languages. It is closely related to the Vlika script. Here is a chart with the basic sounds of the letters in of the Lelimi script as used in the Yasaro language.

[[Image:Yasaro-alphabet.png]]

The letters [[Image:Lelimi-j.png]], [[Image:Lelimi-g.png]], [[Image:Lelimi-b.png]], [[Image:Lelimi-d.png]], and [[Image:Lelimi-dh.png]], which are unique to the Lelimi script, represent voiced stops [ɟ ɡ b d d̪] in most languages, which have developed into nasals [ɲ ŋ m n n̪] in Yasaro. Other notable differences from Vlika usage include the low-tone vowel letters for [a] and [i], which represent [ɣ] and [z] in the Vlika script.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adaptation of Latin alphabet to Senjecas</title>
    <id>2626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48819</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T17:49:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;center&gt;HISTORY OF THE ADAPTATION OF THE LATIN ALPHABET FOR SENJECAS&lt;/center&gt;

*When humans began to commit their languages to writing, the Senjecans, through the agency of the Committee on Orthography of the Council of Archimages, began to adopt and adapt the several human alphabets for use with Senjecas.

*The consonants exist as twelve pairs of a voiced and an unvoiced consonant.  Each phoneme has its own grapheme.  Likewise each of the six vowel phonemes has its own grapheme.  The Etruscan/Latin alphabet was the first to be adopted when, in 653 B.C.E., at a meeting in Rome, 24 of the original 26 graphemes were approved as appropriate for Senjecas (omitting &lt;font color=blue&gt;Ξ&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;X&lt;/font&gt;).  Oriented to a left-to-right position and using contemporary graphemes where necessary, these 24 were: &lt;font color=blue&gt;A, B, C, D, E, V, Z, H, &amp;Theta;, I, K, L, M, N, O, P, Ś, Ϙ, R, S, T, Y, Φ;,&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;Ψ&lt;/font&gt;.  There were no miniscules as yet.  The 19 consonants occupied the following places on the Senjecan consonant table:

{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Labial
!c=02|  Dental
!c=03|  Alveolar
!c=04|  Palatal
|-
|i=No| Plosive
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;P   B&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;T   D&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;Ś   _&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;K   C&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Fricative
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Phi;   V&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Theta;   _&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;S   I&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Psi;   Ϙ&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Sonorant
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;_   M&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;_   L&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;R   N&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;H   _&lt;/center&gt;
|}
*Notes:
**The &lt;font color=blue&gt;Z&lt;/font&gt; resembled a majuscule &lt;font color=blue&gt;i&lt;/font&gt; with serifs which is not available with this font.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;Ś&lt;/font&gt; = /ʃ/ in Etruscan.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;&amp;Phi;&lt;/font&gt; = /pʰ/ in Etruscan.
**&lt;font color=blue&gt;&amp;Psi;&lt;/font&gt; = /kʰ/ in Etruscan.
*The five vowels occupied the following places on the Senjecan vowel table:
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Front unrounded
!c=02|  Back rounded
|-
|i=No| High
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;I&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;V&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Mid
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;E&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;O&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Low
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;A&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;_&lt;/center&gt;
|}

*Because of the one-to-one correspondence between phoneme and grapheme in Senjecas, an attempt was always made to have this one-to-one correspondence in whatever alphabet was adopted.  But since many of the alphabets lacked enough graphemes, it was decided at this time to use geminate consonants where necessary (diacritics were not yet available), the geminate consonant representing the voiced consonant.
*The Etruscan grapheme  (an x in a circle) was retained for the dental fricative, since the phoneme did not exist in Latin.   The Phoenician/Greek form &lt;font color=blue&gt;I&lt;/font&gt; /ʣ/ was retained.  The Semitic voiceless pharyngeal fricative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ח&lt;/font&gt; (khêt) /ħ/ became /h/ in Etruscan and Latin and was used to represent the Senjecan similar sound /j/ and its voiceless counterpart.  It will be noticed that, from the very beginning, the grapheme &lt;font color=blue&gt;Ϙ&lt;/font&gt; was used to represent the voiced palatal fricative /ʝ/.  This resulted in the following table:

{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Labial
!c=02|  Dental
!c=03|  Alveolar
!c=04|  Palatal
|-
|i=No| Plosive
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;P   B&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;T   D&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;Ś   ŚŚ&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;K   C&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Fricative
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Phi;   V&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Theta;   &amp;Theta;&amp;Theta;&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;S   I&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;&amp;Psi;   Ϙ&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Sonorant
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;M   MM&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;L   LL&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;R   N&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;H   HH&lt;/center&gt;
|}
*From the beginning, the phonemic distinction between long and short vowels has been represented by geminate vowels, regardless of the alphabet used.  The Latin vowels &lt;font color=blue&gt;I&lt;/font&gt; /i/, &lt;font color=blue&gt;E&lt;/font&gt; /e/, &lt;font color=blue&gt;A&lt;/font&gt; /a/, &lt;font color=blue&gt;O&lt;/font&gt; /o/, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;V&lt;/font&gt; /u/ were adequate as graphemes for five of the Senjecan vowels.  Lacking, however, was a grapheme for the open-mid back rounded vowel /ɔ/.  After much discussion it was finally decided to use the Greek &lt;font color=blue&gt;Ω&lt;/font&gt; as the grapheme for this phoneme, resulting in the following vowel table:
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Front unrounded
!c=02|  Back rounded
|-
|i=No| High
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;I&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;V&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Mid
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;E&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;O&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Low
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;A&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;Ω&lt;/center&gt;
|}

*Palatalization was indicated by writing &lt;font color=blue&gt;H&lt;/font&gt; before the vowel.  Labialization was indicated by writing &lt;font color=blue&gt;V&lt;/font&gt; before the vowel.

*In the year 220 B.C.E., again in Rome, after [[Wikipedia:Spurius Carvilius Ruga|Spurius Carvilius Ruga]] had allegedly developed the grapheme &lt;font color=blue&gt;G&lt;/font&gt; to represent the voiced member of the palatal plosive pair, it was adopted by the Council of Archimages.  After the conquest of Greece in the first century B.C.E., the Romans restored &lt;font color=blue&gt;z&lt;/font&gt; to their alphabet.  The alphabet still retained the old Etruscan graphemes for the alveolar plosives.  Once &lt;font color=blue&gt;z&lt;/font&gt; was restored, it was decided to geminate the fricatives to represent the plosives.  This was officially approved in the year 28 C.E. at a third meeting in Rome.
	
*With the advent of the [[Anglo-Saxon|Anglo-Saxon language]] adaption of the Latin alphabet, the Council of Archimages was able to refine the Senjecan use of the Latin alphabet even further.   Thorn &lt;font color=blue&gt;þ&lt;/font&gt; and eth &lt;font color=blue&gt;ð&lt;/font&gt; replaced the old Etruscan  used for the dental fricatives.  And [[wikipedia:wynn|wynn]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿ&lt;/font&gt;, which represented /w/, replaced &lt;font color=blue&gt;m&lt;/font&gt; to represent the voiceless labial sonorant.  When the Anglo-Saxon writers in the seventh century replaced &lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿ&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=blue&gt;w&lt;/font&gt;, the Council of Archimages retained the &lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿ&lt;/font&gt;.  And [[wikipedia:yogh|yogh]], &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝ&lt;/font&gt;, was adopted to represent the palatal approximants replacing the consonant &lt;font color=blue&gt;H&lt;/font&gt;.  These Anglo-Saxon adaptations were approved by the Council of Archimages at a meeting in York in the year 703.

*The next revision of the Latin alphabet to be adopted was the use of minuscules.  During the reign of Charlemagne, Alcuin popularized the minuscule letters and, in the year 807, at a meeting in Dijon, the Council of Archimages, based on the fact that there were not two forms of the graphemes in Senjecas, kept to that principle but elected to use the minuscules rather than the majuscules.  This resulted in the following table:
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Labial
!c=02|  Dental
!c=03|  Alveolar
!c=04|  Palatal
|-
|i=No| Plosive
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;p   b&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;t   d&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;ś   śś&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;k   g&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Fricative
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;ɸ   v&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;þ   ð&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;s   z&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;ψ   ϙ&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Sonorant
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;ƿ   m&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;l   ll&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;r   n&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;ȝ   ȝȝ&lt;/center&gt;
|}
*Toward the end of the 16th century, &lt;font color=blue&gt;j&lt;/font&gt; began to be distinguished from &lt;font color=blue&gt;i&lt;/font&gt;.  In the year 1583, the Council of Archimages, meeting in Oxford, permitted it to be used for the palatal approximants when &lt;font color=blue&gt;yogh&lt;/font&gt; was not available.

*The final step in the evolution of the Senjecan Latin alphabet came with the creation of diacritics.  The [[wikipedia:greek diacritics|Greeks]] had been using diacritics to indicate tone since about 200 B.C.  In the 16th century, the Polish language began to use &lt;font color=blue&gt;ł&lt;/font&gt; to represent /w/.  This grapheme was adopted to represent the unvoiced dental approximant.  The use of the acute accent dates from the 14th century.  To simplify further the orthograpny &lt;font color=blue&gt;ć&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ź&lt;/font&gt; were chosen to replace &lt;font color=blue&gt;ś&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;śś&lt;/font&gt;, respectively.  And finally the Council of Archimages, in 1972, at a meeting in London, and at the recommendation of the Committee on Orthography, chose the Maltese grapheme &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħ&lt;/font&gt; to represent the unvoiced palatal approximant, &lt;font color=blue&gt;å&lt;/font&gt; to represent the mid-back rounded vowel, and the IPA symbol &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ&lt;/font&gt; to replace &lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿ&lt;/font&gt; and avoid confusion with &lt;font color=blue&gt;p&lt;/font&gt;.

*Since geminate consonants and consonant clusters of more then two consonants are not permitted, the epenthetic vowel /ɛ E/ is inserted.  With the advent of diacritics, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ë&lt;/font&gt; was chosen.

*When followed by a consonant, palatalization is realized as the near-close near-front unrounded vowel /ɪ I/.  Likewise, labialization is realized as the near-close near-back rounded vowel /ʊ U/.  At this time, it was decided to use &lt;font color=blue&gt;ï&lt;/font&gt; to represent /ɪ I/ and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ü&lt;/font&gt; to represent /ʊ U/.  Also at the 1972 meeting, a final improvement included replacing &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɸ&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=blue&gt;f&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;k&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=blue&gt; [[wikipedia:kra (letter)|к]]&lt;/font&gt;, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ψ&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=blue&gt;x&lt;/font&gt;.  These recommendations were approved at the same meeting in 1972 giving the tables the forms that we have today:
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Labial
!c=02|  Dental
!c=03|  Alveolar
!c=04|  Palatal
|-
|i=No| Plosive
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;p   b&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;t   d&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;ć   ź&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;к   g&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Fricative
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;f   v&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;þ   ð&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;s   z&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;x   ϙ&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Sonorant
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;ɱ   m&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;ł   l&lt;/center&gt;
|c=03| &lt;center&gt;r   n&lt;/center&gt;
|c=04| &lt;center&gt;ħ   ȝ&lt;/center&gt;
|}
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  Front unrounded
!c=02|  Back rounded
|-
|i=No| High
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;i&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;u&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Mid
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;e&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;o&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|i=No| Low
|c=01| &lt;center&gt;a&lt;/center&gt;
|c=02| &lt;center&gt;å&lt;/center&gt;
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Stories</title>
    <id>2627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40237</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-27T16:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The North Wind and the Sun */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħôes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþâes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnëȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaaþȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кéȝëȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝêþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtíívnoomnôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oítanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭótanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tírtanħêno&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêmſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;óinêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnêmſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;péripagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭóкŭerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;póſpagôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱóóϙɱerpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ménüpâgos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;mînŭes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðëmînos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeermînos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anïôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APL = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱááþnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL = collective
*EL  = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûûras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP  = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;énëſtíívſŭevſŭênos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPC = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IM = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF  = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſénüħŭêlgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPL = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱíírnemɱêros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPC = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*REL = relative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP  = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;úfɱernôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPC = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱüɱîðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=The North Wind and the Sun=

'''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger,'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pér-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cóómrëɱênt-es-кüe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſûûl-es-кüe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кüotér-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱâlð-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êſ-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſfûd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| once-ADV
| north.wind-NM.s-and
| sun-NM.s-and
| which.of.two-MO.s
| more-ADV
| strong-MO.s
| PPC
| be-SUB
| PPC-EP
| argue-IND
|}

'''when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tend-âſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-âſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pôlo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кuur-ôſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cêl-aþ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sênt-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêlк-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| time-ST.s
| that-ST.s
| warm
| cloak-ST.s
| in
| wrapped-PPL-MO.s
| traveler-MO.s
| PPC
| come along-IND
|}

'''They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveler take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;núes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oi̋tem&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sent-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кűűr-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dűűr-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿe̋rʒ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| they
| first
| succeeding.one
| traveler
| his
| cloak
| remove
| make
|}

{|
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱa̋lð-em&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ali-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ce̋l-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vűnd-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| more
| strong
| than
| other
| consider
| should
| PPCL
| agreed
|}

'''Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveler fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|}
'''Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|}
'''And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| &lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|}

'''..síídu.....tas...téndëlas,...кuurcélun....séntun..e-numélкa...e-nomóóda.'''

Directly at-the moment, cloak-wrapped traveler..passed-by...it-happened. 

'''sen còòmrëµénten sen súúlenкüe jem..sum séntum .nùµum кúúrum..dúúra'''

The...northwind.......the....sun-and....whom the..traveler....his.......cloak..to-remove

'''..µérßa..e-nemáája sem alµálðem ésa......mína.......e-nevúnda.'''

to-make he-was-able the stronger...to-be to-consider they-agreed. 
 
'''toààru....sen còòmrëµénten...mààqvi,....màlðëvi....e-nevuµénta.'''

Therefore the....northwind......as-possible..powerfully he-began-to-blow.

'''ànti...almàlðëvi....e-neµénta, alnéévrëvi sun séntun nùµum кúúrum e-nußéla.'''

But more-powerfully he-blew, more-tightly the traveler....his.......cloak..he-wrapped. 

'''menðònu tam µéntam e-nedúsa......tas téndëlas sen súúlen e-nevudïéya.'''

Finally......the blowing...he-stopped. at-the moment the sun....he-began-to-shine. 

'''nèµam £ónam e-nepúna. òкüëmìqvi sun séntun nùµum кúúrum e-nudúúra.'''

...his......heat...he-ignited. Immediately the traveler...his.......cloak he-removed. 

'''toààru...sen còòmrëµénten tam ses súúles málðam almálðam ésa...vúnda....e-neкéla.'''

therefore the.....northwind....the of-the sun.......power.....greater...to-be to-agree he-had-to.

=xyz=</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Main Page</title>
    <id>2628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-03T20:09:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qang</username>
        <id>1187</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Holidays */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== List of conlangs ==

I put the list of conlangs started by [[User:Mos]] into a scroll box so that it doesn't take too much room on the page -- since it potentially may contain most pages on the wiki!  I also made it into a [http://semeb.com/dpldemo/index.php?title=Dynamic_Page_List DPL] list of pages that are members of [[:Category:Conlangs]] (but not ATM its subcategories). That way it becomes easier to maintain and more democratic, in that everyone decides for themselves if their page should belong to [[:Category:Conlangs]] and thus be included in the list. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 04:27, 13 February 2008 (PST)

:Those lists might have been useful when conlang wikis were new and we didn't have much to show... I've replaced them with links to the categories; my apologies to anyone who got really attached to their front page exposure.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:58, 13 February 2008 (PST)

::IMHO category pages are pretty darn ugly.  If you don't mind I'll create a series of [[List of...]] pages with DPL, then see to it that all pages that are now in [[List of Conlangs]] ate tagged with [[:Category:Conlangs]] and convert that to DPL as well. They will take up vitually no space on the server that way. [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 07:39, 14 February 2008 (PST)

== Revamp time? ==
This page is mighty plain and could use some beautification.  I'm no good at that, but if anyone wants to try their hand... —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 15:58, 13 February 2008 (PST)

Take a look at this: [[New_Main_Page_Demo]]. Not finished yet, but what do you think so far? --[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 21:38, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

:Now it is finished. Any criticisms or changes? Do you want me to go ahead and replace the existing main page?--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 18:18, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

::Not bad.  Be bold.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 20:25, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

:::Be bold? Is this a thumbs-up? Tweak it or revert it, if you're not keen.--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 20:28, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

::::Be bold is [[Wikipedia:WP:BeBold]].  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:24, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

::It looks good, although the old version was more informative, and I think the colours are too much eye candy. Compare my more neutral version at [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=New_Main_Page_Demo&amp;oldid=32452|New Main Page Demo]. Also, there could be a featured article or featured conlang or something... [[User:Cedh audmanh|cedh audmanh]] 11:31, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

:::I would be happy to have the colours change, but some people like them. Related discussions here: [http://www.conlanger.com/cbb/viewtopic.php?t=2258 CBB] and [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?t=28161]. I would like to see Muke's opinion on this and on the featured article; I think that this would be too hard to implement. Also, why do you mean by informative? I thought that all the information from the old page is still on the new page, just more concise and differently laid out. I put support-related links at the top where they are accessible and disguised the ugly 'See FrathWiki:...' links, which stuck out in my opinion. If you want me to include more information, just tell me what you would like included.--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 14:59, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

== Translations of This Page ==
Would it be possible to have a Wikipedia-style languages box below the toolbox (at the left side of the page) to show the languages in which the main page is available?

:Could be; I'd have to look into it.  Unlike Wikipedia, the interlanguage links would be to elsewhere in the same database.  It might not be too difficult, or it might cause the universe to explode.  I suppose the hard part would be in getting the language names to display like they do in Wikipedia.  Without some hacking, each language wanting an interlanguage link prefix would have to be set up separately.    —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 19:41, 31 March 2008 (PDT)
:Maybe [[MediaWikiOrg:Manual:Interface/Sidebar#Wikitext_in_side_bar]] is useful. One can probably use DPL to generate the actual list of translations; I'll look into that (being the resident DPL enthusiast! {{-)}}) [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 23:28, 31 March 2008 (PDT)

== Adding the Real Lang Stuff ==

Though I know it's not the point of the site, it is the point of what I do, so I will continue writing pages for Native Languages.  If there are any special requests, make sure to message my User account.  And hopefully you'll be able to link some of the conlangs with the natlangs, where they apply.  I also will start writing more in the IPA, and maybe start a Grammar page, used to link aspects of grammar so people have a better idea for things such as declensions, conjugations, and other 'foreign' and 'native' concepts of Grammar for English speakers. &lt;br&gt;
 --[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 04:24, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

=Holidays=
Okay, so Christmas, lovely as it may be, is not the only holiday celebrated around this time.  Probably cause not everyone is christian.

:There are lots of non-Christians celebrating Christmas. It is now believed to be a SECULAR celebration in addition to a religious one and people all over the world recognise it. I did not mean to offend anyone; I had in fact thought of designing a main page for other festivals next year.

:: It's fine, but in actuality, the word Christmas means &quot;Christ's Mass&quot;.  Now I'm actually offended per se, but I was saying that I changed Merry Christmas to Happy Holidays, which is more Generic and inviting.  I know it's a bit more PC, but whatever.  I always thought it to be a more fitting expression to go out to everyone, from the Wicca to Jewish people to Atheists celebrating &quot;present-day&quot; and even to the Christians.  Season's Greetings is another popular generic one.  No worries.

::: How many people actually bother with the etymology of &quot;Christmas&quot; nowadays? If you're devout Christian, you think of God being born. If you're Japanese, for example, you think of the secular version: Santa going round distributing gifts. Now don't come up with anything like &quot;Oh that's so Westernised and unfair to Asians, Africans etc.&quot;, please. Perfect fairness is impossible and we're speaking a language with a strong Judaeo-Christian heritage, so Merry Christmas as a generic greeting is perfectly alright. I'm hardly Christian myself, and I just don't see how it is offensive. [[User:Denihilonihil|Denihilonihil]] 02:44, 14 December 2008 (UTC)

I actually think the whole idea is irrelevant. This wiki is not set up to celebrate holidays of any type, it's set up for con-worlds and the like. Why does any holiday need to be mentioned? [[User:Qang|~Qang / Sano~]]

: Ah, it's just a bit of fun for the users! A change of scenery. --[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|S.C. Anderson]] 15:56, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

:: You and I, obviously, have extremely different definitions of &quot;fun&quot;. [[User:Qang|~Qang / Sano~]]

:::I agree with Pisceesumsprecan, it is a bit of fun.  I just like being more generic when it comes to things like this cause it seem more inclusive of everyone.  Also though, we can do a change of scenery without doing this per se.  No worries.--[[User:Blackkdark|Blackkdark]] 15:53, 11 December 2008 (UTC)

I'm fairly sure that today is as good as any other to revert to our normal front page as the &quot;holidays&quot; have passed. [[User:Qang|~Qang / Sano~]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbic Swadesh list</title>
    <id>2629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12957</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-31T01:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Swadesh list for [[Elbic]]. A note on the number entries: the top entry is the traditional, common counting system (a remnant of the Celtic language spoke on Elba before the Roman invasion; currently falling into disuse, preserved only in children's rhymes and various archaicisms), and the bottom entry is the more modern, formal, and commonly used Latin-influenced counting system.
{| border=1
|i=No|  №
!c=en|  [[English]]
!c=01|  [[Elbic]]
|-
|i=No| 1
|c=en| I
|c=01| io
|-
|i=No| 2
|c=en| thou&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(singular)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| tu
|-
|i=No| 3
|c=en| he&lt;br&gt;she
|c=01| lei&lt;br&gt;lui
|-
|i=No| 4
|c=en| we
|c=01| noi
|-
|i=No| 5
|c=en| you&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(plural)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| voi
|-
|i=No| 6
|c=en| they
|c=01| lori (m.)&lt;br&gt;lore (f.)
|-
|i=No| 7
|c=en| this
|c=01| iste
|-
|i=No| 8
|c=en| that
|c=01| ise
|-
|i=No| 9
|c=en| here
|c=01| qui
|-
|i=No| 10
|c=en| there
|c=01| ila
|-
|i=No| 11
|c=en| who
|c=01| chi
|-
|i=No| 12
|c=en| what
|c=01| chè
|-
|i=No| 13
|c=en| where
|c=01| dóve
|-
|i=No| 14
|c=en| when
|c=01| quhante
|-
|i=No| 15
|c=en| how
|c=01| quomí
|-
|i=No| 16
|c=en| not
|c=01| non
|-
|i=No| 17
|c=en| all
|c=01| totte
|-
|i=No| 18
|c=en| many
|c=01| muolte
|-
|i=No| 19
|c=en| some
|c=01| ni (m.)&lt;br&gt;ne (f., n.)
|-
|i=No| 20
|c=en| few
|c=01| ni (m.)&lt;br&gt;ne (f., n.)
|-
|i=No| 21
|c=en| other
|c=01| altro
|-
|i=No| 22
|c=en| one
|c=01| ono&lt;br&gt;uno
|-
|i=No| 23
|c=en| two
|c=01| daui&lt;br&gt;dui
|-
|i=No| 24
|c=en| three
|c=01| trisi&lt;br&gt;trise
|-
|i=No| 25
|c=en| four
|c=01| pettre&lt;br&gt;quattre
|-
|i=No| 26
|c=en| five
|c=01| pinche&lt;br&gt;quinte
|-
|i=No| 27
|c=en| big
|c=01| granto
|-
|i=No| 28
|c=en| large
|c=01| grosso
|-
|i=No| 29
|c=en| wide
|c=01| hampo
|-
|i=No| 30
|c=en| thick
|c=01| folto
|-
|i=No| 31
|c=en| heavy
|c=01| pesante
|-
|i=No| 32
|c=en| small
|c=01| piccollo
|-
|i=No| 33
|c=en| short
|c=01| córtho
|-
|i=No| 34
|c=en| narrow
|c=01| angusto
|-
|i=No| 35
|c=en| thin
|c=01| axutto
|-
|i=No| 36
|c=en| woman
|c=01| donna (f.)
|-
|i=No| 37
|c=en| man&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (male)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| huomo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 38
|c=en| person
|c=01| persona (f.)
|-
|i=No| 39
|c=en| child&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a youth)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| bambinno (m.)&lt;br&gt;bambinna (f.)
|-
|i=No| 40
|c=en| wife
|c=01| maritta (f.)
|-
|i=No| 41
|c=en| husband
|c=01| maritto (m.)
|-
|i=No| 42
|c=en| mother
|c=01| matre (f.)&lt;br&gt;(colloq. má)
|-
|i=No| 43
|c=en| father
|c=01| patre (m.)&lt;br&gt;(colloq. pá)
|-
|i=No| 44
|c=en| animal
|c=01| animalle (n.)
|-
|i=No| 45
|c=en| fish
|c=01| pexa (f.)
|-
|i=No| 46
|c=en| bird
|c=01| uccello (m.)
|-
|i=No| 47
|c=en| dog
|c=01| canne (m.)
|-
|i=No| 48
|c=en| louse
|c=01| piattolla (f.)
|-
|i=No| 49
|c=en| snake
|c=01| xerpente (n.)
|-
|i=No| 50
|c=en| worm
|c=01| verme (n.)
|-
|i=No| 51
|c=en| tree
|c=01| arbollo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 52
|c=en| forest
|c=01| foreste (m.)
|-
|i=No| 53
|c=en| stick&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of wood)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| bastonne (n.)
|-
|i=No| 54
|c=en| fruit
|c=01| frutta (f.)
|-
|i=No| 55
|c=en| seed
|c=01| xeme (m.)
|-
|i=No| 56
|c=en| leaf
|c=01| follia (f.)
|-
|i=No| 57
|c=en| root
|c=01| radicciu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 58
|c=en| bark&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of tree)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| corteccia (f.)
|-
|i=No| 59
|c=en| flower
|c=01| fluora (f.)
|-
|i=No| 60
|c=en| grass
|c=01| herba (f.)
|-
|i=No| 61
|c=en| rope
|c=01| cortta (f.)
|-
|i=No| 62
|c=en| skin&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of a person)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| pellu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 63
|c=en| meat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in flesh)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| carnu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 64
|c=en| blood
|c=01| xanquinnu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 65
|c=en| bone
|c=01| osseo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 66
|c=en| fat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (noun)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| attipe (n.)
|-
|i=No| 67
|c=en| egg
|c=01| uovo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 68
|c=en| horn
|c=01| cornu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 69
|c=en| tail
|c=01| settre (m.)
|-
|i=No| 70
|c=en| feather&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not down)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| pluma (f.)
|-
|i=No| 71
|c=en| hair
|c=01| xappellu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 72
|c=en| head
|c=01| xappu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 73
|c=en| ear
|c=01| orecchio (m.)
|-
|i=No| 74
|c=en| eye
|c=01| occhio (m.)
|-
|i=No| 75
|c=en| nose
|c=01| naxo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 76
|c=en| mouth
|c=01| bocca (f.)
|-
|i=No| 77
|c=en| tooth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not molar)
|c=01| dentu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 78
|c=en| tongue
|c=01| lingua (f.)
|-
|i=No| 79
|c=en| fingernail
|c=01| uonghia (f.)
|-
|i=No| 80
|c=en| foot
|c=01| piette (n.)
|-
|i=No| 81
|c=en| leg
|c=01| zampa (f.)
|-
|i=No| 82
|c=en| knee
|c=01| ginocchio (m.)
|-
|i=No| 83
|c=en| hand
|c=01| manno (f.)
|-
|i=No| 84
|c=en| wing
|c=01| alla (f.)
|-
|i=No| 85
|c=en| belly
|c=01| pancia (m.)
|-
|i=No| 86
|c=en| guts&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as in courage)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| coraggio (m.)
|-
|i=No| 87
|c=en| neck
|c=01| quollo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 88
|c=en| back
|c=01| diettro (m.)
|-
|i=No| 89
|c=en| breast
|c=01| mammelle (f.)
|-
|i=No| 90
|c=en| heart
|c=01| quore (f.)
|-
|i=No| 91
|c=en| liver
|c=01| fiegatto (m.)
|-
|i=No| 92
|c=en| to drink
|c=01| bhe
|-
|i=No| 93
|c=en| to eat
|c=01| mangiha
|-
|i=No| 94
|c=en| to bite
|c=01| mordhe
|-
|i=No| 95
|c=en| to suck
|c=01| succha
|-
|i=No| 96
|c=en| to spit
|c=01| spiuttha
|-
|i=No| 97
|c=en| to vomit
|c=01| vuomitha
|-
|i=No| 98
|c=en| to blow&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as wind)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ventha
|-
|i=No| 99
|c=en| to breathe
|c=01| respirrha
|-
|i=No| 100
|c=en| to laugh
|c=01| ritthe
|-
|i=No| 101
|c=en| to see
|c=01| vetthe
|-
|i=No| 102
|c=en| to hear
|c=01| sentendrhi
|-
|i=No| 103
|c=en| to know&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a fact)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| saphe
|-
|i=No| 104
|c=en| to think
|c=01| pensha
|-
|i=No| 105
|c=en| to smell&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (sense odor)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| uodhe
|-
|i=No| 106
|c=en| to fear
|c=01| temhe
|-
|i=No| 107
|c=en| to sleep
|c=01| dormhi
|-
|i=No| 108
|c=en| to live
|c=01| vivhi
|-
|i=No| 109
|c=en| to die
|c=01| si morhi
|-
|i=No| 110
|c=en| to kill
|c=01| uoccidhi
|-
|i=No| 111
|c=en| to fight
|c=01| combatthe
|-
|i=No| 112
|c=en| to hunt&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (transitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| cazzha
|-
|i=No| 113
|c=en| to hit
|c=01| quolphi
|-
|i=No| 114
|c=en| to cut
|c=01| quortha
|-
|i=No| 115
|c=en| to split
|c=01| dividhi
|-
|i=No| 116
|c=en| to stab&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (or stick)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| accoltellha
|-
|i=No| 117
|c=en| to scratch&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (an itch)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| graffha
|-
|i=No| 118
|c=en| to dig
|c=01| xavha
|-
|i=No| 119
|c=en| to swim
|c=01| nuotha
|-
|i=No| 120
|c=en| to fly
|c=01| vuolha
|-
|i=No| 121
|c=en| to walk
|c=01| passegiha
|-
|i=No| 122
|c=en| to come
|c=01| venhi
|-
|i=No| 123
|c=en| to lie&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as on one's side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| ripossha
|-
|i=No| 124
|c=en| to sit
|c=01| si sedhe
|-
|i=No| 125
|c=en| to stand
|c=01| si alza
|-
|i=No| 126
|c=en| to turn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (change direction)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| xuoltha
|-
|i=No| 127
|c=en| to fall&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in drop)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| cadhe
|-
|i=No| 128
|c=en| to give
|c=01| dha
|-
|i=No| 129
|c=en| to hold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (in one's hand)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| tenhe
|-
|i=No| 130
|c=en| to squeeze
|c=01| spemmhe
|-
|i=No| 131
|c=en| to rub
|c=01| strovinha
|-
|i=No| 132
|c=en| to wash
|c=01| lavha
|-
|i=No| 133
|c=en| to wipe
|c=01| spuolverha
|-
|i=No| 134
|c=en| to pull
|c=01| trainha
|-
|i=No| 135
|c=en| to push
|c=01| premmhe
|-
|i=No| 136
|c=en| to throw
|c=01| gettha
|-
|i=No| 137
|c=en| to tie
|c=01| annodha
|-
|i=No| 138
|c=en| to sew
|c=01| quoc'i
|-
|i=No| 139
|c=en| to count
|c=01| contha
|-
|i=No| 140
|c=en| to say
|c=01| disshi
|-
|i=No| 141
|c=en| to sing
|c=01| cantha
|-
|i=No| 142
|c=en| to play
|c=01| gioccha
|-
|i=No| 143
|c=en| to float
|c=01| galleggiha
|-
|i=No| 144
|c=en| to flow
|c=01| fluhi
|-
|i=No| 145
|c=en| to freeze
|c=01| fressha
|-
|i=No| 146
|c=en| to swell
|c=01| gonfiha
|-
|i=No| 147
|c=en| sun
|c=01| xolu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 148
|c=en| moon
|c=01| lunna (f.)
|-
|i=No| 149
|c=en| star
|c=01| stella (f.)
|-
|i=No| 150
|c=en| water
|c=01| acqua (m.)
|-
|i=No| 151
|c=en| to rain
|c=01| piovhe
|-
|i=No| 152
|c=en| river
|c=01| fluomu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 153
|c=en| lake
|c=01| laggo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 154
|c=en| sea&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in ocean)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| mare (f.)
|-
|i=No| 155
|c=en| salt
|c=01| sale (n.)
|-
|i=No| 156
|c=en| stone
|c=01| piettra (f.)
|-
|i=No| 157
|c=en| sand
|c=01| xabbia (f.)
|-
|i=No| 158
|c=en| dust
|c=01| puolve (n.)
|-
|i=No| 159
|c=en| earth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in soil)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| terra (f.)
|-
|i=No| 160
|c=en| cloud
|c=01| nuobbe (m.)
|-
|i=No| 161
|c=en| fog
|c=01| nebbia (f.)
|-
|i=No| 162
|c=en| sky
|c=01| xiello
|-
|i=No| 163
|c=en| wind&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in breeze)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| vento (m.)
|-
|i=No| 164
|c=en| snow
|c=01| neva (f.)
|-
|i=No| 165
|c=en| ice
|c=01| ghiaccio (m.)
|-
|i=No| 166
|c=en| smoke
|c=01| fuomo (m.)
|-
|i=No| 167
|c=en| fire
|c=01| fuotte (m.)
|-
|i=No| 168
|c=en| ashes
|c=01| cienere (f.)
|-
|i=No| 169
|c=en| to burn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (intransitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| incendiha
|-
|i=No| 170
|c=en| road
|c=01| via (f.)
|-
|i=No| 171
|c=en| mountain
|c=01| muontanna (f.)
|-
|i=No| 172
|c=en| red
|c=01| ruotte
|-
|i=No| 173
|c=en| green
|c=01| vertte
|-
|i=No| 174
|c=en| yellow
|c=01| giallo
|-
|i=No| 175
|c=en| white
|c=01| bianccio
|-
|i=No| 176
|c=en| black
|c=01| nierro
|-
|i=No| 177
|c=en| night
|c=01| noxe (n.)
|-
|i=No| 178
|c=en| day&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (daytime)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| diu (n.)
|-
|i=No| 179
|c=en| year
|c=01| anno (m.)
|-
|i=No| 180
|c=en| warm&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| tiepto
|-
|i=No| 181
|c=en| cold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| fresso
|-
|i=No| 182
|c=en| full
|c=01| completto
|-
|i=No| 183
|c=en| new
|c=01| nuovo
|-
|i=No| 184
|c=en| old
|c=01| vecchio
|-
|i=No| 185
|c=en| good
|c=01| buono
|-
|i=No| 186
|c=en| bad
|c=01| mallo
|-
|i=No| 187
|c=en| rotten&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as, a log)
|c=01| ammuffitto
|-
|i=No| 188
|c=en| dirty
|c=01| immondo
|-
|i=No| 189
|c=en| straight
|c=01| diritto
|-
|i=No| 190
|c=en| round
|c=01| cirocollare
|-
|i=No| 191
|c=en| sharp&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| affilatto
|-
|i=No| 192
|c=en| dull&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| xialbo
|-
|i=No| 193
|c=en| smooth
|c=01| lixio
|-
|i=No| 194
|c=en| wet
|c=01| bannatto
|-
|i=No| 195
|c=en| dry&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (adjective)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| xecco
|-
|i=No| 196
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (correct)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| corrette
|-
|i=No| 197
|c=en| near
|c=01| prossimo
|-
|i=No| 198
|c=en| far
|c=01| lontanno
|-
|i=No| 199
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| destro
|-
|i=No| 200
|c=en| left&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| sinistro
|-
|i=No| 201
|c=en| at
|c=01| a&lt;br&gt;in
|-
|i=No| 202
|c=en| in
|c=01| in
|-
|i=No| 203
|c=en| with&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (accompanying)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| com
|-
|i=No| 204
|c=en| and
|c=01| i
|-
|i=No| 205
|c=en| if
|c=01| si
|-
|i=No| 206
|c=en| because
|c=01| perchhè
|-
|i=No| 207
|c=en| name
|c=01| nuomo (f.)
|}


[[Category:Ill Bethisad]][[Category:Romance conlangs]][[Category:Elbic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ilog-kwa</title>
    <id>2630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-31T21:09:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mongolhead</username>
        <id>202</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">(ìloN kwa): My first serious attempt at a constructed language, started July 2006.  A work in (very) slow progress.

=Phonology=

Ilog-kwa uses 17 Roman letters to represent 17 (or 19?) phonemes.

/p t k/   &lt;'''p t k'''&gt;

/m n N/   &lt;'''m n g'''&gt;

/l j w/   &lt;'''l y w'''&gt;

/s S h/   &lt;'''s x h'''&gt;

/ts tS/   &lt;'''ts tx'''&gt; (I am not sure if these are phonemes; they only occur across syllable boundaries).

/a e i o u/     &lt;'''a e i o u'''&gt;

Allophones:

/T/     &lt;'''t'''-coda followed by stop or nasal&gt;

/x/     &lt;'''k'''-coda followed by stop or nasal&gt;

/K/     &lt;'''l'''-coda followed by h&gt; 

There is no phonemic voicing or aspiration distinction.

From here on, I will write in the orthography.

==Phonotactics==

Syllables may take these structures: (C) (C) V (C).

Legal onsets: null, any consonant, any non-approximant consonant + 1 approximant, '''l''' + '''w''' or '''y'''.

Legal nuclei: any vowel.

Legal codas: Any consonant, with the following execptions: '''p''' cannot be a coda. '''y''' cannot be the coda in a syllable with an '''e''' or '''i''' nucelus.  '''w''' cannot be the coda in a syllable with an '''o''' or '''u''' nucleus.

==Sandhi and Allophony==

'''t''' and '''k''' codas are spirantized when they are followed by a nasal or a stop, i.e. '''t''' becomes /T/ and '''k''' becomes /x/.

When '''l''' occurs next to '''h''' in either sequence, the resulting sound is /K/.

The silibants have a strong tendency to be voiced when they occur next to nasals.  The stops also tend to be voiced in certain positions.  Because voicing is non-phonemic, &quot;wrong&quot; voicing will not alter the meaning of any word or utterance.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Elbic</title>
    <id>2631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11803</id>
      <timestamp>2006-07-31T22:02:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sectori</username>
        <id>48</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Information on the [[Elbic]] language for Ill Bethisad.

[[Category:Romance conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ilogkwa</title>
    <id>2632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11820</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-01T18:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mongolhead</username>
        <id>202</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">(ìloN kwa): My first serious attempt at a constructed language, started July 2006.  A work in (very) slow progress.

=Phonology=

Ilog-kwa uses 17 Roman letters to represent 17 (or 19?) phonemes.

/p t k/   &lt;'''p t k'''&gt;

/m n N/   &lt;'''m n g'''&gt;

/l j w/   &lt;'''l y w'''&gt;

/s S h/   &lt;'''s x h'''&gt;

/ts tS/   &lt;'''ts tx'''&gt; (I am not sure if these are phonemes; they only occur across syllable boundaries).

/a e i o u/     &lt;'''a e i o u'''&gt;

Allophones:

/T/     &lt;'''t'''-coda followed by stop or nasal&gt;

/x/     &lt;'''k'''-coda followed by stop or nasal&gt;

/K/     &lt;'''l'''-coda followed by h&gt; 

There is no phonemic voicing or aspiration distinction.

From here on, I will write in the orthography.

==Phonotactics==

Syllables may take these structures: (C) (C) V (C).

Legal onsets: null, any consonant, any non-approximant consonant + 1 approximant, '''l''' + '''w''' or '''y'''.

Legal nuclei: any vowel.

Legal codas: Any consonant, with the following execptions: '''p''' cannot be a coda. '''y''' cannot be the coda in a syllable with an '''e''' or '''i''' nucelus.  '''w''' cannot be the coda in a syllable with an '''o''' or '''u''' nucleus.

==Sandhi and Allophony==

'''t''' and '''k''' codas are spirantized when they are followed by a nasal or a stop, i.e. '''t''' becomes /T/ and '''k''' becomes /x/.

When '''l''' occurs next to '''h''' in either sequence, the resulting sound is /K/.

The silibants have a strong tendency to be voiced when they occur next to nasals.  The stops also tend to be voiced in certain positions.  Because voicing is non-phonemic, &quot;wrong&quot; voicing will not alter the meaning of any word or utterance.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Syntax II</title>
    <id>2633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48843</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T21:53:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Abbreviations mreħőes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħőes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþaes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaaþȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кéȝëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;stiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭotanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirtanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;oinemſis&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnemſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;perïpagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pospagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooϙɱerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;menüpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðminos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APPL  = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaþnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL   = collective
*EL    = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;duuras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP    = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entiivſŭevſŭenos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPTCL = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IPF   = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſenüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF    = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;senüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPPL  = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiirnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPTCL = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP   = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPTCL = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱëɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=The Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝetaes&lt;/font&gt;=
==The Nominative Case &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnëȝetas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''194'''. The nominative case marks substantives that are used as the subject of a finite verb or in the predicate after copulative verbs.
'''The man came.  He is a man.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭe̋m-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-NOM.sg
|PPTCL
|come-IND
|3-NOM.sg
|man-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}

==The Stative Case &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtaaȝëȝetas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''195'''. a. The primary function of the stative case is to limit the meaning of a substantive, ''i.e.'', to state the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.  Other uses include the partitive idea or the idea of separation or source.
**b. A substantive in the stative case may limit the meaning of another substantive, to express various relations, many of which are denoted by &quot;of&quot; or by the possessive case in English.
====The Stative with Nouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnom ſuna ſtaaȝëȝetas&lt;/font&gt;====
*'''196'''. The stative that depends on a substantive is called attributive.  It has the following functions:
*'''197'''. The stationary stative is used to mark the objects of postpositions that do not indicate a change of position.
'''The wounded antelope stood under a tree.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ven-aðe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;diϙ-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dor-iſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtaaȝ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|wound-PPCP
|antelope-NOM.sg
|tree-STA.sg
|under
|PPTCL
|stand-IND
|}
*'''198'''. The &lt;font color=red&gt;local stative&lt;/font&gt; indicates the place at which something happens. It is used with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;.
'''The two armies clashed at the bottom of the mountain.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nert-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭor-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vuð-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;paalк-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|two
|army-NOM.sg
|mountain-STA.sg
|bottom-STA.sg
|at
|PPTC
|clash-IND
|}
*'''199'''. The temporal stative indicates the time at which something happens.  It is used with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;.
'''They met at the spring festival.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſn-ë-ɱeldën-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mood-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.pl
|spring-E-festival-STA.sg
|at
|PPTCL
|meet-IND
|}
*'''200'''. The possessive stative indicates possession or some other close relationship.
'''the father's house / / the men's lineage'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ap-aſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeeſ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|//
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćerð-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|father-STA.sg
|house-NOM.sg
|//
|man-STA.pl
|lineage-NOM.sg
|}
*'''201'''. The subjective stative indicates the subject of an action or feeling.
'''The love of the people (''i.e.'', that the people have) for their king is great.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;luð-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱen-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱalt-uſĭ'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|people-STA.sg
|love-NOM.sg
|3-STA.pl
|great-prince-STA.sg
|for
|great-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
*'''202'''. The objective stative indicates the object of an action or feeling.
'''The murder of the prince saddened the people.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalt-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;org-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lud-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;luuź-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|prince-STA.sg
|murder-NOM.sg
|people-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|sadden-IND
|}
*'''203'''. The metrical stative marks substantives which measure space, time or value, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;tir amraſĭo sentos&lt;/font&gt;, a three days' journey; &lt;font color=blue&gt;os pedam doris&lt;/font&gt;, an eight-foot tree; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭosar oȝom ećŭes&lt;/font&gt;, a horse worth 40 sheep.
*'''204'''. The causal stative indicates the cause or origin of a thing.
'''anger at great offenses'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;deg-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meź-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|great
|offense-STA.pl
|anger-NOM.sg
|}
*'''205'''. The partitive stative indicates the whole about which parts are spoken.
'''many of the orators'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeк-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;menϙ-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|speak-STA.pl
|many-NOM.pl
|}
*'''206'''. The material stative indicates that out of which something is made or of which something is composed.
'''a wall of stone'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ond-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;argam-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|stone-STA.sg
|wall-NOM.sg
|}
*'''207'''. The familial stative indicates the clan into which one is born in the naming of the Lithans.
'''clan of the aurochs'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ćam-eſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;daaȝm-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|great-horn-STA.sg
|clan-NOM.sg
|}
*'''208'''. &lt;font color=blue&gt;ce̋m̋tos&lt;/font&gt;, hundred, and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħe̋slos&lt;/font&gt;, thousand, are nouns.  They and their compounds are used with a stative plural noun, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;к̆e̋r nááusőes&lt;/font&gt;, four ships, but, &lt;font color=blue&gt;naausőm к̆ércemtőes&lt;/font&gt;, 400 ships.

====The Stative with Verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱerom ſuna ſtaaȝëȝetas&lt;/font&gt;====
*'''209'''. As the attributive stative stands in the relation of an attributive adjective to its substantive, so an expression in the stative case may stand in the relation of a predicate adjective to a verb.
*'''210'''. Verbs signifying to be, to become, and other copulative verbs may have a predicate stative expressing any of the relations of the attributive possessive:
&lt;font color=red&gt;Possessive Stative:&lt;/font&gt;
'''This law is the prince's.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;med-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalt-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|law-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|prince-STA.sg
|be-IND
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;Material Stative:&lt;/font&gt;
'''This is a wall built of stone.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;argam-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ond-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dem-aþ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|wall-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|stone-STA.sg
|build-PPCP-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;Metrical Stative:&lt;/font&gt;
'''I am sixty-four years old.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tir-ſar&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭer&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱet-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|three-twenty
|four
|year-STA.pl
|be-IND
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;Origin Stative:&lt;/font&gt;
'''From such ancestors are you sprung.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;toalu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aner-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;veeɱ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2-NOM.sg
|such
|ancestor-STA.pl
|arise-IND
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;Partitive Stative:&lt;/font&gt;
'''Solon was called one of the Seven Wise Men.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sem-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;solon-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sef&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱidu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;noomn-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|one-NOM.sg
|Solon-MOT.sg
|seven
|wise
|man-STA.pl
|PPTCL
|name-IND
|}
*'''211'''. Any verb may take a partitive stative if its action affects the object only in part.
'''He sends the soldiers [''i.e.'', all of them].'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĭ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;venк-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|soldier-MOT.pl
|send-IND
|}
''but''
'''He sends some of the soldiers.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĭ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;venк-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|soldier-STA.pl
|send-IND
|}
*'''212'''. The verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ge̋ma&lt;/font&gt;, seize; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dűкa&lt;/font&gt;, pull; &lt;font color=blue&gt;se̋lкa&lt;/font&gt;, drag; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;nı̋ı̋ja&lt;/font&gt;, lead, may have a &lt;font color=red&gt;direct object motive&lt;/font&gt; with a stative of the part seized, ''etc.'', the stative coming before the &lt;font color=red&gt;direct object motive&lt;/font&gt;.
'''The lion had seized him by the leg.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sı̋nq-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cost-e̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gæ~ge̋m-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|lion-NM.s
|leg-ST.s
|3-MO.s
|PPTC
|RED-seize-IND
|}
'''The two priestesses will lead the heifer by the horns.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d̬ő&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tóver-űes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cam-őm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿa̋x-ļ-em&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nı̋ı̋j-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|two
|priestess-NM.s
|horn-ST.p
|cow-DIM-MO.s
|FPTC
|lead-IND
|}
*'''213'''. The verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;cűűla&lt;/font&gt;, hear; &lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋nða&lt;/font&gt;, learn; &lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋ƿa&lt;/font&gt;, seek; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ı̋кa&lt;/font&gt;, request, may take a motive of the thing heard, ''etc.'', and a stative of the person from whom it was heard, ''etc.''
'''The people sought a ruling from the prince.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lűð-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿalþ-űşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ı̋ð-am&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋ƿ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|people-NM.s
|prince-ST.s
|govern-MO.s
|PPTC
|seek-IND
|}
*'''214'''. Expressions of fulness or want take the &lt;font color=red&gt;material stative&lt;/font&gt;.
'''They lack many necessities.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me̋nq-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;iiħ-őm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋e̋g-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NM.p
|many
|need-ST.p
|lack-IND
|}
*'''215'''. The verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋e̋la&lt;/font&gt;, fill; &lt;font color=blue&gt;va̋rx̆a&lt;/font&gt;, stuff; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;sa̋ta&lt;/font&gt;, sate, take the motive of the thing filled and the &lt;font color=red&gt;material stative&lt;/font&gt;.
'''They filled the baskets with grain.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;éten-őşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;c̆a̋ş-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋e̋l-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NM.p
|grain-ST.s
|basket-MO.p
|PPTC
|fill-IND
|}
*'''216'''. The verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;paűsa&lt;/font&gt;, release; &lt;font color=blue&gt;s̆e̋va&lt;/font&gt;, free; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dűűra&lt;/font&gt;, remove; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dűsa&lt;/font&gt;, cease; &lt;font color=blue&gt;műta&lt;/font&gt;, deprive; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ca̋da&lt;/font&gt;, rob; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;ta̋a̋ja&lt;/font&gt;, steal, take the motive of the thing or person released and the &lt;font color=red&gt;separative stative&lt;/font&gt; of the thing released from.
'''They released the prisoners from their chains.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;catesn-őm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cól-aþ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;paűs-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NM.p
|3-ST.p
|chain-ST.p
|imprison-PPCP-MO.p
|PPTC
|release-IND
|}
*'''217'''. Verbs signifying to accuse, to prosecute, to convict, to acquit, and to condemn, take a stative of the crime and a motive of the person.
'''I accused him of murder.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;org-a̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ánta-je̋к-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1s-NM
|murder-ST.s
|3-ST.p
|PPCP
|against-speak-IND
|}
*'''218'''. The objective stative follows many adjectives derived from the verbs in paragraphs 215 and 216.
'''He was full of evils.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħuðtæt-a̋m&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pe̋e̋l-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3.NM.s
|evil-ST.p
|fill-NM.s
|PPCP
|be-IND
|}
*'''219'''. Adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and equative degrees take the &lt;font color=red&gt;separative stative&lt;/font&gt; with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt;.  The word order is standard, marker, and adjective or adverb.
'''The cheetah runs faster than the ostrich.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nı̋b-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;jaan-e̋şo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óós-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ce̋rs-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|cheetah-NM.s
|ostrich-ST.s
|in.comparison.to
|augment-ADV
|quick-ADV
|run-IND
|}
*'''220'''. The indirect object of the action of a transitive verb is put in the stative with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;.
{|
'''Give that book to the student.'''
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-ű&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;menð-űş-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;cáq-vaal-i̋j-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dőőn-e.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2s-NM
|study-ST.s-EL
|to
|bind-leaf-COL-ST.p
|that-ST.p
|give-IMP
|}
*'''221'''. The person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage anything is or is done, is put in the stative with the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħo&lt;/font&gt;.
'''Every good father labors for his children.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sől-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;va̋a̋d-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a̋p-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-úşo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ʒoon-aþ-űm&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ce̋m-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|every
|good
|father-NM.s
|3-ST.s
|beget-PPCP.IND-ST.p
|for
|work-IND
|}
*'''222'''. The concept of &quot;to have&quot; is expressed with the verb &quot;to be&quot; with the possessor in the stative case with &lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;.  That which is possessed is the subject of &quot;to be.&quot;
'''I have three cows.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tı̋r&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ƿaк-e̋es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-úş-'&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;e̋s-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|three
|cow-NM.p
|1s-ST.s-EL
|to
|be-IND
|}

==The Motive Case &lt;font color=blue&gt;azȝetas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''223'''. The main function of the motive case is to limit the meaning of a noun or adjective with respect to a verb.  The primary use of the motive case is to state a change in the position of a thing or an idea, either literally or figuratively.
*'''224'''. The motive case is used to mark the objects of postpositions that indicate a change of position.
'''The children ran out of the house.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źoon-aþ-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeeſ-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eħa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćerſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|beget-PPCP-NOM.sg
|home-MOT.sg
|out.of
|PPTCL
|run-IND
|}
*'''225'''. The motive case marks the direct object of the action of a transitive verb.
'''We do these things.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-ues&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerź-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.pl
|this-MOT.pl
|do-IND
|}
*'''226'''. Any transitive verb whose meaning permits takes an object of kindred signification.  This object repeats the meaning already contained in the verb.  An example in English is &quot;to sing a song.&quot;  Some English verbs that this construction will replace would be &quot;make, have, get&quot; and &quot;hold.&quot;
'''She took three stitches in the small tear.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;minŭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;renð-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tir&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;siɱ-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;siɱ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3.NOM.sg
|small
|tear-STA.sg
|in
|three
|sew-MOT.pl
|PPTCL
|sew-IND
|}
*'''227'''. The motive case marks, with verbs of motion, the particular ground over which the motion passes.
'''The children crossed the bridge.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źoon-aþ-ues-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vreeɱ-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tar-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|beget-PPCP-NOM.sg-E
|bridge-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|cross-IND
|}
*'''228'''. The motive case marks substantives used as adverbial expressions of extent of time or space.
'''The house burned for two days.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeeſ-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amr-an&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ið-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|house-NOM.sg
|two
|day-MOT.pl
|PPTCL
|burn-IND
|}
*'''229'''. Verbs signifying to name, to choose, to appoint, to make, to think, to regard, ''etc.'', take a predicate motive besides the object motive.
'''The king appointed him general.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱalt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĭon-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;noomn-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|great-prince-NOM.sg
|3-MOT.sg
|general-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|name-IND
|}

==The Vocative Case &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝetas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''230.''' The vocative case, accompanied by the vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;, is used to mark direct address.  The primary pitch shifts to the ultimate syllable.
'''General, your orders have been carried out.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĭaag-u&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſem-us&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-uſĭo&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vonð-on&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſï~ſenŭ-a.&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|VPTCL
|general-VOC.sg
|one-NOM.sg
|2-STA.sg
|order-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|RED~complete-IND
|}

=Postpositions &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſstiivɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;=
There is a list of Senjecan postpositions in [[List of Senjecan Postpositions|Appendix I]].
*'''231'''. Postpositions are independent words that connect words in a sentence with other parts of the sentence.  These connecting words are placed after the nouns they govern.  Depending on what is connected, the objects of postpositions are in either the motive or the stative case.  If the postposition indicates a change in position, literally or figuratively, the object of the postposition is in the motive case.  If the postposition does not indicate a change in position, the object of the postposition is in the stative case.
'''The thirsty cattle headed toward the river.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;terſe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭos-ees&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;daan-em&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;at-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|thirsty
|ox-NOM.sg
|river-MOT.sg
|toward
|PPTCL
|go-IND
|}
'''The cattle at the river were sated.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭos-ees&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;daan-eſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſat-ees&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|ox-NOM.sg
|river-STA.sg
|at
|sate-NOM.sg
|PPTCL
|be-IND
|}
*'''233'''. The construction consisting of an intransitive verb plus a prepositional phrase, ''e.g.'', &quot;he went with his friends,&quot; is not used in Senjecas as it is in many modern languages.  The idea is expressed by a transitive verb and its direct object, ''e.g.'', &quot;he accompanied his friends.&quot;

=to [[Senjecan Syntax III]]=</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Syntax I</title>
    <id>2634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48834</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-01T19:17:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Apposition neeɱħëtas */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħoes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;jeþaes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NOM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;noomnëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*STA = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;saaþȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MOT = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кeȝëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VOC = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭotanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirtanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*sg = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;oinemſis&lt;/font&gt;
*pl = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnemſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;perpagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pospagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooqɱerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;menüpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðëminos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
*SJV = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APCP   = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaþneɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL    = collective
*EL     = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;duuras&lt;/font&gt;
*E      = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entiivſŭevsŭenos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPTCL  = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IMPERF = imperfective aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſenüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PRF    = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſenüħwelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPCP   = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiirnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPTCL  = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP    = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPTCL  = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱëɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=Part IV. Syntax &lt;font color=blue&gt;IV. nemos. ɱerërećas&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''164'''. Senjecas has an object-verb (OV) syntax, which means that all modifiers (adjectives, possessives, postpositional phrases, clauses) are placed before the noun they modify.  The finite verb is the last element in its sentence.
==Word Order &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerërećas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''165.'''Sentence order is: subject + adverbial time phrase + adverbial place phrase + other postpositional phrase + object + finite verb (+ negative).
'''sweet honey  old man's gray hair'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭaado&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meln-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źeer-uſǐo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaſn-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|sweet
|honey
|old.man-STA.sg
|gray.hair-NOM.sg
|}
'''The millstone under the tree is heavy.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;doriſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;unda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;miil-ond-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭer-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|tree-STA.sg
|under
|mill-stone-NOM.sg
|heavy-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
'''The stag whose antlers are broken is fighting.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-eſo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćer-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vï~verź-aþ-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nor-ȝorк-es&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćat-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-STA.sg
|antler-NOM.pl
|RED~break-PPCP-NOM.pl
|MPX-deer-NOM.sg
|fight-IND
|}
*'''166'''. As with all finite verbs, when a verb is in the imperative mood, it is placed last in the sentence.
'''Throw the ball. // Let's go to the ocean'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gel-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſimt-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|/
|/
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tiirt-em&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;at-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2.sg-VOC
|ball-MOT.sg
|throw-IMP
|/
|/
|3.pl-VOC
|ocean-MOT.sg
|toward
|go-IMP
|}
'''Don't come near me!'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;neeɱħ-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|2.sg-VOC
|1.sg-MOT
|approach-IMP
|not
|}       
*'''167'''. In an OV language titles are postposed.
'''King William I reigned 21 years.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oitu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱilĭam-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱalt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſar&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱet-on&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reeź-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|first
|William-NOM.sg
|great-prince-NOM.sg
|twenty
|one
|year-STA.pl
|PPTCP
|reign-IND
|}
*'''168'''. Elements which depend on one another must be next to each other.
'''He is richer than I in cattle.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙaav-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭoſem&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|increase-ADV
|rich-NOM.sg
|1-STA.sg
|compared.to
|cattle-STA.sg
|be-IND
|}
not:                                                                 
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;olv-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙaav-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭoſem&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|increase-ADV
|rich-NOM.sg
|cattle-STA.sg
|1-STA.sg
|compared.to
|be-IND
|}

==Definitions. &lt;font color=blue&gt;tólкümaes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''169'''. A sentence expresses a thought in words.  Syntax treats of the relation of these words to one another. A sentence may contain a declaration, a question, a command (imperative or subjunctive), or an exclamation.  Each of these may be either affirmative or negative.
*'''170'''. Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.  The subject is that about which something is stated.  The predicate is that which is stated about the subject.  ''E.g.'', in the sentence &lt;font color=blue&gt;maaкies anþomies mola&lt;/font&gt;, the poppies are in bloom, &quot;the poppies&quot; is the subject and &quot;are in bloom&quot; is the predicate.
*'''171'''. A verb with its pronoun subject makes the simplest form of sentence: &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus ćerſa&lt;/font&gt;, He runs.
**There are some impersonal sentences, having to do with the weather, that contain only a predicate, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerſa&lt;/font&gt;, it is raining.
*'''172'''. A simple sentence contains only one clause.
*'''173'''. When any part of &lt;font color=blue&gt;eſa&lt;/font&gt; or &lt;font color=blue&gt;mola&lt;/font&gt;, be, connects the subject with a following noun, adjective, or phrase, the verb is called the copula, and what follows is called the predicate, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;musĭo ħeſrees uϙrees mola&lt;/font&gt;, my hands are cold.  The copula may not be omitted in Senjecas.
*'''174'''. That upon which the action of a verb is exerted is called the object.  The object may be either direct or indirect, ''e.g.'', in &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus tir ternoſĭo meton nuſĭ' o luϙa&lt;/font&gt;, he promised him three measures of wheat, &quot;three measures&quot; is the direct object and &quot;him&quot; the indirect object.
*'''175'''. Verbs which can have a direct object are called transitive; those which cannot are called intransitive.  In Senjecas, most verbs are ambitransitive, that is, they can be both transitive and intransitive.

==Subject and Predicate &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaatosкŭe eegaþosкŭe&lt;/font&gt;==
===Subject &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaatus&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''176'''. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭes ćerſa&lt;/font&gt;, the horse runs.
*'''177'''. The subject of a dependent finite verb is in the motive case, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus num atu ɱeća&lt;/font&gt;, I wanted him to go.

===Subject and Verb &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaatos ufɱerosкŭe&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''178'''. A finite verb is marked only for mood, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus ſarta&lt;/font&gt;, I hoe; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nues ſarte&lt;/font&gt;, let them hoe.

===Predicate Noun and Adjective &lt;font color=blue&gt;eegaþnoomnosкŭe ȝomɱerosкŭe&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''179'''. With verbs signifying &quot;to be, to become, to appear, to taste, to be named, to be chosen, to be made, to be thought, to be regarded&quot;, ''etc''., a noun or adjective in the predicate is in the same case as the subject, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus tuſĭo vaatoſĭo eħo melĭaþus tïtaala&lt;/font&gt;, he has become angered by your speech.  These verbs are called copulative verbs.
'''This man is king.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱır-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meħ-ɱalt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|man-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|great-prince-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
'''These apples taste good.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aabel-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vaad-oes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źeeſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|apple-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|good-NOM.sg
|taste-IND
|}
'''He wants his sons to be wise.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuun-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱid-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeća.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|3-STA.sg
|son-MOT.pl
|wise-MOT.pl
|be-SUP
|want-IND
|}
*'''180'''. a. The predicate adjective with these verbs agrees with the subject in class, number and case.
'''That girl is very pretty.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭen-l-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meng~ë-meng-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|woman-DIM-NOM.sg
|that-NOM.sg
|RED~E-pretty-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
*b. A predicate adjective or noun is placed immediately before the finite verb phrase.
'''This custom is popular with the young people.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;uć-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maϙ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;luð-os&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|custom-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|youth-STA.pl
|with
|popular-NM.s
|be-IND
|}
*'''181'''. The predicate of a dependent finite verb with its subject in the motive case is also in the motive case.
'''He wants his son to be strong.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuun-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalð-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeć-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|3-STA.sg
|son-MOT.sg
|strong-MOT.sg
|be-SUP
|want-IND
|}

==Apposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;neeɱħëtas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''182'''. A substantive annexed to another substantive to describe it, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in case.  This is called apposition.  The noun thus used is called an appositive and is placed after the noun to which it is an appositive.
'''I, the prince, have given an order.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalt-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vunð-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vü~vunð-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|prince-NOM.sg
|order-MOT.sg
|RED~order-IND
|}
*'''183'''. A noun may be in apposition with the subject or the object of a sentence, where in English &quot;as&quot; or a like word would be used.
'''Horses are being offered to the sun god as a sacrifice.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſem-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭ-en&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pend-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuul-eſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;diiȝɱ-um&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pend-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|one-NOM.sg
|horse-MOT.pl
|sacrifice-MOT.sg
|sun-STA.sg
|god-STA.sg
|to
|sacrifice-IND
|}
*'''184'''. The appositive of material or contents, denotes that of which anything consists, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;veerurosë ſŭaade aɱdes&lt;/font&gt;, a spring of fresh water; &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭo metoes miilnoes&lt;/font&gt;, two measures of flour.

==Adjectives &lt;font color=blue&gt;jomɱéros&lt;/font&gt;==
===Agreement of Adjectives &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝomɱerom vundas&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''185'''. Attributive adjectives agree with their substantives in class only.  This applies to adjectives of whatever kind: determinate, non-determinate, or participles.
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſкiþlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuði&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;anþis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|red
|box
|red
|bird
|red
|flower
|}
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sкiþloes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuði&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;anþies&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|red
|boxes
|red
|birds
|red
|flowers
|}
*'''186'''. If, however, the attributive adjective is separated from its substantive by another phrase, it must then agree in class, case and number, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ale ɱaкes&lt;/font&gt;, white cow; but &lt;font color=blue&gt;ales ϙomoſĭo ena ɱaкes&lt;/font&gt;, the white cow in the stable.
*'''187'''. Because they are not preposed, predicate adjectives must agree with their substantives in class, case and number.  They may be connected to their substantives by the copula or a copulative verb, becoming a part of the predicate or assertion made of the subject, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;alvunes ales eſa&lt;/font&gt;, the dove is white.
*'''188'''. An attributive adjective qualifying several substantives agrees with the nearest substantive in class and is understood with the rest, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðevaþe ećŭesкŭe reðusкŭe&lt;/font&gt;, the injured horse and rider.
*'''189'''. A predicate adjective qualifying several substantives agrees in class, number and case with the nearest substantive, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭesкŭe reðusкŭe ðevaþus mola&lt;/font&gt;, the horse and rider are injured.

===Adjectives as Substantives===
*'''190'''. An attributive adjective may be used as a substantive.  It is put in the class of the missing substantive, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;porus&lt;/font&gt;, just man; &lt;font color=blue&gt;meeroes&lt;/font&gt;, important things.

==Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;==
===Demonstrative Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;dićo ſtiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''191'''. The demonstrative pronouns are &lt;font color=blue&gt;dus&lt;/font&gt;, this, referring to what is near in place, time or thought; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;/font&gt;, that, referring to what is more remote; and &lt;font color=blue&gt;olnus&lt;/font&gt;, that over there, referring to what is even more remote.
*'''192'''. The unemphatic demonstrative, which is often used in English as the antecedent of a relative, is not expressed in Senjecas.  Instead a participle is used.
'''I saw those who were going.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;at-ant-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|PPTCL
|go-APCP-MOT.pl
|PPTCL
|see-IND
|}
'''I saw those who had gone.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;a~at-aþ-un&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|PPTCL
|RED~go-APCP-MOT.pl
|PPTCL
|see-IND
|}

===Relative Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeto stiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''193'''. There are no relative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs in Senjecas.  Instead, a verbal clause is preposed to the substantive that it modifies.
'''The man who is here is my father.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;iðu&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-ant-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ap-as&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|here
|be-APCP-NOM.sg
|man-NOM.sg
|1s-ST
|father-NM.s
|be-IND
|}

=[[Senjecan Syntax II]]=</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Senjecan Postpositions</title>
    <id>2635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20977</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-04T11:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*Derivative postpositions are underlined.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;áða&lt;/font&gt; denotes in association or connection with.
##a custom popular &lt;font color=red&gt;among(st)&lt;/font&gt; the people
##a custom popular &lt;font color=red&gt;with&lt;/font&gt; the people.
##it is not &lt;font color=red&gt;within&lt;/font&gt; my power to free you.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;áfa&lt;/font&gt; denotes separation from support, attachment or position.
##one &lt;font color=red&gt;of&lt;/font&gt; us.
##the horse shied and he fell &lt;font color=red&gt;off&lt;/font&gt; it.
##the mayor was removed &lt;font color=red&gt;from&lt;/font&gt; office.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;áļa&lt;/font&gt; denotes to or on the farther side of time or space literally or figuratively.
##the time is &lt;font color=red&gt;after/past&lt;/font&gt; midnight.
##the army arrived &lt;font color=red&gt;behind&lt;/font&gt; schedule.
##it is &lt;font color=red&gt;beyond&lt;/font&gt; the time for sowing.
##your plan is &lt;font color=red&gt;beyond/past&lt;/font&gt; my understanding.
##he drove the wagon &lt;font color=red&gt;by/past&lt;/font&gt; the fortress.
##the soldier's brave action was &lt;font color=red&gt;outside&lt;/font&gt; his duty.
##please stay with us &lt;font color=red&gt;over&lt;/font&gt; the holidays.
##the child couldn't count &lt;font color=red&gt;past&lt;/font&gt; 10.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ámva&lt;/font&gt; denotes encirclement in or to various directions or locations.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;About/On all sides of/All about&lt;/font&gt; the living room were many chairs.
##We wandered &lt;font color=red&gt;about/around&lt;/font&gt; the market.
##The prince built a wall &lt;font color=red&gt;around&lt;/font&gt; his castle.
##The singing could be heard &lt;font color=red&gt;(all) over&lt;/font&gt; the whole camp.
##The king said we might wander &lt;font color=red&gt;through&lt;/font&gt; the castle.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;áƿa&lt;/font&gt; denotes change to, toward or at a lower place either literally or figuratively.
##The monkey climbed &lt;font color=red&gt;down&lt;/font&gt; the tree.
##He has been my friend &lt;font color=red&gt;down through&lt;/font&gt; the years.
##The two otters followed our boat &lt;font color=red&gt;down&lt;/font&gt; the river.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ánta&lt;/font&gt; denotes in a position forward of.
##He stood &lt;font color=red&gt;in front of&lt;/font&gt; the church.
##His shadow advanced &lt;font color=red&gt;before/ahead of&lt;/font&gt; him.
##The child stood &lt;font color=red&gt;facing&lt;/font&gt; the wall.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ánţa&lt;/font&gt; denotes in opposition to, in contact with, in exchange for or in place of, literally or figuratively.
##They had to row &lt;font color=red&gt;against&lt;/font&gt; the current.
##We saw the exhausted runner leaning &lt;font color=red&gt;against&lt;/font&gt; the tree.
##I do this &lt;font color=red&gt;against&lt;/font&gt; my better judgment.
##He lost his struggle &lt;font color=red&gt;against&lt;/font&gt; his illness.
##This is &lt;font color=red&gt;contrary to&lt;/font&gt; my better judgment.
##The rowers had to use boards &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; oars.
##Run &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; your life!
##The child does not yet know good &lt;font color=red&gt;from&lt;/font&gt; bad.
##I will give you three apples &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; your bow.
##The workman ran &lt;font color=red&gt;into&lt;/font&gt; the tree.
##The attack on the castle was planned &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; tomorrow.
##They were &lt;font color=red&gt;opposed to&lt;/font&gt; his going to war.
##He climbed the tree &lt;font color=red&gt;opposite&lt;/font&gt; the store.
##The woman played &lt;font color=red&gt;opposite&lt;/font&gt; her husband.
##They had to sail the boat &lt;font color=red&gt;up&lt;/font&gt; wind.
##He spent the day fighting &lt;font color=red&gt;with&lt;/font&gt; his brother.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ápa&lt;/font&gt; denotes removal from or location at a certain place or time either literally or figuratively.
##The herd of red deer ran &lt;font color=red&gt;away from&lt;/font&gt; the prowling lion.
##He is &lt;font color=red&gt;away from&lt;/font&gt; home during the summer months.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;be&lt;/font&gt; denotes on or toward the exterior of.
##There was a noise &lt;font color=red&gt;outside&lt;/font&gt; the door.
##He stood &lt;font color=red&gt;without&lt;/font&gt; the room while we decided.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;déc̆a&lt;/font&gt; denotes to or on the side of a person or thing toward the south when facing east.
##The princess sat &lt;font color=red&gt;to the right of&lt;/font&gt; her father the king.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;éħa&lt;/font&gt; denotes movement or direction from the inside to the outside.
##They ran &lt;font color=red&gt;from&lt;/font&gt; the burning building.
##They were looking &lt;font color=red&gt;out (of)&lt;/font&gt; the window when he rode by.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt; denotes stationary position, location within, or movement from without to within.
##The boulder came to rest &lt;font color=red&gt;at&lt;/font&gt; the bottom of the hill.
##Please put the dishes &lt;font color=red&gt;in&lt;/font&gt; the cupboard.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Inside&lt;/font&gt; each baked apple was a walnut.
##He put the clothing &lt;font color=red&gt;into&lt;/font&gt; the box.
##You'll find your book &lt;font color=red&gt;on&lt;/font&gt; the table.
##Horses are not permitted &lt;font color=red&gt;within&lt;/font&gt; the city.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;én̆a&lt;/font&gt; denotes having a lack of something.
##They traveled for three days &lt;font color=red&gt;without&lt;/font&gt; water.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;épa&lt;/font&gt; denotes accordance with.
##She rode her horse &lt;font color=red&gt;after the manner of&lt;/font&gt; the nomads. 
##He carved a statue &lt;font color=red&gt;after the image of&lt;/font&gt; his wife. 
##&lt;font color=red&gt;At&lt;/font&gt; the general's command the troops charged.
##It was clear that she was &lt;font color=red&gt;behind&lt;/font&gt; the plan.
##We learned of his actions &lt;font color=red&gt;by&lt;/font&gt; his story.
##We seized the cargo &lt;font color=red&gt;on the authority of&lt;/font&gt; the governor.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;According to&lt;/font&gt; what she said, they should have known what to do.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Under&lt;/font&gt; the king's new law, that would not be allowed.
##I am &lt;font color=red&gt;in accord/agreement with&lt;/font&gt; him on this policy.
##We left at sunset &lt;font color=red&gt;in conformity to&lt;/font&gt; the rules.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;éva&lt;/font&gt; denotes position on top of literally or figuratively.
##The hat was &lt;font color=red&gt;on&lt;/font&gt; the chair where I had left it. 
##They applied paint &lt;font color=red&gt;to&lt;/font&gt; the wagon.
##The tree landed &lt;font color=red&gt;upon&lt;/font&gt; their house.
##She put a cloth &lt;font color=red&gt;over&lt;/font&gt; the table.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħo&lt;/font&gt; denotes causality.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;At&lt;/font&gt; his request, we opened the door.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Because of&lt;/font&gt; the rain we could not go.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;By&lt;/font&gt; working nights, he was able to buy the gift.
##She was famous throughout the land &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; her beauty.
##There was a famine and they died &lt;font color=red&gt;of&lt;/font&gt; hunger.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;On account of&lt;/font&gt; the flood, we could not cross the river.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Out of&lt;/font&gt; fear, the people stayed in their homes.
##They were arguing &lt;font color=red&gt;over&lt;/font&gt; the money he had spent. 
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Owing to&lt;/font&gt; his poor directions, we got lost.
##But &lt;font color=red&gt;through&lt;/font&gt; the skill of our guide, we soon were on the right road.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Under&lt;/font&gt; these circumstances, we should turn back.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;At&lt;/font&gt; the sight they went pale with fear.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;кémta&lt;/font&gt; denotes in a parallel direction.
##They walked &lt;font color=red&gt;along&lt;/font&gt; the road.
##The dog ran &lt;font color=red&gt;alongside&lt;/font&gt; me all the way.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;кóma&lt;/font&gt; denotes physical proximity.
##He is &lt;font color=red&gt;about&lt;/font&gt; the house.
##He sat &lt;font color=red&gt;beside&lt;/font&gt; her on the hill.
##They lived in a home &lt;font color=red&gt;by/on&lt;/font&gt; the lake.
##The barn is so &lt;font color=red&gt;close to&lt;/font&gt; the house that you can hear the animals.
##The village lies &lt;font color=red&gt;near&lt;/font&gt; the edge of the forest.
##He was standing &lt;font color=red&gt;next to&lt;/font&gt; the tree when it fell.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;lálta&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes done for the benefit or interest of someone.
##We are here &lt;font color=red&gt;on behalf of&lt;/font&gt; the people.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;láƿa&lt;/font&gt; denotes to or on the side of a person or thing toward the north when facing east.
##We turned &lt;font color=red&gt;to the left&lt;/font&gt; when we came to the stream.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;með-&lt;/font&gt; denotes the middle; the exact meaning is determined by the postposition to which it is joined.
##She stood in the &lt;font color=red&gt;middle of&lt;/font&gt; the room and cried.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;móóda&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes possibility.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;In case of rain&lt;/font&gt;, we'll have the party in the barn.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ƿééla&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes instrumentality.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;By means of&lt;/font&gt; a knife he was able to open the door.
##He killed the enemy &lt;font color=red&gt;with&lt;/font&gt; his sword.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;ƿóóga&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes addition.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Besides&lt;/font&gt; a mother, he has a sister to support.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;In addition to&lt;/font&gt; the toll there was a special tax.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;nééƿħa&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes with respect or regard to or concern for.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;In/with regard to&lt;/font&gt; your letter, I will answer tomorrow.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;With respect to&lt;/font&gt; your knowledge, I disagree.
##He knew nothing &lt;font color=red&gt;concerning/regarding/as regards&lt;/font&gt; the stolen money.
##I am sure your wife will be pleased &lt;font color=red&gt;with&lt;/font&gt; this gift.
##The Committee &lt;font color=red&gt;on&lt;/font&gt; Orthography.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;nda&lt;/font&gt; denotes at or to a lower level than something else literally or figuratively.
##He broke his leg &lt;font color=red&gt;below&lt;/font&gt; the knee.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Beneath&lt;/font&gt; that stern visage beats a kindly heart.
##The farmer buried his treasure &lt;font color=red&gt;under(neath)&lt;/font&gt; the floor.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;nóma&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes location at or movement towards someone's home.
##We will meet you &lt;font color=red&gt;at the home of&lt;/font&gt; the mayor.
##Let's go &lt;font color=red&gt;to&lt;/font&gt; your &lt;font color=red&gt;home&lt;/font&gt; for a while.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ntéra&lt;/font&gt; denotes situation or partition between two or more entities.
##There is no honor &lt;font color=red&gt;among(st)&lt;/font&gt; thieves.
##The beehives are &lt;font color=red&gt;between&lt;/font&gt; the house and the barn.
##This book has passed &lt;font color=red&gt;through&lt;/font&gt; many hands.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt; denotes motion toward literally or figuratively.
##He threw the rock &lt;font color=red&gt;at&lt;/font&gt; the bear.
##These flowers are &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; you.
##The herd moved off &lt;font color=red&gt;in the direction of&lt;/font&gt; the river.
##Tomorrow the herd will move &lt;font color=red&gt;into&lt;/font&gt; the mountains.
##Go &lt;font color=red&gt;(un)to&lt;/font&gt; the party and have a good time.
##If you walk &lt;font color=red&gt;toward(s)&lt;/font&gt; the river, you will see the children playing.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;ólna&lt;/font&gt; denotes motion from one side to the other.
##They waded &lt;font color=red&gt;across&lt;/font&gt; the stream at its shallowest part.
##Please put the chair &lt;font color=red&gt;on the other side of&lt;/font&gt; the room.
##The defeated troops fled &lt;font color=red&gt;over&lt;/font&gt; the bridge.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;péga&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes position at or movement towards the side of something.
##They sat &lt;font color=red&gt;at the side of&lt;/font&gt; the room.
##They ran &lt;font color=red&gt;to the side of&lt;/font&gt; the room.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;pérsa&lt;/font&gt; denotes at or during a time anterior to.
##They arrived &lt;font color=red&gt;before&lt;/font&gt; the meeting started.
##Be here &lt;font color=red&gt;by/no later than&lt;/font&gt; sunset.
##twenty minutes &lt;font color=red&gt;of/to&lt;/font&gt; five.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;To&lt;/font&gt; this very day, he insists he was right.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;pórsa&lt;/font&gt; denotes up to a limit.
##She stood &lt;font color=red&gt;at the edge of&lt;/font&gt; the cliff, then jumped.
##We will go with you &lt;font color=red&gt;as far as&lt;/font&gt; the river.
##You may have &lt;font color=red&gt;as many as&lt;/font&gt; five apples.
##The apple tree grew &lt;font color=red&gt;to&lt;/font&gt; a height of eight feet.
##We will wait for you &lt;font color=red&gt;until/till&lt;/font&gt; sunup.
##He filled my cup &lt;font color=red&gt;(up) to&lt;/font&gt; the brim.
##We are &lt;font color=red&gt;about&lt;/font&gt; to land.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;pósa&lt;/font&gt; denotes posterior to in time or space.
##It was &lt;font color=red&gt;after&lt;/font&gt; noon when we finally arrived.
##I could see the smoke of the fire &lt;font color=red&gt;behind&lt;/font&gt; me.
##The general threatened to take the fortress apart piece &lt;font color=red&gt;by&lt;/font&gt; piece.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Following&lt;/font&gt; the battle, the women looked for survivors.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;re̋e̋ʒa&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes the dimension to which something is extended..
##He is shorter than she &lt;font color=red&gt;by&lt;/font&gt; two inches.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;síída&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes direct movement toward.
##After arriving home late, she headed &lt;font color=red&gt;straight to&lt;/font&gt; her bed.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;sóma&lt;/font&gt; denotes comparison.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Compared to&lt;/font&gt; last year, this was not a hot summer.
##A horse is bigger &lt;font color=red&gt;than&lt;/font&gt; a cow.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;stííva&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes replacement or preference.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Instead of&lt;/font&gt; beef we had lamb for supper.
##He gave us three chickens &lt;font color=red&gt;in lieu of&lt;/font&gt; cash for his rent.
##I used apples &lt;font color=red&gt;rather than&lt;/font&gt; pears in this cake.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;súna&lt;/font&gt; denotes accompaniment in time or space.
##They went &lt;font color=red&gt;with&lt;/font&gt; their parents to the beach.
##I went &lt;font color=red&gt;along with&lt;/font&gt; their plan.
##The trader &lt;font color=red&gt;in company with&lt;/font&gt; three associates robbed the store.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;s̆a&lt;/font&gt; denotes exception.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Apart from&lt;/font&gt; that one storm, our vacation was wonderful.
##Your statement is &lt;font color=red&gt;beside&lt;/font&gt; the point.
##There's no one here &lt;font color=red&gt;besides&lt;/font&gt; Bill and me.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;But for&lt;/font&gt; his brave deed, we would have lost the battle.
##They were all there &lt;font color=red&gt;except/save&lt;/font&gt; me.
##They served the army three oxen and five sheep, &lt;font color=red&gt;not to speak  of/mention&lt;/font&gt; the many chickens.
##I have no money &lt;font color=red&gt;other than&lt;/font&gt; the few coins in my pocket.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Outside&lt;/font&gt; her beauty, she has nothing going for her.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;tééla&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes a means of conveyance.
##They went &lt;font color=red&gt;on&lt;/font&gt; the train/&lt;font color=red&gt;by&lt;/font&gt; train.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;térк̆a&lt;/font&gt; denotes duration or extension through time or space literally or figuratively.
##We worked very hard &lt;font color=red&gt;during&lt;/font&gt; the harvest.
##He was sick &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; a long time.
##He completed his work &lt;font color=red&gt;in&lt;/font&gt; only ten minutes.
##We are &lt;font color=red&gt;in the process of&lt;/font&gt; building a home.
##They came &lt;font color=red&gt;through&lt;/font&gt; their ordeal with few injuries.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Throughout&lt;/font&gt; the nation there was great joy.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Under&lt;/font&gt; the rule of that king, new laws brought justice.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;tíírsa&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes disregard for.
##He went hunting &lt;font color=red&gt;despite&lt;/font&gt; his lack of experience.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;In spite of&lt;/font&gt; the bad weather, we decided to begin our journey.
##He is a good worker &lt;font color=red&gt;for&lt;/font&gt; having only one arm.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;In the face of&lt;/font&gt; opposition, he succeeded in his task.
##&lt;font color=red&gt;Notwithstanding&lt;/font&gt; his objection, we took the horse.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;úda&lt;/font&gt; denotes change to, toward or at an elevated place literally or figuratively.
##She ran &lt;font color=red&gt;up&lt;/font&gt; the hill.
##The sailors will row their boat &lt;font color=red&gt;up&lt;/font&gt; the river.
##You'll find the inn &lt;font color=red&gt;up&lt;/font&gt; the road.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;úpa&lt;/font&gt; denotes at a higher level than something else literally or figuratively.
##He held the sword &lt;font color=red&gt;above&lt;/font&gt; his head.
##Please put the bowl &lt;font color=red&gt;on top of&lt;/font&gt; the cabinet for me.
##The osprey hovered &lt;font color=red&gt;over&lt;/font&gt; the lake.
#&lt;font color=blue&gt;&lt;u&gt;vrééƿa&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/font&gt; denotes at or to the two sides of a place or thing.
##The boy perched &lt;font color=red&gt;astraddle&lt;/font&gt; the fence.
##She sat &lt;font color=red&gt;astride&lt;/font&gt; her horse.
##The town was &lt;font color=red&gt;on both sides of&lt;/font&gt; the river.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:MUFI</title>
    <id>2636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T13:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>MUFI is the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative http://gandalf.aksis.uib.no/mufi/</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;MUFI&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:MUFI</title>
    <id>2637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T13:20:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">MUFI is the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative http://gandalf.aksis.uib.no/mufi/

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 06:20, 2 August 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MediaWiki talk:Common.css</title>
    <id>2638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39537</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-07T06:16:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Undid change */ new section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">MUFI is the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative http://gandalf.aksis.uib.no/mufi/

[[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 06:23, 2 August 2006 (PDT)

== Undid change ==

I'm not sure what [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&amp;diff=39491&amp;oldid=34480 this edit] was ''supposed'' to do, but it had the effect of making text disturbingly large (only slightly larger than average in Firefox, but about as big as an &amp;lt;h1&gt; headline in Opera).  Whatever the intent was, I reverted till there is a better implementation of it.  —[[User:Muke|Muke Tever]] | [[User Talk:Muke|✎]] 06:16, 7 November 2008 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:BIGMUFI</title>
    <id>2639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T13:39:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>There are problems combining two style-class based templates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;big MUFI&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:BIGIPA</title>
    <id>2640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-02T13:41:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>There are problems combining two style-class based templates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;span class=&quot;big IPA&quot;&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/span&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:CapitalLongS.gif</title>
    <id>2641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-03T11:33:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Preferred form of capital {{IPA|ʃ}} in [[New AngloSaxon Spelling]]. (Looks like a J turned 180 degrees.)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kyratovsko al español</title>
    <id>2642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>11974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-04T16:26:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Duccio Parlos Daufini</username>
        <id>208</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Esta lengua es hablada por más que 999 millones de personas de en todos de las regiones de ParaEarth y en bases secretas de la tierra. La lengua se basa en gaélico, francés, eslavo, vasco italianos, latinos, griegos, irlandeses, Galés, inglés, español, holandés, alemán, asiático, y más idiomas diseñadas para hacer la lengua hablada mejor en todas las regiones. Hay rastros de las palabras solitarias del malay, del chino, del japonés, del indonesio, de Hindi, de Pali, de Urdu, del árabe, de Turco y de Philipino para lo que comunicación del este Orientol de la gente de la llamada de [[Kyratopian]]s o los orientoles del lingvo. La lengua de Kyratopians tiene gusto de agregar palabras extrañas adentro de muchos cultiva la palabra americana nativa se llama nativo del americano así que busqúelos. Observe por favor ese alot de palabras en [[Kyratopian]] que se parezca estar fuera de lugar deba todavía ser clasificado en este diccionario de 45.091 palabras o más. Hay palabras compuestas en esta lengua como la mayoría de las idiomas que las palabras con orígenes desconocidos se parecen ser agregadas adentro sin ningún knowlege de donde vino. Theres sido un uso rápido de verbos y de la lengua se está desarrollando por favor sea paciente. Las palabras alemanas se utilizan para los términos médicos, y sociales, como krank, volk, y mensch.


strova, drova: hola 

garderci: adiós 

gratis: agradezca 

Gratis!: ¡Grazias!


{{stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Syntax III</title>
    <id>2643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48846</id>
      <timestamp>2009-09-02T02:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Abbreviations &lt;font color=blue&gt;mreħőes&lt;/font&gt;=
&lt;u&gt;Cases &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeþaes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*NM = nominative &lt;font color=blue&gt;nóómnëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*ST = stative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaaþȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*MO = motive &lt;font color=blue&gt;кéȝëȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
*VO = vocative &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱȝeþas&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Pronouns &lt;font color=blue&gt;stiivnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*1 = first person &lt;font color=blue&gt;oitanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*2 = second person &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭotanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
*3 = third person &lt;font color=blue&gt;tirtanħenos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Number &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*s = singular &lt;font color=blue&gt;oinemſis&lt;/font&gt;
*p = plural &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulnemſis&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Prefixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;perïpagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*AUG = augmentative &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPX = feminine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭenpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*INT = intensive &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoorpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*MPX = masculine prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*NEG = negative &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*PRV = privative &lt;font color=blue&gt;eϙpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*RED = reduplicative prefix &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭoкŭerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Suffixes &lt;font color=blue&gt;pospagoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*ADV = adverbial suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱooϙɱerpagos&lt;/font&gt;
*DIM = diminutive &lt;font color=blue&gt;menüpagos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Moods &lt;font color=blue&gt;minoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*IMP = imperative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunðminos&lt;/font&gt;
*IND = indicative mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUB = subjunctive mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeerminos&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;u&gt;Other &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĭoes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*APPL  = agent participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaaþnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*COL   = collective
*EL    = elision &lt;font color=blue&gt;duuras&lt;/font&gt;
*EP    = epenthetic vowel &lt;font color=blue&gt;entiivſŭevſŭenos&lt;/font&gt;
*FPTCL = future particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;poſɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*IPF   = imperfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;nſenüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PF    = perfect aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;senüħŭelgas&lt;/font&gt;
*PPPL  = patient participle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiirnemɱeros&lt;/font&gt;
*PPTCL = past particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;perɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;
*SUP   = supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;
*VPTCL = vocative particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaɱëɱiðlos&lt;/font&gt;

=Verbs &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;=
==Voice &lt;font color=blue&gt;liigos&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''234'''. Voice indicates the relation of the verbal action to the subject.
*'''235'''. In the active voice the subject is represented as acting.  The same verb may be both transitive and intransitive.  There are no deponent verbs.
'''I close my eyes.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭ-'&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-on&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;arg-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|1-STA.sg
|eye-MOT.pl
|shut-IND
|}

==Tense &lt;font color=blue&gt;tenas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''236'''. Tense designates the time of an action as present, past or future.  These tenses designate habitual action.  The unmarked verb is in the present tense.  For the past tense, the particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt; is placed immediately before the verb.  For the future tense, the particle &lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt; is placed immediately before the verb.
*'''237'''. The verb &lt;font color=blue&gt;puda&lt;/font&gt;, be busy, with the supine is used periphrastically to form the progressive tenses which emphasize that the action is taking place as the speaker speaks.
'''Run for your life! I am running!'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;źŭiiȝ-am&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;antĭa&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćerſ-e&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćerſ-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pud-a&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|2-NOM.sg
|2-STA.sg
|life-MOT.sg
|for
|run-IMP
|1-NOM.sg
|run-SUP
|be.busy-IND
|}

==Aspect &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħelgas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''238'''. Aspect designates whether an action is complete or incomplete, ''i.e.'', perfective or imperfective.  Aspects are coupled with the tenses to indicate the time and the character of an action.  These indications are as follows:
**a. Present imperfective: customary or repeated action going on in present time.
**b. Past imperfective: customary or repeated action that went on in past time.
**c. Future imperfective: customary or repeated action that will go on in future time.
**d. Present perfective: action begun in the past and completed by the present time.
**e. Past perfective: action begun in the past and completed in the past.
**f. Future perfective: action that will begin in the future and completed in the future.

==Mood &lt;font color=blue&gt;minas&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''239'''. Mood indicates the attitude of the speaker toward what he is saying.  There are four moods in Senjecas.
**The indicative mood (marked by &lt;font color=blue&gt;-a&lt;/font&gt;) is used in simple assertions or negations and in questions or exclamations which include or concern such assertions, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus ɱena&lt;/font&gt;, he loves; &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus ɱïɱena&lt;/font&gt;, he has loved; &lt;font color=blue&gt;tus кŭum ɱenar&lt;/font&gt;, whom do you love? The negating adverb is &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne&lt;/font&gt; and is postverbal, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus ɱena ne&lt;/font&gt;, he does not love.
**The subjunctive mood (marked by &lt;font color=blue&gt;-o&lt;/font&gt;) is used in statements of uncertainty and in those contrary-to-fact.  The negating adverb is &lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;.  It is used in many subordinate clauses.  A subordinate clause always precedes the independent clause.  The subject of the subordinate verb is in the motive case. Dependent clauses are separated from the main clause by a dash.
**The imperative mood (marked by &lt;font color=blue&gt;-e&lt;/font&gt;) is used to express commands and prohibitions, exhortations and entreaties.  The negating adverb is &lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;.

==Subjunctive Subordinate Clauses &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeero nðerëreźo ȝexmiinloes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''240'''. A subordinate clause does not express a complete thought and is, therefore, attached to an independent clause. Although a subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate, it sounds incomplete when standing alone.  Generally, the verb in a subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood and the subject is in the motive case.  There are four types of subordinate clauses in Senjecas that use the subjunctive mood.
*'''241'''. Object clauses of fearing.
'''I was afraid this would happen.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mood-o&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;viið-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| this-MOT.sg
| happen-SJV
| 1-NOM.sg
| PPTCL
| fear-IND
|}
'''I was afraid that had happened.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mü~mood-o&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;viið-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|that-MOT.sg
|RED~happen-SJV
|1-NOM.sg
|PPTCL
|fear-IND
|}
*'''242'''. Object clauses of hoping.
'''I hope (that) he will come for a visit.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙost-am&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭem-o&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙeħ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|3-MOT.sg
|visit-MOT.sg
|for
|come-SJV
|1s.CL6.NM
|hope-IND
|}
*'''243'''. Conditional clauses (protasis) are introduced by the conjunction &lt;font color=blue&gt;nuſi&lt;/font&gt; and (with one exception) have their verb in the subjunctive mood.  The main clause (apodosis) is introduced by the conjunction &lt;font color=blue&gt;toaari&lt;/font&gt; and is in the subjunctive mood.
**The one exception is that Present General sentences have their verbs in the indicative mood and their subjects in the nominative case for they describe conditions that are true, ''e.g.'', If I am king (''and I am''), then you are queen, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nusi mus normeħɱaltus mola-toáári tus iimeħɱaltus mola.&lt;/font&gt;
**In other situations, the verb in the protasis is in the subjunctive mood, ''e.g.'', If she is here now, I am glad, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nuſi num núu molo-toáári mus кŭiitus mola.&lt;/font&gt;
**Future More-Vivid sentences express future results of probable or expected conditions.  The verb in the apodosis is in the future indicative because it hasn't happened yet, ''e.g.'', If it rains, then the roads will be wet, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nusi ɱerſo-toáári meȝoes maanoes pos mola.&lt;/font&gt;
**Future Less-Vivid sentences express future results for conditions that are considered improbable.  In this case, the main verb is also in the subjunctive mood, ''e.g.'', If I had enough money, I would buy a boat, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nusi кeeþo pisdiȝom muſĭ' o molo-toaari mus naausom кŭerĭo.&lt;/font&gt;
**Contrafactual sentences (present and past ''mutatis mutandis'') express the results of untrue conditions, ''e.g.'', If I were king (''and I'm not''), you would be queen, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nusi mus nórmeħɱaltus molo-toaari tus iimeħɱaltus molo&lt;/font&gt;; If I had been king (''and I wasn't''), you would have been queen, &lt;font color=blue&gt;nusi mus normeħɱaltus pos molo-toaari tus iimeħɱaltus mümolo.&lt;/font&gt;
*'''244'''. [[Wikipedia:final clause|Clauses of purpose]] express a purpose and are introduced by the conjunction &lt;font color=blue&gt;toali&lt;/font&gt;, so that.
'''He is coming that he may see me.''' or '''He is coming (in order) to see me.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;toali&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um-ë&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-um&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-o&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭem-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|so that
|3-MOT.sg-E
|1-MOT.sg
|see-SJV
|3-NOM.sg
|come.IND
|}

==Subjunctive Independent Clauses &lt;font color=blue&gt;nɱeero sŭevo  ȝexmiinloes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''245'''. The subjunctive mood is used in three types of independent clauses.  The subject of an independent subjunctive clause is in the nominative case.  The negating adverb is &lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;.
*'''246'''. Independent clauses introduced by the postposition &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭa&lt;/font&gt;, but for.
'''But for the lightning we would (might) not have seen the enemy.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaðtar-eſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭa&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pić-um&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;o~oкŭ-o.&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;me.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|lightning-STA.sg
|but.for
|1-NOM.sg
|enemy-MOT.sg
|RED~see-SJV
|not
|}
*'''247'''. To make a wish in an independent clause.
'''May you be happy.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us-ë&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuſvag-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;es-o.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|2-NOM.sg-E
|happy-NOM.sg
|be-SJV
|}
*'''248'''. To make a polite request, instead of adding &quot;please&quot; to a command.  This construction is always used with superiors.
'''Sit down!''' ''but'' '''Please/Do sit.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſed-e&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|''but''
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſed-o&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|2-VOC.sg
|sit-IMP
|//
|2-VOC-
|sit-SJV
|}

==Relative Clauses &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeto ȝexmiinloes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''249'''. A relative clause is one which modifies a substantive.  As a modifier it precedes the substantive it modifies.  In Senjecas a relative clause is translated by a participial phrase.
**The clause (in English) may be introduced by a relative pronoun:
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;iðu ɱeesantu ɱirus&lt;/font&gt;, the man who (that) lives here
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;tus ðïðeȝanto кaaϙvaaliȝos&lt;/font&gt;, the book &lt;font color=red&gt;which&lt;/font&gt; you have read
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;moðr' oкŭoes nuſĭ' o esantu gŭenus&lt;/font&gt;, the woman whose eyes are blue
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;mus num ɱenantu ſuunus&lt;/font&gt;, the son &lt;font color=red&gt;whom&lt;/font&gt; I love
**or by a relative adverb:
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;mus noſĭo ena ɱeeſa ɱeeſos&lt;/font&gt;, the house &lt;font color=red&gt;where&lt;/font&gt; I live
***&lt;font color=blue&gt;mus noſĭo ena per źeenŭa meenſos&lt;/font&gt;, the month &lt;font color=red&gt;when&lt;/font&gt; I was born.

==Supine &lt;font color=blue&gt;úfɱernoomnos&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''250'''. As there are no infinitives or gerunds in Senjecas, a form of the verb in &lt;font color=blue&gt;-u&lt;/font&gt; is used in their place.  This form is called the [[wikipedia:supine|supine]].
'''I can swim.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭem-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maaϙ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg-E
|swim-SUP
|be able-IND
|}
*'''251'''. A modifying adverb will precede the supine.
'''I can swim well.'''
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us-ë&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſúſ-vi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭem-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maaϙ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg-E
|good-ADV
|swim-SUP
|be able-IND
|}
*'''252'''. The subject of a supine is in the motive case.
'''He says (that) the men have gone away.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱir-un&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;lï~liþ-u-&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeк-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|man-MOT.pl
|RED~leave-SUP
|3-NOM.sg
|say-IND
|}
*'''253'''. Indirect quotations and questions and dependent clauses linked by conjunctions are expressed by transforming the verb of the direct statement into the corresponding supine.
'''I've done that.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱï~ɱerź-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|3-MOT.sg
|RED~do-IND
|}
''but'' '''I told you (that) I've done that.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-um&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱï~ɱerź-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-uſï-'&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;o&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eg-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1.MOT.sg
|3.MOT.sg
|RED~do-SUP
|1-NUM.sg
|2-STA.sg
|to
|PPTCL
|tell-IND
|}
'''She is crying because her mother has died.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaat-i&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;am-am-ë&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mï~mer-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;calŭ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|cause-CONJ.
|3-STA.sg
|mother-MOT.sg-E
|RED~die-SUP
|3-NOM.sg
|cry-IND
|}
*'''254'''. The finite dependent verb may depend on adjectives corresponding in meaning to verbs which take an object supine, ''e.g.'', ability, fitness, desire, willingness.
'''He wants to go.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;at-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeć-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|3-NOM.sg
|go-SUP
|want-IND
|}
''but'' '''Wanting to go, he sought permission.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;at-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeć-antu&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vunð-am&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;iк-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|go-SUP
|want-APCP
|3-NOM.sg
|permit-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|seek-IND
|}
*'''255'''. Any adjective, adverb, noun or verb may take a dependent supine to limit its meaning to a particular action.
'''This plant is useful for healing.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;muul-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeeк-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;noðm-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|plant-NOM.sg
|this-NOM.sg
|heal-SUP
|useful-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
'''The scene was a wonder to behold.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-aþ-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðav-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;oкŭ-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|see-PPCP-NOM.sg
|wonder-NOM.sg
|see-SUP
|PPTCL
|be-IND
|}
*'''256'''. The supine is used in place of the gerund.
'''Bargaining with the merchant is fun.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;liк-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;peer-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;antĭa&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙel-os&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|bargain-SUP
|sell-STA.sg
|with
|fun-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
'''My wife and I find riding horses very relaxing.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭen-us-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eezl~eezl-ant-u&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-STA.sg
|woman-NOM.sg-and
|1-NOM.sg-and
|RED~relax-APCP-SUP
|}
{|
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭ-en&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reð-u&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|&lt;center&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;deeſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|horse-MOT.pl
|ride-SUP
|find-IND
|}
*'''257'''. The infinitive as the subject of a verb is translated by the supine.
'''To swim (swimming) is healthy.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭem-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſanu&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|swim-SUP
|healthy
|be-IND
|}
'''It is possible for you to do that.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerź-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;neeɱħa&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;maaϙ-u&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|3-MOT.sg
|do-SUP
|2-STA.sg
|for
|possible
|be-IND
|}

==Participles &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;==
*'''258'''. The participle is a verbal adjective, in function partaking of the nature of verb and adjective.
*'''259'''. There are two participles in Senjecas, the agent and the patient.  Each of these occurs in all the moods.
**The agent participle is formed by suffixing  &lt;font color=blue&gt;-ntis&lt;/font&gt; to the mood root. The agent participle describes that which it modifies as acting, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenantis&lt;/font&gt;, loving, as in &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenantu apas&lt;/font&gt;, loving father.
**The patient participle is formed by suffixing &lt;font color=blue&gt;-þis&lt;/font&gt; to the mood root.  The patient participle describes that which it modifies as being acted upon, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenaþis&lt;/font&gt;, beloved, as in &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenaþu apas&lt;/font&gt;, beloved father.

===Participles as Substantives &lt;font color=blue&gt;nemɱeroes ufnoomnoes&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''260'''. As with any adjective, participles may take the &lt;font color=blue&gt;-us&lt;/font&gt; ending and function as nouns, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenantus&lt;/font&gt;, lover; &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱenaþus&lt;/font&gt;, beloved.  It is then equivalent to &quot;he who, they who, that which, etc.,&quot; in English.
'''He who is speaking is my father.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeк-ant-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ap-as&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|speak-APCP-NOM.sg
|1-STA.sg
|father-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|}
*'''261'''. As an adjective, the participle may be modified by an adverb, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuſvi ɱenaþu apas&lt;/font&gt;, well-beloved father.

===Absolute Constructions &lt;font color=blue&gt;nvenðëminlos&lt;/font&gt;===
*'''262'''. A noun or pronoun and a participle not grammatically connected with the main construction of the sentence stand by themselves in what is called an absolute construction.  The noun or pronoun may not refer to the subject of the sentence.
*'''263'''. When the absolute construction describes a non-motion event, the construction is in the stative case.
'''When he was prince, we were happy.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱalt-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-ant-uſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-ues&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuſvag-ues&lt;/font&gt;
|font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|3.STA.sg
|prince-STA.sg
|PPTCL
|be-APCP-STA.sg
|1-NOM.pl
|happy-NOM.pl
|PPTCL
|be-IND
|}
'''While they are eating, the chorus is singing.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-um&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ed-ant-um-&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;senł-ues&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;senł-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|3-STA.pl
|eat-APCP-STA.pl
|sing-NOM.pl
|sing-IND
|}
*'''264'''. When the absolute construction describes an event involving motion, the construction is in the motive case.
'''After the army had crossed the bridge, the citizens fled.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mert-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;veerɱ-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;tï~tar-ant-om-&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;enr-ues&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vug-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|army-MOT.sg
|bridge-MOT.sg
|RED~cross-APCP-MOT.sg
|citizen-NOM.pl
|PPTCL
|flee-IND
|}
'''Before the army neared the bridge, the citizens fled.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mert-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;veerɱ-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;neeɱħ-ant-om,&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;enr-ues&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vug-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|army-MOT.sg
|bridge-MOT.sg
|approach-APCP-MOT.sg
|citizen-NOM.pl
|PPTCL
|flee-IND
|}

=Conjunctions &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙoðɱeroes&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''265'''. Co-ordinating conjunctions are used to join elements within the sentence.  Sentences are juxtaposed without the use of co-ordinating conjunctions.
'''I wrote a story and sold it.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeкëðl-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;peк-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;n-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;per&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;peer-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|story-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|write-IND
|1-NOM.sg
|3-MOT.sg
|PPTCL
|sell-IND
|}
*'''266'''. In a series of words conjunctive enclitics are used and are postposed to all the joined elements.
'''The sheep and the goats are in the meadow.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;oɱ-ees-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħad-ees-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;arź-oſĭo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ena&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;mol-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|sheep-NOM.pl-and
|goat-NOM.pl-and
|meadow-STA.sg
|in
|be-IND
|}
'''I am not afraid of either bees or hornets.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;m-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;veȝ-en-ɱo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱersen-en-ɱo&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;við-a&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|bee-MOT.pl-or
|wasp-MOT.pl-or
|fear-IND
|not
|}

=Interrogative Sentences &lt;font color=blue&gt;perĸo ȝexmiinoes&lt;/font&gt;=
*'''267'''. A lexically marked question is one that contains an interrogative pronoun, pronominal adjective or adverb.  This type of question does not take the interrogative suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-r&lt;/font&gt;.  Note that an interrogative adverb is placed in an adverb's position, which is not necessarily sentence initial.
'''Who is coming across the field?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭ-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;arź-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;olna&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭem-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|who-NOM.sg
|field-MOT.sg
|across
|come-IND
|}
'''When will the cobbler return those tools?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кerp-ë-кŭer-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeel-on&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;d-on&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭum&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱer-doon-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|shoe-E-make-NOM.sg
|tool-MOT.pl
|this-MOT.pl
|when
|FPTCL
|back-give-IND
|}
*'''268'''. It is possible for a lexically marked sentence to contain two or more interrogative words.
'''Who will help us and when (will he)?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭ-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱ-un&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭum&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pos&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćelb-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|who-NOM.sg
|1-MOT.pl
|when
|FPTCL
|help-IND
|}
*'''269'''. The interrogative suffix &lt;font color=blue&gt;-r&lt;/font&gt;, added to the modal base of the verb, is used to mark questions that are not marked lexically.  It implies nothing as to the answer expected.  There is no alteration of the pitchs.
'''Do you drink wine?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoin-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pooȝ-a-r&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|2-NOM.sg
|wine-MOT.sg
|drink-IND-Q
|}
*In answering this type of question, &quot;yes&quot; and &quot;no&quot; are not used.  Instead, the verb is repeated without a pronoun subject.
'''Do you drink wine?'''// '''Yes, I do.'''// '''No, I don't.'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoin-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pooj-a-r&lt;/font&gt;
|//
|font color=blue&gt;pooȝ-a.&lt;/font&gt;
|//
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pooȝ-a ne&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|2-NOM.sg
|wine-MOT.sg
|drink-IND-Q
|//
|drink-IND
|//
|drink-IND
|not
|}
*'''270'''. If an affirmative answer is expected, an affirmative statement is made and is followed by the phrase &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda-r&lt;/font&gt;, agree-Q.
'''You are drinking wine, aren't you?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoin-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pooȝ-ant-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a,&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vund-a-r.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|wine-MOT.sg
|drink-APCP-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|agree-IND-Q
|}
*The answer is either &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;agree,&quot; or &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda ne&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;not agree.&quot;
*'''271'''. If a negative answer is expected, a negative statement is made and is followed by the phrase, &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda-r&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;agree-Q&quot;. 
'''You are not drinking wine, are you?'''
{|
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;t-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoin-om&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;pooȝ-ant-us&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;eſ-a&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;ne,&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;vund-a-r.&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|1-NOM.sg
|wine-MOT.sg
|drink-APCP-NOM.sg
|be-IND
|not
|agree-IND-Q
|}
*The answer is either &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;agree,&quot; or &lt;font color=blue&gt;vunda ne&lt;/font&gt;, &quot;not agree.&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Rhodrese</title>
    <id>2647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25832</id>
      <timestamp>2007-09-30T13:33:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{R3 pages}}
== Rhodrese ==
This formerly unnamed Romlang initially has the developments you would expect from a Western Romance language.  However at a later time there is vowel mutation  by a high or low vowel (''a &lt; ă/ā, i &lt; ī, u &lt; ū''), with final vowels later being lost, or in the case of ''-a'' being reduced to ''-e'' {{IPA|[ə]}}.  Somewhat unexpectedly plurals of the first declension show forms as if the a-mutated vowels of the singular had later undergone i-mutation.  This most certainly is due to analogy with the second and third declension rather than to a preserved {{IPA|[ai̥]}} ending &amp;mdash; or did an ending pronounced {{IPA|[æ]}} cause such a 'double' mutation?

== Vowels ==

{| class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
|+ Stressed vowels
|-
!   Latin
!   VL
!   W. Rmc.{{ref|vowel-length}}
!  No mut.
!   a-mut.{{ref|a-mutation}}
!   i-mut
!  a/i-mut.{{ref|a-i-mutation}}
!   u-mut.{{ref|u-mutation}}
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ī''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ị''
|  ''ĭ''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''i''
|  ''e''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | n/a
| ''e''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ui &amp;gt; eu'' {{IPA|/y/}}{{ref|vowels-ui-eu}}
|-
|  ''ī''
| '' ei &amp;gt; ai''
| ''ei &amp;gt; ai''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ĭ,  ē, oe''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ẹ''
|  ''ẹ̆''
|  ''e''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot;  rowspan=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''i''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''oe'' {{IPA|/ø/}} ''&amp;gt; e''{{ref|vowels-oe-ae}}
|-
|  ''ẹ̄''
|  ''ei &amp;gt; ai''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ĕ, ae''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ę''
|  ''ę̆''
|  ''e''
|  ''oe &amp;gt; e''
|-
|  ''ę̄''
|  ''ie''
|  ''ue '' ''{{IPA|/yø/ &amp;gt; /ye/}}''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ă, ā''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''a''
|  ''ă''
|  ''a''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ae ''{{IPA|/æ/}}'' &amp;gt; e''{{ref_label|vowels-oe-ae|6|}}
|  ''o''
|-
| ''ā''
| ''ea &amp;gt; ia''{{ref|a-breaking}}
| ''ie''{{ref|ea-mutation}}
| ''e''
| ''oa &amp;gt; ua''{{ref_label|a-breaking|7|}}
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ŏ''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ǫ''
|  ''ǫ̆''
|  ''o''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''oe &amp;gt; e''
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
|-
|  ''ǭ''
|  ''uo''
|  ''ue''
| ''oe &amp;gt; e''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ŭ, ō''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ọ''
|  ''ọ̆''
|  ''o''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''oe &amp;gt; e''
|-
|  ''ọ̄''
|  ''ou{{ref|diphthong-ou}} &amp;gt; au''
|  ''eu''{{ref_label|vowels-ui-eu|5|}}
|  ''ue''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ū''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''ụ''
|  ''ŭ''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |  ''u''
| ''o''
| ''ui &amp;gt; eu''
| ''oe &amp;gt; e''
|-
|  ''ū''
| ''ou &gt; au''
| ''eu''
| ''ei &gt; ai''
|}

=== Notes ===
&lt;ol start=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|vowel-length}} Vowel length in Western Romance'''
:After the Classical Latin vowel length distinction was lost in favor of a distinction of vowel quality there developed a new length distinction in parts of the Vulgar Latin area.  In some parts, notably Iberia, all stressed vowels were lengthened, while in most parts, including Italy and Gaul, it was stressed vowels in open syllables that were lengthened; Rhodrese belongs to this latter group.  The difference is best seen in the diphthongization of ''ę'' and ''ǫ'' (from Latin ''ĕ'' and ''ŏ'': in Castilian {{SC|tęrra, pęde}} became ''tierra'' and ''pié'' because the first ''e'' was stressed in both words, but in Italian they became ''terra'' and ''piede'' because the stressed syllable was closed in {{SC|tęrra}} but open in {{SC||pęde}}.  In Rhodrese these words become ''terre'' and ''pier'' (plurals ''tir'' and ''pir'').
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|a-mutation}} A-mutation'''
:A-mutation lowered the high vowels ''i&amp;zwj;̣'' and ''ụ'' to ''ẹ'' and ''ọ''.  A-mutation was prior to the secondary diphthongization of ''ẹ̄'' to ''ei'' and ''ọ̄'' to ''ou'', so the a-mutated ''ī&amp;zwj;̣'' and ''ụ̄'' diphthongize along with primary ''ẹ̄'' and ''ọ̄''.
:Although a-mutation was certainly later than the diphthongization of ''ę̄'' to ''ie'' and ''ǭ'' to ''uo'' the high first elements of these diphthongs are not subject to a-mutation, whether because of the intervening mid vowel element, or because the diphthongs had already became {{IPA|[jɛ]}} and {{IPA|[wɔ]}}.
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|a-i-mutation}} A/i-mutation'''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|u-mutation}} U-mutation'''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|ref|vowels-ui-eu}} The vowels ''ui'' and ''eu'''''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|vowels-oe-ae}} The vowels ''oe'' and ''ae'''''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|a-breaking}} Breaking of Western Romance ''*a'''''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|ea-mutation}} I-mutation of ''ea &amp;gt; ia'''''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;'''{{note|diphthong-ou}} The diphthong ''ou'' &amp;lt; Western Romance ''ō&amp;zwj;̣'' and Latin ''au'''''
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== Consonants ==

{| class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
|+Consonant correspondences
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | VL
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Initial
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Geminate
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Final
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Intervocalic
|-
! Primary
! Secondary
! Pretonic
! Posttonic
|-
| ''p''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''p''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| ''p''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''b''
|-
| ''t''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''t''
| ''t''
| ''t''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''d''
|-
| ''ć'' {{IPA|[c]}}
| ''c'' {{IPA|[ts]}}
| ''x'' {{IPA|[tʃ]}} &gt; ''tx''{{Note|1}}
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| ''z &gt; ç'' {{IPA|[ts]}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''z'' {{IPA|[dz]}}
|-
| ''c''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''c, ch'' {{IPA|[k]}}
| Ø
| ''c''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g, gh'' {{IPA|[g]}}
|-
| ''b''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''b''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| ''f''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''v''
|-
| ''d''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''d''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Ø
| ''d''
| Ø
|-
| ''ǵ'' {{IPA|[ɟ]}}''''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g'' {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''i, y'' {{IPA|[j]}}''i, y''
| ''g(i)'' {{IPA|[dʒ] (&gt; [ʒ]?}}
| ''i, y''
|-
| ''j''
| ''i &gt; j '' {{IPA|[dʒ]}}
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | n/a
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| ''g''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g, gh'' {{IPA|g}}
| Ø
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g''
| Ø
|-
| ''pj''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''(pj pi)''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | n/a
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''uj, bi &gt;be''
|-
| ''tj''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''c(i)'' {{IPA|[ts]}}
| ''c(i)''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''z &gt;
ç''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''c(i)''
|-
| ''kj''
| ''x''
|-
| ''bj''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''(bj bi)''
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''uj, vi &gt;ve''
|-
| ''dj''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''z'' {{IPA|[dz]}}
| | ''z'' &gt; ç {{IPA|[ts]}}''''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g(i) (&gt; j)''
|-
| ''gj''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g(i)''
| ''x '' &gt; ''tx''
|-
| ''m''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''m''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Ø
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''m''
|-
| ''n''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''n''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Ø
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''n''
|-
| ''mb''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; rowspan=&quot;11&quot; | n/a
| ''m''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''mb''
|-
| ''nd''
| ''n''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''nd''
|-
| ''ng''
| ''ng'' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''ng'' {{IPA|[ŋg]}}
|-
| ''mj''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''gn(i)
'' {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''(i)gn'' {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''gn(i)''
|-
| ''nj, gn, cĭn &gt; ć’n''
|-
| ''lj, gl, gĭl, gĕl, dĭl, dĕl''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''gl(i)
'' {{IPA|[ʎ]}}
| ''*ggl
&gt; gl, ghl(i)''
| class=&quot;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''(i)gl
'' {{IPA|[ʎ]}}'', gl(i)''
|-
| ''cĭl, cĕl, cĭl, cĕl''
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''*ccĺ &gt;
cl, chl(i)''
|-
| ''cŭl, cŏl, căl &gt; c’l''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''cl, chl(i)'' {{IPA|[kl]}}
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''gu &gt; go''
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;&quot; | ''gl, ghl(i), (i)ghl''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| ''tŭl, tŏl, tăl &gt; t’l''
|-
| ''gŭl, gŏl, găl &gt; g’l''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''gl, ghl(i)'' {{IPA|[gl]}}
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''*ggl &gt; gl, ghl(i)''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | '' l''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | l
|-
| ''dŭl, dŏl, dăl &gt; d’l''
|-
| ''s''
| | ''s'' {{IPA|[s]}}
| | ''ss'' {{IPA|[s]}}
| Ø
| | ''s''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''s '' {{IPA|[z]}}
|-
| ''sj''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''sc(i)'' {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''-is, -sz &gt; sç'' (all {{IPA|[ʃ]}})
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''si '' {{IPA|[ʒ]}} (''&gt; j'' ?)
|-
| ''sc´, scj''
| | ''sc(i)''
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; | n/a
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| ''ct''
| style=&quot;background-color: gray;&quot; rowspan=&quot;7&quot; | n/a
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | ''x &gt; tx''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| ''gĭd''
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''g(i) &gt; j''
|-
| '' cĭt, cĕt''
|-
| ''tĭc, tĕc''
|-
| ''pt''
| ''t''
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''t''
|-
| ''pĭt, bĭt, vĭt''
| ''ut''
| ''ut''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''ud''
|-
| ''pĭd, bĭd, vĭd''
| ''uj''
| ''uj''
| ''ud''
| ''uj''
|}

== Random notes ==
Intervocalic ''b &gt; v''; ''g' &gt; j'' '''i''';
''p, t, k', k &gt; b, d, g', g'' but ''tj, kj'' &gt; voiceless ''ts'', ''gj'' &gt; {{IPA|[dʒ]}} '''gi'''.  Unpalatalized original ''g'' tends to disappear.

Initial ''k', kj, tj &gt; ts'' '''c(i)'''; initial ''g', gj'' &gt; {{IPA|[dʒ]}} '''(g)i'''.

''dj'' in all positions &gt; {{IPA|[dz]}} '''z'''.

''ct'' &gt; {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, while actual ''x'' = ''ks'' &gt; ''s'' or undergoes metathesis to ''sk'', which may be palatalized to {{IPA|[ʃ]}} '''sc(i)'' along with original ''sc''.{{ref|sibilant-spellings}}

Voiced stops and affricates ending up final after the loss of final vowels become devoiced, spelled ''p, t, z'' {{IPA|[ts]}} (later ''ç''), ''(i)x'' {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, ''c''.

Final {{IPA|[ʃ]}} is spelled ''V(i)ss/Vis'', later ''sç'', with occasionally ''sz/sx'' in early texts.

Word initial ''ie, ue, uo'' are spelled '''hie, hue, huo''', since the normal medieval pronunciation of initial prevocalic '''i, u''' was ''j, v''.

The vowels {{IPA|[æ]}} ''ae'' and {{IPA|[ø]}} ''oe'' were found in the earliest texts, but later merged with ''e'', while ''ui'' {{IPA|[y]}} and ''eu'' {{IPA|[øy]}} merged as {{IPA|/y/}} spelled ''eu''!  The spelling ''ue'' remained, but probably shifted from {{IPA|[yø]}} to {{IPA|[ø]}}.

A ''k, g, sk'' before a front vowel that arose through mutation wasn't
palatalized.  They are spelled '''ch, gh, sch'''.

{{note|sibilant-spellings}} Due to the {{sc|sc/x}} merger it is likely that ''x'' was primarily a spelling for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} all along, while {{IPA|/tʃ/}} was normally spelled ''tx'', or in early texts alternating with ''cx''.  It is however likely that Classicism created a vougue for using ''x'' for {{IPA|/ks/}} — and against the 'barbaric' ''cs'' (or rather, at the time, ''cſ'') — in learnëd words, this making ''sc{{sup|i,e}}/sç'' the normal spelling for {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in all cases — even though ''sçt'' for {{IPA|/ʃt/}} &lt; {{sc|scĭt/xĭt}} will look a tad bizarre! It is also likely that the 16{{sup|th}} grammarians disagreed on these points.  I can envisage this 'pattern':

{| class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
|+ {{SUBPAGENAME}} sibilant spellings
|-
! !! Medieval !! Pirrí !! Grieur !! Modern
|-
! {{IPA|/dz/ &gt; /z/}}
| z, dz || z || z || z
|-
! {{IPA|/ts/ &gt; /s/}}
| c{{sup|i,e}}, ce{{sup|a,o,u}}/ci{{sup|a,o,u}}, tz, cz, zz
| c{{sup|i,e}}, tz, (ci{{sup|a,o,u}})
| c{{sup|i,e}}, ç
| c{{sup|i,e}}, ç
|-
! {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| sc{{sup|i,e}}, sce{{sup|a,o,u}}/sci{{sup|a,o,u}}, x, sz, sx, ss, iss, xx
| sc{{sup|i,e}}, x || sc{{sup|i,e}}, sç, (ixt {{IPA|/ʃt/}})
| sc{{sup|i,e}}, sç
|-
! {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
| tx, cx, cc{{sup|i,e}}, cce{{sup|a,o,u}}/cci{{sup|a,o,u}}, cc
| tx || tx || tx
|-
! {{IPA|/dʒ/}}
| g{{sup|i,e}}, i{{sup|V}}, ge{{sup|a,o,u}}/gi{{sup|a,o,u}}, gg
| g{{sup|i,e}}, gi{{sup|a,o,u}}, gg
| g{{sup|i,e}}, i{{sup|V}}
| g{{sup|i,e}}, j
|-
! {{IPA|/j/}}
| i, y || i || y || y
|-
! {{IPA|/ks/}}
| cſ, cx || cſ || x || x
|}

Pirrí and Grieur may be expected to disagree along their usual pattern, with Pirrí being a rationalist and populist and Grieur a classicist/Latinist.

* In Medieval spelling prevocalic and final ''i'' was ambiguous between {{IPA|/dʒ/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}.{{ref|i-ambiguous}}  Pirrí's solution was to never use plain ''i'' for {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, while Grieur's was to use ''i'' only for {{IPA|/dʒ/}} and always ''y'' for {{IPA|/j/}}.
Modern spelling is fool-proof in never using ''i'' in these positions (except the recognized diphthongs and triphthongs ''ie, ia, ieu, iau''), but ''j/g{{sup|i,e}}'' for {{IPA|/dʒ/}} and ''y'' for {{IPA|/j/}}.
:{{note|i-ambiguous}} Medieval scribes tried to insert ''h''s to diambiguate, but that could get very messy.

* The 16th century grammarian Pirrí didn't like the letter ''ç'' -- in fact he didn't mention it at all, but gladly wrote {{IPA|/tsia/}} and {{IPA|/tsie/}} as ''ciia, ciie'' as well as ''giia, giie, sciia sciie'', while e.g. ''cia'' spelled {{IPA|/tsa/}}. Word finally he showed devoicing in spelling so he needed only ''s, tz, tx, x'' as final sibilants and no non-prevocalic {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. His fellow grammarian Grieur lambasted the ''ii'' and ''tz'' spellings, as well as ''x'' for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} as barbarisms. What is really puzzling is that Grieur didn't criticize or question the spelling ''tx'' for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Did he feel he could not come up with an improvement, or did he in fact propose something like ţ for {{IPA|/tʃ/}} and ş for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}? &amp;mdash; although taking this to its logical conclusion we'd get ''çţ'' and ''çç'' for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, and likely some instances of ''ģ''! Of course we must not expect either gentleman to have been scientific or consistent!

* ''z'' does not occur before {{IPA|/i/}} in normally developed native {{SUBPAGENAME}} words. All occurrences are due to borrowing, analogy or ahistorical spelling. The most common item is the name ''Clauzine'' altered from ''Claudine'' under the influence of ''Clauze'' &lt; {{SC|Claudia}} or derived anew from ''Clauz'' &lt; {{SC|Claudius}}.
*   ''-ine'' most certainly is a productive feminine ending, since the genders will normally not be morphologically distinct in the plural.  Don't overuse it, we don't want Esperanto!  Check Grandgent for alternatives.


* {{SC|Augustu}} &gt; ''Aost'' {{SC|Augustinu}} &gt; ''Aoesti'' [aøst'i] &gt; ''Aesti &gt; Aiesti''.

* {{SC|molliatu}} &gt; ''moigleat &gt; mogliad''. Pirrí: &quot;La C mogliade sempre se prononciet TS et la Z sempre se prononciet DS.&quot;
: {{sc|molliare}} means 'make soft', &gt; {{sc|moljare}} &gt; ''moiglear &gt; mogliar''; present will be ''mogl, mogle, moglet'', since the {{sc|o}} is in a closed syllable, plural ''mogliam, mogliaç, moglien''. {{sc|mollicare}} means 'make wet' &gt; ''molghiar'', while {{sc|mulgere}} &gt; ''molger'' (participle most likely ''melgid'' &lt; {{sc|*mulgītum}}).

* In modern spelling of {{SUBPAGENAME}} stress falls unless otherwise indicated on the vowel before the last consonant except in words with final Vt which is stressed on the penultimate. Thus most 3d person singular verb forms need not be marked with an accent. OTOH a few words like ''amít'' 1st person singular of ''amiter'' 'admit need to be marked.  What about final ''-n'' &lt; {{SC|-nt}}?  What about 2.sg. {{SC|-s}}?  Might it be restored by analogy with perfect {{SC|-isti}} &gt; ''-is'', or is that unrealistic?  NB {{SC|-isti}} would be -st at the time -s was lost.

* Which is the correct Vulgar Latin form of {{SC|molliare}}, {{SC|mollare}}, {{SC|mollicare}}? Participle will be ''molliad/moliad/molghiad''.

* How common will {{IPA|/ɡn/}}, {{IPA|/ɡl/}} &lt; {{SC|gVn}}, {{SC|gVl}} be? What happened to (initial) {{SC|gl}} in Old French? Will the spellings ''gn, gl'' for the palatal nasal and liquid and ''ghn, ghl'' for the clusters be OK? Since {{SC|cin}}, {{SC|gin}}, {{SC|cil}}, {{SC|gil}} will become palatal sonorants they will be quite common. I definitely don't like word initial ''nn'' and not really ''ñ'' or initial ''ll'' either. The spellings ''gl, ghn, ghl'' would give {{SUBPAGENAME}} its own character.

* The superordinate goal of Grieur's orthography was to preserve the spelling of Latin / learned words, and he accepted quite a high level of ambiguity in order to make R3 spelling less 'barbaric'. For example he preserved the spellings ''ei, ou'' despite himself admitting that they were pronounced ''ai, au'', because they were closer to the Latin spellings with ''e/i, o/u'', and at the same time he wrote ''au'' in words descended from Latin words with that spelling. As for {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, {{IPA|/ʎ/}} vs. {{IPA|/ɡn/}}, {{IPA|/ɡl/}} he favored ''ign/gni, igl/gli'' as the spelling for the palatals and stated that the limited set of words having {{IPA|/ɡni/}}, {{IPA|/ɡli/}} etc. could be learned by rote.

* In fact all instances of ''ciV, giV, sciV'' in {{SUBPAGENAME}} are due to either dipthongization or loan, while all instances of original {{sc|Cj}} have become palatalized consonants of various sorts and spelled ''ç/c, j/g, sç/sc, gl, gn, tx, z'' e.g. ''-ance, -çáu, -aj''. OTOH most instances of ''ch, gh, sch'' are due to 'breaking' of following {{sc|a}} or umlaut of a following back vowel.

* Variation: ''naçáu'' pl. ''nacéu &gt; necéu, nacioneal/nazzoneal &gt; naçonial'' pl. ''nazzonel'' {{IPA|/natsonel/}} &gt; ''neceniel''.

* Clauz Grieur introduced ''ç'', but essentially used it only word-finally, using ''ciV'' for both {{IPA|/tsʌ/}} and /{{IPA|tsiV}}/ in other positions -- ''nacióu'' --, while Mighel Pirrí used diacritic ''i'', i.e. ''ciV, ciiV'', which however didn't catch no with writers. It was the 18th century academy under Joan Buriel which introduced the modern consistent usage of ''ç, j,  ghl, ghn''.

=== Rhotics and Laterals ===
Rhodrese intervocalic {{SC|d}} &gt; {{IPA|/ɾ/}} , except immediately after stress, and if there is another {{IPA|/ɾ/}} or {{IPA|/r/}} in the word {{SC|d}} &gt; {{IPA|/l/}}. There are even occasional instances of original {{SC|r}} becoming {{IPA|/l/}} through remote dissimilation from another {{IPA|/ɾ/}} or {{IPA|/r/}}, e.g. {{SC|Mercurii die}} &gt; ''melcheurdi''. Also {{SC|ll}} &gt; {{IPA|/l/}} next to {{IPA|/ɾ/}}, {{IPA|/r/}}?

Standard Rhodrese has three lateral sounds viz. ''l'' {{IPA|/l/}}, ''gl'' {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and ''ll'' {{IPA|/ɺ/}}. However none of these is pronounced the same over the entire Rhodrese territory: the pronunciation of ''gl'' as {{IPA|/j/}} is very widespread, although not admitted in the standard. For those speakers who still have {{IPA|/ʎ/}} for ''gl'', ''l'' is usually {{IPA|/ɫ/}}, but in many dialects it has become {{IPA|/w/}}. For many, if not most, speakers ''ll'' is {{IPA|/ɽ/}}, thus a lateral only in an historical sense. Those speakers who have ''l'' as {{IPA|/w/}} and ''ll'' as {{IPA|/ɽ/}} in their dialect will tend to use the latter sound for both spellings in formal speech. Some dialects have {{IPA|/w/}} for ''l'' and the plain velar continuant {{IPA|/l/}} for ''ll'', and such speakers will have {{IPA|/l/}} for ''l'' and the otherwise non-existent cluster {{IPA|/dl/}} for ''ll'' in formal style. When not intervocalic {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/ɺ/}} are in complementary distribution similar to {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}. Historical {{SC|rl, nl, sl}}, both primary and secondary, have become ''ll'', even in {{SC|parabolare}} &gt; ''pallar'' 'speak', {{SC|granula}} &gt; ''grall'' 'grain'. Also {{IPA|/ɫ/}} &gt; {{IPA|/w/}} is old, as shown by Old Rhodrese spellings: {{SC|parvulus}} &gt; ''paruu/paruo'' (i.e. {{IPA|/ˈparvu/}} or {{IPA|/ˈparvo/}}) &gt; ''parf'' 'boy' {{SC|parvula}} &gt; ''parle{{ref|parle}}/paruuhe/paruohe'' (i.e. {{IPA|ˈparvwe}} (sic!)) but modern ''parvelle{{ref|parvelle}}'' 'girl'.

{{note|parle}} This ''parle'' is not &lt; {{SC|parabola}}, which becomes ''palle''.

{{note|parvelle}} This is formally a diminutive but is not so used; insted ''pegle parvelle'' 'little girl' is used, although colloquially even ''parvelcelle'' which is formally a double diminutive is found.  For a teenager or young woman one uses ''jaunelle'' (cf. substantivized ''jáu'', or colloquially ''jaunc'' as the male counterpart).</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Senjecas</title>
    <id>2648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-11T16:45:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Note to CaeruleanCentaur congratulating him on his accomplishment/achievement.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is very nice, Charlie.

I have some problems displaying some of the characters.
They only show up as boxes with Unicode UTF-8 selected.
I'm pretty sure they are Unicode UTF-8, or, at least, Unicode; because when I try Baltic or Cyrillic or Greek or Hebrew or Turkish or Central European or West European it gets worse, not better.

Where did you get your list of &quot;1948 roots&quot;?

-----
eldin</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:- andrew</title>
    <id>2649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34994</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-06T10:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Also known as Andrew Smith, a language creator from New Zealand, archival assistant and all-around Hobbit.

Occasionally working on an eclectic language, [[OT2.0]], with the help of my collection Teach Yourself books.  I have a shelf of them, many of which are still in the original yellow and blue* English Universities Press dust covers.  Such a pity to waste them.  I hope to post the resulting language at FrathWiki - when I think of a name for it!

Glaring omissions from my collection are Hindi and Turkish.  Probably a consequence of the fact that I am a offline purchaser only.

(* Go Otago!!)

[[Arcadian]]

[[Zelandish]]

[[Amenite Calendar]]

[[Hypercronius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Ref</title>
    <id>2651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20297</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-19T09:15:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Fixed Wikipedia link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Using ref/note tags is not the only way to do [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Footnotes|footnotes]].'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;reference&quot;&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;ref_{{{1}}}&quot; class=&quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot;&gt;[{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}}}#endnote_{{{1}}}]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;

See also: [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Template messages/Sources of_articles#Citations for footnotes and for linking]]

'''NB:''' It ''should'' say &quot;Wikipedia:&quot; twice; this is not an error!&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Note</title>
    <id>2652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20300</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-19T11:02:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Forgotten &lt;noinclude&gt;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Using ref/note tags is not the only way to do [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Footnotes|footnotes]].'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;cite id=&quot;endnote_{{{1}}}&quot; style=&quot;font-style: normal;&quot;&gt;[[#ref_{{{1}}}|'''↑''']]&lt;/cite&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;noinclude&gt;

See also: [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Template messages/Sources of_articles#Citations for footnotes and for linking]]

'''NB:''' It ''should'' say &quot;Wikipedia:&quot; twice; this is not an error!&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Ref label</title>
    <id>2653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34228</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-20T16:51:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;reference&quot;&gt;&lt;sup id=&quot;ref_{{{1}}}{{{3}}}&quot;&gt;[[#endnote_{{{1}}}{{{3}}}|[{{{2}}}]]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;

==Usage==

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
fuu{{ref label|reference_name|label|id}}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan geography</title>
    <id>2654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30199</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-25T15:32:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* States, Provinces, etc. (&lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱnêmos, ɱíterĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]==
=Notes=
*The Senjecan names are those of the earliest human inhabitants or those used by them.  When these are not known, then the contemporary name, with Senjecan orthography and pitch, is used.
*&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; means “land, country” and is prefixed by the name of the people.
*The names of political divisions are in the abstract &lt;font color=blue&gt;-as&lt;/font&gt; declension.
*The names of seas and rivers are in the animate &lt;font color=blue&gt;-es&lt;/font&gt; declension.

=Continents (&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħðêmźos&lt;/font&gt;)=
*Africa &lt;font color=blue&gt;afrîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*America &lt;font color=blue&gt;ámerîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*America, Central &lt;font color=blue&gt;beðrámerîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*America, North &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćoomrámerîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*America, South &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭoolámerîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Antarctica &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭóólëħðêmźas&lt;/font&gt; (south continent)
*Asia &lt;font color=blue&gt;âſĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Australia &lt;font color=blue&gt;aúſtërâlĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Eurasia &lt;font color=blue&gt;éurâſĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Europe &lt;font color=blue&gt;éurôpas&lt;/font&gt;

=Nations (&lt;font color=blue&gt;leûðas&lt;/font&gt;)=
*Afghanistan &lt;font color=blue&gt;éćŭaaqĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (horsemen land)
*Albania &lt;font color=blue&gt;ilírĭĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Illyrian land)
*Algeria &lt;font color=blue&gt;imáziqĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Imazigh land)
*America, United States of &lt;font color=blue&gt;amériĸâſĭo qôdo réɱnemôes, A.Q.R&lt;/font&gt;
*Andorra &lt;font color=blue&gt;andôras&lt;/font&gt;
*Angola &lt;font color=blue&gt;angôlas&lt;/font&gt;
*Argentina &lt;font color=blue&gt;óóźuurĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (silver land)
*Armenia &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħaȝerĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Hayer land)
*Assyria &lt;font color=blue&gt;áſurĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Assur land)
*Austria &lt;font color=blue&gt;ááuſmôrźas&lt;/font&gt; (east march)
*Azerbaijan &lt;font color=blue&gt;áþropátenĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Atropatene’s land)
*Bahrain &lt;font color=blue&gt;dilmûnas&lt;/font&gt;
*Bangladesh &lt;font color=blue&gt;bángelĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Bengal land)
*Belarus &lt;font color=blue&gt;álruſĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (White Rus land)
*Belgium &lt;font color=blue&gt;bélgëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Belgae land)
*Benin &lt;font color=blue&gt;fonĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Fon land)
*Bhutan &lt;font color=blue&gt;mónpaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Monpa land)
*Bohemia &lt;font color=blue&gt;bóiĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Boii land)
*Bolivia &lt;font color=blue&gt;bolîvĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Bosnia &lt;font color=blue&gt;bôſnĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Botswana &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Tswana land)
*Brazil &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrazîlas&lt;/font&gt;
*Britain &lt;font color=blue&gt;âlbas&lt;/font&gt;
*Brunei &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrûnĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Bulgaria &lt;font color=blue&gt;móiſĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Moesi land)
*Burma &lt;font color=blue&gt;mrânmas&lt;/font&gt;
*Cambodia &lt;font color=blue&gt;funĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Fun land)
*Cameroon &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſáoĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sao land)
*Canada &lt;font color=blue&gt;canâdas&lt;/font&gt;
*Cape Verde &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðalbéndëħðêmas&lt;/font&gt; (green cape)
*Ceylon &lt;font color=blue&gt;lânĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Chile &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîlas&lt;/font&gt;
*China &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Han land)
*Colombia ĸolômbĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Comoros &lt;font color=blue&gt;meenzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (Moon Islands)
*Costa Rica &lt;font color=blue&gt;łénapêras&lt;/font&gt; (Rich Coast)
*Croatia &lt;font color=blue&gt;xróaþĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Croat land)
*Czech Republic &lt;font color=blue&gt;bóiĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Boii land)
*Denmark &lt;font color=blue&gt;danĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Dane land)
*Ecuador &lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭééþmeðćêrðas&lt;/font&gt; (earth-mid-line)
*Egypt &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸǿſnëħðêmĭas&lt;/font&gt; (black land)
*England &lt;font color=blue&gt;ángelĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Angle land)
*Eritria &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûntas&lt;/font&gt;
*Estonia &lt;font color=blue&gt;aíſtëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Aesti land)
*Ethiopia &lt;font color=blue&gt;ábisînĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Fiji &lt;font color=blue&gt;vîtĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Finland &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſamĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sami land)
*France &lt;font color=blue&gt;fránĸëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Frank land)
*Georgia &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸôlxas&lt;/font&gt;
*Germany &lt;font color=blue&gt;alémanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Alemanni land)
*Great Britain &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħâlbas&lt;/font&gt;
*Greece &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħelĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Hellene land)
*Guatemala &lt;font color=blue&gt;puldôras&lt;/font&gt; (many trees)
*Guyana &lt;font color=blue&gt;pulâɱdas&lt;/font&gt; (many waters)
*Herzegovina &lt;font color=blue&gt;zaxûmlĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Hungary &lt;font color=blue&gt;mágĭarĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Magyar land)
*India &lt;font color=blue&gt;álïſîndas&lt;/font&gt; (beyond Indus)
*Iraq &lt;font color=blue&gt;urûĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Iran &lt;font color=blue&gt;páárſëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Parsi land)
*Ireland &lt;font color=blue&gt;piimĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (fat land)
*Italy &lt;font color=blue&gt;ítalĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Itali land)
*Ivory coast &lt;font color=blue&gt;?apêras&lt;/font&gt;
*Kazakhstan &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸázaxĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Kazakh land)
*Korea &lt;font color=blue&gt;sîlas&lt;/font&gt;
*Kuwait &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸúraînas&lt;/font&gt;
*Kyrgyzstan &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸírgizĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Kirghiz land)
*Laos &lt;font color=blue&gt;láoĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Lao land)
*Latvia &lt;font color=blue&gt;zémgalĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Zemgal land)
*Lebanon &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêbënas&lt;/font&gt;
*Lesotho &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoþĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sotho land)
*Libya &lt;font color=blue&gt;líbuĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Libu land)
*Liechtenstein &lt;font color=blue&gt;diiȝôndas&lt;/font&gt; (bright stone)
*Luxemburg &lt;font color=blue&gt;mínüðûnas&lt;/font&gt; (little castle)
*Macedonia &lt;font color=blue&gt;paȝônĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Madagascar &lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeeþĸêêrĸŭas&lt;/font&gt; (earth end)
*Malaysia &lt;font color=blue&gt;melâȝsĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Malta &lt;font color=blue&gt;melîtas&lt;/font&gt;
*Mauretania &lt;font color=blue&gt;báfurĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Bafour land)
*Mesopotamia &lt;font color=blue&gt;énterdâânas&lt;/font&gt; (between rivers)
*Mexico &lt;font color=blue&gt;mexſíĸëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Mexica land)
*Moldova &lt;font color=blue&gt;moldôvas&lt;/font&gt;
*Monaco &lt;font color=blue&gt;mónoîĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Montenegro &lt;font color=blue&gt;doxléaþĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Docleatae land)
*Montserrat &lt;font color=blue&gt;móntëſerâtas&lt;/font&gt;
*Morocco &lt;font color=blue&gt;dííȝɱëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (God land)
*Namibia &lt;font color=blue&gt;néĸüoĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (nothing land)
*Nauru &lt;font color=blue&gt;naûrŭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Nepal &lt;font color=blue&gt;néɱaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Newa land)
*Nicaragua &lt;font color=blue&gt;nícaráoĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Nicarao land)
*Norway &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćooɱrâmźas&lt;/font&gt; (northern way)
*Oman &lt;font color=blue&gt;sóħarĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sohar land)
*Paraguay &lt;font color=blue&gt;paȝágŭaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Payagua land)
*Persia &lt;font color=blue&gt;páárſëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Parsi land)
*Peru &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêlŭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Philippines &lt;font color=blue&gt;filípinâes&lt;/font&gt;
*Portugal &lt;font color=blue&gt;luſítanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Lusitani land)
*Qatar &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸatâras&lt;/font&gt;
*Rumania &lt;font color=blue&gt;daxĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Dacian land)
*Russia &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruſĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Rus land)
*Rwanda &lt;font color=blue&gt;tŭaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Twa land)
*Samoa &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſamôas&lt;/font&gt;
*San Marino &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſáxmarînas&lt;/font&gt;
*Saudi Arabia &lt;font color=blue&gt;sáudĭarâbĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Senegal &lt;font color=blue&gt;zénaqĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Zenaga land)
*Serbia &lt;font color=blue&gt;sérbëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Serb land)
*Sierra Leone &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſínϙëmênȝas&lt;/font&gt; (lion mountain range)
*Singapore &lt;font color=blue&gt;témaſêĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Slovakia &lt;font color=blue&gt;nîþrĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Slovenia &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarnĭôlas&lt;/font&gt;
*Somalia &lt;font color=blue&gt;sómalĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Somali land)
*Spain &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸánpëzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (hyrax island)
*Sri Lanka &lt;font color=blue&gt;lânĸas&lt;/font&gt;
*Suriname &lt;font color=blue&gt;surínenĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Surinen land)
*Swaziland &lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭazĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Swazi land)
*Sweden &lt;font color=blue&gt;svĭarĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sviar land)
*Switzerland &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħélveþĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Helvetii land)
*Syria &lt;font color=blue&gt;áramĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Aram land)
*Taiwan &lt;font color=blue&gt;táȝŭanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Tayouan land)
*Tajikistan &lt;font color=blue&gt;tááźixĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Tājik land)
*Tanzania &lt;font color=blue&gt;tanzânĭa&lt;/font&gt;
*Thailand &lt;font color=blue&gt;súxotâȝas&lt;/font&gt;
*Timor &lt;font color=blue&gt;timôras&lt;/font&gt;
*Togo &lt;font color=blue&gt;eɱĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Ewe land)
*Tonga &lt;font color=blue&gt;tôngas&lt;/font&gt;
*Trinidad &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaîras&lt;/font&gt;
*Turkey &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħátiĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Hatti land)
*Turkmenistan &lt;font color=blue&gt;túrxmenĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Turkmen land)
*Tuvalu &lt;font color=blue&gt;oszĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (eight island)
*Uganda &lt;font color=blue&gt;bagándaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Baganda land)
*Ukraine &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸímerĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Cimmerian land)
*United Kingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;qôdo meħasur??? &lt;/font&gt;
*Uzbekistan &lt;font color=blue&gt;sôqdĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Vanuatu &lt;font color=blue&gt;vanŭâtŭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Vatican City &lt;font color=blue&gt;vátiĸânas&lt;/font&gt;
*Venezuela &lt;font color=blue&gt;maríćeĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Mariche land)
*Vietnam &lt;font color=blue&gt;vĭeþĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Viet land)
*Yemen &lt;font color=blue&gt;sâbas&lt;/font&gt;
*Zambia &lt;font color=blue&gt;xóisĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Khoisan land)
*Zimbabwe &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćonĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Shono land)

=States, Provinces, etc. (&lt;font color=blue&gt;reɱnêmos, ɱíterĸŭe&lt;/font&gt;)=
*Bavaria &lt;font color=blue&gt;báȝaĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Baia land)
*Channel Islands &lt;font color=blue&gt;lênurzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (Lenur Island)
*Crimea &lt;font color=blue&gt;táurĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Tauri land)
*Kosovo &lt;font color=blue&gt;dárdanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Dardani land)
*Faroe Islands &lt;font color=blue&gt;oɱzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (sheep island)
*Gibraltar &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭorĸâlpas&lt;/font&gt; (Mount Calpe)
*Guernsey &lt;font color=blue&gt;lîſĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Jersey &lt;font color=blue&gt;ângĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Malaya &lt;font color=blue&gt;melâȝas&lt;/font&gt;
*Mississippi &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħdâânas? &lt;/font&gt;
*Réunion &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱéſëzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (western island)
*St. Helena &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſáxħelênas&lt;/font&gt;
*Scotland &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸalédonĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Caledonian land)
*Sicily &lt;font color=blue&gt;síĸanĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Sicani land)
*Tanganyika &lt;font color=blue&gt;águlseĸêlas&lt;/font&gt; (wilderness sail)
*Tobago &lt;font color=blue&gt;úrupaînas&lt;/font&gt;
*Touraine &lt;font color=blue&gt;túronĸûnïas&lt;/font&gt; (Land of the Turones)
*Wales &lt;font color=blue&gt; ĸímrëĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Cymry land)
*Zanzibar &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħádimĸûnĭas&lt;/font&gt; (Hadimu land)

=Cities (&lt;font color=blue&gt;rîȝos&lt;/font&gt;)=
*Bethlehem &lt;font color=blue&gt;várgenɱêêſas&lt;/font&gt; (bread house)
*Hong Kong &lt;font color=blue&gt;táipôas&lt;/font&gt;
*London &lt;font color=blue&gt;londînĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Oslo &lt;font color=blue&gt;aslôas&lt;/font&gt;
*Paris &lt;font color=blue&gt;lutêtĭas&lt;/font&gt;
*Rome &lt;font color=blue&gt;rômas&lt;/font&gt;
*Stockholm &lt;font color=blue&gt;áqnafîtas&lt;/font&gt;

=Natural features (&lt;font color=blue&gt;źênto mêrvos&lt;/font&gt;)=
*Aegean Sea &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħélïmôôros&lt;/font&gt; (Greek sea)
*Amu Darya &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭooldŭíntëdâânes&lt;/font&gt; (south twin river)
*Aral Sea &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭelmôôres&lt;/font&gt; (far sea)
*Arctic Ocean &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćóóɱrëtîîrtes&lt;/font&gt; (north ocean)
*Azov, Sea of &lt;font color=blue&gt;mínümôôres&lt;/font&gt; (little sea)
*Black Sea &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſmôôres&lt;/font&gt; (west sea)
*British Isles &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeſzĭûngas&lt;/font&gt; (west island)
*Caspian Sea &lt;font color=blue&gt;ááusmôôros&lt;/font&gt; (east sea)
*Caucasus Mountains &lt;font color=blue&gt;éntermoormênȝos&lt;/font&gt; (between sea mountain range)
*Indian Ocean &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭooltîîrtes&lt;/font&gt; (south ocean)
*Indus River &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſîndes&lt;/font&gt;
*Mississippi River &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêħe dâânes&lt;/font&gt; (great river)
*Moldova River &lt;font color=blue&gt;moldôves&lt;/font&gt;
*Pacific Ocean &lt;font color=blue&gt;ááuſtîîrtes&lt;/font&gt; (east ocean)
*Syr Darya &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćóóɱrëdŭíntëdâânes&lt;/font&gt; (north twin river)
*Ural Mountains &lt;font color=blue&gt;vŭeeþĸĭôĸos&lt;/font&gt; (earth spine)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faraneit</title>
    <id>2655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48272</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-10T00:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Conjugation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Faranit
|pronounce=/'faʁ.an.ɪt/
|tu= theoretically this universe, future
|species=Humanoid
|in=Northwest and central [[Lhined]]
|no=~10 million- Lescealh, ~6 million - Polizeih
|script=Own and Romanized Equivalent
|tree=[[Proto-Rajo-Faraneit]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Old Faraneit&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Classical Faraneit
|morph=Agglutative (and sometimes isolating)
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=VSO
|creator=Humancadaver101 aka Schwhatever aka Buckfush530
|date=December 2004}}

Faranit is the most prominent dialect of the Faranih people on the continent of Lhined on a currently undiscovered planet. The various colonizers traveled to this planet on the eve of a massive worldwide war on Earth. It is most closely linked to the Hindi, Quecha, and Hungarian colonizers, which attempted to colonize several regions directly on the western edge of the current range of the language.

==Faraneit vs. Faranih vs. Faraneih==
*Faran''eit'' -means only the language
*Faran''ih'' -originally meant only the ethnic group, but recently colloquially came to mean the language as well
*Faran''eih'' -is a colloquial term for the ethnicity

==Phonology/Orthography (in IPA)==
*Consonants: /d x b f θ - ʒ k l ɭ m n p q ʀ s t v z ç/
**Romanized As: &lt;d c b f fh h j k l lh m n p q r s t v z sc&gt;
**&lt;h&gt; is included to buffer vowels (as no dipthongs are permitted) and the begining and ends of words. A corresponding figure is used in the Faraneit script.
*Vowels: /a e ɛ i ɪ ɔ o u ʊ/
**Archaic Romanization: &lt;a ae e ei i o oe u ue&gt; 
**Modern Romanization: &lt;a e ea i ei oa o u eu&gt;
**Please Note, this page is currently in the modern form.
*Allophones: 
**syllable initial /p t k q/ are pronounced [pʰ tʰ kʰ qʰ]
**prior to /ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u/, /ç/ is pronounced [ʃ] (Poelisem Faranik - [ʃ] in all positions)
**word medial /θ/ is pronounced [ð]
**word medial non-compound /x/ is pronounced [ɣ]
**syllable terminal /x/ after /ɔ o u ʊ/ is pronounced [χ]
**terminal /l ɭ/ are pronounced [ɬ ɬ˞]
*Phonological Constraints: (C)V(C), no consonant clusters are permitted

==Phonology Chart==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
!Bilabial
!Labio-Dental
!Dental
!Alveolar
!Post-Alveolar
!Retroflex
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
|-
|'''Stop'''
| align=center | {{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k}}
| align=center | {{IPA|q}}
|-
|'''Nasal'''
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Fricative'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v}}
| align=center | {{IPA|θ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʒ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ç}}
| align=center | {{IPA|x}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Approximant'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʁ}} 
|-
|'''Lateral Flap'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|l}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɭ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

==Syntax==
*OVERVIEW

Pronouns usually decline by case, but in certain forms use participles like nouns. Verbs conjugate based on tense (remote past/imperative, near past, present, future), mood (irrealis, realis, and in archaic dialects imperative), and person (first, second, and third). Pronouns decline for person(first, second, third, and fourth), number (singular and plural), case (nominative, accusitive, genitive, and in plural forms dative/ablative), and animacy/gender( in the third person singular). For nouns the dative/ablative is formed from participles and nominative and accusitive are assumed from context and word order.

*WORD ORDER

Faranit is almost inflexibly VSO and morphologically mixed between agglutination (semi-dvandvas, genitive forms, and main verbal constructions) and isolation (prepositional phrasing, non-incorporation of modifiers or pronouns).

 Sojoah don hin.
 S o j oah don hin
 Strike PAST REAL 3P 3P.SING.ANI.NOM 1P.SING.ACC
 (S)He struck me.

 Zah sinih velheib molein.
 Zah s i_ n eih velh eib molein.
 NEG strike FUT IRR 1P 1P.PLUR.EXC PLUR 2P.PLUR.ACC
 We would not (go and) strike you.

It remains V(S)O regardless of whether it is interrogative or even imperative.

 Ketejeih nor zet, haneit?
 Ket e j eih nor zet haneit
 Remember PRES REAL 2P 2P.SING.NOM nothing true
 You remember nothing, right?

 Zeleujeih moaleih nakir?
 Zel eu j eih moaleih nakir
 Steal IMP.PAST REAL 2P 2P.PLUR.NOM what
 You were stealing what?

 Boaneicejeih Lhimah!
 Boaneic e j eih Lhimah
 Eat PRES REAL 2P Lhimah
 Eat Lhimah (a common name for girls)

 Boaneicotoah doan Lhimah!
 Boaneic o t oah Lhimah
 Eat PAST IMPERATIVE 3P Lhimah
 (S)He should have eaten Lhimah! 

OVS order is also present, but quite rare. It is used to give the object paramount importance, to a degree often deemed unnecessary.

 Don boaneicotih!
 Don boaneic o t ih
 3P.SING.ANI.ACC eat PAST IMPERATIVE 1P
 We should have eaten him/her!

*CLAUSES

All subordinate clauses are signalled with &quot;cih&quot;. It roughly can meet the definitions of the English &quot;that&quot;, both as a relative conjunction and a general conjunction.

When a relative clause's object is the main clause's object, the verb is conjugated for the subject, as expected.

 Boaneicejeih nor jokeasc, ceih roajoah doan.
 eat.PRES.IND.2P 2P.SING.NOM butter, that have.PAST.IND.3P 3P.SING.ANI.NOM.
 You are eating the butter, that he had.

If the subject is the same, however, the pronoun or the noun is dropped, giving:

 Boaneicejeih nor jokeasc, ceih roajeih.
 eat.PRES.IND.2P 2P.SING.NOM butter, that have.PAST.IND..2P.
 You are eating the butter, that had.
 (You are eating the butter, which you had).

The verb is not conjugated, however, when the relative clause's subject for the main clause's object.

 Boaneicejeih nor jokeasc, ceih kej leveitom.
 eat.PRES.IND.2P 2P.SING.NOM butter, that be.PRES.IND_____ butter, butter.
 You are eating butter, that (the butter) &quot;be&quot; good.
 (You are eating butter, which is good).

Because the object of the first clause was the same as the subject in the second, the second verb is not conjugated.

*IF - THEN

Faraneit distinguishes between two forms of &quot;if&quot; -- scam and scap. Scap is equivalent to questioning what the results of reality being different would be. Scam is equivalent to questioning when what is true or real is uncertain. Scap is refered to as the contradictional if, and scam, the hypothetical if. As a result of their natures, scap is used more commonly with the past or present tense, and scam, almost exclusively with the present or future. There are instances, however, where scap and scam contrast.

 Scap boaneicejeih dekein, feazeneih teibein.
 if.CON eat.PRES.REAL.1P 3P.INANI.ACC, understand.PRES.IRR.1P 3P.PLUR.ACC
 If I was eating it, I would understand them.
 OR
 If I (in general) ate it, I would understand them.

Thus, scap is used when the person does not eat it, or is not eating it.

 Scam boaneicejeih dekein, feazeneih teibein.
 if.IRR eat.PRES.REAL.1P 3P.INANI.ACC, understand.PRES.IRR.1P 3P.PLUR.ACC
 If I eat it, I would/will understand them

Here, scam makes the meaning generic present, as it implies that if the speaker were to grab it and then eat it, they would then understand them. In short, it doesn't contradict reality, automatically. Rather, it may become true, but at the moment, is not necessarily so.

In order to say &quot;only if&quot; a variety of methods are possible, but the most succinct and common in the spoken language is to simply place the conjunction &quot;jeid&quot; prior to either scam or scap.

*MODIFIERS

Negatives are placed behind verbs like adverbs and other modifiers (except geographic), including subordinate clauses. An example:

 Boaneicojeih zah pasearean liteh hav lhaefh hev lhescealh fascejeadeis searom 
 Eat.PAST.REAL.1P NEG REP evil 1P.SING.NOM DEM one lheascealh writing(s).3P.ANI.GEN odd
 I didn’t vilely repeatedly eat one of his/her odd writings from Lhescealh.
 Lit: Ate not repeatedly evilly I this one lhescealh writing-his/her odd

Evidently, modifiers stack. The only verbal modifier that can precede the verb is a negative marker and only then in archaic emphatically negative speech. Following a noun, first come negative markers, then aspectual adverbs, then other adverbs. 

The noun phrase is more complex.  Quantifiers and geographic modifiers always precede, while general adjectives follow. It should be noted that Faraneit does not distinguish properly between general adjectives and adverbs. If in the sample, liteh had followed fascejeadeis, even unaltered, it would have been grammatically correct, but have meant that the writing was evil.

Demonstratives, almost entirely represented by lhefh, which is both pronominal and adjectival, follow a more complex pattern. When the only modifier to the noun or genitive compound is the demonstrative, it follows the noun as if it was a general adjective, however, when other adjectives are present it must precede the noun phrase entirely.

Prepositional phrases follow unless in poetry or when heavily stressing that aspect. See prepositions for more.

Genitives fuse to the ending of the noun. Reference the section on Morphology for more.

*PREPOSITIONS

DEIH = through, across
DOAP = denotes action towards locatively, to
FHEIS = within, inside of, between, at
HIH = with, alongside
HEUH = under, beneath
NEIH = denotes action towards in forming dative case
PIH = of, from (spacially)
RAFH = under, below
REAN = until
REIH = above, ontop of, over
SEIH = (spatially) forward, in front of, (temporally) after(wards)
VEIT = denotes action from, used to form ablative forms
ZEAR = denotes locative movement away from, from, yet (for past-in-future references)
ZEIH = (spatially) behind, (temporally) prior/before
SCEUH = with

These are the only prepositions found in any dialect of Faraneit, anywhere. Several are missing from Poleiseam Faraneik. Neih and veit use the nominative, while the others use the accusative. The object of the preposition follows the preposition.

Doap contrasts with neih in that it has a connotation of entrance, where as neih is more neutral and used more grammatically (to form the dative with nouns and singular pronouns).

 Lhomojoah doan neih doan.
 Dance.PAST.REAL.3P 3P.SING.NOM to 3P.SING.NOM
 (S)He danced to him/her.

 Lhomojoah doan doap don.
 Dance.PAST.REAL.3P 3P.SING.ACC
 (S)He danced towards him/her.

The former implies that the dancer began dancing and did not cease until very close to the other person, while the latter implies that the direction was not necessarily chosen because of that person, nor that the dancer went the entire distance to the other person.

This same contrast is found between zear and veit, as well.

Hih and sceuh are also contrasted but in proximity. Hih implies only a general closeness, while sceuh specifically means in direct contact.

 Ketejeih hav mizeun hih keseib.
 Remember.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM ocean with keseih.PLUR
 I remember the ocean near the Keseib (settlements).

 Ketejeih hav mizeun sceuh measceineafh.
 Remember.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM ocean with Measceineafh.
 I remember the ocean beside Measceineafh.

The first implies that the settlements are close to, but not directly along the shoreline, while the second implies the two share a thin border. It is similar to the distinction between “next to” and “right next to” in English, in that it only distinguishes degree.

Adjectival prepositional phrases follow the noun phrase they describe. Fronting is not unheard of but is seen as giving unnecessary weight to the phrase. The adverbial prepositions, however, can only follow the verb, but if demoted in meaning, can also follow the subject and even the object. Generally they follow the verb and general adverbs.

*CONJUNCTIONS

TEIH = for, because, so that (causative)
VOAP = as, while, at the same time as
HEFH = yet, either/or
JEID = but, neither/nor
VIR = and, as well

Each of these can link clauses and phrases, with the exception of vir, which only links clauses. 

 Zelejeih hav hab teih boaneicejeih.
 Steal.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM thing.PLUR so eat.PRES.REAL.1P
 I steal so that I (can) eat.

 Zelejeih hav voap boaneicejeih.
 Steal.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM while eat.PRES.REAL.1P
 I pickpocket while I eat.

 Zelejeih hav hefh boaneicejeih.
 Steal.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM yet eat.PRES.REAL.1P
 I pickpocket yet/but (I) eat.

 Zelejeih hav jeid boaneicejeih.
 Steal.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM but eat.PRES.REAL.1P
 I pickpocket yet/but (I) eat.

(Hefh and jeid are used somewhat interchangeable, but hefh is used to suggest a stronger interference from the first/main clause with the action of the first, while jeid suggests simply that it is unexpected or unusual that the two interact as stated.)

 Zelejeih hav vir boanicejeih.
 Steal.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM and eat.PRES.REAL.1P
 I pickpocket and (I) eat.

Additionally, jeid and hefh reduplicate to produce secondary meanings.

 Boaneicijeih hav hefh hacaz hefh tealhom.
 Eat.FUT.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM PREP meat PREP fruit
 I will eat either meat or fruits.

 Boaneicijeih hav jeid hefh hacaz hefh tealhom.
 Eat.FUT.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM PREP meat PREP fruits.
 I will eat neither meat nor fruits.

When the two combine, however, the message complicates.

 Boaneicijeih hav hefh hacaz jeid tealhom.
 Eat.FUT.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM PREP meat PREP fruit
 I will eat (likely) meat but not fruits.

 Boaneicijeih hav jeid hacaz hefh tealhom.
 Eat.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM PREP meat PREP fruit
 I will eat not meat but (likely) fruits.

*QUESTION FORMATION

A global rise is used to indicate a question. Frequently questions are viewed as more polite if posed in the irrealis.
Insertion of zeihein (if the assumed answer is no) or haneit (if the assumed answer is yes) is used to form leading yes-no interrogative clauses.

 Kuroajih hav dekein neih mokein, haneit?
 give.PAST.IND.1P I.NOM it.ACC DAT you.SING.ACC, correct?
 I gave it to you, right?

 Kuroajeih nor dekein neih hav, zeihein? 
 give.PAST.IND.2P you.SING.NOM it.ACC DAT me.NOM, incorrect?
 You gave it to me, or not?

Open ended interrogative sentences are formed by substituting an interrogative pronoun for the subject of object. Interrogative pronouns have lost their accusative counterparts and therefore rely on a strict adherence to word order to differentiate:

 Neuscoajeih nor nakir?
 use.PAST.IND.2P you.SING.NOM which/what(.ACC)?
 You used which?

 Doapoajoah nakir lhefh?
 cause.PAST.IND.2P which/what(.NOM) thus/this?
 What caused this?

*IMPERATIVES

Imperatives are formed similarly to many Indo-European languages with the omission of the subject.

 Karoteijeih dakein
 do.FUT.IND.2P it.ACC
 (Go) do it

Faranit, however, accepts third person imperatives as forceful suggestions (as opposed to irrealis imperatives).

 Karoteijoah dakein
 do.FUT.IND.3P it.ACC
 (He must go) do it

To create more gentle commands or suggestions, the imperative, in the irrealis mood, is also used.

 Karoteineih dakein
 do.FUT.SUBJ.2P it.ACC
 (You should go) do it

This is also capably used in the third person.

 Karoteinoah dakein
 do.FUT.SUBJ.3P it.ACC
 (He should go) do it

A few archaic dialects (along the western chapparel) retain an imperative mood where the subject can be omitted if so desired. The mood's infix is -d- and is regularly conjugated.

 Karoteidoah doan dakein = karoteidoah dakein
 do.FUT.IMP.3P 3P.SING.ANI.NOM 3P.SING.INANI.ACC = do.FUT.IMP.3P 3P.SING.INANI.ACC
 He (must go) do it = (He must go) do it

*AGREEMENT IN COMPOUND PREDICATES

Another strange usage is that infinitives decline for tense and mood when a part of the predicate. For example-

 Feuzeijihav haleij faraneit boascom
 learn.FUT.IND.1P.1P.SING speak.FUT.IND faranit proper
 I will learn to speak (future) proper faranit

and also-

 Feuzoanihav haloan faraneit boascom
 learn.PAST.SUBJ.1P.1P.SING speak.PAST.SUBJ faranit proper
 I may have learned to (irrealis) have spoken (past) proper faranit.

whereas-

 Feuzeijoahav halej faraneit boascom
 learn.PAST.IND.1P.1P.SING speak.PRES.IND proper faranit
 I learned to speak (and have continued to) proper faranit.

or

 Feuzeijoahav haleij faraneit boascom
 learn.PAST.IND.1P.1P.SING speak.FUT.IND faranit proper
 I learned to speak (and will continue to) proper faranit.

This is often used as a method to signify progressive past tenses, which either continue from the distant past (-eu-) to the recent past (-o-), either past to the present (-e-), or any non-future tense and the future (-i-).

*COMPARISONS WITH REJ

While comparisons can be constructed with either kej (to be) or rej (to have/to hold/to contain), rej is vastly preferred in speech and colloquial writing, but as a result, two very different systems of comparison are used contemporanously (at least in Standard Lescealh Faraneit, local dialects often no longer use one or the other).

A fundamental distinction is drawn between comparisons of equals, approximate equals, and inequals. For example:

 Rejoah dekein (don) tebineareiz.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM (same) size.GEN.3P-PLUR
 It's a large as they are.

Here, they are considered equals and a genitive construction is used.

 Rejoah dekein don tebin neih tip.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM same size DAT 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's about as large as they are.

 Rejoah dekein cabah tebin neih tip.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM approximate size DAT 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's approximately as large as they are.

In these two instances, however, a dative construction is used to imply that they are rough equals, not absolute ones.

 Rejoah dekein sein tebin voap tip.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM more size while 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's bigger than they are.

 Rejoah dekein fhean tebin voap tip.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM less size while 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's smaller than they are.

Here a contracted form of a second clause is used for unequals. The entire clause in full is-

 Rejoah dekein sein tebin voap rejoah tip fhean tebin.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM more size while have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-PLUR-NOM less size.
 It's bigger while they are smaller.

More complex comparatives continue with rej, but usually invoke the verb beasceitej (to finish, to complete). For example:

 Rejoah dekein her tebineabeasceitej.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI-NOM good size.GEN.finish.PRES.REAL
 It's big enough (for something//to do something...)

 Rejoah dekein reih tebineabeasceitejeaboaneicej.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-S-INANI over size.GEN.finish.PRES.REAL.GEN.eat.PRES.REAL
 It's too big to eat.
 (lit It has over the size of finishing eating.)

 Zah rejeih haceabeasceitejeafeazej.
 NEG have.PRES.REAL.1P year(s).GEN.finish.PRES.REAL.GEN.writing.PRES.REAL
 I'm too young to write.
 (lit I don't have the years of finishing writing.)

When the complement involves finishing as its main verb, the verb is merely used again, outside of it's auxilary-like purpose:

 Zah rejeih haceabeasceitejeabeasceitejeafeuzej.
 NEG have.PRES.REAL.1P year(s).GEN.finish.PRES.REAL.GEN.finish.PRES.REAL.GEN.study.PRES.REAL
 I'm too young to be finished studying/learning.

*OTHER COMPARATIVES

These essentially follow the rej-form comparatives in structure. For example:

 Boaneicejeih tebineafheimeapejeaheaz.
 eat.PRES.REAL.1P size.GEN.harvest.PRES.REAL.GEN.1P-S-GEN
 I eat as much (stuff) as I harvest.

 Boaneicejeih tebin neih fheimeapejeaheaz.
 eat.PRES.REAL.1P size DAT harvest.PRES.REAL.GEN.1P-S-GEN
 I eat about as much (stuff) as I harvest.

 Boaneicejeih fhean tebin voap fheimeapejeaheaz.
 eat.PRES.REAL.1P less size while harvest.PRES.REAL.GEN.1P-S-GEN
 I eat less than how much I harvest.

*KEJ

The only irregular verb is kej, meaning to be. It derives from k meaning to exist and as such has mutated from a regular past to a highly cliticized present. Standard Lescealh dialects attached the pronoun to the regular ending. For example:

 Kejihav letein
 be.PRES.REAL.1P.SING happy
 (I) am happy

The pronoun, hav, has been absorbed into the verb, due to the erosion of the /ʔ.ʔ/ into /ʔ/ in this frequently written and spoken situation. This has been observed as being replicated in a few “regular” verbs through out colloquial Southwestern Lescealh registers. Standard dialects similarly shorten third person singulars:

 Kejoam scot
 be.PRES.REAL.3P.SING.INANI white
 (It) is white

as well as

 Kejoan faranih
 be.PRES.REAL.3P.SING.ANI faranih
 ((S)He) is Faranih

The first is often used similarly to &quot;il y a&quot; in French, with the second mirroring the English &quot;he's&quot; and &quot;she's&quot;.
These colloquial examples further the evidence that Faranit is in the process of a linguistic shift. It is incorporating the pronoun into the verb, eroding it into the verb ending. Within Orthodox Lescealh Faraneit, all singular forms have been shortened into new, irregular forms. See [[Faraneit Dialectical Slang]] for more information.

*GENDER AND CLITICS

The animacy distinction is quite flexible and can be used to denote various aspects of the speakers perception. A popular example is the difference between,

 Kejoam, hamet, heilein
 be.PRES.3P.INANI (blaze) short

and

 Kejoan joaj, hamet, heilein
 be.PRES.3P.ANI presently (blaze) short

The use of the inanimate in the first stresses the static state of the fire as well as its theoretically harmless appearance. On the other hand, the animate gender and the use of the adverb joaj, presently, suggests a danger posed from the fire from its independent movement, in addition to the threat posed from a change in state. This is conventional usage with common objects that do not conform to the distinction, that inanimate objects are static and still, while animate objects are changing and move independently.

Religious beliefs also enter the equation. A Hakeih, and many other smaller sects always use animate pronouns nearly universally with animals, especially livestock. The Hakeih and the Harapah use animate pronouns with animals on an irregular basis, only when praising or sacrificing usually. The Polizeih, on the other hand, have merged the inanimate to a new level, using it commonly for insults and often to degrade women, however, this is more of an anthropological and ideological distinction than a linguistic one.

*COMPARATIVES WITH KEJ

These are much less interesting than the comparatives with rej, as they follow a uniform pattern:

 Kejoam sein tebin ceih tip.
 be.PRES.REAL.3P.INANI more large REL 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's bigger than they (are).

Obviously, the verb goes first. Then the subject (if it isn't clicitized or omitted). Then the descriptor (fhean - less, sein - more, don - as, etc). Then the modifier (in this case tebin, but meaning the adjective form, not the noun form - more on this later). Then the relative conjunction ceih. Then the compared body (tip in this case). The relative clause is optional, if understood.

Tebin, in some ways, is a bad example as it can function both as a noun (meaning size) and a modifier (meaning large), and therefore the same form is used for both kej and rej, while usually they use different forms. For example:

 Kejoam sein fheirom cieh tip.
 be.PRES.REAL.3P.INANI more tall REL 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's taller than they (are).
 (lit It's more tall than they)

 Rejoah dekein sein fheireat voap tip.
 have.PRES.REAL.3P 3P-INANI-NOM more height while 3P-PLUR-NOM
 It's taller than they (are).
 (lit It has more height while they (don't))

==Morphology==

Various examples of agglutination abound, including the syntax of possessives and listings. 

 poareasceaheaz
 poareasc-ea-heaz
 city-GEN-1P.SING
 my city

 poareasceaheazeib
 poareasc-ea-heaz-eib
 city-GEN-1P.SING-PLUR
 my cities

 poareasceavoazeis
 poareasc-ea-voazeis
 city-GEN-1P.PLUR
 our city

This is also true for more general possessives.

 poareasceaheusc
 poareasc-ea-heusc
 city-GEN-man
 (the) man's city

 poareasceaheusceib
 poareasc-ea-heusc-eib
 city-GEN-man-PLUR
 (the) man’s cities

To make the possessed antecedent plural, however, demonstratives are inserted.

 lhev poareasceaheusc
 lhev poareasc-ea-heusc
 DEM.PLUR city-GEN-man
 (the) men’s city

 lhev poareasceaheusceib
 lhev poareasc-ea-heusc-eib
 DEM.PLUR city-GEN-man-PLUR
 (the) men’s cities

To emphasis the possesion, the corresponding nominative pronoun is placed before the possessed noun in addition.

 doan poareasceadeis
 doan poareasc-ea-deis
 (s)he city-GEN-3P.SING.ANI
 his city

For more information see [[Faraneit Genitive Constructions]], which covers the differences between various dialects in greater detail.

A similar construction is used for forming lists. (Technically this is a dvandva)

 Halejih hav faraneit-ei-teimeirih
 speak.PRES.REAL.1P 1P.SING.NOM faranit-CLITIC-etimri
 I speak faranit (and) etimri

Geographic modifiers (ex. English, Chinese, Australian) are formed from contextual placement. General form is to superimpose the place name before the noun to be modified. For example:

 Polisah Fasir!
 The Poliseam Alphabet!
 literally: Polisah Alphabet!

The Poelisem dialect avoids this and has created a new class of adjectives in response. Place names terminal vowels are deleted and the ending –eam is attached.

 Poliseam Fasir!
 The Poliseam Alphabet!

==Slang==
Slang has become prolific as in some dialects, particularly the re-irregularization of the verb &quot;kej&quot; which was always highly volatile in the Faraneit language, as it unnaturally was regularized during the colonization of Lescealh. The highly isolated surroundings and the extreme social pressures are believed by some theorists to be significant contributors to this bizarre regularization campaign. In the diverging dialects currently there are several varying descrepancies plaguing &quot;kej.&quot;

In Poleiseam Faraneik, only largely grammatical changes have occured around &quot;kej&quot; as it is commonly in short hand not used with a pronoun, as person (but not number) is noted on the &quot;proper&quot; forms of the verb. 

In both Orthodox Lescealh Faraneit, as well as the increasingly common Kupeimeiceah trader dialects, there are several more unusual contractions in speech. For example,

 Formal Standard Faraneit: Kejih hav.
 Colloquial Standard Faraneit: Kejihav.
 Orthodox Laescelh Faraneit and trade dialects: Kav.
 English: I am.
As listed above in Syntax, there are other standard colloquial contractions. In addition, however, OLF and the trader dialects have even shorter forms, particularly:

 FSF: Kejoah doan.
 CSF: Kejoan.
 OLF and trader dialects: Koan.
 English: (S)He is.
as well as,
 FSF: Kejeih nor.
 CSF: Kejeih nor.
 OLF and trader dialects: Keur.
 English: Thou art.

In these dialects, as well, the Poleiseam practice of often dropping unabsorbed pronouns is increasingly common, especially for froms that lack current contractions, which may or may not be invented later by speakers.

The Southwestern Lescealh Faraneit dialect on the other hand omits the infixes denoting present tense and indicative mood for kej (and increasingly other verbs) when not needed for clarity. Such that:

 FSF: Kejih hav
 SLF: Kih hav
 English: I am

The omission of the present tense, indicative mood, and person markers (depending on various factors) has also become common with regular verbs in SLF, CSF, and OLF.

For more detail see [[Faraneit Dialectical Slang]].

==Stress and Pitch==
Stress usually falls on the first syllable:

 HAN-ak-ealh-ein
 heaven

Deviations, however, are not difficult to find:

 fhean-OT
 field(s)

The Stress-Pitch system is very simplistic. Stressed accents have high pitch, while all others have low pitch.

 fhean-OT
 LH
 
 HAN-ak-ealh-ein
 HLLL

When the onset of a stressed syllable, /b d/ are fortis like unvoiced stops, but remain voiced. Similarly, when the onset of an unstressed syllable, the voiceless stops are lenis like voiced stops, but remain voiceless.

/a/ is realized as slightly raised, nearly to /ɒ/ when unstressed.

In the Southeastern Lescealh Faraneit Dialect, /e o/ are realized as long when stressed. This is one of its more conservative features.

==Voice==
Passive voice is nonexistent, aside from the use of ''kej'', to be, as a descriptor. This results in dependence on ''teareipeas'' the genderless, numberless fourth person, when the subject is unknown. Reflexive is formed from the accusitive form of the appropriate pronoun.

==Conjugation==
Root + E(present)/EI(future)/OA(recent past)/EU(distant past) + J(indicative)/N(conditional/subjunctive) + IH(1p)/EIH(2p)/OAH(3p and 4p)

Classical Faraneit has no remaining unbound verbal roots, as the tense and mood markers became mandatory on even verbal nouns and gerund-like constructions.

Faraneit is known for having few irregular verbs, which can be found in a separate article: [[Irregular Verbs in Faraneit]].

==Dialects==
The largest distinction is present between Lescealh Faraneit and Poleiseam Faraneik (the version of Faraneit supplanted into southern Malaba). Poleiseam Faraneik replaces the she/he-it pronoun system with a he-she/it organization, although this is more exemplary of their philosophical views on women. The most obvious difference, however, is the shift of all terminal /t/ becoming /k/. This did not affect internal or initial stops. For example:

 ''Fhenot'' (Lescealh Faraneit) --&gt; ''Fhenok'' (Poleiseam Faraneik) 

There was a second sound change, in additon: a vowel chain shift set off by a small change originally. /ʊ/ shifted to /u/, because /u/ had become /y/. This prompted /o/ to become the parallel /ø/, while /ɔ/ shifted upward to fill the hole left by the disappearance of /o/

Additionally the consonant /ʃ/ shifted initially to where /ç/ had existed before, completing a process slowly occuring within Lescealh Faraneit.

Poleiseam Faraneik changed grammatically aswell. The superimposing system in Lescealh Faraneit was replaced by a specialized modifier ending attached to the place name. Instead of the convention adjective endings of -om, -ean, or -ein, Poleiseam Faraneik created a special marker of -eam for geographic modifiers (derived from ''heam'' meaning village or town). Poleiseam Faraneik maintained the unorthodox position of the adjective, nonetheless. For example:

 In Lescealh they speak Lescealh Faraneit.
 In Poleis'''ah''' they speak Poleis'''eam''' Faranik.

Another common feature of Poleiseam Faraneik is the merger of /l ɭ/ terminally, where both are analyzed as [ɬ].

A distinction is made, however, between Orthodox Lescealh Faraneit and Southeastern Lescealh Faraneit. Orthodox Lescealh Faraneit reduces /ʊ/ to [ə] in many positions, and compounds various endings. When a stop is followed by a &quot;weak&quot; vowel (/ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ/) and then a terminal fricative, the entire ending is realized as a voicless affricate positioned to the location of the stop.

 
Southeastern Lescealh Faraneit also realizes V/ni/X as V/ɲɪ/X or terminally V/ni#/ as V/ɲ/. Furthermore all [ʃ ʒ] are realized as [s z].

==History and Culture==
The Faraneih culture is beleived to have arisen circa 1500 AC (after colonization), when a variety of refugees from the final collapse of the Temenucha civilization (derived from both Hindi and Quecha speakers) moved southward across the ''Kupeimeiceah'' desert and into the &quot;mediterranean&quot; coastal plain and absorbed into the colonizers from the collapsed Guscek colony of Hungarians, who had relocated to from the southern plains. The cultures creolized to some degree and expanded as far south as the Trovog peninsula (''Teimeareitah'' in Faraneit). 

The extinction of the indigenous, omnivore reptoids left the cavernous, food producing, hollow trunks of the ''puzil'' trees available, leading to their adoption as an emergency shelter (not large enough for more than three children, unfortunately), food source (edible roots available from the hollow area), wood, and companion to a variety of edible and medicinal mosses. By 2000 AC this arangement had given way to fullscale horticulture. The subsequent increase in population pushed the excess out of ''measceineafh'' (the forest of the mediterranean coastal plain) and east to the ''Lescealh'', the hilly region seperating the humid subtropical savannahs-grasslands and mediterranean coastal chapparel. The region was largely uninhabited because its western border was the driest area of the chapparel and its northern and eastern border was outside of the main path of the monsoons, which passed over the grassland, leaving little rainfall, until unloading on Lescealh, because of its slightly higher elevation. The hills also contained a valuable domesticate: Amaranth. 

Amaranth had feralized after colonization, allowing it to develope into a naturalized and highly productive grain. After arriving around 3000 AC a small scale agricultural package was created circa 3100 by combining Amaranth (aka ''fheaqut'') and ''puzil'' and gathering various fruits and vegetables. By 3500 AC ''nopav'', a leafy vegetable, ''voanabeap'', a fiber crop, ''leirodeaz'', a melon, had been domesticated along with several more localized crops and goats had been introduced from the east. By 4000 AC the wheel was developed and ''Heideiveiz'', a spice, was introduced. 

From 4300 AC onwards, the Faranih dominated trade between the Southeastern Cang-ur, Northeastern Malaba, and the Southeastern [[Etimri]]. Circa 4600 AC, the ''Polizeih'', a militant fringe religious group, invaded southern Malaba and attempted to create a sacred theocratic nation, ''Poleisah'', there under their rule. The ''Polizeih'' radicals steadily drifted to even more radical ideals, until circa 4650 AC declaring their patron god, ''Poleasc'', the only true god and began actively persecuting polytheists and in 4700 threatening the Faranih heartland, ''Lescealh'', which had remained polytheistic, with invasion. In response the most populous and productive region dominated by the ''Hakeih'', devotees to ''Hakenah'', the water goddess, banned together under the leadership of the militaristic ''Heireih'', devotees to ''Heirealanah'', goddess of vengence and storms. This new and successful relationship became the ''Harapah''. Unfortunately this system proved no more noble than ''Poleisah'' and was fraught with internal corruption and a hierarchy supported by ruthless oppression of political opponents. 

A later ''Polizeih'' invasion (circa 4750) was more successful and managed to install the ''Polizeih'' in power in several non-''Harapah'' areas. The ballad of ''Lhealeateh'', the ''Lhealeatimen'', is the story of the driving of these occupying forces out of the city of ''Heajaz'' and the establishment of the ''Heajazareifh'' (circa 4760), a sacred state surrounding ''Heajaz'', which denied access to certain groups as an official, very public form of disapproval. Historically, both the ''Harapah'' and the ''Polizeih'' have been denied entrance. After the invasion of ''Heajaz'' by the ''Harapah'' circa 4780, the predominately ''Hameadeih'', ''Healeasceih'', and ''Leaveazeih'' inhabitants relocated to the semi-arid mountains in the north-central ''Kupeimeiceah'' desert and founded ''Heajarein'', meaning new ''Heajaz''.

After conquering the ''Heajareifh'' and other minor states in ''Lescealh'', the ''Harapah'' began to solidify its base by combining many aspects of the ''Hakeih'' and ''Heireih'' sects. Although generally successful, the merge drove many devout followers of both to radical extremism, seperatism, and in some cases warfare. The internal divisions quickly healed with the expulsion of the ''Hakeih'' seperatists into distant Etimri areas and the self-propelled relocation of the ''Heireih'' radicals into traditional Cang-Ur lands. In reality, however, this only exported the troubles elsewhere, particularly into the western Cang-Ur tribal regions, which were heavily depopulated of the indigenous inhabitants by the ''Heireih'' settlers. That conquered region mirrored the developement of ''Poleisah'', the ''Polizeih'' stronghold in southern Malaba, especially in it's eventual dissolution into utter theocracy. The overlying societal stresses augmented the already dangerous deforestation in the region, which ultimately lead to a devestating collapse into anarchy and mass exodus into the eastern shrub, into which an estimated three million emigrated, only to succumb to starvation (circa 4950 AC).

By 7500 AC, ecological causes, particularly deforestation, led to significant declines in both the strongholds of the ''Harapah'' and ''Polizeih''. Within the previous four hundred years, Malaban rebels would reconquer ''Poleisah'' and the ''Harapah'' empire would have splintered into thousands of independent city-states in a state of incessant warfare. Ironically, the relocated people of ''Heajarein'' would prosper in the ''Kupeimeiceah'' as the trade routes they relied on became increasingly profitable while the trade routes and supply lines into ''Lescealh'' increasingly decentegrated, leading to inordinate prices for silks and northern spices.

==Faraneit Lexicon==
[[Faraneit Lexicon]]

==Sound Changes which Created Faraneit==
[[Proto Faraneit to Classical Faraneit Sound and Morphological Changes]]

==Faraneit Pronouns==
[[Faraneit Pronouns]]

==Faraneit Number System==
The Faraneit number system is base-twelve, originating in the Faraneih practice of counting the palms as well as the fingers. 
 
{| border=1
  ! number
  |align=center| Lescealh Faraneit
  | Poleiseam Faraneik
  |-
  ! 1
  |align=center| Heav (/ɛv/
  |align=center| Heav
  |-
  ! 2
  |align=center| Fheikah (/θɪka/)
  |align=center| Fheikah
  |-
  ! 3 
  |align=center| Beas (/bɛs/)
  |align=center| Beas
  |-
  ! 4 
  |align=center| Taseip (/tas-ɪp/)
  |align=center| Taseip
  |-
  ! 5
  |align=center| Sureah (/suʁɛ/)
  |align=center| Suereah (/syʁɛ/)
  |-
  ! 6  
  |align=center| Puket (/puket/)
  |align=center| Puekek (/pykek/)
  |-
  ! 7
  |align=center| Keut (/kʊt/)
  |align=center| Kuk (/kuk/)
  |-
  ! 8 
  |align=center| Botav (/botav/)
  |align=center| Boetav
  |-
  ! 9
  |align=center| Moz (/moz/)
  |align=center| Moz (/møz/)
  |-
  ! 10
  |align=center| Neaser (/nɛs-eʁ/)
  |align=center| Neaser
  |-
  ! 11
  |align=center| Hebek (/ebek/) 
  |align=center| Hebek
  |-
  ! 12
  |align=center| Caneis (/xɑnɪs/)
  |align=center| Caneis 
|}

==External Links==
[[http://buckfush530.livejournal.com/2006/01/24/ |original outline]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faraneit Lexicon</title>
    <id>2656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>47436</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-22T04:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* r */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Faraneit]]
==b==
BAFHEJ = ''v'' to sit, to repose, to rest

BACEID = ''n'' spike, spire, stake

BEJ = ''intrans. v'' to travel, ''trans. v'' to travel (with/to)

BELH = ''n'' oak tree, oak sap

BASCEITEJ = ''v'' to finish, complete

BIFEIT = ''adj'' oldest

BIFEM = ''adj'' older

BIF = ''adj'' old

BEAN = ''adv'' now, presently, stresses present tense

BEAS = ''adj'' three

BEAZEJ = ''v'' to touch, to contact

BEASCEJ = ''v'' walk, amble

BEICEIM = ''n'' era, period

BOAF = ''interj'' whoa! 

BOANEIC = ''n slang'' dining area, restaurant or in-house

BOANEICEJ = 1.''v'' to practice, to use 2. ''slang, v'' to eat, to use up

BOASCOM = ''adj'' proper, correct, polite

BOS = ''n'' light, aura

BOTAV = ''adj'' eight

BOZ = ''n'' other people, others

==c==
CABAH = ''adv'' approximately, nearly, about

CAD = ''adj'' warm, hot

CAH = ''n'' greatness, superiority

CAMEJ = ''v'' to produce smoke, to be smoked, to be screwed

CAMEIDEAN = ''adj'' burnt, smoked

CASC = ''n'' shovel, plow, blunt object for moving soil

CIT = ''n'' star, celestial body

CINEJ = ''v'' to fly, to hover/float in the air

CEJ = ''v'' to inspire

CEJEJ = ''v'' to be located at, to be inside/around/situated

CEAN = ''adj'' great, powerful ''adv'' with great force, forcefully

CEAREIS = ''prn'' everyone, everybody

CEAREIFH = ''prn'' everything

CEAT = ''adj'' eleven

CEAZEITEJ = ''v'' to settle, to colonize, to found

CEIH = ''part'' that, relative conjunction

CEIREJ = ''v'' to allow, to permit

COM = ''adj'' fast, rapid

COR = ''adj'' angry, furious

COREJ = ''v'' annoy, shock

COSAREJ  = ''v'' sting

COANEV = ''n'' metal object

COANEVOM = ''adj'' metallic, made of metal

CEUSEITEJ = ''v'' to lie, to deceive

CEUZIS = ''n'' liar, fraudulent person

CEUDEIN = ''adj'' mordant, sarcastic, cynical, annoying, decietful, cruel, rude

CEUHEJ = ''v'' to make treason against, to stab in the back

CUK = ''n'' broom

==d==
DACEAH = ''n'' tone, music

DAKEH = ''n'' key, chord, group of tones/notes

DAMEAF = ''n'' belt, strap

DAZEJ = ''v'' to hate, to detest, to abhor

DASCEJ = ''v'' to place, to put, to lay, to drop onto

DEKEIN = ''prn'' third person, singular, inanimate, accusitive

DELH = ''n'' life ''slang'' gift

DELHEJ = ''v'' to be independent, autonomous, sovereign, dignified, etc

DESCEAK = ''n'' oblong breed of krill like sea creatures

DEALHEIN = ''adj'' light red, unsaturated red

DEAPIR = ''n'' lentils, pulses

DEARASC = ''n'' krill like sea creatures

DEAREIVAC = ''slang, interrog'' right?, yes?, ok?, clear?

DEASCEJ = ''v'' to function, to work properly

DEICEAL = ''n'' alcohol

DEICEJ = ''v'' to be drunk, to be an alcoholic, ''idiom'' &quot;dicaej fhis sced&quot; translates as drunk with unhappiness, meaning offended

DEICEAMOM = ''adj'' sour tasting, alcohol-like flavor

DEIK = ''slang, n'' fermented fruit juice, particularly from berry origin

DEIH = ''part'' through, across

DEIS = ''prn'' third person, singular, possessive

DOM = ''prn'' third person, singular, animate, accusitive

DON = ''adj'' similar, like

DOKEJ = ''v'' to be similar to (etym: doen+kaej--&gt;doekaej like+be--&gt;be-like)

DOAM = ''prn'' third person, singular, inanimate, nominative

DOAN = ''prn'' third person, singular, animate, nominative

DOAPEJ = ''v'' to cause

DOAP = ''part'' denotes action towards locatively, to

DUNEJ = ''v'' to live (medically, not spatially), to exist

DUT = ''prn'' elsewhere, somewhere else

DUTOM = ''adj/adv'' foreign(ly), exotic(ally), from elsewhere

DEUFH = ''adv'' again, ''salut'' (until) again

DEUVEJ = ''v'' to climb

DEUSCEAC = ''prn'' third person, plural, ablative/dative

==f==
FABAT = ''n'' accusations, gossip, talk (zero-plural)

FAKIH = ''n'' shape, form, example

FAMOAH = ''n'' strength, harshness, resilience

FASIR = ''n'' script, orthography, alphabet

FASCEJ = ''v'' to write, to mark

FEACOR = ''adj/adv'' shocked, frightened, amazed, dazzled

FEAFEJ = ''v'' to weave, to shuffle, to dodge (all otaempeia)

FEAN = ''adj'' young, small, little

FEAREIH = ''prn'' first person, plural, nominative, inclusive

FEAZEJ = ''v'' to think such, to believe, to understand (transitive)

FEAZEIT = ''n'' a person who understands (something) (plural feazeib), an intellectual

FEAZIT = ''n'' an adherent, a believer

FEAZAT = ''n'' reasoning, a reason, a motive

FEAZEINAH = ''n'' thought, philosophy

FEASCEJ = ''v'' to teach

FEASCIT = ''n'' instruction, period of instruction

FEASCOH = ''n'' teacher, instructor

FEIREN = ''n'' culture, identity

FEIREAT = ''n'' height as a quality

FEIROM = ''adj'' tall, high

FEJ = ''v'' to rise, to wake up, to stand

FONEIN = ''prn'' first person, plural, accusitive

FUH = ''n'' nose (zero-plural)

FEUZEJ = ''v'' to learn, to study

==fh==
FHEJ = ''v'' to take, to receive

FHEK = ''prn'' both, each

FHEKALEJ = ''v'' to translate, to be bilingual (arch)

FHANOT = ''n'' grain(s)

FHEADEJ = ''v'' to give, to offer

FHEAK = ''interject'' hell! damn! ''slang adj/adv'' a lot, many, very

FHEAMEJ = ''v'' to plant

FHEAM = ''n'' container (originally, seed container, but the meaning has widened)

FHEAN = ''adj'' clever, witty

FHEANOT = ''n'' field(s)

FHEAQUT = 1.''n'' amaranth the plant 2.''n'' amaranth grain

FHIJOAK = ''n'' flavored meal or porridge, similar to oatmeal, usually from fhequt

FHINEJ = ''v'' to start, to begin, to commence

FHEIKAH = ''adj'' two

FHEIMEAPEJ = ''v'' to harvest, to take

FHEIMEIZ = ''n'' shore, edge, corner

FHEINEJ = ''v'' to sow, to plant

FHEINEAHOK = ''n'' farmer, ''arch'' sower, planter

FHEIS = ''part'' within, inside of

FHOD = ''n'' breasts (zero plural)

FHOM = ''adj/adv'' polite(ly), merciful(ly), sympathetic(ally)

FHOAQ = ''adj/adv'' absolutely, really, truely, verily

FHULH = ''n'' shelter

FHEUDOM = ''adj'' adequete, capable

==h==
HEJ = ''v'' to work, to labor

HEFH = ''conj'' or

HELIH = ''n'' language, speach

HET = ''n'' spirit, diety

HAC = ''n'' year

HACAZ = ''n'' meat, including poultry

HACEAM = ''n'' kindling, zero-plural

HAFEJ = ''v'' feel (intentional form)

HAFHEJ = ''v'' to appear (as such), to seem, to look (as such)

HAH = ''prn'' thing

HAJAREIN = ''n'' city in Kupeimeiceah, new Heajaz

HAKEIH = ''n'' devotee to Hakenah

HAKENAH = ''n'' water diety

HALEJ = ''v'' to speak, to say

HALHEJ = ''v'' to tell a story, to mythologize

HALEAH = ''n'' news, stories

HAMEAT = ''n'' flame

HAMEJ = ''v'' to burn, to incinerate

HAN = ''n'' leg, foot

HANEJ = ''v'' to dazzle, to amaze, to stupify

HANAH = ''adj'' amazing, fascinating, incredible, dazzling

HANAKEALHEIN = ''n'' heaven, nirvana

HANEIT = ''adj'' yes

HAREPAH = ''n'' political structure based on cultural symbiosis, specialization

HARAMEAV = ''n'' the sun

HARAPAH = ''n'' political group based on harepah

HARAPEANEIN = ''n'' symbiosis, co-operation

HARAH = ''n'' woman

HAREAH = ''n'' flowering plant 

HAREISC = ''n'' leader

HASEJ = ''v'' to feel (unintentional, universal form)

HAV = ''prn'' first person, singular, nominative

HAZ = ''interj'' shush! ''n'' scar, harmed body part

HAZEJ = ''v'' to kill, to harm

HAZATOM = ''adj'' amber, golden

HIH = ''prep'' with, alongside, ''adj'' pregnent

HIJ = ''n'' water (not rainfall)

HIM = ''prn'' first person, singular, accusitive

HINEJ = ''v'' need, require

HIZEALEJ = ''v'' to drown

HEAHEIM = ''n'' sister

HEAJAZ = ''n'' city in Laescelh

HEAJAZAREIFH = ''n'' city-state in Laescelh

HEAKEIH = ''n'' egg

HEALAT = ''n'' life

HEALATOM ''adj'' sacred

HEALEISCEIH = ''n'' a devotee to twilight goddess

HER = ''adv'' well ''adj'' happy, healthy

HESEJ = ''v'' to release, to let go, to relinquish

HEATEIK = ''adj'' bad

HEAV = 1.''adj'' sole 2.''adj'' one

HEAZ = ''prn'' first person, singular, possessive

HEIC = ''n'' brevity, short period, ''coll'' twenty days or less

HEIDEIVEIZ = 1.''n'' a tree species 2.''n'' spice produced from the bark of the hidiviz tree

HEILEIN = ''adj'' shorter

HEILEIT = ''n'' peace, life ''greet/salut'' similar to shalom

HEILEITEJ = ''v'' welcome, greet

HEILEITEAH = ''interj'' I'm sorry, please excuse me

HEIMEIN = ''adj'' black, burnt

HEIP = ''interj'' oh, my, well

HEIREALANAH = ''n'' storm diety

HEIREIH = ''n'' a devotee to Hirelanah

HEIREIDEJ = ''v'' to assist, to help

HEIROANUR = ''n'' bird

HEISCEJ = ''v'' to break

HEISCOM = ''adj'' destined to end, impermanent, breakable

HEISC = ''n'' death, destruction, damage

HOATAC = ''n'' picture, drawing, sketch

HOATEAC = ''n'' small oasis or pool in an arid area

HOATEIV = ''n'' tomarrow

HOAVEIM = ''n'' sybling, close friend

HOAVEJ = ''v'' be friendly, brotherly/sisterly with

HOASCUQ = ''n'' pattern

HONEJ = 1.''v'' to see 2. ''v'' to sense (literal rather than inuitive)

HONEAJ = ''n'' male fertility deity with a very small cult following

HOT = ''n'' day, day time, bright-ness

HUTEIR = ''n'' wild dog, wild fox, ''n'' sand/dirt grains

HEUH = ''part'' under, beneath

HEUHOH = ''adv/adj'' truly, ultimately, completely, really, absolutely, general stress word

HEUSC = ''n'' person

==j==
JAH = ''n'' sky (during the day)

JEJ = ''v'' to stop, to terminate, to finish

JACEAL = ''n'' positive point/period, upbeat part

JACOM = ''adj'' optimistic, positive, upbeat

JEIKOSC = ''n'' fat(s), kurds

JEIM = ''n'' cost, price

JEN = ''adj'' final, terminal, last

JESOM = ''n'' tears

JEID = ''conj'' but, however, nonetheless

JID = ''adj'' equal, fair, balanced

JIDAH = ''n'' equality, fairness, balance, reciprocity, karma

JOJ = ''adv'' now, presently

JUHIH = ''n'' hunger

JUHIHOM = ''adj/adv'' hungry

JUK = ''adj/adv'' fearful(ly), terrifying(ly)

==k==
KEJ = ''v'' to be

KELH = ''interj'' ugh

KETEJ = ''v'' to remember, to recall

KACEAL = ''n'' chasms, pitfalls, period(s) of suffering or sorrow

KALH = ''adj/adv'' easy/easily, without stress or difficulty

KAROTEJ = ''v'' to do

KARASC = ''slang, noun'' bitch, whore

KAZEIH = ''n'' arm

KEADEAS = ''n'' blood

KEADEASEAN = ''adj'' bloody, violent

KEADEAZEAN = ''adj'' threatening, dangerous

KEAH = ''prn'' second person, plural/formal, dative/ablative

KEAMEJ = ''v'' to be afraid, to be terrified, to be cowardly

KEAREIN = ''slang'' sure, thanks

KEROM = ''adj'' fresh, new, young

KEAROSOM = ''adj'' light green, fresh green

KEVEJ = ''v'' to complete, to finish

KEIZEAN = ''adv'' previous, ''adj'' prior

KOTEJ = ''v'' to know, to predict

KOLH = ''n'' futile thing

KEUD = ''n'' enemy (collectiv and singular, regular plural)

KEUNAT = ''n'' marriage

KEUNATEJ = ''v'' to marry (ie: to make/force to marry, I marry her to me &gt; keunatejeih hav doan sceuh hin (PF)/ fheis hav (LF)

KEUSCEJ = ''v'' to grind (into a powder)

KEUT = ''adj'' seven

KEUZEJ = ''v'' to be victorious, to succeed.

KEUSCEH = ''n'' sadness, loss, shock, mourning

KEUSCEAN = ''adj/adv'' dry, sad(ly), tearful(ly)

KUPEIMEICEAH = ''n'' desert region northwest of Laescelh

KUREJ = ''v'' to give, to donate

KUSC = ''n'' performance

==l==
LAVEIN = ''adj/adv'' complex, intricate(ly)

LAVOTEJ = ''intrns v'' to be complex, ''trns v'' to make complicated

LAEJ = ''v'' to want

LEVEITOM = ''adj'' delicious, sweet

LEPIR = ''n'' pleasure, joy

LESCEALH = ''n'' hilly region dominated by the Faranih 

LALEJ = ''v'' to call out, to scream, to call for help

LAPEILH = ''n'' dear, sweet

LIH = ''adj'' all, global ''adv'' globally

LIR = ''prn arch'' all things, everything (global sense), all of the above

LEASEIF = ''n'' voice

LEASEIV = ''n'' song

LEAVEJ = ''v'' sing

LEAVIZAH = ''n'' the star goddess

LEAVIZEIH = ''n'' a devotee to the star goddess

LEIDEIN = ''adj'' worse

LID = ''prn'' that

LIRODEAZ = ''n'' breed of melons famous for its sweet and sour taste

LITEH = ''adj/adv'' bad, evil, malicious(ly)

LITEHOM = ''adj/adv'' cunning(ly), plotful(ly), craft(ily)

LIZEALH = ''n'' sapphire like gems exported from alpine regions of Kupimiceh

LOL = ''n'' sound, noise, disturbance

LONEJ = ''v'' to be lost, to be confused

LOT = ''n'' everyone

LOSCAT = ''n'' mud, clay, adobe

LUDEIH = ''n'' an evil person, a cruel person

LEUREUNEIH = ''n'' incantation, charm, quiet chant, prayer (often with a negative connotation of dark or mixed nature)

==lh==
LHEJ = ''v'' to be named, to be called 

LHEFH = ''prn'' this, ''col'' thus, this

LHAH = ''n'' drink produced with steeping, tea or tea-like drinks

LHAL = ''n'' song, chant

LHALEJ = ''v'' to sing

LHEALEATEH = ''myth'' heroine of the Lheletimen

LHEALEATIMEN = ''n'' ballad of Lheletaeh

LHEINEAD = ''n'' continent containing Laescelh, Kupimiceh, and other regions

LHIH = ''n'' ball, bowl

LHOCIM = ''n'' river in northeastern Laescelh

LHOMEJ = ''v'' to dance ''slang'' to have intercourse with

LHONEAD = ''n'' movement

LHOAP = ''n'' virtue, conscience

LHOPEJ = ''v'' to behave virtuously, set an example (ACC - to whom, DAT - means)

LHOPAH = ''n'' virtuous person, saint

LHUH = ''adj'' perfect, epitomic, flawless ''adv'' perfectly, flawlessly

LHUL = ''adj'' most perfect, most divine

==m==
MAKEJ = ''v'' to belong (to), to be owned (by)

MANAHUHOM = ''adj/adv'' disgusting(ly), unappetizing(ly), repulsive(ly)

MEJ = ''v'' to stop, to slow, to stall, to wait

MEPEJ = ''v'' to be able to, can

MEAREAS = ''prn'' second person, plural/formal, possessive

MESCEIH = ''n'' forest, wood

MEASCEINEAFH = ''n'' forested region west of Laescelh

MIZ = ''n'' slices of bread, snack(s)

MIDEJ = ''trans v'' to build, to construct, to erect ''intrans v'' fix/be fixed, repair/ be repaired

MEIKEJ = ''v'' to rain, ''v + adj'' to become or grow (adjective)

MEIKANAH = ''n'' raindrop

MEIKEH = ''n'' rain(storm) 

MEINESCOM = ''adj'' green, emerald

MEISED = ''n'' coast, shore (from Mescinefh, a coastal forest)

MIZOEM = ''adj'' real, vivid

MIZEUN = ''n'' ocean

MOZ = ''adj'' nine

MOFHEJ = ''v'' be convinced, be persuaded, be advised, be given advice

MOKEIN = ''prn'' second person, singular, accusitive 

MOLEIN = ''prn'' second person, plural/formal, accustive

MOALEIH = ''prn'' second person, plural/formal, nominative

MOQEAQ = ''arch n'' predictable or seasonal flood, tide

MUD = ''adj'' sexual, sexy, hot, concerning sex, reminescent of sex, causing lust

MUDAR = ''n'' sex, sexual behavior, promiscuity, philandering

MUDEJ = ''v'' to (have) sex, to initiate sexual behavior

MUK = ''n'' face (person, or object) , front

MUZED = ''n'' intent, reasoning

MUR = ''n'' taste, bit, bite, little piece

MEUK = ''adj'' a few, some

==n==
NEJ = ''v'' to return, to go back (to)

NAKAT = ''prn, interrog'' who

NAKIR = ''prn, interrog'' what, which

NAKUMEJ = ''v'' to flood

NAVOAT = ''n'' origin

NAZEAH = ''n'' answer, response, anti-question

NILHEH = ''n'' paternal grandmother (Poeleizih)

NIS = ''n'' thousand

NEASER = ''adj'' ten

NEASCEIP = ''prn, interrog'' why, for what, for what reason

NEIBEID = ''n'' creator

NEIBEIDEJ = ''v'' to birth, to create, to fashion

NEIBEIT = ''n'' grandmother

NEIH = ''part'' denotes action towards in forming ablative/dative case

NEIKIH = ''n'' aunt

NEIKOAL = ''slang'' huh, what

NEILEH = ''n'' paternal aunt (Poeleizih)

NEIMEIH = ''n'' mother

NEIREIS = ''prn'' second person, singular, possessive

NOD = ''n'' hundred

NOH = ''n'' mommy

NONOH = ''n'' mama

NOR = ''prn'' second person, singular, nominative

NEUL = ''n'' abusive person

NEUM = ''n'' hand

NEUSCEJ = ''v'' to use, to utilize

NURAT = ''n'' condolences, apologies, kindness (zero-plural)

NUSCEJ = ''v'' to pretend (to do something), to impersonate (some one or thing)

==p==
PAB = ''n'' heart

PAFHEJ = ''v'' to continue, to go further/onward

PET = ''n'' night, darkness

PAFEJ = ''v'' to change, to move onward

PEJ = ''v'' to want

PAMINAH = ''n'' tower, large building

PASEAREAN = ''adv'' again, indicates repetition

PEANATEJ = ''v'' to trust, to hold in high esteem

PEANETOEM = ''adj'' brown, dirty brown

PESEJ = ''v'' to introduce

PIH = ''part'' of, from (spacially)

PIK = ''n'' butterfly/moth

PITEJ = ''v'' to bargain for, to search for, to attempt

PIZAT = ''n'' forgiveness, pardon

PIZOHEJ = ''v'' to forgive

POALEJ = ''v'' come quickly, race, come (to help some one) quickly, race (to their aid)

PORESC = ''n'' city

POLIZEIH = ''n'' a devotee to Poelesc

POLEASC = ''n'' god of cities, demonized in non-Poeleizih mythologies

POLH = ''n'' stare

POLHEJ = ''v'' to stare

POREJ = ''v'' to deduce

POROK = ''n'' strategy, plan, device

POV = ''n'' mother

POSC = ''n'' deceived person

POSCEAT = ''n'' lie, deceit, falsehood

PUKET = ''adj'' six

PUREJ = ''v'' to meld, to join

PUZEIL = ''adj'' far, distant ''n'' great distance, horizon ''fig'' -eapuzeil = quite distant

PUZIL = 1. ''n'' a domesticated tree 2. ''n'' the edible roots of that tree

PEUL = ''n'' jug, gulp

==q==
QEJ = ''v'' to defeat, to triumph over

QAB = ''n'' finger, digit

QALHEJ = ''v'' to promise

QAMAH = ''n'' bundle, collection

QAMAHEJ = ''v'' to gather, to collect, (''reflexive'') to assemble

QAMAT = ''n'' legend of the great gods' war

QAT = ''n'' enemy, zero-plural

QETAREJ = ''arch. v'' to rescue, to save

QEASC = ''n'' creature(s)

QITIS = ''arch n'' bloodshed, violence

QIDIH = ''n'' pain, suffering, cruelty

QITOM = ''adj'' red, crimson

QIDIS = ''arch. n'' war, violence

QIDISEIH = ''n'' warrior, fighter, soldier

QIDEJ = ''v'' to fight, to attack

QOD = ''n'' lightning(strike)

QODEJ = ''v'' to strike, to hit

QONEJ = ''v'' to unroll, to spread, to open (a letter, a seal)

QOV = ''n'' moment, instant, ''arch n'' blitzkreig, ambush, sudden attack

QUDEJ = ''v'' to undermine (often violently and internally)

QUREZEM = ''adj'' pertaining to miltary particularly occupation

QEUZ = ''n'' hair (regular plural)

QUV = ''n'' midst ''arch n'' middle of chaos, heat of battle

==r==
REJ = ''v'' to have, + fheis - to contain, envelope

REHEJ = ''v'' to be aquainted with, to know (connaitre form)

RETEIN = ''adj'' fun, enjoyable, interesting

RACUEMIH = ''n'' child

RAFH = ''prep'' under, below

RAZOH = ''n'' bone, cartilegde

RAZOR = 1. ''slang, n'' penis, phallus 2. ''n'' pillar, support

RIB = ''adj/adv'' exact(ly), precise(ly)

RIHEJ = ''v'' to shelter, to comfort, to protect

RIZET = ''n'' a species of yellow flower

RIZOM = ''adj'' yellow

RISCAH = ''n'' world, universe

REINEJ = ''v'' to nurse

REIN = ''n'' nipple

RAZEJ = ''v'' to hide (transitive or reflexive)

REAK = ''n'' night, night-time

REAN = ''part'' until

REIH = ''prep'' over, ontop of, above

REIZOTEJ = ''v'' doubt, suspect, be paranoid of

RIZ = ''prn'' third person, plural, possessive

ROHEJ = ''v'' to cause stress, to be difficult, to challenge

ROM = ''adj'' difficult, hard, stressful

RONOH = ''n'' forest, wood

REUVEJ = ''v'' to search (for), to look (for)

==s==
SACEJ = ''v'' to defecate

SAH = ''n'' nightsky, dusk

SAP = ''n'' duck, waterfowl

SEH = ''n'' flower

SEJ = ''v'' to batter, to hit, to harm

SEN = ''adj'' eternal

SENEJ = ''v'' to swim, ''slang v'' to move/shimmer

SENUR = ''slang n'' freshwater bog, freshwater swamp

SIH = ''n'' skeptic, disbeliever

SEAREISC = ''n'' knot, tangle

SEARISC = ''n'' chaos, anarchy, madness, uncivilized behavior, disorder, bizarrity

SEAROM = ''adj'' bizarre, unusual

SEASCIT = ''n'' loneliness

SEASCOM = ''v'' lonely

SEIH = ''part'' (spatially) in front of, forward (temporally) after(wards)

SEIL = ''adj/adv'' worthy, deserving

SEIMAH = ''n'' eye (irregular plural)

SEIN = ''adv'' more

SOMAF = ''n'' eyes

SUBEJ = ''v'' to own

SUN = ''n'' sleeping mat

SUQ = ''interj'' expresses extreme happiness, yes!, halleluia!

SUREH = ''adj'' five

SEUD = ''n'' short period of time (about an hour)

SEUPEJ = ''v'' to buy, to barter for

==t==
TEBIN = ''adj'' large, plentiful

TEH = ''n'' friend, companion

TEJ = ''v'' to remove, to take off/away, to undress

TACAH = ''n'' idiot

TADEJ = ''v'' to listen, to hear

TAD = ''n'' chutney, sauce, flavoring

TAFH = ''n'' ear(s)

TASERIV = ''n'' truth, statements of truth

TASIP = ''adj'' four

TIBEK = ''adv'' as normal, the normal way, normally, as usual, as often

TIC = ''n'' goat

TICOM = ''adj'' stubborn

TIP = ''prn'' third person, plural, nominative

TIS = ''n'' home, homeland, shelter

TIZEH = ''n'' breast, chest, rib cage

TIZEJ = ''v'' to hear

TEH = ''n'' group, ethnicity, crowd

TEALHEIC = 1. ''n'' a domestic fruit tree 2. ''n'' the fruit of that tree

TEALHOM = ''adj'' dark purple, saturated violet

TEAREJ = ''v'' to wish

TEAREIPEAS = ''prn'' fourth person

TEARISC = ''greet'' formal (Poelisem)

TEIBEIN = ''prn'' third person, plural, accusitive

TEIH = ''part'' for, because (causative)

TEIHEIM = ''n'' brother

TILHEATEJ = ''v'' to play, to frolic

TEIMEARITAH = ''n'' peninsula on the western coast of Ledan

TEISOM = ''adj'' unripe, petulant, rebellious

TIRIJ = ''salut'' informal (Poelisem)

TIREJ = ''v'' to be required to, must, should

TOBIT = ''n'' grandfather

TOKEIH = ''n'' uncle

TOH = ''n'' father 

TEUFEIH = ''n'' valley or gorge

TEUVEAN = ''adj'' blue, violet, purple

==v==
VAH = ''adj'' common, ubiquitous

VED = ''n'' peace ''slang'' submission, subjugation

VELEIB = ''arch. prn'' exclusive we, determined as impolite in most groups 

VASCEL = ''n'' reason, sense

VASCOM = ''adj/adv'' reasonable, sensible, sensibly, reasonably

VIR = ''adv'' also, additionally, and

VISOM = ''adj/adv'' famous(ly)

VIZEIH = ''n'' dear, darling, bride, groom

VEAREINEJ = ''v'' to wonder, to ponder the possibility of

VEAZOP = ''n'' throat

VIS = ''n'' cart, carriage

VEIT = ''part/prep'' denotes action from, used to form ablative forms

VEHEJ = ''v'' to sleep, to rest, to relax, to recouperate

VODUR = ''n'' begining

VODURIH = ''fig'' in the begining (used as once upon a time is)

VOJID = ''n'' love (emotion)

VOK = ''n'' place, location locale

VOSCIH = ''n'' lover, partner

VOAP = ''part'' as, while, at the same time as

VOANABEAP = 1. ''n'' a crop native to Laescelh, raised for its fibers 2. ''n'' cloth made from those fibers

VOAREJ = 1. ''v'' to find 2. ''arch. v'' to experience (through)

VOZEIS = ''prn'' first person, plural, possessive

VOSCEJ = ''v'' to love, to cherish

VUFHEIC = ''prn'' first person, plural, ablative/dative

VUZEJ = ''v'' to lust (after/for)

VUZIT = ''n'' lust

VEUT = ''n'' place, room

''adj'' contained, trapped, cornered

VEUSCAH = ''n'' good friend

==z==
ZEJ = ''v'' to depart, to leave, to exit

ZEV = ''adj'' never, not ever

ZER = ''ad'' unhealthy, sick, unwell, ill

ZET = ''adj'' none, not one

ZADIH = ''n'' silence, quiet

ZAKOTOM = ''adj'' unknown, unidentified

ZALIHOM = ''adj/adv'' ugly, with harsh intent, unkind, disfigured

ZAMIZ = ''n'' imagination, dream, fantasy, illusion, hallucination

ZAS = no

ZASEJ = ''v'' squash, flatten, level

ZASOM = ''adj'' flat, level ''adv'' gratingly

ZATASERIV = ''n'' unfounded belief(s), preconception(s), prejudice(s)

ZAH = ''adv'' not

ZALIH = ''adv'' never, forever not

ZILEJ = ''v'' to copy, to plagarize

ZIS = ''n'' trouble(s)

ZELEJ = ''v'' to steal, to take

ZEAR = ''part'' denotes locative movement away from, from

ZEARASEJ = ''v'' to drive out/away/forward

ZEIH = ''prep'' (spatially) behind, in back of, (temporally) prior/before

ZEIHIN = ''interrog'' no? not really? (like French ...n'est-ce pas?)

ZEILH = ''n'' lip

ZOTEJ = ''v'' to be careful, to be cautious, to be thoughtful

==sc==
SCAH = ''n'' palm (of the hand)

SCAC = ''n'' future

SCAM = ''adv/adj'' if(hypothetical), perhaps, potential(ly)

SCAN = ''n'' vendor, seller

SCANEJ = ''v'' to sell, to vend

SCAP = ''adv/adj'' if(negative)

SCASC = ''n'' hill, mountain, crest, rocky area

SCACEATEJ = ''v'' laugh, chuckle

SCEJ = ''v'' to fill

SCEAD = ''n'' unhappiness, distaste, bitterness

SCEAN = ''adj'' gross, nasty

SCEAP = ''slang, adv'' used to show unenthusiasm, similar to whatever

SCEATEJ = ''v'' to be necessary (to be done); similar to falloir

SCEAZOM = ''adj'' worthless, pathetic, loser-ish

SCIBEJ = ''v'' to come (from), to arrive (from), to ripen (colloquially)

SCEIT = ''n'' slice, cut, part, piece

SCOH = ''n'' skin

SCOM = ''adj'' excessive, ''colloquial'' obese

SCOT = ''adj'' white

SCEUDEJ = ''v'' fill, comprise the interior of

SCEUH = ''prep'' with

SCUNEJ = ''v'' clean (a wound), dress (a wound)

SCUQ = ''n'' order, structure</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhaf</title>
    <id>2658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32355</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-06T00:59:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Pages related to the cultures of [[Galhaf]], created by [[User:Nik|Nik Taylor]]

[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Rulers</title>
    <id>2660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16103</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Government]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:People</title>
    <id>2661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-21T07:26:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Odiran Standard Units</title>
    <id>2662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44165</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-16T14:47:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Land Area */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Odiran Standard Units''' are the standard system of units in use on Odira.  English translations are given for the unit names

== Modern Standard System ==

=== Time ===
Time is, as on Earth, based on divisions of the day.  The [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhafan]] day is 25 hours, 26 minutes, and 55 seconds in Earth time.
*1 Day = 60 Daymins - 25 hr 26m 55s
*1 Daymin = 60 Daysecs - 25 min 26.915 sec ({{frac|1|60}} day)
*1 Daysec = 60 Daytrices - 25.449 sec ({{frac|1|3600}} day)
*1 Daytrice = .42414 seconds ({{frac|1|216000}} day)

Historically, there was a unit, the &quot;hour&quot;, equal to {{frac|1|12}} day, or 5 daymins.  That unit has fallen out of usage, however.  The day is traditionally also divided into 4 ''quarters'' of 15 daymins each (historically, the quarters were defined as sunrise-noon, noon-sunset, sunset-midnight, midnight-sunrise, but are now simply equal divisions of the day).

The day begins at Daymin 1, which begins 15 daymins after mean midnight (thus, averaging at dawn).  Daymins are counted from 1-60 while daysecs and daytrices are counted from 0-59 (1:00:00 is the beginning of the day, 60:59:59 is the end)

=== Distance ===
The basic unit of length is the ''fathom'', which was originally defined as twice the distance an object falls in 1 daytrice on [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]] (specifically, at sea level at 45­° N latitude, in a vacuum).  This makes it approximately 170 cm or 5'7&quot; (hence, the gravitational acceleration on Galhaf is exactly 1 fathom per daytrice²).  Today, it is defined in terms of the speed of light.  Not all units are in common use in modern times.  Bolded units are common use
*1 '''(Great) League''' = 5 Small Leagues = 12.2193 km (7.59275 mi)
*1 Small League = 12 Furlongs = 2.44387 km (1.51855 mi)
*1 '''Furlong''' = 120 Fathoms = 203.656 m (668.162 ft)
*1 '''Fathom''' = 4 Cubits = 169.713 cm (5'6.8162&quot;)
*1 Cubit = 6 Hands = 42.4283 cm (16.7040&quot;)
*1 '''Hand''' = 4 Fingers = 7.07138 cm (2.78401&quot;)
*1 Finger = 3 Grains = 1.76784 cm (.696001&quot;)
*1 '''Grain''' = 5.892813 mm (.232000&quot;)

Simplified to commonly used units
*1 League = 60 Furlongs = 7,200 Fathoms = 172,800 Hands = 2,073,600 Grains
*1 Furlong = 120 Fathoms = 2,880 Hands = 34,560 Grains
*1 Fathom = 24 Hands = 288 Grains
*1 Hand = 12 Grains

=== Area ===
In modern times, area is commonly measured in terms of length, e.g., square fathom, square league, etc.  Several traditional units remain in common use, however.
==== Land Area ====
*Secondland - {{frac|1|60}} of a minuteland, thus {{frac|1|900}} square furlongs or 16 square fathoms (46.0842 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 496.046 ft&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
*'''Minuteland''' - {{frac|1|60}} of a houseland (see below), thus {{frac|1|15}} square furlong or 960 square fathoms (2,765.05 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, .683259 acres, 29,762.8 ft&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
*'''Houseland''' - Traditionally, the area required to support a single household.  Standardized as 4 square furlongs ({{frac|1|900}} square league; 16.5903 ha, 40.9955 acres)
*Warland - 6 Houselands; traditionally the area of land expected to produce 1 soldier in time of war (99.5418 ha, 245.973 acres)
*Shipland - 150 Houselands ({{frac|1|4}} square league; 24.8855 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 9.60833 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;; traditionally, the area that would produce 1 warship in time of war

Minuteland remains common for measuring property, with houseland used for large properties.  Warland and shipland are largely obsolete.  Secondland is sometimes used for small areas, such as gardens, although square fathoms have become more common in recent times.

==== Buildings ====
The square fathom (2.88025 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 31.0028 ft&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) is becoming increasingly common for measuring the area of buildings and rooms.  ''Panels'' were traditionally used for rooms.  A ''panel'' was historically defined as 1 fathom by 1 cubit (4 square cubits or {{frac|1|4}} square fathom; .720063 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 7.75069 ft&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).  These are still sometimes found.

=== Volume ===
The basic unit of volume is the ''barrel'' equal to one cubic ''cubit'' (76.3778 L or 20.1769 gal).  As in length, not all units are in common use.
*1 Cubic fathom = 8 Octets = 4,888.18 L (1,291.32 gal) (cube 1 fathom on a side)
*1 '''Octet''' = 8 Barrels = 611.022 L (161.415 gal) (cube 2 cubits on a side)
*1 '''Barrel''' = 8 Jars = 76.3778 L (20.1769 gal) (1 cubit cubed)
*1 Jar = 8 Sesters = 9.54722 L (10.0884 qt) (3 hands cubed)
*1 '''Sester''' = 8 Gills = 1.19340 L (40.3537 oz) (6 fingers cubed)
*1 '''Gill''' = 27 Spoons = 149.175 mL (5.04422 oz) (3 fingers cubed)
*1 '''Spoon''' = 5.52501 mL (1.12094 tsp) (1 cubic finger)

Simplified
*1 Octet = 8 Barrels = 512 Sesters = 4,096 Gills = 110,592 Spoons
*1 Barrel = 64 Sesters = 512 Gills = 13,824 Spoons
*1 Sester = 8 Gills = 216 Spoons
*1 Gill = 27 Spoons

Sesters and gills are the most common units for most purposes, with spoons used for small quantities.  Octets tend to be used for measuring very large quantities of liquids, such as production of a brewery or dairy, or volume of a pool, or gas sold at a gas station.  Barrels are common for medium quantities, such as water bills.

Cubic fathom is common in scientific settings for measuring large quantities.  It's also used for such purposes as measuring oil reserves and the like.

=== Mass ===
The basic unit of mass is the ''Talent'', equal to the mass of one barrel of water (76.3778 kg or 168.384 lb)
*1 '''Talent''' = 8 Octals = 76.3778 kg (168.384 lb)
*1 '''Octal''' = 12 Pounds = 9.54723 kg (21.0480 lb)
*1 '''Pound''' = 12 Ounces = 795.602 g (28.0640 oz)
*1 '''Ounce''' = 12 Spoon-weight = 66.3002 g (2.33867 oz)
*1 Spoon-weight = 12 Bits = 5.52501 g (85.2640 grains)
*1 Bit = 25 (International) Grains = 460.418 mg (7.10533 grains)
*1 '''(International) Grain''' = 18.4167 mg (.284213 grains)

Simplified
*1 Talent = 8 Octals = 96 Pounds = 1,152 Ounces = 4,147,200 Grains
*1 Octal = 12 Pounds = 144 Ounces = 518,400 Grains
*1 Pound = 12 Ounces = 43,200 Grains
*1 Ounce = 3600 Grains

Human weights are commonly measured in octals and quarters of an octal, e.g., one might give a weight as being &quot;6¾ octals&quot;, that is around 64 kg, 140 lb

Note: the International Grain is approximately 1.094 [[#Northern Traders' Standard Weights|Traditional Grains]].

=== Temperature ===
The freezing point of water is 12° while the boiling point is 48°.  12° is equivalent to 0°C/32°F, while the boiling point at standard Galhafan atmospheric pressure is 108ºC/226.4°F, making the gradation equal to 3 C° or 5.4 F°

== Some Archaic Systems ==
=== Eastern Traders' Standard Weights ===
This system used as its basis the weight of a cube of silver 1 (archaic) finger to a side.  This old Finger was slightly larger than the modern Finger, approximately 1.79 cm (4.56&quot;).  This standard weight, called a Traders' Unit, was equal to 60.59 g (2.14 oz).  It was mostly used for measuring the mass of silver coins.  Most of the states of the Eastern Region adjusted their coins' weights to be even fractions of the ''pound''
*1 Talent = 60 pounds
*1 Pound = 12 Traders' Units = 727.1 g (1.603 lb)
*1 Traders' Unit = 60 Big Grains = 60.59 g (2.137 oz)
*1 Big Grain = 60 Little Grains = 1.010 g (15.58 grains)
*1 Little Grain = 16.83 mg (.2597 grains)
 
[[Category:Galhaf]]
[[Category:Systems of Measurement]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Swadesh list I</title>
    <id>2663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41035</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-19T00:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]
*[[Wikipedia:swadesh list|Swadesh]] list I

{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  English
!c=02|  Senȝêĸas&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;*PIE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt; ''Pokorny#''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=03|  Reflex
!c=04|  Senȝêĸas&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;*PIE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt; ''Pokorny#''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=05|  Reflex
|-
|i=No| 1
|c=01| I
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mus&lt;br&gt;μυσ&lt;br&gt;мyс&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.me-&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;''702''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;me&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 2
|c=01| thou
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tus&lt;br&gt;тυσ&lt;br&gt;τyс&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;tu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1097''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;thou&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 3
|c=01| he
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nus&lt;br&gt;νυσ&lt;br&gt;нyс&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 4
|c=01| we
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱus&lt;br&gt;μ̀υσ&lt;br&gt;ӎyс&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;we-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1114''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;we&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 5
|c=01| you
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝus&lt;br&gt;jυσ&lt;br&gt;jyс&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.yu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''513''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;you&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 6
|c=01| they
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;núes&lt;br&gt;νυησ&lt;br&gt;нyес&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 7
|c=01| this
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dis&lt;br&gt;δισ&lt;br&gt;дис&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;de-&lt;font color=red&gt;''181''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;i&lt;font color=red&gt;de&lt;/font&gt;m
|-
|i=No| 8
|c=01| that
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nis&lt;br&gt;νισ&lt;br&gt;нис&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 8a
|c=01| that over there
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôlnis&lt;br&gt;ωλνισ&lt;br&gt;oлнис&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1. al-&lt;font color=red&gt;''24''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ul&lt;/font&gt;tra
|-
|i=No| 9
|c=01| here
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;íðu&lt;br&gt;ιϑυ&lt;br&gt;иђy&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 10
|c=01| there
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tóru&lt;br&gt;τωρυ&lt;br&gt;τoрy&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;there&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 11
|c=01| who
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭus&lt;br&gt;κ̆υσ&lt;br&gt;к̆yс&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kwo-&lt;font color=red&gt;''644''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;who&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 12
|c=01| what
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭos&lt;br&gt;κ̆ωσ&lt;br&gt;к̆oс&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 13
|c=01| where
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭu&lt;br&gt;κ̆υ&lt;br&gt;к̆y&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 14
|c=01| when
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭum&lt;br&gt;κ̆υμ&lt;br&gt;к̆yм&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 15
|c=01| how
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭáálu&lt;br&gt;κ̆ααλυ&lt;br&gt;к̆aaлy&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 16
|c=01| not
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ne&lt;br&gt;νη&lt;br&gt;не&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(indic.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ne&lt;font color=red&gt;''756''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;no&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;me&lt;br&gt;μη&lt;br&gt;ме&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(imper.,subj.)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 17
|c=01| all
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſôlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;solo-&lt;font color=red&gt;''979''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;hol&lt;/font&gt;ogram
|-
|i=No| 18
|c=01| many
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mênϙis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(animate)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;menegh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''730''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;many&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br &gt;&lt;small &gt;(inanimate)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 19
|c=01| some
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſômis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2. sem-&lt;font color=red&gt;''902''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;some&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 20
|c=01| few
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûûкis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pōu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''842''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;pauc&lt;/font&gt;ity
|-
|i=No| 21
|c=01| other
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ânïis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;else&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 22
|c=01| one
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôi&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;oino-&lt;font color=red&gt;''281''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;one&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 23
|c=01| two
|c=03| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭô&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dʷo(u)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''228''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;two&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 24
|c=01| three
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tîr&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;trei-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1090''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;three&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 25
|c=01| four
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭêr&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kwetwer-&lt;font color=red&gt;''642''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;four&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 26
|c=01| five
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pên&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;penkʷe-&lt;font color=red&gt;''808''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Greek&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;pen&lt;/font&gt;te
|-
|i=No| 27
|c=01| big
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêħis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;meg(h)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''708''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;much&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 28
|c=01| long
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱâzdis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 29
|c=01| wide
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrûſis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 30
|c=01| thick
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;têgŭis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 31
|c=01| heavy
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêrŭis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.gʷer-&lt;font color=red&gt;''476''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;grav&lt;/font&gt;ity
|-
|i=No| 32
|c=01| small
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mînŭis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;4.men-&lt;font color=red&gt;''728''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;min&lt;/font&gt;us
|-
|i=No| 33
|c=01| short
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mrêħis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;mreghu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''750''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;merry&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 34
|c=01| narrow
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêêvris&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 35
|c=01| thin
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nââmbis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 36
|c=01| woman
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭênus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;gʷenā-&lt;font color=red&gt;''473''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Greek&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;gyne&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 37
|c=01| man&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(male)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱîrus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʷīros-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1177''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;vir&lt;/font&gt;ile
|-
|i=No| 38
|c=01| person
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;anħênus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 39
|c=01| child&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(youth)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nâvlus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 39a
|c=01| child&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(descendant)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;źôônaþus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.gen-&lt;font color=red&gt;''373''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;kin&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 40
|c=01| wife
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭênus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 41
|c=01| husband
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pôtus&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;poti-s&lt;font color=red&gt;''843''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;des&lt;font color=red&gt;pot&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 42
|c=01| mother
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âmas&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 43
|c=01| father
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âpas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pap(p)a-&lt;font color=red&gt;''789''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 44
|c=01| animal
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðuſlôɱes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 44a
|c=01| mammal
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pâpes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;baxb-&lt;font color=red&gt;''91''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 45
|c=01| fish
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîſкes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(bony)&lt;br&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.peisk-&lt;font color=red&gt;''796''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;fish&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħûðes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(cartilaginous)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ghdhū-&lt;font color=red&gt;''416''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ichty&lt;/font&gt;osaur
|-
|i=No| 46
|c=01| bird
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âɱes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;aʷei-&lt;font color=red&gt;''86''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;avian&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 47
|c=01| dog
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭônes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kʷon-&lt;font color=red&gt;''632''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;houn&lt;/font&gt;d
|-
|i=No| 47a
|c=01| horse
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êćŭes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ekʷo-s&lt;font color=red&gt;''301''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;equus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 48
|c=01| louse
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;lûɱes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;lus-&lt;font color=red&gt;''692''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;louse&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 49
|c=01| snake
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ângŭes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(constrictor)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;anghʷi-&lt;font color=red&gt;''43''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;anguis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêêþres&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(poisonous)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;nē-tr-&lt;font color=red&gt;''767''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;adder&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 50
|c=01| worm
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;lonðîîrкes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(earthworm)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;lumbricus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôłes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(other)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 51
|c=01| tree
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dôris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;deru-&lt;font color=red&gt;''214''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;tree&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 52
|c=01| forest
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кâtos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 53
|c=01| stick&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of wood)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gênvos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 54
|c=01| fruit
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrûûgos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;bhrūg-&lt;font color=red&gt;''173''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;frugus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 55
|c=01| seed
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêgos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(small)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.sē(i)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''889''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sow&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûûros&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(pit)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pu-ro-&lt;font color=red&gt;''850''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 56
|c=01| leaf
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vââlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;4.bhel-&lt;font color=red&gt;''122''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 57
|c=01| root
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrââdos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʷ(e)rād-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1167''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;wort&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 58
|c=01| bark&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of tree)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кêndos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 59
|c=01| flower
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ânþos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;andh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''40''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;anth&lt;/font&gt;er
|-
|i=No| 60
|c=01| grass
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîînis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Greek&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;koina&lt;/font&gt;er
|-
|i=No| 61
|c=en| rope
|c=01| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðôɱos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 62
|c=01| skin&lt;br &gt; &lt;small &gt; (of a person)&lt;/small &gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кûtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.(s)keu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''951''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;cut&lt;/font&gt;icle
|-
|i=No| 63
|c=01| meat&lt;br &gt; &lt;small &gt; (as in flesh)&lt;/small &gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêmſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;mēmso-&lt;font color=red&gt;''725''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;member&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 64
|c=01| blood
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êſros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Old Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;aser&lt;/font&gt;eology
|-
|i=No| 65
|c=01| bone
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôſþos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(solid)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ost(h)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''783''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ost&lt;/font&gt;eology
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кûlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(hollow)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 66
|c=01| fat&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(noun)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîîmos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pei(ə)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''793''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 67
|c=01| egg
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôôȝes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(fertile)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ov&lt;/font&gt;ary
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôôȝos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(infertile)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 68
|c=01| horn
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćâmos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 69
|c=01| tail
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûmbos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 70
|c=01| feather&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(not down)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûlſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pleus-&lt;font color=red&gt;''838''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;plu&lt;/font&gt;me
|-
|i=No| 71
|c=01| hair
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pîlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pi-lo-&lt;font color=red&gt;''830''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;de&lt;font color=red&gt;pil&lt;/font&gt;atory
|-
|i=No| 72
|c=01| head
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кâlpos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 73
|c=01| ear
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ûſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ōus-&lt;font color=red&gt;''785''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;aur&lt;/font&gt;al
|-
|i=No| 74
|c=01| eye
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôкŭos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;okʷ-&lt;font color=red&gt;''775''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;v. #101&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 75
|c=01| nose
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nâſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;nas-&lt;font color=red&gt;''755''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;nose&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 76
|c=01| mouth
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôôſos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(human)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ōus-&lt;font color=red&gt;''785''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;or&lt;/font&gt;al
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dêêrlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(animal)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 77
|c=01| tooth
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;źêmvos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;gembh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''369''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;v. #94&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 78
|c=01| tongue
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dênħos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dnghū&lt;font color=red&gt;''223''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;tongue&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 79
|c=01| fingernail
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ônϙos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ung&lt;/font&gt;ulate
|-
|i=No| 80
|c=01| foot
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêdos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.pē/ĕd-&lt;font color=red&gt;''790''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;foot&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 80a
|c=01| paw
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;lôôpos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 80b
|c=01| hoof
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙôfos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;?-&lt;font color=red&gt;''?''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;hoof&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 81
|c=01| leg
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кôſtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kost-&lt;font color=red&gt;''616''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;inter&lt;font color=red&gt;cost&lt;/font&gt;al
|-
|i=No| 82
|c=01| knee
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;źênŭos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.genu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''380''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;genu&lt;/font&gt;flect
|-
|i=No| 83
|c=01| hand
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêſros&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.ḡhesor-&lt;font color=red&gt;''447''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;chir&lt;/font&gt;opractor
|-
|i=No| 84
|c=01| wing
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêêtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.pet-&lt;font color=red&gt;''826''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;v. #120&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 85
|c=01| belly
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;udêros&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;udero-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1104''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;udder&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 86
|c=01| guts
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gûdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;gut&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 87
|c=01| neck
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mônos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 88
|c=01| back
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gûrnos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 89
|c=01| breast
|c=0s| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pâpos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 90
|c=01| heart
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ċêrdos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.k̄ered-&lt;font color=red&gt;''579''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;heart&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 91
|c=01| liver
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeĸŭênos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʲekʷ-rt-&lt;font color=red&gt;''504''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;jecur&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 92
|c=01| to drink
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pôôȝa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.po(i)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''839''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;po&lt;/font&gt;table
|-
|i=No| 93
|c=01| to eat
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ed-&lt;font color=red&gt;''287''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;eat&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 94
|c=01| to bite
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;źêmva&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;comb&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 95
|c=01| to suck
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mênda&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 96
|c=01| to spit
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;fîîɱa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;(s)p(h)eiu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''999''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;s&lt;font color=red&gt;pew&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 97
|c=01| to vomit
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;rûba&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 98
|c=01| to blow&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as wind)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱênta&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;10.aʷ(e)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''81''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;wind&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 99
|c=01| to breathe&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(inhale)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pênŭa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;pneu-&lt;font color=red&gt;''838''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;snee&lt;/font&gt;ze
|-
|i=No| 100
|c=01| to laugh
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭârda&lt;/font&gt;
|}

=to [[Senjecan Swadesh list II]]=</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Swadesh list II</title>
    <id>2664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41036</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-19T00:32:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]
{| border=1
|i=No|  
!c=01|  English
!c=02|  Senȝêĸas&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;*PIE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt; ''Pokorny #''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=03|  Reflex
!c=04|  Senȝêĸas&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;*PIE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt; ''Pokorny #''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=05|  Reflex
!c=06|  Senȝêĸas&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;*PIE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt; ''Pokorny #''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
!c=07|  Reflex
|-
|i=No| 101
|c=01| to see
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôкŭa&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ocu&lt;/font&gt;lar
|-
|i=No| 102
|c=01| to hear
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;cûûla&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;lou&lt;/font&gt;d
|-
|i=No| 103
|c=01| to know&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(a fact)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱîda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʷ(e)di-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1125''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;wit&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 104
|c=01| to think
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mîîna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;3.men-&lt;font color=red&gt;''726''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;min&lt;/font&gt;d
|-
|i=No| 105
|c=01| to smell&lt;br &gt; &lt;small &gt; (sense odor)&lt;/small &gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.od-&lt;font color=red&gt;''772''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;od&lt;/font&gt;or
|-
|i=No| 106
|c=01| to fear
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîða&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 107
|c=01| to sleep
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſûpa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.sʷep-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1048''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sopor&lt;/font&gt;ific
|-
|i=No| 108
|c=01| to live
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;zŭîîȝa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;3.gʷei-&lt;font color=red&gt;''467''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;quick&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 109
|c=01| to die
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;4.mer,5.mer-&lt;font color=red&gt;''735''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;mur&lt;/font&gt;der
|-
|i=No| 110
|c=01| to kill
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôrga&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 111
|c=01| to fight
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćâta&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 112
|c=01| to hunt
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝâϙa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 113
|c=01| to hit
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pââlga&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.plāk-&lt;font color=red&gt;''832''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;fluke&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 114
|c=01| to cut
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêкa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.sē/ĕk-&lt;font color=red&gt;''895''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;bi&lt;font color=red&gt;sec&lt;/font&gt;t
|-
|i=No| 115
|c=01| to split
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кêêpa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 116
|c=01| to stab &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(or stick)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;rêſa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 117
|c=01| to scratch &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(an itch)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mûća&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 118
|c=01| to dig
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vêða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1. bhedh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''113''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;foss&lt;/font&gt;il
|-
|i=No| 119
|c=01| to swim
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭêma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sʷem-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1046''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;swim&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 120
|c=01| to fly
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêêta&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;feath&lt;/font&gt;er
|-
|i=No| 121
|c=01| to walk
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;têrpa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 122
|c=01| to come
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêma&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;gʷā-&lt;font color=red&gt;''463''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;come&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 123
|c=01| to lie &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as on one's side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêȝa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 124
|c=01| to sit
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sed-&lt;font color=red&gt;''884''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sit&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 125
|c=01| to stand
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtââȝa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;stā-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1004''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;st&lt;/font&gt;and
|-
|i=No| 126
|c=01| to turn&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(change direction)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêlca&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 127
|c=01| &lt;font color=blue&gt;to fall&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;phō/ŏl-&lt;font color=red&gt;''851''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as in drop)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;fôôla&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;fall&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 128
|c=01| to give
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dôôna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dō-&lt;font color=red&gt;''223''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;don&lt;/font&gt;or
|-
|i=No| 129
|c=01| &lt;font color=blue&gt;to hold&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(in one's hand)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ghebh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''407''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙâva&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;have&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 130
|c=01| to squeeze
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ûba&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 131
|c=01| to rub
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tîîra&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;3. ter-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1071''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;at&lt;font color=red&gt;tri&lt;/font&gt;tion
|-
|i=No| 132
|c=01| to wash
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;lôɱa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;lou-&lt;font color=red&gt;''692''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;lau&lt;/font&gt;nder
|-
|i=No| 133
|c=01| to wipe
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêrća&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 134
|c=01| to pull
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dûкa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 135
|c=01| to push
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vââta&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 136
|c=01| to throw
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſîmta&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 137
|c=01| to tie
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vênða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;bhendh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''127''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;bind&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 138
|c=01| to sew
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſîɱa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sʲū-&lt;font color=red&gt;''915''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sew&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 139
|c=01| to count
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêmſa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.nem-&lt;font color=red&gt;''763''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;num&lt;/font&gt;ber
|-
|i=No| 140
|c=01| to say
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êêga&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ēg-&lt;font color=red&gt;''290''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;ad&lt;font color=red&gt;age&lt;/font&gt;

|-
|i=No| 141
|c=01| to sing
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſênła&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sengʷh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''906''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sing&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 142
|c=01| to play
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;lêda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;leid-&lt;font color=red&gt;''666''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;pre&lt;font color=red&gt;lude&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 143
|c=01| to float
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кâpa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 144
|c=01| to flow
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dââna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dā-&lt;font color=red&gt;''175''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;Dan&lt;/font&gt;ube
|-
|i=No| 145
|c=01| to freeze
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;peûrſa&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;preus-&lt;font color=red&gt;''846''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;freeze&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 146
|c=01| to swell
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;oîda&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;oid-&lt;font color=red&gt;''774''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ed&lt;/font&gt;ema

|-
|i=No| 147
|c=01| sun
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſûûles&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sāwel-&lt;font color=red&gt;''881''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sol&lt;/font&gt;ar
|-
|i=No| 148
|c=01| moon
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mêênes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;menot-&lt;font color=red&gt;''731''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;moon&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 149
|c=01| star
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtêres&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.ster-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1027''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;star&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 150
|c=01| water
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âɱdes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(flowing)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;9.aʷ(e)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''78''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;wat&lt;/font&gt;er
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êêкŭos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(standing)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;akʷā-&lt;font color=red&gt;''23''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;aequ&lt;/font&gt;eous
|-
|i=No| 151
|c=01| to rain
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêrſa&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 152
|c=01| river
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dâânes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| &lt;font color=red&gt;v. #144&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 153
|c=01| lake
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;eħêros&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;eḡhero-&lt;font color=red&gt;''291''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;Acheron&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 154
|c=01| sea
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;môôres&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;mori&lt;font color=red&gt;''748''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;mar&lt;/font&gt;ine
|-
|i=No| 154a
|c=01| ocean
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tîîrtes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;Trit&lt;/font&gt;on
|-
|i=No| 155
|c=01| salt
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſâlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.sal&lt;font color=red&gt;''878''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sal&lt;/font&gt;t
|-
|i=No| 156
|c=01| stone
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ôndos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 157
|c=01| sand
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſâmþos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sand&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 158
|c=01| dust
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêênſos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 159
|c=01| earth
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êrtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(soil)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;4.er-&lt;font color=red&gt;''332''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;earth&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;êrtes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mother)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 160
|c=01| cloud
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêvlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;enebh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''315''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;nebul&lt;/font&gt;ous
|-
|i=No| 161
|c=01| fog
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nûðos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;nubes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 162
|c=01| sky
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;cemêlos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kam-er-&lt;font color=red&gt;''524''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| German&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;Himmel&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 163
|c=01| wind&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as in breeze)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêêntes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;10. au(e)-&lt;font color=red&gt;''81''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;wind&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 164
|c=01| snow
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſnîłos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(falling)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sneigʷh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''974''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;snow&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кêrnos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(fallen)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 165
|c=01| ice
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêgos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʲeg-&lt;font color=red&gt;''503''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ic&lt;/font&gt;icle
|-
|i=No| 166
|c=01| smoke
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſmûxos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;(s)meukh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''971''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;smoke&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 167
|c=01| fire
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûnes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;peʷōr&lt;font color=red&gt;''828''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;fire&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 168
|c=01| ashes
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кênïos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.ken-&lt;font color=red&gt;''559''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;cin&lt;/font&gt;der
|-
|i=No| 169
|c=01| to burn
|c=0w| &lt;font color=blue&gt;îða&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ai-dh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''11''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ed&lt;/font&gt;ifice
|-
|i=No| 170
|c=01| road
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêȝos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʷegh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1118''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;way&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 171
|c=01| mountain
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭôros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Russian&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;гор&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 172
|c=01| red
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;rûûðis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;reudh-&lt;font color=red&gt;''872''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;red&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 173
|c=01| green
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðâlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dhā/ăl-&lt;font color=red&gt;''234''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;thal&lt;/font&gt;lus
|-
|i=No| 174
|c=01| yellow
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;bâdis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;badʲos&lt;font color=red&gt;''92''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;bay&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 174a
|c=01| blue
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;môðris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;modhro-&lt;font color=red&gt;''747''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;madder&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 174b
|c=01| orange
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vlêêris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;?&lt;font color=red&gt;''?''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 174c
|c=01| purple
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vîſкis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;?&lt;font color=red&gt;''?''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 175
|c=01| white
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(dead)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;albho-&lt;font color=red&gt;''30''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;al&lt;/font&gt;b
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vlêêſis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(shining)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.bhel-&lt;font color=red&gt;''118''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;blea&lt;/font&gt;ch
|-
|i=No| 176
|c=01| black
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кøſnis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(dead)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.kers-&lt;font color=red&gt;''583''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;Krishn&lt;/font&gt;a
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭôrdis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(shining)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sʷordo-s&lt;font color=red&gt;''1052''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;swarth&lt;/font&gt;y
|-
|i=No| 176a
|c=01| brown
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vêêris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(animals)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ver-&lt;font color=red&gt;''136''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;bear&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vêvris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(other)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ver-&lt;font color=red&gt;''136''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;beaver&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 177
|c=01| night
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêкŭas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;nekʷ(t)&lt;font color=red&gt;''762''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;nigh&lt;/font&gt;t
|-
|i=No| 178
|c=01| day
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dîîȝɱas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(daytime)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;dei-&lt;font color=red&gt;''183''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;day&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âmras&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(period of time)&lt;br&gt;&gt;āmer-&lt;font color=red&gt;''35''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;eph&lt;font color=red&gt;emer&lt;/font&gt;al
|-
|i=No| 179
|c=01| year
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêtas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ʷet-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1175''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;weth&lt;/font&gt;er
|-
|i=No| 180
|c=01| warm &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pôlis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 181
|c=01| cold&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ûϙris&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 182
|c=01| full
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pêêlis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.pel&lt;font color=red&gt;''798''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;full&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 183
|c=01| new
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝûûnis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;3.ʲeu&lt;font color=red&gt;''510''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;youn&lt;/font&gt;g
|-
|i=No| 184
|c=01| old
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;tûris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(outmoded)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;źêêris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(elderly)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;ger-&lt;font color=red&gt;''390''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ger&lt;/font&gt;iatrics
|c=06| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſênis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(antique)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;sen(o)&lt;font color=red&gt;''907''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=07| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sen&lt;/font&gt;ile
|-
|i=No| 185
|c=01| good
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;vââdis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;bhād-&lt;font color=red&gt;''106''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;bet&lt;/font&gt;ter
|-
|i=No| 186
|c=01| bad
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âflis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;upo&lt;font color=red&gt;''1106''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ev&lt;/font&gt;il
|-
|i=No| 187
|c=01| rotten&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as a log)
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;pûþmis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.pū/ŭ&lt;font color=red&gt;''848''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;pu&lt;/font&gt;trid
|-
|i=No| 188
|c=01n| dirty
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćûðis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 189
|c=01| straight
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;terênкis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 190
|c=01| round
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêtis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 191
|c=01| sharp&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as a knife)&lt;/small &gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;âćis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.ak-&lt;font color=red&gt;''18''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ac&lt;/font&gt;ute
|-
|i=No| 192
|c=01| dull&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nâćis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 193
|c=01| smooth
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;gêlvis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 194
|c=01| wet
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;mâânis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 195
|c=01| dry&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(adjective)&lt;/small &gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſaûſis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 196
|c=01| right&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(correct)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêêris&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;11.ʷer-&lt;font color=red&gt;''1165''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;ver&lt;/font&gt;y
|-
|i=No| 197
|c=01| near
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nêêɱħis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;nigh&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 198
|c=01| far
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭêlis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;2.kʷel-&lt;font color=red&gt;''640''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;tel&lt;/font&gt;escope
|-
|i=No| 199
|c=01| right&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;dêćis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.dek-&lt;font color=red&gt;''189''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;dex&lt;/font&gt;trous
|-
|i=No| 200
|c=01| left&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;laîɱis&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;laiʷo-&lt;font color=red&gt;''652''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;lev&lt;/font&gt;ulose
|-
|i=No| 201
|c=01| at
|c=0w| &lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(location)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;in&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 202
|c=01| in
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;éna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(location)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;1.en&lt;font color=red&gt;''311''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;in&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 203
|c=01| with&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(accompanying)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſúna&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kom&lt;font color=red&gt;''612''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;sym&lt;/font&gt;phony
|-
|i=No| 204
|c=01| and
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;кái&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Greek&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;και&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| &lt;font color=blue&gt;-кŭe&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(postclitic)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;kʷe&lt;font color=red&gt;''635''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| Latin&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;-que&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 205
|c=01| if
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;da&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(with subj.)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| 206
|c=01| because
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;úći&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| 207
|c=01| name
|c=02| &lt;font color=blue&gt;nôômnos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&gt;en(o)mn-&lt;font color=red&gt;''321''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=03| English&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=red&gt;name&lt;/font&gt;
|-</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Kilda Kelen</title>
    <id>2668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31466</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-19T22:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* On re-reading all your converbs really look like converbs. */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Talk:Kilda Kelen (comment) ==

1) Hi, Panchakahq.
2) I like what you've done to Kilda Kelen so far.
3) I commented on Yahoo! groups &quot;aboriconlangs&quot; and &quot;eastasianconlangs&quot;. 
4) You ought to post an announcement on Yahoo! group &quot;frathwiki&quot; as well.
5) IMO you should consider joining Yahoo! group &quot;altaica&quot;, at least to lurk; and consider posting an announcement there.
6) Have you considered cross-referencing Kilda Kelen in the Conlang Wikia?
7) I'm looking forward to your &quot;Kinship Terms&quot;.  Why not just look up some R.L. ones in the Wikipedia, see how it's done, and then do it more-or-less that way here on Frathwiki?  Then tell the Yahoo! groups what URL to look at.  Worry _later_ about how to e-mail the kinterm-system itself to a Yahoo! group afterward.
8) If &quot;this wasn't as hard as you expected&quot;, that encourages me to attempt further progress on Adpihi and/or Reptigan.  So I'm _really_ looking forward to the kinterms.
-----
eldin

=================================================
Hi, Eldin --
Thanks very much for all the positive feedback, encouragement, and ideas!
- I'm really reluctant to join yet more email lists, when so few have any activity, and when in turn so little of that activity is of much quality. And the &quot;altaica&quot; list (and its cousins and predecessors) has enough cranks without adding conlanging to the mix, IMO -- I'd like to see some forums with some serious, non-wingnut Altaistics discussion ;(
- Good idea about cross-listing or linking in other conlangy wikis; I just don't know which ones are actually lively and trafficked, and keep thinking I'm going to get more material together to post and *then* I'll work on linking and so forth!
- I didn't know that Wikipedia proper has a format set up for presenting kin terms or systems; I'll check that out for sure -- it could save me a lot of headache.
- Looking forward to reading more about Adpihi &amp; Reptigan, myself, in whatever location!

== Aren't participles verbal ''adjectives''? ==

Aren't participles verbal ''adjectives''?
(Though not necessarily all verbal adjectives are participles, FAIK.)

Converbs are usually considered equivalent to gerunds (and vice versa).

Normally the &quot;most important&quot; (whatever that means) verbal noun is called &quot;the (or an) ''infinitive''&quot; IIUC; and other verbal nouns are usually called &quot;''gerunds''&quot;.

If you've got one (or more) important non-finite form(s) of your verbs which is a verbal noun, and distinguish them from gerunds, shouldn't you call (one of) them &quot;infinitives&quot; (especially if in your opinion it's &quot;more important&quot; than the &quot;gerunds&quot;) instead of &quot;participles&quot;?

(Other names for verbal nouns include &quot;masdars&quot;, &quot;supines&quot;, and &quot;verbnouns&quot;.)

-----

If your 'lang allows using adjectives as nouns, then you may be able (and probably are able) to use participles as nouns, too.  In that case your active participle could be used as your agent-nominalization and your passive participle could be used as your passive-nominalization.

What do you think?

(And incidentally I like your most recent update.  Naturally people talk more about what they think you should change than what they think you got just perfect the first try; and I'm a &quot;people&quot;, so I do that too.)

[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 16:13, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

=== Response to Eldin's 16 May 08 comments ===
First, no worries about the nature of your comments; actually I'd much prefer the &quot;what you should change/why did you do it like THAT???&quot; feedback than the &quot;OMG thats liek so cool&quot; kind :) So, thank you very much!

&quot;Adjective&quot; just is a pretty vague and marginally useful category, as Neo-Khitanese parts-of-speech go, so it didn't occur to me to describe these things as &quot;verbal *adjectives*&quot; instead of as nouns/nominals. It's more a matter of &quot;my lang allows using nouns as adjectives&quot; than vice versa -- and, for that matter, there's not really a distinction between &quot;the active participle&quot; and &quot;the passive participle&quot; as such.

I'm honestly not familiar with the term &quot;verbal adjective&quot; in general linguistic literature, but from that position of ignorance, I can't see any reason to prefer &quot;verbal adjective&quot; over &quot;verbal noun&quot; here.

And, frankly, a factor in using &quot;participle&quot; was simply to mimic the terminology used by other (English-language, at least) writers on Mongol/Tungusic languages. I'm well aware it's not pukka terminology, but I sacrificed descriptive perfection to try to simulate real-world documentation of a real-world language :) Though I modernized a *little* bit, and used &quot;converb&quot; instead of &quot;gerund&quot; to distinguish the non-nounish/adjectivish, non-finite verbal forms. I'm reluctant to use the term infinitive, except in scare quotes, because I don't think there's a really good match between any of the NK candidates and other languages' &quot;infinitives&quot;. Maybe the &quot;Purposive Converbs&quot;... but I just can't see much advantage in slapping such a vague label on them.

==== Response to response; recommend &quot;supine&quot;, recommend against &quot;converb&quot;, but your reasons sufficient. ====

&quot;to mimic the terminology used by other (English-language, at least) writers on Mongol/Tungusic languages&quot; is a perfectly sufficient reason to do as you have done.  And so is &quot;to simulate real-world documentation of a real-world language&quot;.

Not all languages have &quot;adjectives&quot; as a separate open class.  Many languages use verbs where other languages would use adjectives; many languages use nouns where other languages would use adjectives.  It appears NK is one of the latter?  (&quot;Polysynthetic&quot; languages seem particularly prone to do without adjectives, I have read.)  Anyway, I've also read objections to distinguishing adjectives from nouns, that say they should really be &quot;adjective nouns&quot; vs &quot;substantive nouns&quot;.

: ''You make a good point here, and I think a lot of the confusion you’re detecting is simply a result of my throwing out snippets onto a webpage without all the context. In my grammatical materials on NK, what I actually use is the term “nominal”, to cover both of “adjective nouns” and “substantive nouns”.  “Words that modify nouns” in NK are for the most part either nominals or “verbal nouns/participles”; there’s only a very small residual class of words that could really be called adjectives and aren’t either nominals or verbal derivations. (“Big”, “little”, etc.) NK isn’t polysynthetic, at least not in the senses of the term I’m familiar with – certainly no more so than Turkish or Japanese. -- K.''
:: I thought that might be, and it does indeed explain everything.  There are languages with a small closed class of &quot;adjectives&quot; (some people don't like to call a class &quot;adjectives&quot; unless it's an open class, but they modify nouns, aren't nouns, and aren't verbs).  It looks like NK is one of them?  Do you have a list of these &quot;adjectives&quot; somewhere?  How many are there?  About a dozen, maybe? Or about as many as English has adpositions or as Korean has light verbs?  It would be interesting to know. --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 17:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

The difference, if there is one, is that adjectives modify noun-phrases.  Many languages have a case for most of their nouns which is adnominal rather than adverbial; the noun in that case is used to modify another noun or noun-phrase, rather than a verb or a clause or some other multi-word constituent than a noun-phrase.  The genitive is probably the most popular name for such a case.  So &quot;allowing nouns to be used as adjectives&quot; is also a pretty popular strategy cross-linguistically, even among languages which do distinguish between nouns and adjectives.

If X is a part of speech, a &quot;verbal X&quot; is an X derived from a verb which still has some of the properties of a verb; for instance, maybe it's able to take an object.  &quot;Verbal nouns&quot; are nouns derived from verbs which still act somewhat like verbs; &quot;verbal adjectives&quot; are adjectives derived from verbs which still act somewhat like verbs.  (In a parallel sense there can be adjectival adverbs, adjectival nouns, adjectival verbs, adverbal adjectives, adverbal nouns, adverbal verbs, nominal adjectives, nominal adverbs, nominal verbs, verbal adverbs.  Some of those won't be very big or very interesting or very common.)  One of the distinctions is between the &quot;verbal adj&quot; and the &quot;deverbal adj&quot;; a &quot;deverbal adj&quot; is also derived from a verb, but may have no verb-like properties. Similarly a &quot;deverbal noun&quot; is a noun derived from a verb, but need not have any verb-like properties.

Participles are usually considered verbal adjectives; they are the only kind of verbal adjective ''of which I am aware'' that frequently occur cross-linguistically.  It is a personal conceit of mine that the category of participle should be based on the meaning &quot;the modified noun was/is/couldbe a participant in the root verb&quot;.  Participles can have tense, aspect, mood, and voice.  An active participle modifies a noun to say that that noun was(or other form of the verb &quot;to be&quot;) an agent of the root verb; a passive participle means that the noun was a patient of the root verb.  In English, active participles tend to end with -ing, and sound and look exactly like present participles and imperfective participles and gerunds (&quot;I am killing&quot;); passive participles tend to end with -ed, and sound and look exactly like past participles and perfective participles (&quot;I am killed&quot;).  

: ''Yes. This is why I’ve accepted the term “participle” for NK, and why other (English-language, at least) writers on related languages generally used the term. I think the only difference of opinion you and I are having is that, because I’m largely rolling “adjective(al)” into the category of “nominal” for NK, I think it’s clearer to think of “participles” as “verbal ‘nouns’” (or “nominals”, if you like) than “verbal ‘adjectives’”. In actual use, their attributive or noun-modifying function is only one of the roles they play. And, as I mentioned, NK doesn't make a rigorous distinction on the level of morphology between active and passive participles; so it's another categorization that's perfectly valid in the abstract but just not very relevant to the matter at hand. -- K.''
:: That all makes sense and explains it all.  These participles are &quot;verbal nominals&quot;, where &quot;nominals&quot; is the class that includes both &quot;substantive nouns&quot; and &quot;adjective nouns&quot;.  It's interesting, though, that NK's participles can inflect for most of the categories finite verbs can inflect for (if I understand correctly what you said below).  That's one of the things that makes them &quot;verbal&quot; instead of &quot;deverbal&quot;.  (Though I think taking participants is the main such thing.)--[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 17:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)


EUROTYP says &quot;converb&quot; and &quot;gerund&quot; might as well be synonyms for the use they make of these terms; but they might not be synonyms when trying to typologize non-European languages.  NK is Northeast Asian, right?

: ''Yep – basically it’s just North Tungusic with funny substrata &amp; adstrata :) -- K.''

&quot;Converb&quot; was first introduced (or so it is my impression; I could be mistaken) to describe the completely morphology-less forms of verbs used in serial verb constructions in many SVC languages; for some serial-verbs, only one of the verbs in the series is inflected for anything, and the others all appear as converbs.  It rather resembles the &quot;construct state&quot; of some Semitic languages, in which the root of the noun appears with as little inflection as possible.  I think the lack of inflection is more important, considered world-wide, than the use as a noun, for purposes of calling something a &quot;converb&quot;; a &quot;converb&quot; is the most non-finite or least finite possible form of a non-finite verb.

While I am personally aware of only one type of verbal adjective that reappears in several languages (to wit &quot;participles&quot;, though inflecting these for aspect mood number polarity tense and voice makes several sub-types), I am aware of several types of verbal nouns.  There are infinitives and gerunds to start with; there are also masdars and supines and gerundives.  Normally the most important kind of verbal noun is called &quot;the infinitive&quot; and the others are all called &quot;gerunds&quot;, but obviouslly there are exceptions; some languages traditionallly have a &quot;first infinitive&quot; and a &quot;second infinitive&quot; and so on, and some have a &quot;first gerund&quot; and a &quot;second gerund&quot; and so on.  I don't know what the customs are regarding &quot;masdars&quot;, but there just aren't a lot of customs regarding &quot;supines&quot;; some grammarians analyzing some languages use &quot;supine&quot; for a type of verbal adverb rather than a type of verbal noun, in particular for a non-finite form of the verb intended to express purpose.  (For instance, &quot;it is good to drink&quot;, in some languages, what English accomplishes with the infinitive &quot;to drink&quot; would be accomplished with a supine instead.)

The term infinitive is never applied to a finite form of the verb.  The infinitive must be missing some of the inflection ordinarily required for the nucleus of a main clause.  Of course what's &quot;ordinarily required&quot; changes from language to language.  But, for preference, if some non-finite forms lack agreement with (some or all) participant(s) (e.g. in number or person or gender), and others instead are &quot;untensed&quot; (lacking, for example, aspect and/or mood and/or polarity and/or tense and/or voice), the term &quot;infinitive&quot; goes to one of the forms specifically lacking agreement.  (This doesn't apply to languages where no verb ever has to agree with any of its participants.)  

In what other ways do you think none of NK's verbal nouns fit the idea of &quot;infinitive&quot;?
: ''Most of them can serve as finite verbs, e.g. as the sole predicate of an utterance; they have TAM and voice marking only slightly reduced from the range of finite verbs in the strict sense – actually, they make ‘more’ tense and aspect distinctions than finite verbs; they usually retain the same arguments as the verbal stems they’re derived from; they’re usually inflected to agree with their subject. From what I understand of SAE linguistic tradition, these are &quot;things infinitives don't do.&quot; -- K.''
:: ''Most of them can serve as finite verbs, e.g. as the sole predicate of an utterance'' -- then those certainly can't be infinitives.
:: ''they have TAM and voice marking only slightly reduced from the range of finite verbs in the strict sense – actually, they make ‘more’ tense and aspect distinctions than finite verbs'' -- I think that constrains against, but does not block, calling them &quot;infinitives&quot;.
:: ''they usually retain the same arguments as the verbal stems they’re derived from'' -- the more they participants they retain, the bigger a constraint against calling them &quot;infinitives&quot;.  If they just retain one that makes them &quot;verbal&quot; rather than &quot;deverbal&quot; nominals, but is probably a non-weighty constraint against being called &quot;infinitives&quot;; if they retain all then that ''is'' a weighty constraint against being called &quot;infinitives&quot;.
:: ''they’re usually inflected to agree with their subject.'' -- To my way of thinking, then, those almost certainly can't be called &quot;infinitives&quot;.  If a form of the verb agrees with all of the participants a finite verb agrees with (assuming a finite verb would have to agree with some), it might as well be &quot;nearly finite&quot; for this purpose; certainly not an &quot;infinitive&quot;.  OTOH I might not be correct about this. --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 17:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

I think your &quot;Purposive Converbs&quot;, or at least &quot;purposive verbal nouns&quot;, could well be called &quot;supines&quot;.  It would fit.  The term &quot;supine&quot; is a bit obscure (not well known), and also a bit vague.  You might want to consider it anyway.

: ''I honestly don't see why. There’s nothing special, morphologically or syntactically, about that one verb form that would seem to merit being singled out. Just because there’s a specialized term available from Greco-Latin linguistics doesn’t mean it’s useful or meaningful to use out that context. In NK, or in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages I know of, for that matter, I don’t see the point of highlighting form X or Y as an “infinitive” or “supine”. It's artificial until proven otherwise :) -- K.''
:: Then don't do it.  I just thought it couldn't hurt; I actually didn't see a benefit myself, except that I thought it would do better than &quot;converb&quot;.  But on looking it over again I decided that &quot;converb&quot; was the better term after all.  As you say; the LORD gives us the language but we make up the metalanguage.  &quot;Infinitive&quot; and &quot;supine&quot; (''especially'' &quot;supine&quot;) are artificial, at least when applied to languages they aren't already traditionally applied to. --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 17:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

I don't know that you really want to call anything a &quot;converb&quot;, unless its for one of the two reasons I mentioned at the top of this response.  Are the things you're calling &quot;converbs&quot; really totally without any verbal morphology -- really bare roots?  If not, or not almost, you might want to consider some other term. ''Edit: your &quot;uninflected converbs&quot; probably should still be called &quot;converbs&quot;.  Maybe your &quot;inflected converbs&quot; should be called something else?''

The term &quot;verbnoun&quot; is frequently used e.g. in discussing Celtic languages.  There are a few other families where it is commonly used.  If a language's verb lexicon consists mostly of &quot;lightverb + contentword&quot; combinations, as e.g. Korean's does, then perhaps the content-word is usually a noun, or very nounlike, and can usually be used as a verbal noun; if so it's likely to be called a &quot;verbnoun&quot;.
[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 19:53, 17 May 2008 (UTC)
: ''That makes sense in its own terms, but again, I don’t see a practical advantage to that term over others; and more importantly, to me it would damage the “emic plausibility” of the NK materials. Introducing technical jargon from Celtic linguistics is kind of a red flag of conlangery :) -- K.''
:: I wasn't really recommending &quot;verbnoun&quot;, I was just mentioning it FYI in case you wanted to consider it.  It looks like you did consider it.  And had good reasons for deciding against it.  
:: BTW it's not ''only'' Celtic languages that term is used to talk about, is it?  Not that I can think of any others at the moment.  --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 17:18, 19 May 2008 (UTC)


===== On re-reading all your converbs really look like converbs. =====

On re-reading all your converbs really look like converbs, because &quot;Switch-reference or different-subject&quot; and &quot;co-reference or same-subject&quot; is the only inflection they take.  

I think, though, it would make better sense to call them &quot;co-referent&quot; vs &quot;switch-reference&quot;, or &quot;same-subject&quot; vs &quot;different-subject&quot;, or some such, rather than &quot;uninflected&quot; vs &quot;inflected&quot;.

At least if you'd done so I wouldn't have been confused; OTOH maybe I'm not typical.
--[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 18:42, 18 May 2008 (UTC)
: ''Well, at very least, you’re more attentive to high-precision nomenclature than I am :)''
:: And maybe more than some professional linguists as well; in other words, maybe too attentive.  Oh, well. --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 16:57, 19 May 2008 (UTC)  
: ''Thanks for your critique; it really has been helpful, and pointed out a lot of sloppiness in my presentation. It's a good reminder to me to clean things up and translate out of my private shorthand, instead of just cutting and pasting from my notes! -- K.''
:: I bet I'm sloppier than you!  Wanna have a contest? --[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 16:57, 19 May 2008 (UTC)

BTW Wikipedia says that what I called co'''n'''verbs should really be called coverbs.

I don't know how to make the link, so I'm going to quote.  I hope this isn't a copyright violation; since this is in the &quot;talk&quot; part, it probably isn't.  I'd make the link instead if I knew how.

:Converb
:From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
:In general linguistics, a converb is a non-finite verb form that serves to express adverbial subordination, i.e. notions like 'when', 'because', 'after', 'while'.
:Converbs are not to be confused with Coverbs.
:The term converb was coined for Mongolian by Ramstedt (1903) and until recently was mostly used by specialists of Mongolic and Turkic languages to describe non-finite verbs that could be used either for coordination or subordination. Nedjalkov &amp; Nedjalkov (1987) first adopted the term for general typological use, followed by Haspelmath &amp; König (1995).
:A converb depends syntactically on another verb form, but is not its argument. It can be an adjunct, i.e. an adverbial, but can neither be the only predicate of a simple sentence, nor clausal argument (i.e. it cannot depend on predicates such as ‘begin’, ‘order’, etc.), nor a nominal argument (i.e. it does not occur in subject and object position) (Nedjalkov 1995: 97).

:Coverb
:From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
:Coverbs is a term of General linguistics most often applied in languages with serial verb construction, but also for complex predicates consisting of two verbs with one of them being an auxiliary verb contributing different kinds of information like modality, direction or aktionsart. It fulfills a similar function as adpositions would in many Indogermanic languages like Dutch or Russian. Coverbs exist in a number of east and south-east Asian languages (e.g. Chinese), as well as west African languages (e.g. Yoruba).
:Coverbs must not be confused with Converbs.

Possibly the Wiki people are confused; possibly the people I thought I was quoting were confused.  (I am deliberately ignoring the high probability that it was ''me'' who was confused.)
--[[User:Eldin raigmore|eldin]] 22:36, 19 May 2008 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Neo-Khitanese</title>
    <id>2669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-25T01:07:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Neo-Khitanese]] moved to [[Kilda Kelen]]: requested move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kilda Kelen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Sectionrewrite</title>
    <id>2670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T17:11:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Spotted typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;messagebox&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CCFFCC;&quot;
|-
| &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;''This section is being rewritten at'' [[{{{1}}}]] &lt;/div&gt;
|}

&lt;noinclude&gt;
   Cf. [[Template:Rewriteof]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Rewrite</title>
    <id>2671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12679</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-25T13:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Borrowed from Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;messagebox&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CCFFCC;&quot;
|-
| &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;''This article is being rewritten at [[{{{1}}}]]
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Melroch/Kijeb cases</title>
    <id>2672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12686</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-25T14:59:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Peripheral cases */  Added list to WP List of grammatical cases</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==== Peripheral cases ====

{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;gridtable&quot;
|+ Kijeb peripheral cases and their origin
|-
! Name !! Marker !! Meaning !! Derived from
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Adessive case|Adessive case]]
| ''-fr(y)u(n)''
| location at/on
| ''fryuŋa-'' 'to stay'
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Inessive case|Inessive case]]
| ''-tfar(n)/-tfra(n)''
| inside 
| ''farŋi'' 'stomach'
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Superessive case|Superessive case]]
| ''-tmru/-tmur''
| on on the surface/above
| ''mrufyu'' 'head'
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Allative case|Allative case]]
| ''-kis/-kris''
| movement to, towards, unto 
| ''kirsya-'' 'to come'
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Ablative case|Ablative case]]
| ''-gyut''
| movement away from 
| ''gjudma-'' 'to go away, leave'
|-
| [[Wikipedia:Sublative case|Sublative case]]
| ''-stat''
| movement onto the surface
| ''azda'' 'lap'
|}

Cf. [[Wikipedia:List of grammatical cases]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lheinead</title>
    <id>2673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19628</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-26T00:48:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Lhined]] moved to [[Lheinead]]: Orthographic changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lhined.jpg]]

NOTE: the map is labeled in an archaic variant of [[Faraneit]] romanization.

Lhined is a continent on which [[Faraneit]] is spoken. Faraneit is spoken in Lescealh, but also in limited sections of Measceineafh, Malaba, Teimeareitah (aka Trovog), and the Kang-Eur plains. For more information see [[Faranit#History_and_Culture]]

The other lingua franca, [[Etimri]] is confined to Teimeareitah and sections of the Measceineafh. Recently, however, it has connected with groups outside of Lheinead, on the continent of Djets (deas in Faranit). The plains also house a potential lingua franca, [[Sezara]], which is increasingly used as a trade language in the east central region of Lheinead.

As visible in the above map, the primary path of the monsoon curves southeast from the equatorial regions on the northern coast. Much of the east coast and the interior are very dry and experience harshly cold winters. The western coast has much more mild and wetter winters from the westerlies coming across the sea. Lescealh is one of the most advantageous regions in the continent from its mild and wet winters mirroring the west but warm and adequetely moist summers like those in the eastern interior.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Lhined.jpg</title>
    <id>2674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12751</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-26T23:00:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">map</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Navesh</title>
    <id>2675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23229</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-12T22:34:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Navesh''' was a general who played a significant role in the establishment of the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]], sometimes called &quot;the Male Empress&quot; for his influence.  He is generally thought to have been the power behind the throne during the creation of the Fourth Empire.

[[Category:Kasshi]]
[[Category:Rulers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aθáta</title>
    <id>2676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40765</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-13T13:39:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cedh audmanh</username>
        <id>313</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Conlang3
| language   = Aθáta
| phonetic   = aˈða.ta
| world      = [[Akana]]
| date       = c. 1000 YP
| place      = Rathedān, &lt;br&gt;Milīr valley
| speakers   = c. 3 million
| script     = adapted &lt;br&gt;Tjakori script
| family     = Edastean &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;Dāiadak &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central Dāiadak &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Aθáta
| word-or    = VSO
| mor-type   = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author     = RHaden
}}
{{Akana}}

'''Aθáta''' is a language of the [[Edastean languages|Edastean family]], spoken in the Rathedān highlands and the Milīr valley to its south around 1000 YP. It is descended from the central dialects of Imperial Adāta. While it maintains many ancestral features, there have also been significant changes in phonology, grammar, and lexicon.

== Genealogy ==
* [http://www.almeopedia.com/index.php/Ndak_Ta Ndak Ta] &lt;small&gt;(c. -1900 YP)&lt;/small&gt;
** [http://www.deinioljones.net/conlangs/adata/adata.htm Adāta] &lt;small&gt;(c. 0-200 YP)&lt;/small&gt;
*** '''Aθáta''' &lt;small&gt;(c. 1000 YP)&lt;/small&gt;

There is some information available on the northernmost dialect of Aθáta, [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php?title=Aθáta/Sawîyaran Sawîyaran].

A descendant of Aθáta itself is [http://www.r0ry.co.uk/E%27at.html E'át].

== Phonology ==

=== Sound Changes ===

The ancestral phonology can be found [http://www.deinioljones.net/conlangs/adata/adata.htm here].  Over the next several centuries, the following sound changes occurred:

# Original '''[h]''' was lost in all positions.
# '''[x]''' weakened to '''[h]''', which was then lost except in initial position.
# In words with initial stress, the rightmost non-initial long vowel attracted the stress, e.g. '''*Ádāta''' &gt; '''*Adâta''' &quot;Aθáta&quot;.
# Aspirated stops lenited to voiceless fricatives: '''[pʰ tʰ kʰ]''' &gt; '''[f θ x]'''.
# Voiced stops lenited to voiced fricatives (perhaps simultaneous with #4): '''[b d g]''' &gt; '''[v ð ɣ]'''.
# Elision of unstressed vowels:
#* Medial unstressed short vowels were elided immediately following a vowel with primary or secondary stress, e.g. '''*dízaka''' &gt; '''*ðíska''' &quot;king&quot;.
#* In disyllabic words with final stress, the first vowel was elided if it is short and preceded by a consonant, e.g. '''*kuthê''' &gt; '''kθê''' &quot;steal&quot;.
# Short and long vowel distinctions were lost in monophthongs.
# Short diphthongs were smoothed to long monophthongs: '''[ai ei oi au eu ou]''' &gt; '''[ē ī ī ō ū ū]'''.
# Long diphthongs were shortened: '''[āi ēi ōi āu ēu ōu]''' &gt; '''[ai ei oi au eu ou]'''.
# Coda stops were aspirated and then merged with the corresponding fricatives, e.g. '''*mékat''' &gt; '''*mékaθ''' &quot;brother&quot;.
# All fricatives came to be pronounced voiceless in initial and final positions, and voiced in medial position (except before a voiceless stop), leading to a formal merger of the voiced and voiceless fricatives.
# Palatalization changes:
#* Velars became palatals next to a front vowel: '''[k x ɣ]''' &gt; '''[c ç ʝ]'''.
#* Dentals became postalveolars before '''[i]''': '''[t s z]''' &gt; '''[tʃ ʃ ʒ]'''.  The affricate then quickly merged with the palatal stop '''[c]'''.

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Phonemes ===

Allophones are marked in brackets.

&lt;br/&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=16 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: 100%; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=1| Labial ||colspan=1| Dental ||colspan=1| Alveolar ||colspan=1| Postalv. ||colspan=1| Palatal ||colspan=1| Velar ||colspan=1| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Plosives || '''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|t}}''' || || || '''{{IPA|c}}''' || '''{{IPA|k}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Fricatives || '''{{IPA|f}}''' || '''{{IPA|θ}}''' || '''{{IPA|s}}''' || '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' || '''[{{IPA|ç}}]''' || '''{{IPA|x}}''' || '''{{IPA|h}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| || '''[{{IPA|v}}]''' || '''[{{IPA|ð}}]''' || '''[{{IPA|z}}]''' || '''[{{IPA|ʒ}}]''' || '''[{{IPA|ʝ}}]''' || '''[{{IPA|ɣ}}]'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Nasals || '''{{IPA|m}}''' || '''{{IPA|n}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Laterals || || '''{{IPA|l}}''' || '''{{IPA|ɾ}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Glides || || || || || '''{{IPA|j}}'''
|}

&lt;br/&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| High || '''{{IPA|i}}''' || '''{{IPA|ī}}''' || || || '''{{IPA|u}}''' || '''{{IPA|ū}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Mid || '''{{IPA|e}}''' || '''{{IPA|ē}}''' || || || '''{{IPA|o}}''' || '''{{IPA|ō}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 100%;&quot;| Low || || || '''{{IPA|a}}''' || '''{{IPA|ā}}'''
|}

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Orthography ===

Aθáta has a slightly different orthography from its parent language.  However, it is almost completely phonemic (meaning one-to-one phoneme correspondence), since the allophones are always predictable.  Only the phoneme '''[c]''' is marked by two different graphemes, '''&lt;c&gt;''' and '''&lt;ti&gt;''', for reasons of etymology.  The main orthographic differences are:

* Use of '''&lt;c&gt;''' instead of '''&lt;k&gt;''' to mark '''{{IPA|/k/}}'''.
* Use of '''&lt;f θ x&gt;''' instead of '''&lt;ph th kh&gt;''', due to those sounds (earlier aspirated stops) becoming fricatives, as mentioned above.
* Lack of '''&lt;h&gt;''', since its corresponding phoneme has long since disappeared.
* Use of '''&lt;si&gt;''' to indicate '''{{IPA|/ʃ/}}'''.
* Word stress, which is not predictable, is always marked.  An acute accent marks stress on a short vowel, while a circumflex marks it on a long vowel or diphthong (in the latter case, always on the second member).

Aside from these changes, the orthography is exactly like Adāta, including the use of macrons to indicate (unstressed) long vowels.

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Pronounciation ===

Here are some simple rules on pronouncing written Aθáta:

* The letters '''&lt;f θ x s&gt;''' are voiceless at the beginning and end of a word.  In the middle of a word, they are voiceless before '''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p t c&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' and voiced otherwise.  Examples: '''&lt;fáfor&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈfa.vɔɾ]}} &quot;strength&quot;, '''&lt;mécaθ&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈme.caθ]}} &quot;brother&quot;, '''&lt;θísca&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈθis.ka]}} &quot;king&quot;, '''&lt;énθa&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈɛn.ða]}} &quot;(to) feel&quot;, '''&lt;xósa&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈxo.za]}} &quot;grove&quot;, '''&lt;láxo&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈla.ɣo]}} &quot;bone&quot;, '''&lt;máθexlax&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈma.ðɛʝ.lax]}} &quot;your (pl.) hearts&quot;, '''&lt;θmôcaix&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈθmō.kaɪç]}} &quot;our city-states&quot;.
* The letters '''&lt;c x&gt;''' are pronounced as palatals when adjacent to a front vowel and as velars otherwise.  Examples: '''&lt;éxa&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈe.ʝa]}} &quot;domesticated animal&quot;, '''&lt;xénu&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈçe.nu]}} &quot;light&quot;, '''&lt;xocé&gt;''' {{IPA|[xo.ˈce]}} &quot;tin&quot;, '''&lt;cálas&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈka.las]}} &quot;borders&quot;, '''&lt;écon&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈe.cɔn]}} &quot;hostile&quot;.
* The letter '''&lt;t&gt;''' is pronounced as {{IPA|[c]}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|[t]}} otherwise.  Likewise, '''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;s&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʃ]}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|[s]}} otherwise (voicing rules apply as above).  Examples: '''&lt;pacátia&gt;''' {{IPA|[pa.ˈka.ca]}} &quot;throne&quot;, '''&lt;túsiax&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈtuʒax]}} &quot;they are eating&quot;, '''&lt;fasa&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈfa.za]}} &quot;staff&quot;, '''&lt;rúlas&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈru.las]}} &quot;foreign&quot;, '''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;síma&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' {{IPA|[ˈʃi.ma]}} &quot;mud&quot;.

&lt;br/&gt;

== Grammar ==

One can expect a language's grammar to change consideribly over five to eight centuries, and Aθáta is no exception.  It has innovated many features that did not exist in its parent tongue, including possessive suffixes on nouns and subject endings on verbs.  For reference purposes, the ancestral Adāta grammar can be found [http://www.deinioljones.net/conlangs/adata/adata.htm#Morphology here].

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Nouns ===

Like its parent language, Aθáta's nouns are largely lacking in grammatical morphology.  However, they do inflect for number (singular and plural) and can also take a possessive pronominal suffix.

==== Pluralization ====

Historically, the plural affix comes from '''*-k''', from the pronominal plural.  In Aθáta, this ending becomes '''-x''' in coda position and '''-c''' otherwise (i.e. when a possessive suffix is added).  For words ending in consonants in the singular, an [a] is inserted between the noun stem and the plural ending.  Also, sometimes the noun stem changes form between the singular and the plural.  Examples:

# Coda vs. non-coda: '''éθcix''' [ˈɛθ.ciç] &quot;mistresses&quot; vs. '''éθcicāx''' [ˈɛθ.ci.cāx] &quot;their mistresses&quot; vs. '''éθcixlax''' [ˈɛθ.cɪʝ.lax] &quot;your (pl.) mistresses&quot;.
# Vowel-stems vs. consonant-stems: '''fθô''' [ˈfθō] &quot;fat&quot;, '''fθôx''' [ˈfθōx] &quot;fats&quot; vs. '''êf''' [ˈēf] &quot;man&quot;, '''êfax''' [ˈē.vax] &quot;men&quot;.
# Alternation vs. non-alternation: '''neré''' [ne.ˈɾe] &quot;woman&quot;, '''neréx''' [ne.ˈɾɛç] &quot;women&quot; vs. '''íθun''' [ˈi.ðʊn] &quot;sea&quot;, '''íθnax''' [ˈɪð.nax] &quot;seas&quot;.

==== Possession ====

Aθáta marks possession on the head instead of the dependent, using suffixes.  A noun marked by a possessive suffix is governed by the following noun.  There are endings for all grammatical persons (first, second, and third) and numbers (singular and plural):

{|
| || Singular || Plural
|-
| First || '''-(a)in''' || '''-(a)ix'''
|-
| Second || '''-(a)θon''' || '''-(a)lax'''
|-
| Third || '''-ān''' || '''-āx'''
|}

For the first-person endings, the [a] is included when the noun ends in a consonant (this includes all plural nouns).  Compare '''caroîn''' [ka.ˈɾoɪn] &quot;my friend&quot; vs. '''carócain''' [ka.ˈɾo.kaɪn] &quot;my friends&quot;.  The second-person endings include the [a] when an illegal consonant cluster would otherwise occur, e.g. '''xírlaθon''' [ˈçɪɾ.la.ðɔn] &quot;your book&quot; for '''*xírlθon'''.  Historically, these possessive suffixes come from the old possessive particle '''*ax''' plus oblique pronouns.  So, for example, '''níθain''' [ˈni.ðaɪn] &quot;my bread&quot; came from earlier '''*níθa ax in''' &quot;bread of me&quot;.

Many words alternate the same way for possessive suffixes that they do for plurals.  Examples: '''cálas''' [ˈka.las] &quot;border&quot; vs. '''cálsax''' [ˈkal.zax] &quot;borders&quot; and '''cálsaix''' [ˈkal.zaɪç] &quot;our border&quot;; '''mécaθ''' [ˈme.caθ] &quot;brother&quot; vs. '''méxθax''' [ˈmɛʝ.ðax] &quot;brothers&quot; and '''méxθacāx''' [ˈmɛʝ.ða.kax] &quot;their brothers&quot;;'''céla''' [ˈce.la] &quot;scribe&quot; and '''célax''' [ˈce.lax] &quot;scribes&quot; vs. '''célcān''' [ˈcɛl.kān] &quot;his scribes&quot;.

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Pronouns ===

The pronouns have undergone significant changes since the parent language.  For one thing, the direct and possessive forms became entirely lost, save in fossilized phrases.  As a result, the oblique forms spread to take their functions.  One of the reasons for this change is the preponderance of prepositional phrases governing the oblique, e.g. '''ilín''' [il.ˈɪn] &quot;to me&quot;, '''ofán''' [o.ˈvan] &quot;on it&quot;, '''aθláx''' [að.ˈlax] &quot;into you (pl)&quot;.  Here are the current pronouns:

{|
| || Singular || Plural
|-
| First || '''in''' || '''ix'''
|-
| Second || '''θon''' || '''lax'''
|-
| Third || '''an''' || '''ax'''
|}

Aθáta is a pro-drop language.  Subject pronouns are rarely expressed overtly, due to verbs' obligatory subject endings.  When they are explicitly given, they serve as emphasis: '''Péθfin-ax în''' [ˈpɛð.vi.nax ˈīn] &quot;''I'' conquered them.&quot;  Notice that, in subject form, the pronouns are always stressed and, being stressed monosyllables, always have a long vowel.

Object pronouns are treated as enclitics.  With verbs, they never carry stress, and thus have short vowels.  As objects of prepositions, however, they are always stressed.  Since the resulting forms always have at least two syllables, the pronouns still have short vowels.

&lt;br/&gt;

=== Verbs ===

Like its parent language, Aθáta verbs distinguish modality, aspect, and valency.  However, the old number distinction has been lost due to the advent of subject endings, which themselves distinguish number.  Aθáta's verb system has therefore been changed somewhat.  Some of the affixes have been lost while others have changed.

==== Valency and Aspect ====

Verbs distinguish three aspects, ''habitual'', ''perfective'', and ''imperfective''; and two voices, ''active'' and ''passive''.  Below are sample aspect/valency paradigms for two verbs, '''áfse''' [ˈav.ze] &quot;sing&quot; and '''sîn''' [ˈʃīn] &quot;live&quot;:

{|
| || Active || Passive
|-
| Habitual || '''áfse''' || '''áfsel'''
|-
| Perfective || '''áfsefe''' || '''afséfe'''
|-
| Imperfective || '''áfsesi''' || '''afsési'''
|}

{|
| || Active || Passive
|-
| Habitual || '''sîn''' || '''símal'''
|-
| Perfective || '''símfe''' || '''simáfe'''
|-
| Imperfective || '''símsi''' || '''simási'''
|}

Additionally, some verbs do not undergo a shift in stress between active and passive, as they were also end-stressed in the active.  These verbs have taken the ending '''-l''' from the habitual passive and regularized it into a purely passive affix.  One such verb is '''fnê''' [ˈfnē] &quot;pray&quot;:

{|
| || Active || Passive
|-
| Habitual || '''fnê''' || '''fnêl'''
|-
| Perfective || '''fnéfe''' || '''fnélfe'''
|-
| Imperfective || '''fnési''' || '''fnélsi'''
|}

Some dialects and registers have spread the so-called &quot;l-extension&quot; to the historically regular verbs, giving rise to such forms as '''simâl''' [ˈʃmāl] &quot;is lived&quot; and '''afsélfe ~ fsélfe''' [av.ˈzɛl.ve ~ ˈfsɛl.ve] &quot;has been sung&quot;.  This trend is becoming more commonplace as time goes on, and will probably become a standard feature of the language in the not-so-distant future.

==== Personal Endings ====

As noted above, verbs in Aθáta also inflect for person and number of the subject.  These subject endings have arisen from oblique pronouns that became encliticized and then attached to the verb:

{|
| || Singular || Plural
|-
| First || '''-in''' || '''-ix'''
|-
| Second || '''-θon''' || '''-lax'''
|-
| Third || '''-an''' || '''-ax'''
|}

Note the similarity to the possessive endings above.  Additionally, a subject ending replaces a final stem vowel when it begins with a vowel, e.g. '''áfsix''' [ˈav.zɪç] &quot;we sing&quot;, '''símfax''' [ˈʃɪm.vax] &quot;they have lived&quot;, and '''fnélsian''' [ˈfnɛl.ʒan] &quot;it is being prayed&quot;.  In the last example, the '''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' remains to indicate the fricative [ʒ] -- otherwise, it would be read as [ˈfnɛl.zan].

==== Moods ====

Aθáta, like its parent language, indicates seven moods -- ''indicative'' (the unmarked form), ''imperative'', ''optative'', ''benefactive'', ''obligative'', ''futilitive'', and ''conditional''.  The morphology of these moods is largely inherited, and all of them are expressed using prefixes.  One important difference lies in the formal merger of the benefactive and old obligative moods, due to the merger of */s/ and */z/.  Additionally, the adoption of subject endings made the imperative prefix redundant as such, since the unmarked stem could now be used.  The old imperative, therefore, came to be used as the new obligative mood.  A table outlining the prefixes follows:

{|
| || colspan=2| Affirmative || colspan=2| Negative
|-
| Indicative || - || - || '''a-''' || '''m-'''
|-
| Imperative || colspan=4| ''= indicative; see below''
|-
| Optative || '''u-''' || '''uc-''' || '''mu-''' || '''muc-'''
|-
| Benefactive || '''s-''' || '''s-''' || '''as-''' || '''as-'''
|-
| Obligative || '''i-''' || '''ic-''' || '''mi-''' || '''mic-'''
|-
| Futilitive || '''ir-''' || '''ir-''' || '''mir-''' || '''mir-'''
|-
| Conditional || '''pu-''' || '''puc-''' || '''apu-''' || '''apuc-'''
|}

The new imperative mood is a special case.  Formally it is the same as the indicative, but it does not use any personal endings, since it applies only to second-person subjects.  Instead, it uses the bare stem (plus aspect/valency) for a singular subject and has an ending '''-θi''' for a plural subject.  This ending comes from the old plural habitual ending '''*-thi'''.  However, both the singular and plural imperative can take an obligative prefix for added emphasis.

&lt;br/&gt;

== Syntax ==

=== Word Order ===

==== Main Clauses ====

Constituent word order is VSO in all main clauses:

'''(M)éθrasi neré níθa.'''
&lt;br&gt;
[ˈɛð.ɾa.ʒi ne.ˈɾe ˈni.ða]
&lt;br&gt;
''The woman is (not) baking the bread.''

==== Adpositional Phrases ====

Generally, adpositional phrases are ordered ''time - manner - place'':

'''Nómvin cáp' ate-nárrol il-Niθsé.'''
&lt;br&gt;
[ˈnɔm.vɪn ˈkap a.te.ˈna.rɔl ɪl.nɪð.ˈze]
&lt;br&gt;
''I went to Niθsé by horse last year.''

== Example Text ==

Under construction. 

For comparison of this text in related languages see the AkanaWiki [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php/Tsinakan_text Tsinakan text article].


'''Áfsian sif Síncan, θíscesor, θíscān Câθlas, méxθāx Sáma 'n Θálo:  Ílnu ápin of-pacátiān mésein, ése θísclas rúlas ir écon ilín.  Áffax sif θísclasax rúlsax cássax: &quot;Θísca prâ mésān.  Irofífan ófa θísclas cáran.  On táfan iu naca.  Θal ân ápienān of-pacátiān mésān sási iu θéfi.&quot;'''

'''Óla méxθāx Sáma 'n Θálo ápin of-pacátiān mésein, ílnu nómfin aθ-θísclasax rúlsax áθienāx écon ilín, snómfin il-sáticān Ofê.  Smisáxfin-ax on áfpafin tónain il-mína mála.  Áffin sif: &quot;Éθcīn, xénāx sêx, ufómfanax-in, θísclasax cássax páfsienāx ilín iu θéfi.  On sátax pásān cálsān lasθóθnaθon, éθcīn!  Íenspa aθóθnax!&quot;'''

'''Ráθfan Ofê lesécān mávain.  Úlfan-in on sáffan fáfor il-ítianain.  Péθfin-ax ate-lâθāx céro múcienāx-in.  Péθfin-ax.  Áfiefin ófa iatí, fû, on hára, on pléfin-ax il-Câθlas.'''


''Sinakan, the great king, the king of the land of Kāxad, brother of the sun and the moon, spoke thus:''

''Before I sat on the throne of my father, alas! all the foreign countries were hostile towards me. The nearby foreign countries spoke thus: &quot;His father was a brave king. Alas! he conquered many enemy countries. And he became a god. But luckily, he who sits on the throne of his father is a child.&quot;''

''When I, brother of the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, before I went to the foreign countries which were being hostile towards me, happily I went to the feasts of Ophai. I celebrated them to my benefit, and I rose my hand to the shining mother. I spoke thus: &quot;My mistress, light of the stars, the nearby countries who name me a child belittle me. And they begin to attack the border of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathens down!&quot;''

''Ophai heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and she gave strength to my arm. I conquered those who rose against me in ten years. I conquered them. I captured many prisoners, oxen, and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kāxad.''


=== Interlinear ===

{|
|- align=left
! Áfi-si-an || sif || Síncan || θísca=ésor || θísca-ān || Câθ=lâs || mécaθ-āx || Sáma || on || Θálo:
|-
| speak-IMP-3SG || thus || Sinakan || king=great || king-3SG || Kāxad=land || brother-3PL || Sun || and || Moon
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Ílnu || ápe-in || of- || pacátia-ān || mése-ain || éze || θísclas || rúlas || ir || écon || il-ín.
|-
| before || sit-HAB-1SG || on || throne-3SG || father-1SG || all || country || foreign || be-PERF || hostile || to-1SG
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Áfi-fe-ax || sif || θísclas-ax || rúlas-ax || cásus-ax: || &quot;Θísca || prâ || mése-ān. || Ir-ofí-fe-an || ófa || θísclas || káran.
|-
| speak-PERF-3PL || thus || country-PL || foreign-PL || nearby-PL || king || brave || father-3SG || FUT-defeat-PERF-3SG || many || country || enemy
|}

{|
|- align=left
! On || tâ-fe-an || iu || naca. || Θal || ân || ápe-ien-ān || of-|| pacátia-ān || mése-ān || sási || iu || θéfi.&quot;
|-
| and || become-PERF-3SG || like || god || but || he || sit-GER-3SG || on || throne-3SG || father-3SG || be-IMP || like || child
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Óla || mécaθ-āx || Sáma || 'n || Θálo || ápe-in || of- || pacátia-ān || mése-ain,
|-
| before || brother-3PL || Sun || and || Moon || sit-1SG || on || throne-3SG || father-1SG
|}

{|
|- align=left
! ílnu || nón-fe-in || aθ- || θísclas-ax || rúlas-ax || áθe-ien-āx || écon || il-ín,
|-
| before || go-PERF-1SG || into || country-PL || foreign-PL || be-GER-3PL || hostile || to-1SG
|}

{|
|- align=left
! s-nón-fe-in || il- || sáti-c-ān || Ofê. || S-misáko-fe-in-ax || on || áfpa-fe-in || tón-ain || il- || mína || mála.
|-
| BEN-go-PERF-1SG || to || feast-PL-3SG || Ophai || BEN-celebrate-PERF-1SG-3PL || and || raise-PERF-1SG || hand-1SG || to || mother || shining
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Áfi-fe-in || sif: || &quot;Éθci-ain, || xénu-āx || sê-x, || ufómfan-ax-in, || θísclas-ax || cásus-ax || páfs-ien-āx || il-ín || iu || θéfi.
|-
| speak-PERF-1SG || thus || mistress-1SG || light-3PL || star-PL || belittle-3PL-1SG || country-PL || nearby-PL || name-GER-3PL || to-1SG || as || child
|}

{|
|- align=left
! On || sáte-ax || páso-ān || cálas-ān || lâs=θótin-aθon, || éθci-ain! || Í-enspa || aθótin-ax!&quot;
|-
| and || begin-3PL || attack-3SG || border-3SG || land=holy-2SG || mistress-1SG || EMPH-strike-IMP || heathen-PL
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Ráθo-fe-an || Ofê || lesé-c-ān || máva-ain. || Úl-fe-an-in || on || sáfi-fe-an || fáfor || il- || ítian-ain.
|-
| hear-PERF-3SG || Ophai || word-PL-3SG || mouth-1SG || rise-PERF-3SG-1SG || and || give-PERF-3SG || strength || to || arm-1SG
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Péθa-fe-in-ax || ate- || lâθ-āx || céro || múc-ien-āx-in. || Péθa-fe-in-ax.
|-
| defeat-PERF-1SG-3PL || with || year-3PL || ten || protest-GER-3PL-1SG || defeat-PERF-1SG-3PL
|}

{|
|- align=left
! Áfie-fe-in || ófa || iatí, || fû, || on || hára, || on || plé-fe-in-ax || il- || Câθ=lâs.
|-
| capture-PERF-1SG || many || prisoner || ox || and || sheep || and || send-PERF-1SG-3PL || to || Kâxad-land
|}


=== Pronounciation ===

Under construction.

[ˈav.ʒan ʃɪf ˈʃɪŋ.kan ˈθɪʃ.ce.zɔɾ ˈθɪs.kān ˈkāð.las ˈmeʝ.ðāx ˈsa.man ˈθa.lo | ˈɪl.nu ˈa.pɪn ɔf.pa.ˈka.cān ˈme.zeɪn ˈe.ze ˈθɪs.klas ˈɾu.las ɪɾ ˈe.cɔn il.ˈɪn | ˈav.vax ʃɪf ˈθɪs.kla.sax ˈɾʊl.zax ˈkaz.zax | ˈθɪs.ka ˈpɾā ˈme.zān | i.ɾo.ˈvi.van ˈo.va ˈθɪs.klas ˈka.ran | ɔn ˈta.van ju ˈna.ka | θal ˈān ˈa.pje.nān ɔf.pa.ˈka.cān ˈme.zān ˈsa.ʒi ju ˈθe.vi]


=== Lexicon ===

* ''An [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php/A%CE%B8%C3%A1ta/Lexicon expanded lexicon of Aθáta] has been compiled by [[User:Cedh audmanh|cedh audmanh]].''

{|
| Aθáta || English
|-
| '''áfie''' || capture
|-
| '''áfpa''' || raise
|-
| '''áfi''' || speak
|-
| '''ápe''' || sit
|-
| '''ate-''' || with
|-
| '''aθ-''' || into
|-
| '''áθe''' || be
|-
| '''aθótin''' || unholy
|-
| '''cálas''' || border
|-
| '''cáran''' || enemy
|-
| '''cásus''' || nearby
|-
| '''céro''' || ten
|-
| '''écon''' || hostile
|-
| '''énspa''' || strike
|-
| '''ése''' || all
|-
| '''éθci''' || mistress
|-
| '''fáfor''' || strength
|-
| '''fû''' || ox
|-
| '''hára''' || sheep
|-
| '''iatí''' || prisoner
|-
| '''il-''' || to
|-
| '''ílnu''' || before
|-
| '''ítian''' || arm
|-
| '''iu''' || as
|-
| '''lâs''' || land
|-
| '''lâθ''' || year
|-
| '''lesé''' || word
|-
| '''máfa''' || mouth
|-
| '''mála''' || shining
|-
| '''mécaθ''' || brother
|-
| '''mése''' || father
|-
| '''mína''' || mother
|-
| '''misáko''' || celebrate
|-
| '''múce''' || protest
|-
| '''naca''' || god
|-
| '''nôn''' || go
|-
| '''of-''' || on
|-
| '''ófa''' || many
|-
| '''ofí''' || conquer
|-
| '''óla''' || when
|-
| '''on''' || and
|-
| '''pacátia''' || throne
|-
| '''páfsa''' || name
|-
| '''páso''' || attack
|-
| '''péθa''' || defeat
|-
| '''plê''' || send
|-
| '''prâ''' || brave
|-
| '''ráθo''' || hear
|-
| '''rúlas''' || foreign
|-
| '''sáfi''' || give
|-
| '''sáma''' || sun
|-
| '''sáte''' || begin
|-
| '''sáti''' || feast
|-
| '''sê''' || star
|-
| '''sif''' || thus
|-
| '''tâ''' || become
|-
| '''tôn''' || hand
|-
| '''θal''' || but, however
|-
| '''θálo''' || moon
|-
| '''θéfi''' || child
|-
| '''θísca''' || king
|-
| '''θíscesor''' || great-king
|-
| '''θísclas''' || kingdom
|-
| '''θótin''' || holy
|-
| '''ufómfan''' || belittle
|-
| '''úla''' || rise
|-
| '''xénu''' || light
|}

== See also ==

* [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php/A%CE%B8%C3%A1ta/Lexicon Expanded Aθáta lexicon]
* [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php?title=Aθáta/Sawîyaran Sawîyaran] - a short sketch of the northernmost dialect of Aθáta.
* [[Edastean languages]]
* [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana The AkanaWiki]

[[Category:Akana]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athata</title>
    <id>2677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>12811</id>
      <timestamp>2006-08-28T22:27:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RHaden</username>
        <id>164</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aθáta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Kuroda</title>
    <id>2678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-09T14:58:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eldin raigmore</username>
        <id>127</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* I was able to add a comment there just now.  */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I wanted to say something on &quot;Talk:Kilda Kelen&quot;.
Apparently I can't do that.
Should I be able to?
If so, what should be done so that I can?
If not, what should I do instead?
-----
eldin


I still don't have an answer to this -- I don't know why it's not working. If I can find out, I'll let you know here. Sorry!
-----
K.


I was able to add a comment there just now.  So for at least this moment, and for at least that page, and for at least me, it seems to be working now.

Thanks.
-------
eldin</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OT2.0</title>
    <id>2679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34358</id>
      <timestamp>2008-07-23T09:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Kulahen */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An eclectic language created from texts from the ''Teach Yourself'' language books, originally produced by the English Universities Press, latterly by Hodder and Stoughton.

The guiding principle was to take foreign language words from the contents pages of each grammar and use them as the basis of an imaginary language.  Also used were irregularities affecting verbs and nouns, etc., and descriptions of courtesy language (notably, Japanese, Samoan and Modern Persian).

The language creator is Andrew Smith.

Details of the language speakers and culture are speculative as yet.  One name I have for this language is 'the language of the ghost people' or 'ghostian', suggesting that the speakers are perceived as a fair-skinned race by outsiders.

= Pronunciation =

Consonants:

{|
|| ||labial||dental||alveolar||postalveolar||palatal||velar||glottal
|-
||unvoicedstops||p||t|| || || ||k|| 
|-
||voiced stops||b||d|| || || ||g|| 
|-
||affricates|| || || ||tʃ|| || || 
|-
||unvoiced fricatives||f|| ||s||ʃ|| || || 
|-
||voiced fricatives||v|| || || || || ||h
|-
||nasals||m||n|| || || ||ŋ||
|-
||lateral|| || ||l|| || || || 
|-
||approximant|| || ||ɹ|| || 
|-
||semivowels||w|| || || || j|| || 
|}

Vowels:

OT2.0 has the vowels /i ɪ e ɛ a ʉ ʊ ɔ ɑ/.  '''i, e, ʉ''' are always long and are written with a circumflex.  '''a''' can be long or short and is written with an accent.  '''ɔ''' is considered as a long '''ɑ''' and also written with an accent.

Orthography:

In the latin alphabet:
 '''a b ch d e f g h i k l m n ng o p r s sh t u v w y'''
The 'original' conscript for OT2.0 is as yet unknown.

=Grammar=

== Infinitive/Verbal Noun ==

The infinitive generally ends with ''-ant''.  It is alternative uses to being the infinitive form of the verb.  The language also uses it as a verbal noun: a word ending in '-ing' or in '-ation'; and as an adjective derived from verbs.

A number of verbs derived from nouns exist only as verbal nouns; as do causative verbs derived from other verbs.  In such cases tense and person are described peripherally from the verb.  More information will be released as a better understanding on how they work emerges.

==''Wohant'', to be, being ==

The present tense of 'to be' is as follows:

{|
|''me mi''||I am||''meme en''||we are
|-
|''te si''||you (sg) are||''tete ti''||you (pl) are
|-
|''ta ti''||he is||''ga en (ti)''||they are
|}

The pronouns for 'she' and 'it' are ''da'' and ''ten'' respectively.  If the subject is a plural noun, the verb form is ''ti'' rather than ''en''.

In old high literature the forms of the verb for 'we are' and 'they are' are ''emo'' and ''eno''.  These forms are not used in the spoken language.

The past tense of 'to be' is

{|
|''me wora''||I was||''meme woren''||we were
|-
|''te woret''||you (sg) were||''tete woret''||you (pl) were
|-
|''ta woret''||he was||''ga woren (woret)''||they were
|}

The past tense of 'to be' translates both 'I have been' and 'I was'  It can also acts as an auxiliary.

The negative verb marker is a clitic.  After a consonant it is ''shim'', after a vowel ''him''.  In a subordinate clause it becomes an independent adverb and moves to in front of the verb.

{|
|''me ve tehim''||I was not||''meme ve enshim''||we were not
|}

As an independent word ''shim, shidim'' means 'nothing'.

The future tense of 'to be' is 
{|
|''me ve bude''||I will be||''meme ve budun''||we will be
|-
|''te ve bud''||you (sg) will be||''tete ve bud''||you (pl) will be
|-
|''ta ve bud''||he will be||''ga ve budun (bud)''||they will be
|}

''Ve'' is described as a non-present participle that is placed between the subject and a past or future verb.  It is not used with ''wora'', but it is used with ''bud''


The imperative is ''wohú''.  This is considered abrupt and only used as a command.

With adjectives &lt;i&gt;mi&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;wora&lt;/i&gt; describes a temporary or accidental situation, and &lt;i&gt;deide mi&lt;/i&gt; and &lt;i&gt;deide wora&lt;/i&gt; describes a more permanent or general situation.

==''A'nt'', to have, auxiliary verb==
''A'nt'' is used to mean 'to have (done something)'.  It is not used to mean 'to have, possess or hold'.  In this sense the language prefers to use a prepositional phrase.

Present tense:

{|
|''me a'''||I have||''meme a'n''||we have
|-
|''te aft''||you (sg.) have||''tete aft''||you (pl.) have
|-
|''ta aft''||he has||''ga a'n (aft)''||they have
|}

In the old high language the contracted forms insert a ''-b-'': ''me ab'', ''meme/ga aben'', ''abant''.  This has dropped out of the modern language.

Past tense:

{|
|''me ve yed''||I had||''meme ve yeden''||we have
|-
|''te ve yed''||you (sg.) had||''tete ve yed''||you (pl.) had
|-
|''ta ve yede''||he had||''ga ve yeden (ve yed)''||they had
|}

''A'nt'' is not used with reflexive verbs or verbs of motion.  Instead these verbs use the verbal noun, combined with the forms of ''wohant'' to indicate the number and the tense.

==Future Auxiliary==

The modal auxiliaries ''kal'' and ''wol'' are used with the verbal noun.  ''Kal'', shall, be going to, is ...ing, is used with the first person, and ''wol'', will, be willing, want, like, wish, with the second, although this is not rigid.

{|
|''me ve kal''||I shall||''meme ve kalen''||we shall
|-
|''te ve wolt''||you (sg.) will||''tete ve wolt''||you (pl.) will
|-
|''ta ve wolt''||he will||''ga ve wolen||they will
|}

If the verbal noun is a verb of motion it can be dropped if the direction is indicated by an adverb or a preposition.  The present tense can be used for future action, especially if it is marked by an adverb of time.  ''Dyant'' or ''kal/wol dyant'', will become, can also replace ''bud'' in which case it portends an unchanging state (will always be...).  ''Dyant'' cannot replace ''kal/wol aryant'', to be (in a place).

==''Yirant'', to go (by foot)==

Present tense:

{|
|'' me yire''||I go||''meme yirun''||we go
|-
|''te yir''||you (sg.) go||''tete yir''||you (pl.) go
|-
|''ta yir''||he goes||''ga yirun''
|}

The past tense is irregular (there must be a story behind that):

{|
|''me ve sefa''||I went||''meme ve seften''||we went
|-
|''te ve seft''||you (sg.) went||''tete ve seft''||you (pl.) went
|-
|''ta ve sefte''||he goes||''ga ve seften''||they went
|}

Similar to ''Yirant'' is the verb ''yerant'', to go (by vehicle), present tense:

{|
|''me yere''||I go||''meme yerun''||we go
|-
|''te yer''||you (sg.) go||''tete yer''||you (pl.) go
|-
|''ta yer''||he goes||''ga yerun''||they go
|}

''Yerant'' uses the same ending in the past tense as in the present:

{|
|''me ve yerte''||I went||''meme ve yerten''||we went
|-
|''te ve yerte''||you (sg.) went||''tete ve yerte''||you (pl.) went
|-
|''ta ve yerte''||he went||''ga ve yerten''||they went
|}

Completed action with these verbs are made by combining the verbal noun with ''wohant'', to be: ''me mi yirant'', I have gone (on foot); ''ga worun yerant'', they had gone (by vehicle).

==''Kulahant''==

Literally this is a polite word meaning 'to beg'.  The phrase ''me kulas'' is used widely to mean 'I beg (you)', 'please' and 'please don't mention it, you are welcome'.  With the imperative ending it becomes a polite way of phrasing a command: ''kulahú yirant'', (please) go.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Ebilein</title>
    <id>2680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40284</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-28T19:41:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ebilein</username>
        <id>219</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The &quot;Cursed Relay&quot;: [[Æðadĕ]]

[[Proto-Thesomalchellean]]

My little pet: [[Thesome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Æðadĕ</title>
    <id>2681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38127</id>
      <timestamp>2008-09-23T15:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cedh audmanh</username>
        <id>313</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>link to extended lexicon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Conlang3
| language   = Æðadĕ
| phonetic   = ˈæ.ða.də
| world      = [[Akana]]
| date       = c. 1000 YP
| place      = Lasomo
| speakers   = c. 2 million
| script     = adapted &lt;br&gt;Ŋauro script
| family     = Edastean &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;Dāiadak &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern Dāiadak &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Æðadĕ
| word-or    = SVO
| mor-type   = fusional
| morphalign = NOM-ACC
| author     = ebilein
}}
{{Akana}}

Æðadĕ [ˈæ.ða.də] is, just like [http://www.geocities.com/low_zl/ayasth/ayasth.html Ayasth] and [[Aθáta]], a descendant of the earlier [http://www.deinioljones.net/conlangs/adata/adata.htm Adāta] language developed by Deiniol Jones (aka Dewrad). It was created for the &quot;Derivation Relay&quot; in August 2006 at the zompist board by Daniel Ebner (aka ebilein).

A daughter-language of Æðadĕ itself is [http://www.tundria.com/Zompist/Yad-1.shtml Yād].

== Phonology ==

=== Phonemes ===

Here follows the consonant inventory:

{|
|
| Labial
| Dental
| Alveolar
| Velar
| Glottal
|-
| Plosive
| pʰ b
| tʰ d
|
| kʰ ɡ
|-
| Fricative
| ɸ β
| θ ð
| s z
| x
| h
|-
| Nasal
| m
| n
|
|
|-
| Lateral
|
| l
| ɾ
|
|-
| Semivowel
| w
|
| j
|
|}

The aspirated voiceless stops are usually pronounced without aspiration after another consonant.

The Vowel Inventory is as follows:

{|
|
| Front
| Central
| Back
|-
| High
| i iː
|
| u uː
|-
| Mid High
| e eː
| ə
| ɔ ɔː
|-
| Mid Low
| æ
|
|-
| Low
| a aː
|}


=== Orthography ===

'''ɸ''' and '''β''' are represented with '''f''' and '''v''', '''θ''' with '''þ'''. Aspirated stops are written without a following '''h''': '''p''' /pʰ/, '''t''' /tʰ/, '''k''' /kʰ/.

Sometimes (especially preceding another consonant) the voiceless stops are pronounced without aspiration.

Long Vowels are marked with a makron: ī, ē, ā, ō, ū; ə is represented by ĕ.

=== Sound Changes from Adāta ===

# i &gt; j / _V: iarioba &gt; jarjoba, hānedia &gt; hānedja
# a, e &gt; ə / unstressed: abesa &gt; abəsə, lōzera &gt; lōzərə
# b, d, g &gt; β, ð, ɣ: jabə &gt; jaβə, Adātə &gt; Aðātə, gamun &gt; ɣamun
# ə &gt; nil / following or preceding a stressed syllable and always wordfinal, but never initial or after another vowel or halfvowel: aβən &gt; aβn, ēəβ &gt; ēəβ; Exception: pəpō, zəzāk, hápəβ and, curiously, Aðātə remain
# Two geminate consonants following each other are simplified to one: azz &gt; az
# ls &gt; lz: lsō &gt; lzō
# n, l, r &gt; ṇ, ḷ, ṛ / final and preceded by a consonant: aln &gt; alṇ, khīrl &gt; khīrḷ, lōzr &gt; lōzṛ
# p(h), t(h), k(h) &gt; ɸ, þ, x / _C (but not if preceding /j/): áplo &gt; áɸlo, záthṇ &gt; záþṇ
# regressive assimilation: áβs &gt; áɸs, ásð &gt; ázð, átzən &gt; ádzən, ðiézk &gt; ðiésk
# ai, ei, oi, au, eu &gt; aj, ej, oj, aw, ew: eul &gt; ewl, dei &gt; dej
# á, é, í, ó, ú &gt; ǽ, ié, í, ú, ué: Ádātə &gt; Ǽðātə
# ué, ié &gt; wé, jé
# Stress shifts to initial syllable
# ə &gt; a / stressed: əpjāp &gt; apjāp
# p, t, k &gt; b, d, g / initial, V_V or final after a vowel: ǽk &gt; ǽg
# Unstressed long vowels are shortened: abjāb &gt; abjab
# lz &gt; ḷz / wordinitial: lzō &gt; ḷzō
# ɣ &gt; h / initial: ɣǽmun &gt; hǽmun 
# ɣ &gt; x: zūlɣ &gt; zūlx

== Grammar ==

=== Nominal Morphology ===

==== Plural ====

The '''Plural''' is formed by the prefix '''op-''' (&lt; Adāta &quot;opha&quot;, many), which becomes '''ov-''' before voiced stops or fricatives and '''of-''' before voiceless stops, fricatives, laterals and nasals. Additionally, long vowels are shortened because stress shifts to the initial syllable. Remember also that aspirated initial consonants are spoken without aspiration as soon as the prefix is added.

Pluralisation is not required if the noun is preceeded by such words as '''iz''' ''every'' or '''næm''' ''some''.

Examples:
* '''tālo''' ''moon'', '''oftalo''' ''moons''
* '''ðjesk''' ''king'', '''ovðjesk''' ''kings''
* '''iþki''' ''mistress'', '''opiþki''' ''mistresses''
* '''jādi''' ''prisoner'', '''opjadi''' ''prisoners''

==== Possession ====

Æðadĕ, unlike Adāta but very much like its sister languages Ayasth and Aθáta, marks possession with suffixes rather than independant words.

{|
|
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! 1
| -aj
| -ajg
|-
! 2
| -aðo
| -alaw
|-
! 3
| -ag
| -aga
|}

The following changes occur: wordfinal '''e''' and '''i''' &gt; '''j''', wordfinal '''o''' and '''u''' &gt; '''w''' and wordfinal '''a''' vanishes.

Examples:
* '''ðjesk''' ''king'', '''ðjeskajg''' ''our king''
* '''iþki''' ''mistress'', '''iþkjaj''' ''my mistress''
* '''iðo''' ''noble man'', '''iðwaðo''' ''your noble man''
* '''aðuna''' ''girl'', '''aðunalaw''' ''your girl''


==== Adjectives ====

Adjectives follow the noun they describe ('''ðjeskaj bira''' ''my brave king''), but they do not change for number ('''ovðjeskaj bira''' ''my brave kings''). A Comparative can be formed by suffixing '''-nez''' (or '''-ez''' if the adjective ends in a non-syllabic n), a Superlative by suffixing '''-jal''' (Adāta &quot;ial&quot;, very).

Examples:
* '''bira''', '''biranez''', '''birajal''' - ''brave, braver, bravest''
* '''tērn̩''', '''tērn̩nez''', '''tērn̩jal''' - ''beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful''
* '''ðōdin''', '''ðōdinez''', '''ðōdinjal''' - ''holy, holier, holiest''

For emphasis it is also possible to add '''jæl''' ''very'' in front of the Superlative. Remember, though, that jæl is never used before the comparative.

Example: '''ðjesk (jæl) birajal''' ''the bravest king''


==== Subject Marker -ro ====

The Subject Marker suffix '''ro''' is suffixed to the last part of the noun phrase, but never to appositional nouns or relative phrases. It is also not used if the sentence is negated (obviously Æðadean speakers thought if it did not happen, why bother to mark the Subject?).

Examples:
* '''ðjesk''' ''king'', '''ðjeskro''' ''king''
* '''iþkjaj''' ''my mistress'', '''iþkjajro''' ''my mistress''
* '''aðunalaw jæl tērn̩jal''' ''your most beautiful girl'', '''aðunalaw jæl tērn̩jalro''' ''your most beautiful girl''
* '''Sjenkĕn, ðjesk xizor''' ''Sjenken, the great king'', '''Sjenkĕnro, ðjesk xizor''' ''Sjenken, the great king''


==== Adverbs ====

Adverbs precede the verb they modify and are not marked otherwise.

Compare:
* '''jero ''ōvo'' nun''' ''I went'' happily
* '''je ōvoro nun''' ''I, the happy one, went''


==== Demonstratives and Quantifiers ====

Æðadĕ lost Adāta's three-way deixis of demonstratives and simplified it to a two-way distinction: this and that.

* '''zē''' Pl. '''zāg''' - ''this, these''
* '''sje''' Pl. '''sjeg''' - ''that, those''

Here follows a list of Quantifiers:

* '''næm''' ''some''
* '''iz''' ''all''
* '''ur''' ''every, each''

Both Demonstratives and Quantifiers precede the noun they modify; if the noun is preceded by a demonstrative or quantifier, the plural prefix oph- is optional and usually omitted.

Examples:
* '''zāg (ov)ðjesk''' ''these kings''
* '''næm (oph)aðuna''' ''some girls''


==== Numerals ====

{|
|
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
! x10
|-
! 1
| gi
| lugi
| ru
|-
! 2
| jæ
| lujæ
| jæro
|-
! 3
| zō
| luzo
| zōro
|-
! 4
| vwe
| luvwe
| vwero
|-
! 5
| ðō
| luðo
| ðōro
|-
! 6
| is
| luzis
| ēro
|-
! 7
| mæn
| lumæn
| māro
|-
! 8
| hweð
| lūð
| hweðro
|-
! 9
| njel
| lunjel
| nīro
|-
! 10
| ru
| luru
| jepi
|}

Like in Finnish or Vulgar Latin, the numeral 1 may indicate indefinity: '''ðjesk gi''' ''a king, some king''. As can be seen from the example, numerals follow the noun they modify. All numerals usually go with the Singular of the noun, although plural is acceptable (though very uncommon) beginning with numeral two.

Higher numbers are combined with '''un''' ''and'', beginning with hundreds, tens and finally one-digits.

Examples:
* 15: '''ru un ðō'''
* 32: '''zōro un jæ'''
* 86: '''hweðro un is'''
* 152: '''jepi un ðōro un jæ'''


==== Personal Pronouns ====

{|
|
! Normal
! Subjective
! Oblique
! Vocative
|-
! 1 sg
| je
| jero
| jen
| æxin
|-
! 2 sg
| ðo
| ðoro
| ðon
| æxðon
|-
! 3 sg
| æ
| æro
| æn
| æxan
|-
! 1 pl
| jeg
| jexro
| īn**
| æxi
|-
! 2 pl
| ðog*
| ðoxro*
| lākon**
| æxlako
|-
! 3 pl
| æg
| æxro
| ān**
| æxa
|}

(*) The analogically formed 2nd person forms from singular ðo replaced the original &quot;lākhok&quot;, &quot;lākhok ro&quot; which would have resulted in lākog, lākoxro.

(**) The plural oblique forms would originally have developed without the final &quot;n&quot;; it was, however, placed there due to analogy with the singular.

The Vocative forms are used as possessive pronouns in combination with the possessive suffixes if someone is adressed. They are not usually used to indicate mere possession. 

Example: '''iþki!''' ''oh mistress'', '''iþkjaj æxin!''' ''oh my mistress!''

=== Verbal Morphology ===

Compared to Adāta's verbal system, Æðadĕ has changed a lot. The habitual aspect was lost, as well as some moods. All in all, Æðadĕ tends to be a '''tense-language''' rather than an aspect-language. The following chart shows how the tenses developed from Adāta's aspects:

{|
|
! Past
! Present
! Future
|-
! Indicative
| Ind. Perfective
| Ind. Imperfective
| Opt. Imperfective
|-
! Imperative
|
| Imp. Imperfective
|
|-
! Optative
| Opt. Perfective
| Opt. Imperfective
| Paraphrased
|-
! Obligative
| Oblig. Perfective
| Oblig. Imperfective
| Paraphrased
|}

Verbs are usually given in the Indicative Present Pl, which is the least inflected form. E.g. '''ævi''' ''say'', '''zjema''' ''live'', '''hæva''' ''drink''.


==== Endings ====

{|
|
! Past
!
! Present
!
! Future
!
|-
|
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
|-
! Indicative
| -n
| -v
| -si
| -
| uk-si
| uk-
|-
! Imperative
|
|
| ī-si
| ī-
|
|
|-
! Optative
| uk-n
| uk-v
| uk-si
| uk-
| ūsi VN*
| ūs VN*
|-
! Obligative
| so-n
| so-v
| so-si
| so-
| susi VN*
| sō VN*
|}

(*) VN = Verbal noun


==== Verb Stems &amp; Ending Varieties ====

Verbs whose Indicative Present Plural form ends in an '''a''' or an '''e''' usually loose this vowel when endings are suffixed (so '''ævi''' ''say'' with the stem '''ævi-''', opposed to '''zjema''' ''live'' with the stem '''zjem-''').

The affixed '''n''' of the past tense becomes syllabic ('''n̩''') if following another consonant (thus '''ævin''' ''said'' next to '''zjemn̩''' ''lived'').

The last sound of the Stem is assimlated to the voiced Past Plural suffix '''v''' ('''nuzv''' ''died'' from '''nusa''', ''die'').

Similarly, the last sound of the Stem is assimilated to the voiceless Present Singular suffix '''si''' ('''hæfsi''' ''drinks'' from '''hæva''', ''drink'').

The prefix '''uk''' of Optative and Future Indicative only remains in front of '''h''' ('''ukhæfsi''' ''will drink''). If the Stem begins with a vowel or halfvowel, it is softened to '''ug''' ('''ugævisi''' ''will say''); if the Stem of the verb begins with another consonant, it becomes '''ux''' ('''uxzjemsi''' ''will live'').

The Obligative prefix '''so''' is shortened to '''s''' in front of vowels and halvowels ('''sævi''' ''shall say'').

Two geminate sounds are usually simplified to one ('''hæv''' ''drank'' instead of *hævv, '''nusi''' ''dies'' instead of *nussi)


==== Example Conjugation ====

{|
! ævi
! Past
!
! Present
!
! Future
!
|-
! ''say''
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
|-
! Indicative
| ævin
| æviv
| ævisi
| ævi
| ugævisi
| ugævi
|-
! Imperative
|
|
| īævisi
| īævi
|
|
|-
! Optative
| ugævin
| ugæviv
| ugævisi
| ugævi
| ūsi ævjĕn
| ūs ævjĕn
|-
! Obligative
| sævin
| sæviv
| sævisi
| sævi
| susi ævjĕn
| sō ævjĕn
|}


{|
! hæva
! Past
!
! Present
!
! Future
!
|-
! ''drink''
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
| Sg
| Pl
|-
! Indicative
| hævn̩
| hæv
| hæfsi
| hæva
| ukhæfsi
| ukhæva
|-
! Imperative
|
|
| īhæfsi
| īhæva
|
|
|-
! Optative
| ukhævn̩
| ukhæv
| ukhæfsi
| ukhæva
| ūsi hævjĕn
| ūs hævjĕn
|-
! Obligative
| sohævn̩
| sohæv
| sohæfsi
| sohæva
| susi hævjĕn
| sō hævjĕn
|}

The Verbal Noun can be formed by omitting the last vowel of the Present Plural and adding either '''-jĕn''' or -ĕjĕn (the latter is not as common as the former and thus marked in dictionaries).


==== Regular Irregularities ====

Verbs beginning with a voiced plosive consonant (b, d, g) are usually two stemmed; they change this first voiced consonant into a voiceless consonant in Optative mood and in Future Present Indicative.

Examples:
* '''dijo''' ''pull'', '''uxtijo''' ''will pull''
* '''bilæza''' ''send'', '''uxpilæza''' ''will send''
* '''giga''' ''throw'', '''uxkiga''' ''will throw''

Verbs that end in '''ja''' or '''je''' do not loose the final vowel in inflection, but change it to '''ĕ'''. This also goes for verbs of three or more syllables ending in simple a or e and is marked in dictionaries if it does '''not''' occur.

Examples:
* '''mælja''' ''suck'', '''mæljĕsi''' ''sucks''
* '''ævuje''' ''hold'', '''ævujĕsi''' ''holds''
* '''ōloka''' ''forget'', '''ōlokĕsi''' ''forgets''


==== Irregular Verbs ====

There are a few irregular verbs whose full inflection will be given now (they are '''æte''' ''be'', '''æði''' ''be'', '''dū''' ''drink'' and '''abena''' ''cry'').

{|
! æte 
! Past
|
! Present
|
! Future
|
|-
! ''be''
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
|-
! Indicative
| æn
| vi
| si
| æte
| ūsi
| ūs
|-
! Imperative
| 
| 
| isi
| is
| 
| 
|-
! Optative
| weg
| ūv
| ūsi
| ūs
| ūsi
| ūs
|-
! Obligative
| son
| sov
| susi
| sō
| susi
| sō
|}


{|
! æði
! Present
|
|-
! ''be''
| Singular
| Plural
|-
! Indicative
| æt
| æði
|-
! Imperative
| ī
| īĕði
|}


{|
! dū
! Past
|
! Present
|
! Future
|
|-
! ''drink''
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
|-
! Indicative
| dwen
| dwev
| dwesi
| dū
| uxtwesi
| uxtu
|-
! Imperative
|
|
| īswesi
| īsu
|
|
|-
! Optative
| uxtwen 
| uxtwev
| uxtwesi
| uxtu
| ūsi dijĕn
| ūs dijĕn
|-
! Obligative
| sodwen
| sodwev
| sodwesi
| sodu
| susi dijĕn
| sō dijĕn
|}


{|
! abena
! Past
|
! Present
|
! Future
|
|-
! ''cry''
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
| Singular
| Plural
|-
! Indicative
| aben
| abenv
| abensi
| abena
| uxpensi
| uxpena
|-
! Imperative
|
|
| īĕbensi
| īĕbena
|
|
|-
! Optative
| uxpen
| uxpenv
| uxpensi
| uxpena
| ūsi abenjĕn
| ūs abenjĕn
|-
! Obligative
| spēn
| spēnv
| spēnsi
| spēna
| susi abenjĕn
| sō abenjĕn
|}


==== Negation ====

Adāta's negative prefixes m- and a- came to be considered as separate prepositions; m became n (because 'm' was not allowed word final in Adāta) and later became syllabic ('ṇ'). The negative 'a' became 'æ'.

By the time we reach Æðadĕ '''ṇ''' and '''æ''' are interchangeable, although ṇ is probably used more often. They are simply put before the conjugated verb.

Example: '''N̩ abensi iþki.''' = '''Æ abensi iþki.'''
: ''not cry-PRES mistress''
: The mistress is not crying.

== Syntax ==

=== Noun Phrases ===

Noun phrases consist of a noun that can be modified by adjectives, appositions and genitives. The order is usually Determiner - Noun - Adjective - Genitive - Apposition.

Example: '''iz ðipi jæl birajal æx Kāxd ovðjesk gæǽsun '''

: ''all child very bravest of Kaxd PL-king powerful''

: all the bravest children of Kaxd, the powerful kings


=== Verbal Usage ===

The '''Indicative''' is used for reality ('''ðoro hæfsi''' ''you are drinking''), the '''Imperative''' for command ('''īhæfsi''' ''drink!''), the '''Optative''' for wishes ('''ðoro ukhæfsi''' ''you want to drink'') and the '''Obligative''' for have-to or must constructions ('''ðoro sohæfsi''' ''you have to drink'').

The Verbal Noun is used in relative clauses.


=== The difference between æte and æði ===

'''æte''' is used for temporary states, wherease '''æði''' is used for permanent statements. This distinction, however, only occurs in Indicative and Imperative Present. 

Examples:
* '''Đoro si zēlul.''' ''You are here.'' (temporary)
* '''Đoro æt mezaj.''' ''You are my father.'' (permanent)


=== Relative Clauses ===

Relative clauses follow the noun they modify. If the person acting in the relative clause is the same as the one it refers to, it takes the normal pronoun; if it is the object of the action in the relative clause, one has to use the oblique form.

Then one needs a relative timeword ('''jwe''' for contemporarity with the main sentence, '''wez''' for something that happened prior to the main sentence), then the Verbal Noun and finally, depending on which pronoun (normal or oblique) was used before, the Subject or Object of the Verbal Noun.

The Verbal Noun of ''to be'' usually is omitted, leaving only the relative timewords.

Example: '''Jero rōln̩ aðuna æn jwe ædaxewljĕn je.'''
: ''I-SUBJ love-PAST girl she-OBL PRES rape-VN I''
: I loved the girl I raped.

'''N̩ rōla opaðuna ān æg wez ædaxewljĕn ān.'''
: ''not love-PRES PL-girl they-OBL they PAST rape-VN they-OBL''
: Girls do not love those who raped them.


=== Passive ===

Because the Passive voice was lost, Passive sentences are usually active ones with an omitted Subject. Verbs are normally used in Singular.

Example: '''Hupin jen.'''
: ''defeat-PAST I-obl''
: Someone defeated me = I was defeated.


=== Simple Sentences ===

Usual word order is S-V-O, as can be seen in the following example:

; Jero hupin ān.

: ''I-SUBJ defeat-PAST they-OBL''

: I defeated them.

Negative Sentences, however, keep Adāta's V-S-O order:

; N̩ hupin je ān.

: ''not defeat-PAST I they-OBL''

: I didn't defeat them.


=== Complex Sentences ===

The S-V-O word order is changed to V-O-S if the Subject is followed by appositional nouns or a relative clause:

; Ævin sjeb Sjenkĕnro, ðjesk xizor.

: ''speak-PAST thus Sjenken-SUBJ king great''

: Thus spoke Sjenken, the great king.

; Weponĕpĕnĕv jen ovðjeskĕlĕs gæsusro æg wez babæzjĕn īl jen jwe ðipi.

: ''belittle-PAST I-OBL PL-kingdom nearby-SUBJ they PAST name-PARTICIPLE to I-OBL like child.''

: The nearby kingdoms, who named me a child, belittle me.

Adpositional phrases are sorted ''manner - place - time''. Other combinations are possible, but rarely used.

; '''Jero nun æd nælror īl Njedz gæb.'''

: ''I-SUB go-PAST by horse to Njedz last-year.''

: Last year I went to Njedz by horse.

== Sample text ==

'''Ævin sjeb Sjenkĕnro, ðjesk xizor, ðjesk æx læs æx Kāxd, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Tālo:'''

'''īlnu jero æbṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx mizaj, iz ðjeskĕlĕs rūlzro vi hēgon īl jen. Ovðjeskĕlĕs rūlz gæsusro æviv sjeb: &quot;Mizagro æn ðjesk bira. Æro hupin ovðjeskĕlĕs ægarĕn. Un æro dæn jwe næg. Ðæl æt jwe ðipi æro æ jwe æbjĕn uv ōbagatjĕ æx mizag.&quot;'''

'''Hul æbṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx mizaj jero, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Thālo, īlnu jero nun æt ovðjeskĕlĕs rūlz æg wez hēgon īl jen, jero ōvo nun īl ovzādi æx Upaj. Jero mjezagon ān un jero hæbĕvĕn dunaj īl mjen mæl. Jero ævin sjeb: &quot;iþkjaj æxin kēnu æx ovze, weponĕpĕnĕv jen ovðjeskĕlĕs gæsusro æg wez babæzjĕn īl jen jwe ðipi. Un æxro sādv bæsjĕn æx ovgalĕs æx læsaðo ðōdin, iþkjaj æxin! Æðodin īenzĕb!&quot;'''

'''Upajro ræton ovḷze æx mævaj. Æro welṇ jen un æro sæpin væpor īl jetjĕnaj. Jero hupin æd lað ru ān æg wez mugjĕn æga jen. Jero hupin ān. Jero ævujĕn opjadi un ovvu un ofxar un jero bilæzṇ ān īl læs æx Kāxd.'''

''Sinakan, the great king, the king of the land of Kāxad, brother of the sun and the moon, spoke thus:''

''Before I sat on the throne of my father, alas! all the foreign countries were hostile towards me. The nearby foreign countries spoke thus: &quot;His father was a brave king. Alas! he conquered many enemy countries. And he became a god. But luckily, he who sits on the throne of his father is a child.&quot;''

''When I, brother of the sun and moon, sat on the throne of my father, before I went to the foreign countries which were being hostile towards me, happily I went to the feasts of Ophai. I celebrated them to my benefit, and I rose my hand to the shining mother. I spoke thus: &quot;My mistress, light of the stars, the nearby countries who name me a child belittle me. And they begin to attack the border of your holy land, my mistress! Strike the heathens down!&quot;''

''Ophai heard the words of my mouth. She rose me up and she gave strength to my arm. I conquered those who rose against me in ten years. I conquered them. I captured many prisoners, oxen and sheep, and I sent them back to the land of Kāxad.''


=== Linear Translation ===

; Ævi-n sjeb Sjenkĕn-ro, ðjesk xizor, ðjesk æx læs æx Kāxd, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Thālo:
: speak-PAST thus Sjenken-SUB, King great, King of Land of Kaxd, brother of sun and of moon:
: Sjenken, the great King, the King of the Land Kaxd, the brother of the Sun and of the Moon spoke thus:
; īlnu je-ro æb-ṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx miz-aj, iz ðjeskĕlĕs rūlzro vi hēgon īl je-n.
: before I-SUB sit-PAST on throne of father-my, all kingdom foreign-SUB be-PAST hostile to I-OBL.
: Before I sat on the throne of my father, all foreign kingdoms were hostile to me.
; Ov-ðjeskĕlĕs rūlz gæsus-ro ævi-v sjeb, &quot;Miz-ag-ro æn ðjesk bira.
: PL-kingdom foreign nearby-SUB speak-PAST thus: &quot;Father-his-SUBJ be-PAST king brave.
: Foreign near kingdom spoke thus: &quot;His father was a brave king.
; Æ-ro huphi-n ov-ðjeskĕlĕs ægarĕn. Un æ-ro dæ-n jwe næg.
: he-SUB defeat-PAST PL-kingdom enemy. and he-SUB become-PAST like god.
: He defeated enemy kingdoms and he became just like a god.
; Ðæl æ-th jwe ðiphi æ-ro æ jwe æb-jĕn uv ōbagatjĕ æx mizag.
: but be-PRES like child he-SUB he PRES sit-VN on throne of father-his.
: But like a child is he who now sits on the throne of his father.
; Hul æb-ṇ uv ōbagatjĕ æx miz-aj je-ro, mēxt æx Zæm un æx Thālo,
: when sit-PAST on throne of father-my I-SUB, brother of sun and of moon,
: When I, brother of the Sun and of the Moon, sat on the throne of my father,
; īlnu je-ro nun æth ov-ðjeskĕlĕs rūlz æg wez hēgon īl je-n,
: before I-SUB go-PAST to PL-kingdom foreign they PAST hostile to I-OBL,
: before I went to the foreign kingdoms that were hostile to me,
; je-ro ōvo nun īl ov-zādi æx Uphaj.
: I-SUB happy-ADV go-PAST to PL-feast of Uphaj.
: I happily went to the feast of Uphai.
; Je-ro mjezago-n ā-n un je-ro hæbĕvĕ-n dun-aj īl mjen mæl.
: I-SUB celebrate-PAST they-OBL and I-SUB lift-PAST hand-my to mother shining.
: I celebrated them and rose my hand to the shining mother.
; Je-ro ævi-n sjeb, &quot;iþkj-aj æxin khēnu æx ov-ze,
: I-SUB speak-PAST thus: mistress-my my light of PL-star,
: I spoke thus: &quot;Oh my mistress light of the stars,
; wephonĕphĕnĕ-v je-n ov-ðjeskĕlĕs gæsus-ro æg wez babæz-jĕn īl je-n jwe ðiphi.
: belittle-PAST I-OBL PL-kingdom nearby-SUBJ they PAST name-VN to I-OBL like child.
: the nearby kingdoms, who named me a child, belittle me.
; Un æx-ro sād-v bæs-jĕn æx ov-galĕs æx læs-aðo ðōdin, iþkj-aj æxin!
: and they-SUBJ begin-PAST attack-VN of PL-border of land-your holy, mistress-my my.
: And they begin to attack the borders of your holy land, o my mistress!
; æðodin ī-enzĕb!&quot; Uphaj-ro rætho-n ov-ḷze æx mæv-aj.
: unholy-ADV IMP-strike. Uphaj-SUBJ hear-PAST PL-word of mouth-my.
: Strike unholy! Uphi heard the words of my mouth.
; Æ-ro wel-ṇ je-n un æ-ro sæphi-n væphor īl jetjĕn-aj.
: she-SUBJ rise-PAST I-OBL and she-SUBJ give-PAST strength to arm-my.
: She rose me up and gave strength to my arm.
; Je-ro huphi-n æd lað ru ā-n æg wez mug-jĕn æga je-n.
: I-SUBJ defeat-PAST with year ten they-OBL they PAST protest against I-OBL.
: I defeated within ten years those who protested against me.
; Je-ro huphi-n ā-n.
: I-SUBJ defeat-PAST they-OBL.
: I defeated them.
; Je-ro ævujĕ-n oph-jadi un ov-vu un of-xar un je-ro bilæz-ṇ ā-n īl læs æx Kāxd.
: I-SUBJ catch-PAST PL-prisoner and PL-ox and PL-sheep and I-SUBJ send-PAST they-OBL to land of Kaxd.
: I caught prisoners and oxen and sheep and sent them to the land of Kaxd.

== Lexicon ==

* ''An [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php/%C3%86%C3%B0ad%C4%95/Lexicon expanded lexicon of Æðadĕ] has been compiled by [[User:Cedh audmanh|cedh audmanh]].''

=== Verbs ===

Verbs are listed in Present Indicative Plural and are followed by their stems.

Verbal Nouns are listed if they are not formed by the principle Pres.Ind.Pl except last vowel adding -jĕn (e.g. ævi &gt; ævjĕn, hæva &gt; hævjĕn).

Remember the stem alternations of words beginning with voiced stops (those turn into voiceless following the prefix ux-).

'''abena, aben-/pen-''' v.irr. ''cry''

'''æbe, æb-''' v. ''sit''

'''æði''' v.irr. ''be''

'''æthe''' v.irr. ''be''

'''ævi, ævi-''' v. ''say''

'''ævuje, ævujĕ-, ævujĕjĕn''' v. ''catch''

'''abæza, abæz-''' v. ''make''

'''babæza, babæz-''' v. ''name''

'''bæso, bæso-''' v. ''attack''

'''bilæza, bilæz-''' v. ''send''

'''dæ, dæ-, dajĕn''' v. ''become''

'''dijo, dijo-, dijĕjĕn''' v. ''pull''

'''dū, dwe-, dijĕn''' v.irr. ''drink''

'''enzĕba, enzĕb-, enzĕbĕjĕn''' v. ''strike''

'''giga, gig-''' v. ''throw''

'''hæbĕva, hæbĕv-, hæbĕvĕjĕn''' v. ''lift''

'''hæva, hæv-''' v. ''drink''

'''huphi, huphi-''' v. ''defeat''

'''mælja, mæljĕ-, mæljĕjĕn''' v. ''suck''

'''mjezago, mjezago-, mjezagĕjĕn''' v. ''celebrate''

'''muga, mug-''' v. ''protest''

'''nuna, nun-''' v. ''go''

'''ōloka, ōlokĕ-, ōlokĕjĕn''' v. ''forget''

'''rætho, rætho-''' v. ''hear''

'''sāde, sād-''' v. ''begin''

'''sæphi, sæphi-''' v. ''give''

'''wela, wel-''' v. ''rise''

'''wephonĕphĕna, wephonĕphĕnĕ-, wephonĕphĕnĕjĕn''' v. ''belittle''


=== People and Family ===

'''aðuna''' n. ''girl''

'''āphu''' n. ''country-dweller''

'''āz''' n. ''city-dweller''

'''ðiphi''' n. ''child''

'''ðjesk''' n. ''king''

'''ðjeska''' n. ''queen''

'''eĕv''' n. ''man''

'''iðo''' n. ''nobleman''

'''iþki''' n. ''mistress''

'''jādi''' n. ''prisoner''

'''gāro''' n. ''friend''

'''gēl''' n. ''scribe''

'''māðo''' n. ''person''

'''mēxt''' n. ''brother''

'''miz''' n. ''father''

'''mjen''' n. ''mother''

'''mwexaðin''' n. ''baker''

'''nēre''' n. ''woman''

'''omo''' n. ''sister''

'''zēje''' n. ''uncle''

'''zjeme''' n. ''neighbour''


=== Religion ===

'''æva, æv-''' v. ''sin''

'''ælizĕðu''' n. ''temple''

'''æbunin''' n. ''heretic''

'''ðæj''' n. ''goddess''

'''ðōdin''' a. ''holy''

'''lōzṛ''' n. ''religion''

'''mjezago, mjezago-, mjezagĕjĕn''' v. ''celebrate (a religious feast)''

'''næg''' n. ''god''

'''rūnk''' n. ''prophet''

'''vnæza, vnæz-''' v. ''pray''

'''zakhero''' n. ''priest''

'''zækhea''' n. ''priestess''

'''zikhor''' n. ''worship''

'''zūð''' n. ''tradition''


=== Sex ===

'''ædaxewla, ædaxewlĕ- ædaxewlĕjĕn''' v. ''rape''

'''ædzĕn''' n. ''penis''

'''hukho, hukho-''' v. ''masturbate''

'''rōla, rōl-''' v. ''love''

'''thiða, thið-''' v. ''have sex''


=== Colours ===

'''ðōze''' a. ''white''

'''hē''' a. ''blue''

'''īgi''' a. ''black''

'''næfṇ''' a. ''red''

'''næmozi''' a. ''brown''

'''ūbi''' a. ''green''

'''ūme''' a. ''yellow''


=== Animals ===

'''abaz''' n. ''fish''

'''ājĕ''' n. ''snake''

'''bjer''' n. ''goat''

'''djedi''' n. ''flea''

'''hwej''' n. ''mouse''

'''ikh''' n. ''cat'' (&lt; &quot;domestic animal&quot;)

'''lē''' n. ''bird''

'''moje''' n. ''worm''

'''nælaĕph''' n. ''domestic animal''

'''nælror''' n. ''horse''

'''rēo''' n. ''fox''

'''sī''' n. ''dog''

'''vū''' n. ''ox''

'''xār''' n. ''sheep''

'''xēðo''' n. ''rabbit''

'''zæþṇ''' n. ''pig''

=== Weather and Astronomy ===

'''æg''' n. ''wind''

'''æflo''' n. ''rain''

'''ēbi, ēbi-''' v. ''freeze''

'''ēj''' n. ''snow''

'''ḷzō''' a. ''cold''

'''mwelṇ''' n. ''ice''

'''thālo''' n. ''moon''

'''vwezis''' a. ''chilly''

'''zæm''' n. ''sun''

'''zē''' n. ''star''


=== Prepositions ===

'''æd''' prep. ''with, using''

'''æga''' prep. ''against''

'''æl''' prep. ''without''

'''æx''' prep. ''of''

'''hæ''' prep. ''out of''

'''īl''' prep. ''to, toward''

'''jwe''' prep. ''as, like, equally to''

'''nē''' prep. ''in, inside''

'''pin''' prep. ''with (comitative)''

'''uv''' prep. ''on, upon''

'''wen''' prep. ''made of''

== See also ==
* [[Edastean languages]]
* [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana/index.php/%C3%86%C3%B0ad%C4%95/Lexicon Extended Æðadĕ Lexicon]
* [http://www.superlush.co.uk/~akana The AkanaWiki]

[[Category:Akana|Ae]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Table of Senjecan Correspondences</title>
    <id>2682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-07T21:06:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan Anatomy and Physiology</title>
    <id>2683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31550</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-20T07:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing all content from page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tartessian War</title>
    <id>2694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23699</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>WeepingElf</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Tartessian War''' was a war between the [[British Elves]] and the Carthaginians which eventually led to the decline of the Elvish civilization.

==Lauchanáro and the Society for the Strengthening of Elvendom==

Lauchanáro, born in the year 1235 (589 BC), was one of the most brilliant artists and inventors of Elvendom; unfortunately, however, he also was flamboyant and easy to rouse.  His name, which means 'firesoul' in [[Old Albic]], characterized him well.

In the year 1277 he founded the Society for the Strengthening of Elvendom.  This party proposed industrialization on the basis of mineral coal and a steam-mill Lauchanáro had invented; socially, however, the society was ultraconservative, speaking out against naturalization of Celtic wage-workers and other reforms that were discussed at that time.

Lauchanáro sought to be elected chancellor of the [[Commonwealth of the Elves]], and managed to win many followers.  However, the High Table voted against him in 1284.

==Lauchanáro's Rebellion==

This failure outraged Lauchanáro.  He secretly built up a private army, and three years later, he instigated a rebellion against the High Table, supported by Celtic mercenaries he had hired for this purpose.  The rebellion lasted 44 days, then it was squashed by the loyal warriors' guilds, and Lauchanáro had to leave the Commonwealth and retreated to Tartessos where he continued to build up his private army.

==War==

In Tartessos, Lauchanáro formed an alliance with the king and the Carthaginians who sought to get the highly profitable tin trade between the Elvenisles and Tartessos into their hands.  In 1288, Lauchanáro, Tartessos and the Carthaginians attacked the Commonwealth with a large number of ships and Celtic mercenaries.  Lauchanáro's men in the Commonwealth staged a second rebellion to weaken the Elvish defences.  After seven years of war, the Commonwealth of the Elves collapsed, and the Elvish trade network in the Atlantic was taken over by the Carthaginians.

==Aftermath==

The Elvish civilization never recovered from this defeat.  Celtic warbands raided the country, and more and more Celts settled on the Isles, and eventually, the country came to be dominated by Celtic warrior-kings and its population mostly Celticized.

Tartessos, which had allied with Lauchanáro and the Carthaginians, was bitterly betrayed by its allies; it no longer played a major role in the tin trade, and went into decline.  Tartessos became a pirate cove, and twenty years later it was destroyed by the Carthaginians.

[[Category:Albic]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Senjecan pronunciation guide</title>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revised some orthography</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=Consonants &lt;font color=blue&gt;argyſŭenoes&lt;/font&gt;=
==Latin [[wikipedia:orthography|orthography]]:==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ć
| ź
| к (k)
| g
|-
| Fricative
| f
| v
| þ
| ð
| s
| z
| x
| ϙ (q)
|-
| Sonorant
| ɱ
| m
| ł
| l
| r
| n
| ħ (h)
| ȝ (j)
|}

There are no &lt;font color=red&gt;velar consonants&lt;/font&gt;. &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ng&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /ng/, not /ŋ/; &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nx&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /nç/, not /ŋç/, etc.

==[[wikipedia:cyrillic|Cyrillic]] orthography:==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| п
| б
| т
| д
| ц
| ѕ
| к
| г
|-
| Fricative
| ф
| в
| ѳ
| ђ
| c
| з
| x
| ѓ
|-
| Sonorant
| ӎ
| м
| ӆ
| л
| p
| н
| ы
| j
|}

&lt;font color=red&gt;Palatalized consonant&lt;/font&gt; see palatalized vowels.

&lt;font color=red&gt;Labialized consonant&lt;/font&gt; see labialized vowels.

There are no &lt;font color=red&gt;velar consonants&lt;/font&gt;. &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;нг&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /ng/, not /ŋ/; &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;нх&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /nç/, not /ŋç/, etc.

==[[wikipedia:Greek alphabet|Greek]] orthography:==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| π
| ϐ
| т
| δ
| ς
| Ϡ
| к
| γ
|-
| Fricative
| ф
| β
| θ
| ђ
| σ
| ζ
| χ
| Ϟ
|-
| Sonorant
| μ̀
| μ
| ƛ
| λ
| ρ
| ν
| ħ
| j
|}

There are no &lt;font color=red&gt;velar consonants&lt;/font&gt;. &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;νγ&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /ng/, not /ŋ/; &lt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;νχ&lt;/font&gt;&gt; = /nç/, not /ŋç/, etc.

==[[Wikipedia:IPA|IPA]]:==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:labial consonant|Labial]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:dental consonant|Dental]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Wikipedia:palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
| [[Wikipedia:plosive|Plosive]]
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ʦ
| ʣ
| k
| g
|-
| [[Wikipedia:fricative|Fricative]]
| ɸ
| β
| θ
| ð
| s
| z
| ç
| ʝ
|-
| [[Wikipedia:sonorant|Sonorant]]
| m̥
| m
| l̥
| l
| ɾ
| n
| j̥
| j
|}

==[[Wikipedia:X-SAMPA|X-SAMPA]]:==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t_d
| d_d
| ts)
| dz)
| c
| J\
|-
| Fricative
| p\
| B
| T_d
| D_d
| s
| z
| C
| j\
|-
| Sonorant
| m_0
| m
| l_0_d
| l_d
| 4_0
| n
| j_0
| j
|}

==Yahoo [[wikipedia:conlang|Conlang]] orthography:==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Labial
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Dental
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Alveolar
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Palatal
|-
| Plosive
| p
| b
| t
| d
| ts
| dz
| k
| g
|-
| Fricative
| f
| v
| þ
| ð
| s
| z
| x
| q
|-
| Sonorant
| mh
| m
| lh
| l
| rh
| n
| jh
| j
|}

=Vowels &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭevſŭenoes&lt;/font&gt;=
==Latin orthography==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| i
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| w
| /ɯ M/
| u
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ı
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;w&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| e
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| o
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| y
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ø
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| a
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=red&gt;Palatalized vowel&lt;/font&gt; indicated by a preceding &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĭ&lt;/font&gt;.

&lt;font color=red&gt;Labialized vowel&lt;/font&gt; indicated by a preceding &lt;font color=blue&gt;ŭ&lt;/font&gt;.

==Cyrillic orthography==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| и
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| ъ
| /ɯ M/
| у
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ь
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;ъ&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| е
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| о
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| э
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ѫ
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| а
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=red&gt;Palatalized vowel&lt;/font&gt; и → i; e → ε; a → я; ѫ → ѭ; o → ё; y → ю.

&lt;font color=red&gt;Labialized vowel&lt;/font&gt; и → ўи; е → ўе; а → ўа; ѫ → ўѫ; o → ўо; y → ўу.

==Greek orthography==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| ι
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| ϋ
| /ɯ M/
| υ
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ϊ
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;ϋ&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| η
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| ω
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| ε
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ο
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| α
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=red&gt;palatalized vowel&lt;/font&gt; ι → ῐι; η → ῐη; α → ῐα; o → ῐο; ω → ῐω; υ → ῐυ.

&lt;font color=red&gt;labialized vowel&lt;/font&gt; ι → ῠι; η → ῠη; α → ῠα; o → ῠο; ω → ῠω; υ → ῠυ.

==Yahoo conlang orthography==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-front&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|near-back&lt;br&gt;rounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;unrounded
| colspan=&quot;2&quot;|back&lt;br&gt;rounded
|-
| close
| i
| /i i/
|
|
| 
| 
| w
| /ɯ M/
| u
| /u u/ 
|-
| near-close
| 
| 
| ı
| /ɪ I/
| &lt;font color=red&gt;ü&lt;/font&gt;
| &lt;font color=red&gt;/ʊ U/&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| close-mid
| e
| /e e/
|
|
|
|
| 
| 
| o
| /o o/
|-
| open-mid
| y
| /ɛ E/
| 
| 
|
|
|
|
| ø
| /O ɔ/
|-
| open
| a
| /a a/
|}
&lt;font color=red&gt;near back rounded is allophonic&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=red&gt;Palatalized vowel&lt;/font&gt; by, ðy, etc.

&lt;font color=red&gt;Labialized vowel&lt;/font&gt; bw, ðw, etc..

=Tones &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭenoes&lt;/font&gt;=
Senjecas is a tonal language with three tones: high, mid, and low.  The following rules apply to the lemmata in this WikiFrath lexicon:
#The high tone is found on verbs, nouns, and adjectives only.
#The high tone is always on the antepenult, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;âbes&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;ââźus, &lt;font color=blue&gt;anêrus&lt;/font&gt;.
#The mid tone is found on every other syllable anterior to the primary, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;áɱaĸâþlis&lt;/font&gt;.
#Disyllabic adverbs and postpositions carry only a mid tone, and that on the antepenult, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;áfa&lt;/font&gt;.
#Monosyllables carry the base tone only, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;be&lt;/font&gt;, except for the ordinal numbers, which have a high tone, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;dŭô&lt;/font&gt;.
#Interjections carry the high tone on the ultima, ''e.g.'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aaî&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;aî&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font color=blue&gt;angû&lt;/font&gt;.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan fauna</title>
    <id>2696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36370</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-25T01:07:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing all content from page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan flora</title>
    <id>2697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45731</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-27T14:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Liliidae */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=

=[[Senjecan classification|Classification]]=
†extinct

&lt;font color=red&gt;not found in original Urheimat&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=green&gt;above the species level&lt;/font&gt;

*Domain &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱraadas&lt;/font&gt;
**Kingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;stemvoras&lt;/font&gt; - Plantae

=Fungi=
*reindeer moss ''Cladina rangiferina'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dorderis&lt;/font&gt;
*mold &lt;font color=blue&gt;tanis&lt;/font&gt;

=Bryophyta=

=Pteridophyta=
==Pteridopsida==
*fern ''Mateuccia struthopteris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;poportĭis&lt;/font&gt;
*bracken ''Pteridium aquilinum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaϙpoportĭis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Pteridium+aquilinum]

==Equisetopsida==
*horsetail ''Equisetum hyemale'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alynðis&lt;/font&gt;

=Lycopodiophyta=
*lycopodium ''Lycopodium clavatum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱelĸwpedis&lt;/font&gt;

=Spermatophyta=
==Cycadophyta==

==Pinophyta (Gymnosperms)==
===Pinaceae===
*Siberian larch ''Larix sibirica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;baðxŭoȝis&lt;/font&gt;
*larch ''Larix decidua'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaxtis&lt;/font&gt;
*silver fir ''Abies alba'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðanis&lt;/font&gt;
*Caucasian fir ''Abies nordmaniana'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;varozðis&lt;/font&gt;
*Norway spruce ''Picea abies'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;elentis&lt;/font&gt;
*deodar ''Cedrus deodara''; cedar of Lebanon ''Cedrus libani'' &lt;font color=red&gt;erzis&lt;/font&gt; 
*Scots pine ''Pinus sylvestris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;puźis&lt;/font&gt;

===Cupresseacea===
*juniper ''Juniperus communis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;elenis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Juniperus+communis]
*Himalayan cypress ''Cupressus torulosa'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸŭoſis&lt;/font&gt;

===Taxaceae===
*yew ''Taxus baccata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;iiɱis&lt;/font&gt;

==Ginkgophyta==
*gingko ''Gingko biloba'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ðuϙvaalis&lt;/font&gt;

==Gnetophyta==
*sea grape ''Ephedra distachya'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nixris&lt;/font&gt;

==Magnoliophyta (Angiosperms)==
===Magnoliopsida (dicots)===
====Rosidae====
*Apiales
**Apiaceae
***angelica ''Angelica sylvestris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćunðonis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Angelica+sylvestris]
***cumin ''Cuminum cyminum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gamunis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Cuminum+cyminum]
***fennel ''Foeniculum vulgare'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;maðurĸis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Foeniculum+vulgare]
***carrot ''Daucus carota'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;merćis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Daucus+carota]
***parsnip ''Pastinaca sativa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nipis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Pastinaca+sativa]
***chervil ''Anthriscus cerefolium'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nuuvyvaalis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Anthriscus+cerefolium]
***caraway ''Carum carvi'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;vraϙſeegis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Carum+carvi]
***celery ''Apium graveolens dulce'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſelinis&lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Apium+graveolens+dulce]
**Arialaceae
***ginseng ''Panax schinseng'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱirmervis&lt;/font&gt;
***ivy ''Hedera helix'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙeðſis&lt;/font&gt;
***spikenard ''Aralia spp.'' &lt;font color=red&gt;vraϙmuulis&lt;/font&gt;

*Asparagales
**Iridaceae
***saffron ''Crocus sativus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ariſanis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Crocus+sativus]
**Asparagaceae 
***asparagus ''Asparagus sp.'' &lt;font color=red&gt;aſfargis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?asparagus]
**Alliaceae
***field garlic ''Allium oleraceum'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;gĭangis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+oleraceum]
***chives ''Allium schoenoprasum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝoinĸoormis&lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+schoenoprasum]
***onion ''Allium cepa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸoormis&lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+cepa]
***ramsons ''Allium ursinum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;leenaalis&lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+ursinum]
***leek ''Allium porrum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;perćis&lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Allium+porrum]

*Celastrales
**holly ''Ilex aquifolium'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸelinis&lt;/font&gt;

*Fabales
**Fabaceae
***Genisteae
****furze, gorse, whin, broom &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćoſtoonis&lt;/font&gt;
***Vicieae
****vetch ''Vicia sativa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;deerɱis&lt;/font&gt;
****hairy vetch ''Vicia hirsuta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðŭeneſrıdeerɱis&lt;/font&gt;

*Malphigiales
**flax ''Linum usitatissimum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;linis&lt;/font&gt;

*Myrtales
**pomegranate ''Punica granatum'' &lt;font color=red&gt;darimis&lt;/font&gt;
*Rhamnales
**grape ''Vitis vinifera'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸuuftis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Vitis+vinifera]

*Rosales
**crab apple ''Malus sylvestris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aabelis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Malus+sylvestris]
**apricot ''Prunus armeniaca'' &lt;font color=red&gt;auſaabelĸis&lt;/font&gt;
**wild cherry ''Prunus avium'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸønis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Prunus+avium]
**cherry plum ''Prunus cerasifera'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſliiɱis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Prunus+cerasifera]

*Santalales
**sandalwood ''Santalum album'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸandonis&lt;/font&gt;

*Sapindales*
**Aceraceae
***common (hedge) maple ''Acer campestre'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćŭolis&lt;/font&gt;
***Norway maple ''Acer platanoides'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćanis&lt;/font&gt;
***sycamore maple ''Acer pseudoplatanus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćønis&lt;/font&gt;
***Tatar maple ''Acer tataricum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸelnis&lt;/font&gt;
**Rutaceae
***burning bush, dittany ''Dictamnus albus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðŭeexſĭolmis&lt;/font&gt;

====Asteridae====
*Asterales
**cardoon ''Cynara cardunculus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;diħis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Cynara+cardunculus]
**corn marigold ''Glebionis segetum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaþlis&lt;/font&gt;
**golden rod ''Solidago virgaurea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;baðćiɱis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Solidago+virgaurea]
**greater burdock ''Arctium lappa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;diħis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Arctium+lappa]
**dandelion ''Taraxacum officionale'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nunos&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Taraxacum+officinale]
**wormwood ''Artemisia absinthium'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pĭuĸis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Artemisia+absinthium]
**wormwood ''Artemisia maritima'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſuurvaalis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Artemisia+maritima]

*Rubiales
**cinchona ''Cinchona officinalis'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸĭinĸĭinis&lt;/font&gt;
**coffee ''Coffea arabica'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸavis&lt;/font&gt;
*Scrophulariales
**bladderwort ''Utricularia macrorhiza'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdyniris&lt;/font&gt;

*Solonales
**tomato ''Solanum lycopersicum'' &lt;font color=red&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;
**potato ''Solanum tuberosum'' &lt;font color=red&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;
**eggplant ''Solanum melongena'' &lt;font color=red&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;
**tobacco ''Nicotiana spp.'' &lt;font color=red&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;
**belladonna ''Atropa belladonna'' &lt;font color=red&gt;???&lt;/font&gt;

====Dilleniidae====
*Malvales
**cotton ''Gossypium spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸapazis&lt;/font&gt;

*Salicales
**black poplar ''Populus nigra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøſneliſis&lt;/font&gt;
**European aspen ''Populus tremula'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aſpis&lt;/font&gt;

*Capparales
**Brassicaceae
***cabbage ''Brassica oleracea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarambis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Brassica+oleracea]
***rape ''Brassica rapa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;raapis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Brassica+rapa]
***black mustard ''Brassica nigra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;rangis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Brassica+nigra]
***turnip ''Brassica rapa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;turmis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Brassica+rapa]
***horseradish ''Armoracia rusticana'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;torbis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Armoracia+rusticana]
***woad ''Isatis tinctoria'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;moðris&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Isatis+tinctoria]
***nasturtium, watercress ''Nasturtium officinale'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerɱatis&lt;/font&gt;  [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Nasturtium+officinale]
***white mustard ''Sinapis alba'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſinapis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sinapis+alba]
**Capparaceae
***caper ''Capparis spinosa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;goȝis &lt;/font&gt;[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Capparis+spinosa]

*Cucurbitales (Violales)
**cucumber ''Cucumis sativus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸiĸis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Cucumis+sativus]

====Hamamelidae====
*Urticales
**Cannabaceae
***hemp ''Cannabis sativa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸomŭorĸis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Cannabis+sativa]
**Ulmaceae
***common elm ''Ulmus procera'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸolponruſis

*Fagales
**Betulaceae
***common alder ''Alnus glutinosa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸalaaðris&lt;/font&gt;
***hazel ''Corylus avellana'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸoſlis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Corylus+avellana]
**Fagaceae
***chestnut ''Castanea sativa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;diħaris&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Castanea+sativa]
***copper beech ''Fagus sylvatica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸoorvaris&lt;/font&gt;
***sessile oak ''Quercus petraea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭerſis&lt;/font&gt;

*Juglandales
**English walnut ''Juglans regia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸunŭis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Juglans+regia]

====Magnoliidae====
*Laurales
**cinnamon ''Cinnamomum verum'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸinmonis&lt;/font&gt;
**avocado ''Persea americana'' &lt;font color=red&gt;aɱaĸaþlis&lt;/font&gt;

*Ranunculales
**Ranunculaceae
***meadow buttercup ''Ranunculus acris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;baðlis&lt;/font&gt;
***hellebore ''Helleborus spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸomris&lt;/font&gt;
**Papaveraceae
***corn poppy ''Papaver rhoeas'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;maaĸenis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]

===Liliopsida (monocots)===
====Acorales====
*sweet flag ''Acorus calamus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;olɱis&lt;/font&gt;

====Arecales====
*date palm ''Phoenix dactylifera'' &lt;font color=red&gt;irantis&lt;/font&gt;
*coconut palm ''Cocos nucifera'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ĸobaris&lt;/font&gt;
*European fan palm ''Chamaerops humilis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pelmyvaalis&lt;/font&gt;

====Caryophyllidae====
*white beet ''Beta vulgaris altissima'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alyɱraadis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Beta+vulgaris+altissima]

====Commelinidae====
*Poales
**Cyperaceae
***swamp sawgrass, great fen sedge ''Cladium mariscus'', &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćis&lt;/font&gt;
***acute sedge ''Carex acuta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭiinis&lt;/font&gt;
***tufted sedge ''Carex elata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;felſĭis&lt;/font&gt;
**Poaceae
***Arundinoideae
****reed grass ''Phragmites australis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;þruſis&lt;/font&gt;
***Bambusoideae
****Oryzodae
*****rice ''Oryza sativa'' &lt;font color=red&gt;manźis&lt;/font&gt;
****Bambusodae
*****Bambuseae &lt;font color=green&gt;miĸis&lt;/font&gt;
***Chloridoideae
****finger millet ''Eleusine coracana'' &lt;font color=red&gt;aarigis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Eleusine+coracana]
***Panicoideae
****European millet ''Panicum milliaceum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;arpis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Panicum+milliaceum]
****sorghum ''Sorghum bicolor'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nĭurgis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Sorghum+bicolor]
***Pooideae
****Triticodae
*****oats ''Avena sativa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱiźis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Avena+sativa]
*****barley ''Hordeum vulgare'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alvis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Hordeum+vulgare]
*****emmer wheat ''Triticum turgidum dicoccoides'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;arenĸis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Triticum+turgidum+dicoccoides]
*****spelt ''Triticum aestivum spelta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;adeſis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Triticum+aestivum+spelta]
*****einkorn ''Triticum monococcum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ternis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Triticum+monococcum]
*****rye ''Secale cereale'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruϙis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Secale+cereale]
****Poodae
*****darnel, rye grass ''Lolium perenne'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;iris&lt;/font&gt;
*Juncales
**common rush, lamp rush ''Juncus effusus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aromis&lt;/font&gt;

====Liliidae====
*Liliales
**Liliaceae
***Turk's cap lily ''Lilium martagon'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſungis&lt;/font&gt; (&gt; Khanty &lt;font color=green&gt;taŋkəl&lt;/font&gt;, ''Lilium martagon'')
**Iridaceae
***saffron ''Crocus sativus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸumĸumis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Crocus+sativus]

*Orchidales
**lady's slipper ''Cypripedium calceolus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aćentis&lt;/font&gt;

*Typhales
**cattail, reedmace ''Typha latifolia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸurðis&lt;/font&gt; [http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Typha+latifolia]

*Zingiberales
**ginger ''Zingiber officialis'' &lt;font color=red&gt;ćamerpis&lt;/font&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan marc</title>
    <id>2698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-07T22:30:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Taxonomic Table */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Taxonomic Table===
*kingdom - [[Wikipedia:animalia|Animalia]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðúſloɱêes&lt;/font&gt;
**phylum - [[Wikipedia:chordata|Chordata]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;gúrnëpentêes&lt;/font&gt;
***subphylum - [[Wikipedia:vertebrata|Vertebrata]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸĭoxmêes&lt;/font&gt;
****class - [[Wikipedia:mammalia|Mammalia]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;papêes&lt;/font&gt;
*****subclass - [[Wikipedia:theria|Theria]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħŭerêes&lt;/font&gt;
******infraclass - [[Wikipedia:eutheria|Eutheria (Placentalia)]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;lénħëmêes&lt;/font&gt;
*******order - [[Wikipedia:cetartiodactyla|Cetartiodactyla]]  &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭálſĭuðmêes&lt;/font&gt;
********suborder - [[Wikipedia:ruminantia|Ruminantia]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruſêes&lt;/font&gt;
*********infraorder - [[Wikipedia:pecora|Pecora]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ólruſêes&lt;/font&gt;
**********superfamily - [[Wikipedia:bovoidea|Bovoidea]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;úfɱaxmêes&lt;/font&gt;
***********family - [[Wikipedia:bovidae|Bovidae]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱaxmêes&lt;/font&gt;
************subfamily - [[Wikipedia:antilopinae|Antilopinae]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱeeróóſmaxmêes&lt;/font&gt;
*************tribe - [[Wikipedia:saigini|Saigini]] 
**************genus - Megadorcas
***************species - volans

===Ancestry===
*The now extinct ancestor was a much smaller hornless animal, apparently related to the Tibetan antelope, [[wikipedia:pantholops|''Pantholops hodgsonii'']], which was about 120 cm./4 ft. long, 90 cm./3 ft. high at the shoulder, and weighed about 30 kg./60 lbs. that lived in the [[Wikipedia:Ural Mountains|Ural]] and [[Wikipedia:Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus mountains]].  A strange mutation for wings gave it an advantage in escaping from predators.  A descendant settled on the [[Wikipedia:steppe|steppes]], became a grazer instead of a browser, and increased in size.  This descendant is the animal domesticated by the Ethrans.

===General Characteristics===
*Body Length: 210 cm / 7 ft. 
*Shoulder Height: 140 cm / 4.6 ft. 
*Tail Length: 50 cm / 50 in. 
*Weight: 250-400 kg / 550-880 lb. 
*The grayish brown upper parts are sharply contrasted with the pure white belly. This white area stretches up the ventral half (stomach-side) of the neck to the jowls.  The grayish brown color extends down the legs, which lightens down the leg.  Along the spine is a black dorsal stripe.  The grey muzzle has a thin border of white.  The summer coat is short and sparse compared to the very long, thick, grayer winter coat.  The grayish brown tail, which marks the animal as bovine rather than equine, has a black tuft, with long hairs growing up the side.  It is hollow-boned for lightness.  The feathered grayish brown wings are 4-5 feet in length and when the marc is at rest, they are folded double as in the larger birds.  The wing humerus is attached to the upper side of an enlarged scapula, the foreleg humerus being attached to the lower.  The chest is rather massive containing as it does the muscles for both the wing and the foreleg.   As with the larger birds, a running start is necessary to become airborne.  The early ancestor merely jumped off the side of the mountain!  The descendant still retains the musculature in the hindquarters for leaping.  Five color variants have been bred, one for each of the orders of Ethrans (the elementals do not use steeds): gray for the archimages, palomino for the mages, sorrel for the archons, chestnut for the adepts, and brown for the guardians.  Of course, breeding registers are maintained.  Specimens of undesirable coloration are not bred (the bucks are gelded), but they are cared for until they die which could be as long as 30 years.  The females are known as does.

===Ontogeny and Reproduction===
*Gestation Period: About 12 months. 
*Young per Birth: Never more than 1 
*Weaning: By 12 months. 
*Sexual Maturity: After 1 year. 
*Life span: About 20 years. 
*The August-September breeding season yields foals born in late July through August the next year.  Small groups of 2-5 females split away from the main herd, retreating to high grasses to give birth.  The young can walk and run just a few hours after birth, and mothers and foals rejoin the herd after a couple weeks.   They cannot fly until they are at least one month old.

===Ecology and Behavior===
*When left to themselves the marcs live in very cohesive herds which never become scattered.  Led by an old female, the herds travel in single file, and the members appear to do everything - including eating, drinking, turning, and running - in unison. Unlike horses, however, there is little physical contact (like mutual grooming) among animals.  In July they begin to molt and the males begin to follow the females in July, fighting amongst themselves through August for breeding rights.  During mid-August, they begin herding the females into harems, defending them from rival males.  By the time mating is completed they are able to fly again.  Marcs are good swimmers, and during the summer months take apparent pleasure in bathing in rivers. 
*Family group: Maternal herds of 5-25 animals, mature males generally solitary, although bachelor herds of up to 10 individuals form during the winter.
*Defense lies primarily in flight, but both hooves and wings make formidable weapons when used to protect a flightless kid.

*Diet: Grasses and low plants. 

*Main Predators: Wolf, leopard, hyena.

===Distribution===
*The [[Wikipedia:steppe|steppes]] of [[Wikipedia:eurasia|Eurasia]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan correspondences</title>
    <id>2699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44684</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-15T16:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Table of Correspondences vilâm reſpâros */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide|Pronunciation Guide]] &lt;font color=blue&gt;díleegâſĭo nîîȝos&lt;/font&gt;=

=Table of Correspondences &lt;font color=blue&gt;vilâm reſpâros&lt;/font&gt;=
{|border=1
|i=No|  loquent peoples&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêкantu léuðûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01|  Ethrans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;íðrĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02|  Pyrans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;púnĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|  Hydorans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áɱdĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|  Humans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;értĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05|  Xylans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭǿſĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06|  Lithans&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óndĭonûes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No|  eye color&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óкwćîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01|  light blue&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;môðris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02|  golden&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áuſćîmis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|  dark blue&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;môðris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|  light brown&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05|  green&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðâlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06|  violet&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîſкis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No|  hair color&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pelćîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01|  white&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02|  red&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rûûðis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03|  blond&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vlêêris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04|  brown&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05|  brown&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06|  black&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кøſnis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| planet&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħélwſtêres&lt;font&gt;
|c=01| moon&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêênes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| Mercury&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aatêres&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| Venus&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nêêres&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| Mars&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêêgĭes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| Jupiter&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêrкŭes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| Saturn&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pûûſes&lt;/font&gt;
|- 
|i=No| inestimable treasures&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vćŭîîno ćŭíínemôes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| globe of prescience&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pérɱiðgêlŭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| cloak of invisibility&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nóкwкûûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| pouch of plenty&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;łéntəmâкos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| sword of invincibility&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nſeħêênſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| cup of healing&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeexpêêlnos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| ring of illusion&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðŭerâânos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| brave steeds&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙôlve mimêes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[the marc: Megadorcas volans|marc]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mârкes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:ostrich|ostrich]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝâânes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:unicorn|unicorn]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;îźes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:wild horse|horse]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êćŭes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:mammoth|mammoth]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭîȝes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:argali|argali]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôɱes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| trustworthy companions&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êȝre sunêes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:gyrfalcon|gyrfalcon]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćôôrles&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:cheetah|cheetah]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nîbes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:european otter|otter]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱdôres&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:eurasian wolf|wolf]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêlкŭes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:red squirrel|squirrel]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiɱêres&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:corsac fox|fox]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pûкes&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| formidable weapons&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêrgəro ćaþrôes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:blowgun|blowgun]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;veſćôlmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:archery|bow/arrow]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ârкŭos/vîîþlos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:sling (weapon)|sling]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кîfros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:spear|spear]]/[[wikipedia:sword|sword]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćȕnos/êênſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:staff (stick)|staff]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;bâкos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:battle axe|axe]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêxos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| honorable trades&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭîîto daarôes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| scholar&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mênðus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| herdsman&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;êlnus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| fisher&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pîſкus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| farmer&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêêrus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| carpenter&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭøſus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| smith&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;têmus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| noble tools&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ââſno ɱeelôes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| pen&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кoofûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| crook&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кexbȃкos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| net&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tentôlos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| hoe&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſartûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| saw&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;verðûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| hammer/anvil&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;temûros/temâtos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| crafts&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кerdâes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| painting&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćimкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:weaving|weaving]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱevкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:basket weaving|basketry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭáſıïкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:pottery|pottery]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;liiϙкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:woodcarving|woodcarving]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;viirкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:jewellery|jewelry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħélnıкêrdas&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| craft tool&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кerdûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| brush&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćipros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| loom&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱevûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| shears&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кerûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| potter's wheel&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;liiϙrêþos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| chisel&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;laðûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| drill&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nełûros&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| color&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîɱos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| yellow&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;bâdis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| orange&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêêlris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| blue&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;môðris&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| red&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rûûðis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| green&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ðâlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| violet&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîſкis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| flower&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ânþos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:rosa gallica|rose]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrôdis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:prunus spinosa|sloe]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;têrnis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:nymphaea alba|water lily]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???is&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:papaver rhoeas|poppy]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maaĸênis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| ?&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???is&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| ?&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???is&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| dyeing agent&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîmtŭis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| golden rod[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Solidago+virgaurea]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;baðćîɱis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| carrot[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Daucus+carota+sativus]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;møкis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| wood cranesbill[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Geranium+sylvaticum]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| ???[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php????]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;???is&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| wild cherry[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?prunus+avium]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кønis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| elderberry[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?sambucus+nigra]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tûlis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| jewel&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:sapphire|yellow sapphire]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nóórbaðħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:emerald|emerald]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nóórðalħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:pearl|pearl]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſónxəħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:ruby|ruby]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nóóruuðħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:amber|amber]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;piiþħŭâlos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:amethyst|amethyst]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;noorvíſкəħêlnĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| metal&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rûðsos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:silver|silver]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;øøźûros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:copper|copper]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:tin|tin]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âlɱos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:bronze|bronze]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ômȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:brass|brass]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙêlħos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:iron|iron]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſĭââlos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| musical instrument&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭénźenćûros?&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:nose flute|nose flute]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nasćŭêȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:harp|harp]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кûrtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:syrinx|syrinx]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nêdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:drum|drum]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tûmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:kaval|flute]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭêȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:alphorn|horn]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;câmos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| dwelling&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| dormitory&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſufdȁros&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| cottage&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸûtĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| stilt house&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱálſədêmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:sod house|sod house]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gûûlĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| cottage&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸûtĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| cottage&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸûtĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| building material&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;demɱêvos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| stone&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôndos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| wood&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭøſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:adobe|adobe]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;bućôndos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:sod|sod]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nâmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| wood&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭáſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| stone&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ôndos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| heating fuel&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;łérapêlos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| earth energy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sêfźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| wood&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭøſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:peat|peat]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ertôngos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:feces#uses|dung]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?os&lt;/font&gt;ĸôôros
|c=05| [[wikipedia:charcoal|charcoal]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭelĸŭøſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:charcoal|charcoal]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭelĸŭøſos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| [[wikipedia:staple food|staple food]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amlêdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:buckwheat|buckwheat]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Fagopyrum+esculentum]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħôlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:chickpeas|chickpeas]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħârlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:typha|cattails]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кûrðis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:millet|millet]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ârpis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:acorns|acorns]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêðtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:lentils|lentils]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;edââĸis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| main protein&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;úfnerêſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:squab|squab]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tûûtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:cheese|cheese]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêrdĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| fish&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pîſкos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:chickpeas|chickpeas]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Cicer+arietinum]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħârlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| acorns&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêðtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:mushroom|mushrooms]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭombĭis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| cooking oil&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;péкwmâźos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:schmalz|pigeon fat]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tuuþpîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:ghee|ghee]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;íſкëgêrtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| sesame&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tilmâźos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| poppy seed[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mááкenmâźos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| nut&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;armâźos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| turnip&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;túrməmâźos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| fruit&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrȕȕgos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:rose hip|rose hip]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrôdis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:blackthorn|sloe berry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;têrnis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:cranberry|cranberries]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lámoogȏes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:crab apple|crab apple]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;aabêlis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:wild cherry|wild cherry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кønis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:elderberry|elderberry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tûlis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| cool drink&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêźo pôôȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:rose water|rose water]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrodâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:lassi|lassi]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſórſerdĭȉȉmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:mint|mint tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lúqſamîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| barley water&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;álvəmêrкos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:plant sap|sap]] beer&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;piitâlŭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:stinging nettle|nettle tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ndixîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| hot drink&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;łêro pôôȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:rose hip|rose hip tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱroðîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| sloe tea&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ternîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:mint|mint tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lúgsamîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:mugicha|barley tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;alvîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| acorn coffee&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;meðtîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:stinging nettle|nettle tea]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ndixîîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| fermented&lt;br&gt;beverage&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭaþpôôȝos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:mead|rhodomel]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱroðmêêðos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:kefir|kefir]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;irâgos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:country wine|cranberry wine]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lámoogɱoînos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:beer|beer]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;âlŭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| cherry wine&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кǿnɱoînos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| elderberry wine&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;túlɱoînos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| [[wikipedia:liqueur|liqueur]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;púſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| rose liqueur&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱroðpúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:sloe gin|sloe gin]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;térnəpúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:creme de menthe|mint]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lúqſampúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:calvados (spirit)|apple]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áábelpúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:kirschwasser|cherry]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кønpúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| elderberry [[wikipedia:brandy|brandy]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tulpúſкŭaþâɱdos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| sweetener&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭââðtŭis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:honey|honey]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêlnos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| sloe syrup&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;térnəpîîtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| cattail syrup&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кúrðəpîîtos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=04| poppy syrup[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;mááкenpîîtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:plant sap|sap]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;pîîtos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:nettle|nettle sugar]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ndixſŭââdos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| dessert&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭaadêdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:memilmuk|buckwheat jelly]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħolкêlĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| sweet yogurt&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭaaðſêrdĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:halva|halva]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кélıtîlos?&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| ?&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:dotorimuk|acorn jelly]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;méðtəкêlĭos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| oatmeal cake&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| sweet spice&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭaaðbâſmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| rose&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱrôdis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:fennel|fennel]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?foeniculum+vulgare]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maðûrĸis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| mint&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;lugſâmis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| poppy seed[http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Papaver+rhoeas]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;maaкênis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| angelica&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćunðônis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| &lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;?&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| savory spice&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źééſregbâſmos&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| [[wikipedia:saffron|saffron]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Crocus+sativus]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áriſânis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| [[wikipedia:horseradish|horseradish]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Armoracia+rusticana]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tôrbis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| [[wikipedia:|watercress]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Nasturtium+officinale]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;áɱdəðêmnis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| [[wikipedia:clinopodium|wild basil]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Clinopodium+vulgare]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tulâſis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| [[wikipedia:juniper|juniper]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Juniperus+communis]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;elênis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=06| [[wikipedia:mustard|mustard]][http://pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Brassica+nigra]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;rângis&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| people government&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;léuðȝômtas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| oligarchy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;puuxrêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| ♀monarchy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óirêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| ♀monarchy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;óirêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| free villages&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭévćimôes&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| N/A
|c=06| free villages&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;sŭêvćimôes&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|i=No| title of ethnarch&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reznôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| Council of Archimages&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;úfſefźûm meðкântĭus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=02| princess&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;iiɱâltus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| high priestess&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;úftovêrus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| N/A
|c=05| N/A
|c=06| N/A
|-
|i=No| community name&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſomléuðâſĭo nôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| N/A&lt;br&gt;
|c=02| village&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîmos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| village&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;nââdos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| steading&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćeerɱêſos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| N/A&lt;br&gt;
|c=06| mountain hold&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭorgûpos&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| local government&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtiivȝômtas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| N/A
|c=02| matriarchy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amrêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| ♀hierocracy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tovérərêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| ♂gerontocracy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źéérərêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| N/A
|c=06| ♂gerontocracy&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;źéérərêźas&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| title of local ruler&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;reznôômnos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| N/A
|c=02| village chief&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćimârĭus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| priestess&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;tovêrus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| ''paterfamilias''&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;кĭôngus&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| N/A
|c=06| hold leader&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;gupârĭus&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|i=No| descent system&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćérdəpáſənderêźos&lt;/font&gt;
|c=01| N/A
|c=02| matrilineal/ matrilocal&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amćérdis/áməſtîîvis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=03| matrilineal/ matrilocal&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;amćérdis/áməſtîîvis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=04| patrilineal/ patrilocal&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;afćérdis/ápəſtîîvis&lt;/font&gt;
|c=05| N/A
|c=06| patrilineal/ patrilocal&lt;br&gt;&lt;font color=blue&gt;afćêrdis/ápəſtîîvis&lt;/font&gt;
|}

=List of Correspondences &lt;font color=blue&gt;vílnemſâdes&lt;/font&gt;=


==The Six Stages of Life &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭês zŭííȝdiitâes&lt;/font&gt;==
#Fetushood.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭêrvëtas&lt;/font&gt; (time spent in the womb)
#Infancy..........&lt;font color=blue&gt;pâftas&lt;/font&gt; (from birth to ability to speak and walk)
#Youth...........&lt;font color=blue&gt;mâϙtas&lt;/font&gt; (from ability to speak and walk to ability to wed [physically, socially and legally])
#Adulthood.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;źêrtas&lt;/font&gt; (from ability to wed to menopause or...)
#Senescence..&lt;font color=blue&gt;źêêras&lt;/font&gt;
#Death...........&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêêras&lt;/font&gt;

==The Six Energies &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭês ápelôes&lt;/font&gt;==
#Light........&lt;font color=blue&gt;lûкos&lt;/font&gt;
#Magic......&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêfźas&lt;/font&gt;
#Lightning..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćâðres&lt;/font&gt;
#Sound......&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭênos&lt;/font&gt;
#Heat........&lt;font color=blue&gt;łônos&lt;/font&gt;
#Machine...&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêrźënos&lt;/font&gt;

==The Six Orders of Living Beings &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭês zŭiiȝêm rećâes&lt;/font&gt;==
#Mosses......&lt;font color=blue&gt;muuſîes&lt;/font&gt;
#Grasses.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćiinîes&lt;/font&gt;
#Trees........&lt;font color=blue&gt;dorîes&lt;/font&gt;
#Swimmers..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭémantêes&lt;/font&gt;
#Walkers.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;térpantêes&lt;/font&gt;
#Fliers.........&lt;font color=blue&gt;pétantêes&lt;/font&gt;

==The Six Honorable Trades &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭês кîîta daartâes&lt;/font&gt;==
===1. ruler..&lt;font color=blue&gt;rêzus&lt;/font&gt;===
#prince.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱâltus&lt;/font&gt;
#duke.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;niiȝârĭus&lt;/font&gt;
#marquis..&lt;font color=blue&gt;morźârĭus&lt;/font&gt;
#count......&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙrââfus&lt;/font&gt;
#baron......&lt;font color=blue&gt;luðlârĭus&lt;/font&gt;
#mayor.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćímźënîîȝus&lt;/font&gt;

===2. healer..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝêêкus&lt;/font&gt;===
*priest.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;vlâϙmus&lt;/font&gt;
*physician..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝééxɱidââgus&lt;/font&gt;
**nurse..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtêrкus&lt;/font&gt;
*judge.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;mêdus&lt;/font&gt;
*herbalist..&lt;font color=blue&gt;vrudûûgus&lt;/font&gt;
*teacher....&lt;font color=blue&gt;dênſus&lt;/font&gt;
*sorcerer...&lt;font color=blue&gt;mâȝus&lt;/font&gt;

===3. food provider..&lt;font color=blue&gt;pââtus&lt;/font&gt;===
*farmer.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćêêrus&lt;/font&gt;
**vinedresser..&lt;font color=blue&gt;кúúftortââgus&lt;/font&gt;
*herder.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;êlnus&lt;/font&gt;
**apiarist..&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêȝus&lt;/font&gt;
*fisher......&lt;font color=blue&gt;pîſкus&lt;/font&gt;
*brewer....&lt;font color=blue&gt;âlŭus&lt;/font&gt;
**vintner..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱoînus&lt;/font&gt;
*hunter....&lt;font color=blue&gt;кêdus&lt;/font&gt;
*cook......&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêкŭus&lt;/font&gt;

===4. artisan..&lt;font color=blue&gt;кêrdus&lt;/font&gt;===
*painter.............&lt;font color=blue&gt;ćîɱus&lt;/font&gt;
**scribe.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêкus&lt;/font&gt;
**sculptor..&lt;font color=blue&gt;lâðus&lt;/font&gt; (stone)
**sculptor..&lt;font color=blue&gt;vîîrus&lt;/font&gt; (wood)
*weaver.............&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêvus&lt;/font&gt;
**basket maker...&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭâſĭus&lt;/font&gt;
*potter..............&lt;font color=blue&gt;lîîgus&lt;/font&gt;
**glassmaker..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêêlnus&lt;/font&gt;
*carpenter........&lt;font color=blue&gt;кŭøſus&lt;/font&gt;
**cooper..&lt;font color=blue&gt;víðus&lt;/font&gt;
*smith..............&lt;font color=blue&gt;têmus&lt;/font&gt;
**metalworker...&lt;font color=blue&gt;rúðſëtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**locksmith.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;árgërââgus&lt;/font&gt;
**tinsmith.........&lt;font color=blue&gt;álɱëtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**goldsmith......&lt;font color=blue&gt;áuſtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**coppersmith..&lt;font color=blue&gt;aȝtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**blacksmith....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ϙélħëtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**silversmith....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ǿǿźurtêmus&lt;/font&gt;
**jeweler.........&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêlnĭus&lt;/font&gt;

===5. merchant..&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêêrus&lt;/font&gt;===
*grocer.........&lt;font color=blue&gt;eðpêêrus&lt;/font&gt;
**tobacconist..&lt;font color=blue&gt;múxmuulââgus&lt;/font&gt;
**florist...........&lt;font color=blue&gt;anþââgus&lt;/font&gt;
*apothecary..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝéxtŭipêêrus&lt;/font&gt;
*baker..........&lt;font color=blue&gt;vôɱus&lt;/font&gt;
*clothier.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;óuþpêêrus&lt;/font&gt;
*trader..........&lt;font color=blue&gt;lîкus&lt;/font&gt;
*chandler......&lt;font color=blue&gt;lúxɱoxſââgus&lt;/font&gt;

===6. laborer..&lt;font color=blue&gt;dâârus&lt;/font&gt;===
*mason.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;ondââgus&lt;/font&gt;
**sawyer........&lt;font color=blue&gt;vêrðus&lt;/font&gt;
*cleaner....&lt;font color=blue&gt;vûϙus&lt;/font&gt;
*police......&lt;font color=blue&gt;rêкŭus&lt;/font&gt;
*miller......&lt;font color=blue&gt;mîîlus&lt;/font&gt;
*teamster..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſêêlкus&lt;/font&gt;
**sailor...........&lt;font color=blue&gt;nááuſââgus&lt;/font&gt;
**soldier.........&lt;font color=blue&gt;кôrĭus&lt;/font&gt;
**ferryman......&lt;font color=blue&gt;pêrmus&lt;/font&gt;
*miner.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;ħêɱȝus&lt;/font&gt;
**lumberjack..&lt;font color=blue&gt;кââlus&lt;/font&gt;

==The Six Entertaining Entertainers &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭês ɱêlpu ɱelpûes&lt;/font&gt;==
#poet........&lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱêlus&lt;/font&gt;
#musician..&lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭénźenćââgus&lt;/font&gt;
#bard........&lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭøðus&lt;/font&gt;
#dancer.....&lt;font color=blue&gt;nøtus&lt;/font&gt;
#mime.......&lt;font color=blue&gt;îmus&lt;/font&gt;
#actor........&lt;font color=blue&gt;lêdus&lt;/font&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Énnbe</title>
    <id>2700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46628</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-26T11:42:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>links: plosive &gt; stop</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Énnbe is a conlang under construction.

It has four vowels; '''a''', '''e''', '''i''' and '''u'''.

The lexicon is taken mainly from [[wikipedia:Sumerian|Sumerian]], [[wikipedia:Ket language|Ket]] and   [[wikipedia:Lakhota language|Lakhota]], althought romance languages, navaho, beothuck (month's names) have aswell influenced the language.

The grammar is a king of hybridization between sumerian, romance, lakhota and english grammars.

An example of the language;
'''Nubšuñízamutti hatnéwite núm lébej mé kasád ám yár. Tát táĥtetï ám ánm''' = In january two teachers ate poisonned fruit. They died within three days) ''(litt. October-in teachers two fruit with venom ate. Three days-in died)''

==Énnbe's consonants==
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
! colspan=17 | 
|-
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | Place of articulation →
! colspan=2 | Labial
! colspan=4 | Coronal
! colspan=4 | Dorsal
! colspan=4 | Radical
! colspan=2 | Glottal
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | Manner of articulation ↓
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Bilabial
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Labiodental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Dental
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Alveolar
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Postalveolar consonant
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Retroflex consonant
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Palatal consonant
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Velar
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Uvular
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Pharyngeal
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Epiglottal
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | Glottal
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Nasal
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular nasal|{{IPA|ɴ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Plosive
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |  [[voiced bilabial stop|{{IPA|b}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[voiceless alveolar stop|{{IPA|t}}]] [[voiced alveolar stop|{{IPA|d}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar stop|{{IPA|k}}]] [[voiced velar stop|{{IPA|g}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiced uvular stop|{{IPA|ɢ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 1em; background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Fricative consonant
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] [[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless dental fricative|{{IPA|θ}}]] [[voiced dental fricative|{{IPA|ð}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]] [[voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|ɣ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; |  
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Approximant
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Trill
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar trill|{{IPA|r}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Tap or Flap
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral Fricative
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral Approx­imant
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp; 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | 
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | Lateral Flap
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=3 | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}


[[Category:Énnbe|Ennbe en]][[Category:Conlangs|Ennbe en]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Keko dc</title>
    <id>2701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-10T13:56:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keko dc</username>
        <id>224</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I'm from Barcelona and my mother tongue is spanish, I speak catalan as my principal language, english, occitan and french. Soon I'll begin to study basque ang gallo (french britanny's romanic language).
I'm making my own conland, [[Énnbe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan fauna - mammals</title>
    <id>2702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45592</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-25T11:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=Classification=
*Domain &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱraadas&lt;/font&gt; - Eukaryota
**Kingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;stemvoras&lt;/font&gt; - Animalia
***Subkingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerstemvoras&lt;/font&gt; - Eumetazoa
****Superphylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Deuterostomia
*****Phylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Chordata &lt;font color=green&gt;gurnypentees&lt;/font&gt;
******Subphylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Vertebrata &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸĭoxmees&lt;/font&gt;
*******Superclass &lt;font color=blue&gt;upodegas&lt;/font&gt; - Tetrapoda
********Class &lt;font color=blue&gt;odegas&lt;/font&gt; - Mammalia &lt;font color=green&gt;papees&lt;/font&gt;
*********Subclass &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerodegas&lt;/font&gt;

†extinct

&lt;font color=red&gt;not found in original Urheimat&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=green&gt;above the species level&lt;/font&gt;

=[[Wikipedia:Prototheria|Prototheria]]=
==Monotremata==
*Ornithorhynchidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;platypus&lt;/font&gt; ''Ornithorhynchus anatinus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nabıpapes&lt;/font&gt;
*Tachyglossidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;echidna&lt;/font&gt;

=Theria &lt;font color=green&gt;ħŭerees&lt;/font&gt;=
==Metatheria &lt;font color=green&gt;maxmes&lt;/font&gt;==
*Didelphidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;opossum&lt;/font&gt;

*Phascolarctidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;koala&lt;/font&gt;

*Macropodidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;kangaroo&lt;/font&gt;

==Eutheria &lt;font color=green&gt;lenħymees&lt;/font&gt;==
*Orycteropodidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;aardvark&lt;/font&gt; ''Orycteropus afer'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;morɱøþćes&lt;/font&gt;

*Procaviidae
**hyrax ''Heterohyrax syriacus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸanpes&lt;/font&gt;
===Proboscidea===
*Mammutidae
**†mastodon ''Mammut borsoni'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸamaxres&lt;/font&gt;
*Elephantidae
**†woolly mammoth ''Mammuthus primigenius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭiȝes&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;African elephant&lt;/font&gt; ''Loxodonta africana'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħȝeentes&lt;/font&gt;
**Asian elephant ''Elephas maximus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝeentes&lt;/font&gt;

===Sirenia===
*Dugongidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;dugong&lt;/font&gt; ''Dugong dugon'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;iimoorarĭes&lt;/font&gt;
*Trichechidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;West African manatee&lt;/font&gt; ''Trichechus senegalensis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;moorɱaĸes&lt;/font&gt;

===Xenarthra===
*Dasypodidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;armadillo&lt;/font&gt; ''Dasypus sp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarĸyles&lt;/font&gt;
*Myrmecophagidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;giant anteater&lt;/font&gt; ''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;morɱyźefes&lt;/font&gt;
*Megalonychidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;sloths&lt;/font&gt; ''Bradypus spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸĭoomøþćes&lt;/font&gt;

===Primates &lt;font color=green&gt;manmervees&lt;/font&gt;===
*Cercopithecoidea
**Cercopithicidae &lt;font color=blue&gt;abees&lt;/font&gt;
***langur monkey ''Semnopithecus spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;muȝćes&lt;/font&gt;
*Hominoidea &lt;font color=blue&gt;avźees&lt;/font&gt;
**Hominidae
***Ponginae
****&lt;font color=red&gt;orangutan&lt;/font&gt; ''Pongo'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðɱerſyĸaþmanes&lt;/font&gt;
***Homininae
****&lt;font color=red&gt;gorilla&lt;/font&gt; ''G. gorilla'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerſyĸaþmanes&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;chimpanzee&lt;/font&gt; ''Pan troglodytes'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerĸaþmanles&lt;/font&gt;
****aeran
****pyran
****hydoran 
****human ''Homo sapiens'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ertĭônus, manus&lt;/font&gt;
****xylan
****lithan ''Homunculus montanus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ondĭonus&lt;/font&gt;

===Rodentia &lt;font color=green&gt;ϙraſees&lt;/font&gt;===
*Hystricidae
**Indian porcupine ''Hystrix indica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸelſyϙraſes&lt;/font&gt;
*Castoridae
**European beaver ''Castor fiber'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;vevres&lt;/font&gt;
*Sciuridae
**Sciurinae
***Sciurini
****Eurasian red squirrel ''Sciurus vulgaris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiɱeres&lt;/font&gt; 
***Pteromyini
****flying squirrel ''Pteromys volans'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dĭarĭes&lt;/font&gt;
***Marmotini
****Bobak marmot ''Marmota bobak'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðiðebes&lt;/font&gt;
****tarbagan marmot ''Marmota sibirica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tarbes&lt;/font&gt;
****suslik ''Spermophilus citellis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dorĸes&lt;/font&gt;
****European ground squirrel ''Spermophilus citellus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭuźaĸes&lt;/font&gt;
****Siberian chipmunk ''Tamias sibericus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;eelɱiɱeres&lt;/font&gt;
*Gliridae
**fat dormouse ''G. glis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;giiles&lt;/font&gt;
*Dipodidae
**Caucasian birch mouse ''Sicista caucasica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aliĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Cricetidae
**Cricetinae
***common hamster ''C. cricetus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;łomeſtores&lt;/font&gt;
**Arvicolinae
***Ondatrini
****&lt;font color=red&gt;muskrat&lt;/font&gt; ''Ondathra zibetica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćumpes&lt;/font&gt;
***Arvicolini
****water vole ''Arvicola amphibius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;uϙruϙnes&lt;/font&gt;
***Lemmini
****Norway lemming ''L. lemmus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;maxſes&lt;/font&gt;
*Muridae
**house mouse ''Mus musculus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;muuſes&lt;/font&gt;
**brown rat ''Rattus norvegicus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭoɱes&lt;/font&gt;

===Lagomorpha===
*Leporidae
**rabbit ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;bĭeɱnes&lt;/font&gt; 
**mountain hare ''Lepus timidus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaamros&lt;/font&gt;
**European hare ''Lepus europaeus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaſes&lt;/font&gt;
**arctic hare ''Lepus arcticus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;uĸarĭes&lt;/font&gt;
*Ochotonidae
**pika ''Ochotona spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;mĭondes&lt;/font&gt;

===Erinaceomorpha===
*Erinaceidae
**European hedgehog ''Erinaceus europaeus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;eħines&lt;/font&gt;

===Soricomorpha===
*Soricidae
**European shrew ''Sorex araneus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoraĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Talpidae
**European mole ''Talpa europaea''

===Chiroptera &lt;font color=green&gt;vaapales&lt;/font&gt;===

===Pholidota===
*Manidae
**Chinese pangolin ''Manis pentadactyla'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;fenſes&lt;/font&gt;

===Cetacea &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸŭalees&lt;/font&gt;===
*Mysticeti
**&lt;font color=red&gt;humpback whale&lt;/font&gt; ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸipuĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Odontoceti
**Delphinidae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;killer whale&lt;/font&gt; ''Orcinus orca'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aϙluϙes&lt;/font&gt;
**Monodontidae
***beluga ''Delphinapterus leucas'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćituros&lt;/font&gt;

===Carnivora===
====Feliformia====
*Felidae
**Felinae
***cheetah ''Acnonyx jubatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nibes&lt;/font&gt;
***wild cat ''Felis chaus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;males&lt;/font&gt; 
***European wildcat ''Felis silvestris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiſles&lt;/font&gt;
***domestic cat ''Felis catus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiſlyĸes&lt;/font&gt;
***Eurasian lynx ''L. lynx'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;lunges&lt;/font&gt;
***&lt;font color=red&gt;cougar&lt;/font&gt; ''Puma concolor'' 
**Pantherinae
***clouded leopard ''Neofelis nebulosa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſronges&lt;/font&gt;
***†Eurasian cave lion ''Panthera leo spelaea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſinϙes&lt;/font&gt;
***&lt;font color=red&gt;jaguar&lt;/font&gt; ''Panthera onca ''
***leopard ''Panthera pardus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝarges&lt;/font&gt;
***†Caspian tiger ''Panthera tigris virgata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðĸeȝes&lt;/font&gt;
***Siberian tiger ''Panthera tigris altaica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tĭunges&lt;/font&gt; 
***snow leopard ''Panthera uncia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ziĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Herpestidae
**mongoose ''Herpestes sp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;bavres&lt;/font&gt;
*Hyaenidae
**Hyaeninae
***hyena ''Crocuta spelaea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;bĭones&lt;/font&gt;
**Protelinae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;aardwolf&lt;/font&gt; ''Proteles cristata'' 
*Viverridae
**small palm civet ''Viverricula indica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;puzunges&lt;/font&gt;

====Caniformia====
*Canidae
**red fox ''V. vulpes'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;puĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**Tibetan fox ''Vulpes ferrilata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dĭuvles&lt;/font&gt;
**Corsac fox ''Vulpes corsac'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarſes&lt;/font&gt;
**common gray fox ''Urocyan cinereoargenteus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱlopećes&lt;/font&gt;
**arctic fox ''Alopex lagopus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸanĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**racoon dog ''Nyctereutes procyonoides'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝantes&lt;/font&gt;
**golden jackal ''Canis aureus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;lupes&lt;/font&gt;
**wolf ''Canis lupus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱelĸŭes&lt;/font&gt;
**dog, hound ''Canis familiaris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭones&lt;/font&gt;
*Ursidae
**black bear ''Ursus arctos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;øþćes&lt;/font&gt;
**grizzly bear ''Ursus arctos horribilis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;taĸuĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**Asian black bear ''Ursus thibetanus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝaźes&lt;/font&gt;
**polar bear ''Ursus maritimus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nanŭes&lt;/font&gt;
**sloth bear ''Melursus ursinus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarades&lt;/font&gt;
*Ailuridae
*Procyonidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;racoon&lt;/font&gt; ''Procyon lotor'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;loɱøþćes&lt;/font&gt;
*Mephitidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;hooded skunk&lt;/font&gt; ''M. mephitis''
*Mustelidae
**stoat, ermine ''Mustela erminea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸormenes&lt;/font&gt;
**least weasel ''Mustela nivalis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸeĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**mink ''Mustela l. lutreola'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸeſles&lt;/font&gt;
**kolinsky, Siberian weasel ''Mustela sibirica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſoluĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**polecat, fitchew ''Mustela p. putorius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeħes&lt;/font&gt;
**pine marten ''M. martes'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;veleɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**sable ''Martes zibellina'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;balŭes&lt;/font&gt;
**European badger ''M. meles'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;varĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**wolverine ''G. gulo'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;borſes&lt;/font&gt;
**European otter ''L. lutra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;uðres&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;sea otter&lt;/font&gt; ''Enhydra lutris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;mooruðres&lt;/font&gt;
*Otariidae
*Odobenidae
**walrus ''Odobenus rosmarus laptevi'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aȝveϙes
*Phocidae
**bearded seal ''Erignatus barbatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;maxles&lt;/font&gt;
**Caspian seal ''Pusa caspica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſelĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**Baikal seal ''Pusa sibirica''
**ringed seal ''Pusa hispida'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;narȝes&lt;/font&gt;
**ribbon seal ''Phoca fasciata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸariϙes&lt;/font&gt;

===Perissodactyla===
*Equidae
**Przewalski's horse ''Equus ferus przewalskii'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ećŭes&lt;/font&gt;
**tarpan ''Equus f. ferus''
**[domestic] donkey, ass ''Equus asinus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸunges&lt;/font&gt;
**onager ''Equus hemionus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;lemres&lt;/font&gt;
**kulan ''Equus hemionus luteus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸulmes&lt;/font&gt;
*Rhinocerotidae
**Rhinocerotinae
***†woolly rhinoceros ''Coelodonta antiquitatis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸirſes&lt;/font&gt;
***Indian rhinoceros ''Rhinoceros unicornis''  &lt;font color=blue&gt;vpilĸirſes&lt;/font&gt;
**Elasmotheriinae
***†elasmotherium ''Elasmotherium sibiricum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸirſyźes&lt;/font&gt;

===Artiodactyla &lt;font color=green&gt;ſŭuðmêes&lt;/font&gt;===
*Suina
**Suidae
***Phacochoerinae
****&lt;font color=red&gt;common warthog&lt;/font&gt; ''Phacocoerus africanus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱerdeperes&lt;/font&gt;
***Suinae
****wild swine ''Sus scrofa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;eperes&lt;/font&gt;
****[domestic] pig, hog, swine ''Sus scrofa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;porćes&lt;/font&gt;
**Hippopotamidae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;hippopotamus&lt;/font&gt; ''Hippopotamus amphibius''
**Tayassuidae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;peccary&lt;/font&gt;
*Tylopoda
**Camelidae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;Bactrian camel&lt;/font&gt; ''Camelus bactrianus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tibenges&lt;/font&gt; 
*Ruminantia &lt;font color=green&gt;ruſmees&lt;/font&gt;
**Moschidae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;Siberian musk deer&lt;/font&gt; ''Moschus moschiferus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;źifes&lt;/font&gt;
**Cervidae &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝorĸees&lt;/font&gt;
***Cervinae
****red deer ''Cervus elaphus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;elneves&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;maral&lt;/font&gt; ''Cervus canadiensis sibiricus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;mules&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;sambar&lt;/font) ''Cervus unicolor'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dĭuĸes&lt;/font&gt;
****fallow deer ''D. dama'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;erĭes&lt;/font&gt;
****†giant deer ''Megaloceros giganteus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;vrendes&lt;/font&gt;
***Muntiacinae
****&lt;font color=red&gt;muntjac&lt;/font&gt; ''Muntiacus muntjak'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gores&lt;/font&gt;
***Capreolinae
****moose ''A. alces'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;olćes&lt;/font&gt;
****roe deer ''C. capreolus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;roićes&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;Siberian roe deer&lt;/font&gt; ''Capreolus pygargus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸotes&lt;/font&gt;
****caribou ''Rangifer tarandus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸuntes&lt;/font&gt;
**Antilocapridae
***&lt;font color=red&gt;pronghorn&lt;/font&gt; ''Antilocapra americana''
**Bovidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ɱaxɱees&lt;/font&gt;
***Alcelaphinae
****†unicorn ''Alcelaphus monoceros'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;iźes&lt;/font&gt;
***Antilopinae &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooſmaxmes&lt;/font&gt; antelope
****saiga ''Saiga tatarica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;diϙes&lt;/font&gt;
****†winged antelope ''Megadorcas volans'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;marĸes&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;black buck&lt;/font&gt; ''Antilope cervicapra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;źinĸes&lt;/font&gt;
***Bovinae
****wisent, bison ''Bison bonasus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱiſontes&lt;/font&gt;
****†aurochs ''Bos primigenius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħȝunŭes&lt;/font&gt;
****yak ''Bos grunniens'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaxtes&lt;/font&gt;
****cow ''Bos taurus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝunŭes&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;water buffalo&lt;/font&gt; ''Bubalus bubalis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;udes&lt;/font&gt;
***Caprinae
****bezoar ibex ''Capra aegagrus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħades&lt;/font&gt;
****tur ''Capra caucasica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸites&lt;/font&gt;
****musk ox ''Ovibos moschatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;źifɱaĸes&lt;/font&gt;
****argali ''Ovis a. ammon'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;oɱes&lt;/font&gt;
****domestic sheep ''Ovis aries'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pećŭes&lt;/font&gt;
****&lt;font color=red&gt;bighorn&lt;/font&gt; ''Ovis canadensis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;efnagĭes&lt;/font&gt;
****alpine chamois ''Rupricapra r. caucasica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſiiles&lt;/font&gt;
***Hippotraginae
****&lt;font color=red&gt;oryx&lt;/font&gt; ''Oryx leucoryx'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭares&lt;/font&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Xliponian</title>
    <id>2703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13581</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-12T19:20:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kyrmse</username>
        <id>225</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=The Xliponian Language=

by

&lt;center&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Institut Lingistic Bovlai'''

'''Bovlai Institute of Linguistics'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[http://www.geocities.com/xliponia/Foxlo.mp3 '''''Foxlo sin serm est foxlo sin hor''''']&lt;/center&gt;

==A Brief Introduction==


Xliponian (the letter '''x''' is pronounced [&amp;#643;]) is an Indo-European language spoken almost exclusively in the Kingdom of [[IBWiki:Xliponia|Xliponia]]. It is derived from the vulgar Latin of the Roman imperial conquerors who occupied the region in the early centuries of the Common Era. The main feature that distinguishes Xliponian from other Romance languages is the soundshift suffered very early by some consonantal sounds. The labials, velars and dentals of the original (vulgar) Latin were transformed as follows:


&lt;center&gt;[b] &gt; [p] &gt; [f] &gt; [v] &gt; [b]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[g] &gt; [k] &gt; [x] &gt; [g]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[d] &gt; [t] &gt; [ts] &gt; [z] &gt; [d]&lt;/center&gt;


(The [x] sound – as in German ''Bach'' – is currently written as '''h'''; the [ts] sound is written '''ç''')

This ''Lautverschiebung'' affected word-initial consonants, but not all, and some medial and (to a lesser extent) final consonants were also shifted.


The alphabet – with pronunciations – is as follows:


&lt;center&gt;'''a b c''' ([k]) '''ç''' ([ts]) '''d e f g h''' ([h] or [x] according to position and dialect)&lt;/center&gt;

&lt;center&gt;'''i j''' ([ʒ]*) '''k'''* '''l m n o p q''' ([t&amp;#643;]) '''r s t u v w'''* '''x''' ([&amp;#643;]) '''y'''* '''z'''&lt;/center&gt;

(*) in foreign or dialectal words


The [&amp;#643;] sound – written '''x''' – derives mainly from the Latin word-initial clusters [kl], [fl], [pl], which became [&amp;#643;l]. Xliponian '''q''' comes to a large extent from Latin ''x''.


Another characteristic aspect of Xliponian phonology is diphthongisation. The main vowel of the original Latin word becomes affected by that of the ending, generating evolutions like L ''panem'' &gt; Xl '''fain''', and likewise ''cantus'' &gt; '''haunt''', ''salix'' &gt; '''sailq'''. Latin ''ae'' and ''oe'' became '''ai''' and '''oi''' respectively.


The stress pattern is generally as follows: words ending in vowels are stressed on the penultimate, and words ending in consonants on the ultimate.


As an example, the numerals from 1 to 10 are as follows in Modern Xliponian:


&lt;center&gt;'''on – tou – çers – hautor – henc – seq – seft – ohto – nou – teih'''&lt;/center&gt;

==100-Word Swadesh List==

{|
| I || you || we || this || that || who? || what? || no&lt;small&gt;(t)&lt;/small&gt; || all || a lot
|-
| '''eco''' || '''çu''' || '''nos''' || '''ete''' || '''ate''' || '''hi?''' || '''hu?''' || '''non''' || '''çot''' || '''mux'''
|-
| one || two || big || long || small || human || man || woman || fish || bird
|-
| '''on''' || '''tou''' || '''maun''' || '''lonc''' || '''eqic''' || '''om''' || '''om''' || '''vemma''' || '''fiq''' || '''aib'''
|-
| dog || louse || tree || seed || leaf || root || &lt;small&gt;(tree-)&lt;/small&gt;bark || skin || meat || blood
|-
| '''hain''' || '''fetixlo''' || '''arpor''' || '''semm''' || '''voil''' || '''raqi''' || '''horçeq''' || '''huiç''' || '''haur''' || '''sainc'''
|-
| bone || &lt;small&gt;(body-)&lt;/small&gt;fat || egg || head || horn || tail || feather || hair || ear || eye
|-
| '''oq''' || '''atef''' || '''oub''' || '''hauf''' || '''hourn''' || '''hauta''' || '''fena''' || '''hirn''' || '''auri''' || '''ouhul'''
|-
| nose || mouth || tooth || tongue || &lt;small&gt;(finger-)&lt;/small&gt;nail || leg || knee || hand || stomach || neck
|-
| '''naus''' || '''puca''' || '''teint''' || '''lincua''' || '''unca''' || '''hurs''' || '''ceun''' || '''main''' || '''bentr''' || '''houl'''
|-
| breast || heart || liver || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; drink || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; eat || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; bite || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; see || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; hear || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; know || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; sleep
|-
| '''feq''' || '''hor''' || '''iecro''' || '''piper''' || '''mauncar''' || '''moirer''' || '''biter''' || '''auter''' || '''qier''' || '''tormer'''
|-
| &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; die || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; kill || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; swim || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; fly || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; go || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; come || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; lie &lt;small&gt;(down)&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; sit || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; stand || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; give
|-
| '''morer''' || '''oqider''' || '''naçar''' || '''bolar''' || '''eçir''' || '''bener''' || '''humper''' || '''asiter''' || '''star''' || '''tonar'''
|-
| &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; say || sun || moon || star || water || rain || stone || sand || earth || cloud
|-
| '''tiqer''' || '''soil''' || '''luna''' || '''qela''' || '''acua''' || '''xluib''' || '''saq''' || '''aren''' || '''teir''' || '''nupe'''
|-
| smoke || fire || ash || &lt;small&gt;to&lt;/small&gt; burn || road || mountain || red || green || yellow || white
|-
| '''vum''' || '''inci''' || '''hin''' || '''arter''' || '''bia''' || '''monn''' || '''ruper''' || '''biret''' || '''valb''' || '''alp'''
|-
| black || night || hot || cold || full || new || good || round || dry || name
|-
| '''nicer''' || '''noq''' || '''halit''' || '''virc''' || '''xleun''' || '''noub''' || '''poun''' || '''roçunn''' || '''siq''' || '''noim'''
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Some Points of Grammar==

===Plurals of Nouns and Adjectives===

&lt;center&gt;
{|
|''sg.''|| -a&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || -e || -i || -o || -u || -C&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|''pl.''|| -e || -i || -i || -o || -i || -Ci
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; mainly for feminine nouns and adjectives&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; C = consonant

===Personal Pronouns===

&lt;center&gt;
{|
| ||'''Nom.'''||'''Acc.'''||'''Dat.'''||'''Gen.'''
|-
|''1s''||eco||me||mi||mei (''fem.'' mea)
|-
|''2s''||çu||çe||çi||çei (''fem.'' çea)
|-
|''3s masc.''||to||te||ten||tei (''fem.'' tea)
|-
|''3s fem.''||la||le||len||lei (''fem.'' lea)
|-
|''3refl.''||om||se||si||sei (''fem.'' sea)
|-
|''1p''||nos||nos||nos||nosser
|-
|''2p''||bos||bos||bos||bosser
|-
|''3p''||li||tem||tem||tenen
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

===Verbal Paradigms===

&lt;small&gt;(Alternative verbal forms in parentheses)&lt;/small&gt;

'''Eser''' &quot;to be&quot; - also auxiliary verb for imperfect (with '''a''' + infinitive of main verb) and for passive voice (with participle of main verb)
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|'''''Person'''''||'''Present'''||'''Perfect'''||'''Imperfect'''||'''Future'''||'''Conditional/&lt;br&gt;Subjunctive'''||'''Infinitive&lt;br&gt;Participle&lt;br&gt;Gerund&lt;br&gt;Imperative'''
|-
|''1s''||sui||vui||erm||gabo eser||sei||eser
|-
|''2s''||es||vus||ers||gabes eser||sei||esut
|-
|''3s''||est||vut||ert||gabet eser||sei||esenn
|-
|''1p''||sum||vum||eram||gabem eser||sin||ei (''pl.'' eit)
|-
|''2p''||eis||vuis||erat||gabeis eser||sin|| 
|-
|''3p''||sunn||vunn||erann||gabenn eser||sin|| 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


'''Gaber''' &quot;to have&quot; - also auxiliary verb for future (with infinitive of main verb)
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|'''''Person'''''||'''Present'''||'''Perfect'''||'''Imperfect'''||'''Future'''||'''Conditional/&lt;br&gt;Subjunctive'''||'''Infinitive&lt;br&gt;Participle&lt;br&gt;Gerund&lt;br&gt;Imperative'''
|-
|''1s''||gabo||gabui||erm a gaber||gabo gaber||gabei||gaber
|-
|''2s''||gabes||gabis||ers a gaber||gabes gaber||gabei||gabut
|-
|''3s''||gabet||gabit||ert a gaber||gabet gaber||gabei||gabenn
|-
|''1p''||gabem||gabuim&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(gaberam)&lt;/small&gt;||eram a gaber||gabem gaber||gabin||gabi (''pl.'' gabit)
|-
|''2p''||gabeis||gabuis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(gaberas)&lt;/small&gt;||eirm a gaber||gabeis gaber||gabin|| 
|-
|''3p''||gabenn||gabuinn&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(gaberann)&lt;/small&gt;||erann a gaber||gabenn gaber||gabin|| 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


'''Mauncar''' &quot;to eat&quot; - paradigm for verbs in '''-ar'''
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|'''''Person'''''||'''Present'''||'''Perfect'''||'''Imperfect'''||'''Future'''||'''Conditional/&lt;br&gt;Subjunctive'''||'''Infinitive&lt;br&gt;Participle&lt;br&gt;Gerund&lt;br&gt;Imperative'''
|-
|''1s''||maunco||mauncui||erm a mauncar||gabo mauncar||mauncai||mauncar
|-
|''2s''||mauncas||mauncis||ers a mauncar||gabes mauncar||mauncai||mauncut
|-
|''3s''||mauncat||mauncit||ert a mauncar||gabet mauncar||mauncai||mauncann
|-
|''1p''||mauncam||mauncim&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mauncaram)&lt;/small&gt;||eram a mauncar||gabem mauncar||mauncin||maunci (''pl.'' mauncit)
|-
|''2p''||mauncais||mauncuis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mauncaras)&lt;/small&gt;||eirm a mauncar||gabeis mauncar||mauncin|| 
|-
|''3p''||mauncann||mauncinn&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mauncarann)&lt;/small&gt;||erann a mauncar||gabenn mauncar||mauncin|| 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


'''Piper''' &quot;to drink&quot; - paradigm for verbs in '''-er''' and '''ir'''
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|'''''Person'''''||'''Present'''||'''Perfect'''||'''Imperfect'''||'''Future'''||'''Conditional/&lt;br&gt;Subjunctive'''||'''Infinitive&lt;br&gt;Participle&lt;br&gt;Gerund&lt;br&gt;Imperative'''
|-
|''1s''||pipo||pipui||erm a piper||gabo piper||pipei||piper
|-
|''2s''||pipes||pipis||ers a piper||gabes piper||pipei||piput
|-
|''3s''||pipet||pipit||ert a piper||gabet piper||pipei||pipenn
|-
|''1p''||pipem||pipim&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(piperam)&lt;/small&gt;||eram a piper||gabem piper||pipin||pipi (''pl.'' pipit)
|-
|''2p''||pipeis||pipuis&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(piperas)&lt;/small&gt;||eirm a piper||gabeis piper||pipin|| 
|-
|''3p''||pipenn||pipinn&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(piperann)&lt;/small&gt;||erann a piper||gabenn piper||pipin|| 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

===Some Useful Expressions and Words===
(''to be expanded'')

See [[IBWiki:Xliponian for Travellers|Xliponian for Travellers]]

&lt;small&gt;

''a'' = of (genitive / possessive relation); 
''a res a'' = because of; 
''ac'' = and; 
''aciç'' = thus; 
''ad'' = to (destination); 
''alihit'' = something; 
''atte'' = thence; 
''au'' = or; 
''auçem'' = then; 
''cunne'' = therewith; 
''de'' = by (passive voice); 
''eh'' = behold, lo!; 
''eq'' = out of; 
''ete'' = this; 
''eti'' = these; 
''fer'' = for (as in exchanging ... for ...); 
''fro'' = for (before noun); 
''ha'' = that; 
''hihumme'' = any; 
''hirha'' = about; 
''hom'' = as (in the manner of); 
''hui'' = whose; 
''ihirc'' = therefore; 
''ilo'' = that one; 
''in'' = in; 
''inte'' = therein; 
''item'' = (the) same; 
''non'' = not; 
''omoto'' = nonetheless; 
''ot'' = for, in order to, so that (before verb); 
''set'' = but;
''si'' = if;
''sihuç'' = in any way; 
''sin'' = without; 
''sufra'' = on top of, about
&lt;/small&gt;

===Names of the Letters of the Alphabet===
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|'''A''' [a:]&lt;br&gt;'''B''' [be:]&lt;br&gt;'''C''' [ke:]&lt;br&gt;'''Ç''' [tse:]&lt;br&gt;'''D''' [de:]&lt;br&gt;'''E''' [e:]&lt;br&gt;'''F''' [ɛf]&lt;br&gt;'''G''' [ge:]&lt;br&gt;'''H''' [ha:]
||
|'''I''' [i:]&lt;br&gt;'''J''' [ʒi:]&lt;br&gt;'''K''' [ka:]&lt;br&gt;'''L''' [ɛl]&lt;br&gt;'''M''' [ɛm]&lt;br&gt;'''N''' [ɛn]&lt;br&gt;'''O''' [o:]&lt;br&gt;'''P''' [pe:]&lt;br&gt;'''Q''' [tʃe:]
||
|'''R''' [ɛr]&lt;br&gt;'''S''' [ɛs]&lt;br&gt;'''T''' [te:]&lt;br&gt;'''U''' [u:]&lt;br&gt;'''V''' [ve:]&lt;br&gt;'''W''' [vetu'flɛtʃ]&lt;br&gt;'''X''' [ʃi:]&lt;br&gt;'''Y''' [i'krajx]&lt;br&gt;'''Z''' [ze:]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

===Archaic Spelling===
Xliponian spelling was regularised in the mid-19th century. Before that, two main alternative spelling modes were in effect beside the present one. They may still be seen in ancient texts and inscriptions.

They are the ''Latinate'' and the ''Venedate'' spelling, based respectively on those used by several other Romance languages, and on Wenedyk. The main differences from the present mode are as follows [noted as Present &lt; Latinate; Venedate]:

*c &lt; k; k
*v &lt; v; w
*i &lt; j [initial; both modes]
*f &lt; ph [initial; both modes]
*i &lt; y [before another vowel]; i
*x &lt; sc; sz
*ç &lt; th; c
*q &lt; ch; cz
*h &lt; h; ch [when sounded as German ''ich-Laut'' or ''ach-Laut'']

Sometimes a circumflex or a tilde was written over ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'' for ''au'', ''eu'', ''iu'', ''ou'';&lt;br&gt;
Sometimes an acute or a macron was written above a vowel preceding a doubled consonant (which was then spelled single).

=The Babel Text in Xliponian=

{|
!1||In||çer||ert||on||serm||ac||on||mot||lincui.
|-
| ||In||earth||was [''3rd sg.'']||one||language||and||one||way||[of] tongues.
|}
{|
!2||Vut||ha||salirinn||de||orient||ac||inbeninn
|-
| ||[It] was||that||they went out||from||east||and||they found
|}
{|
! ||hamp||in||çer||Xinar||ac||apiçarinn||inte.
|-
| ||field / plain||in||land||Shinar||and||they dwelt||therein.
|}
{|
!3||Ac||tiqit||om||ad||om,||benit,||vahem||laçri
|-
| ||And||said [''3rd sg.'']||man||to||man,||come [''2nd pl.'']||let us make||bricks
|}
{|
! ||ac||hocuim||tem||in||inci||ac||gabuinn||laçri||hom||saqi
|-
| ||and||let us bake||them||in||fire||and||they had||bricks||as||stones
|}
{|
! ||ac||peçuim||hom||himenn.
|-
| ||and||slime||for||mortar.
|}
{|
!4||Ac||tiqirann,||benit,||vahem||nos||hibiçait||ac||çur
|-
| ||And||they said,||come [''2nd pl.''],||let us make||us||city||and||tower
|}
{|
! ||hui||hulmin||fertincit||ad||hail||ac||heliprem||noim||nosser
|-
| ||whose||top||may reach||to||heaven||and||let us celebrate||name||our
|}
{|
! ||ot||non||sin||tibituti||in||çeri||çoti.
|-
| ||so that||not||we be||scattered||in||lands||all.
|}
{|
!5||Auçem||teqinnit||Tomen||ot||biter||hibiçait||ac||çur
|-
| ||Then||came down [''3rd sg.'']||the Lord||so that||see||city||and||tower
|}
{|
! ||ha||aiçficarann||vili||Adam.
|-
| ||that||built [''3rd pl.]''||sons||[of] Adam.
|}
{|
!6||Ac||tiqit,||eh||foxlo||est||on||ac||serm||tenen||est||on,
|-
| ||And||said [''3rd sg.''],||behold||people||is||one||and||language||their||is||one,
|}
{|
! ||ac||ete||hoifrinn||vaher,||ac||non||gabenn tesistir||a||çot||ha||hocitann||vaher.
|-
| ||and||this||they have begun||do,||and||not||they will give up||from||all||that||they think||do.
|}
{|
!7||Eh||benit||teqinnem||ac||hofunnem||ipi||serm||tenen
|-
| ||Behold||come [''2nd pl.'']||let us go down||and||let us confound||there||language||their
|}
{|
! ||ot||non||gabet autir||om||lincu||a||om.
|-
| ||so that||not||shall hear [''3rd sg.'']||man||tongue||of||man.
|}
{|
!8||Aciç||tibitit||tem||Tomen||eq||loh||ilo||ad||çeri||çoti
|-
| ||Thus||scattered [''3rd sg.'']||them||the Lord||out of||place||that||in||lands||all
|}
{|
! ||ac||hesarann||aiçficar||hibiçait.
|-
| ||and||they ceased||build||city.
|}
{|
!9||Ac||ihirc||noim||tenen||est||bohut||Babel||a res a||ipi
|-
| ||And||therefore||name||their||is||called||Babel||because||there
|}
{|
! ||honvusit||Tomen||serm||a||çer||çot||ac||atte
|-
| ||confused||the Lord||language||of||earth||all||and||thence
|}
{|
! ||Tomen||sfirsit||tem||sufra||vaih||a||çer||çot.
|-
| ||the Lord||scattered||them||upon||face||of||earth||all.
|}


''[Modern Xliponian Version]''

=Tintin Titles as Pointers to Xliponian Pronunciation=


Interest for Tintin in Xliponia was fuelled by the Syldavian adventure (a ''roman à clef'' of sorts), and translations into the Xliponian language started in 1940, always published by Bernard &amp; Croll. The main characters are called ''Tintin'', ''Milu'', ''Capitan Hadoc'', ''Profesor Trifon Geliçorf'', ''Carol ac Karol''.

The titles of the Xliponian books (''Abençuri a Tintin'' [aben'tsurjə tin'tin] - ''a'' “of” normally pronounced as schwa) are pronounced as follows:

{|
! Title || IPA || Remark
|-
|''Tintin in Çer SNOR'' || T. [in tsɛr snɔr] || 1
|-
|''Tintin in Kongo'' || T. [iŋ 'koŋgo] || 2
|-
|''Tintin in America'' || T. [in ame'rika] ||
|-
|''Çigari a Faraon'' || [tsi'garjə fara'on] || 3
|-
|''Lotus Hairul'' || [lo'tus haj'rul] || 4
|-
|''Auri Vracut'' || ['awri vra'kut] ||
|-
|''Insul Nicer'' || [in'sul ni'ker] || 5
|-
|''Çeptro a Ottokar'' || ['tsɛptrwə ot:o'kar] || 6
|-
|''Hancri a Unci Aurosi'' || ['haŋkrjə 'uŋki aw'rosi] || 7
|-
|''Qela Misteriosa'' || ['tʃɛla misteri'osa] || 8
|-
|''Sehret a Onhourn'' || [se'xretə on'howrn] || 9
|-
|''Çesaur a Rackham Ruper'' || [tse'sawrə rak'ham ru'per] ||
|-
|''Seft Pulli a Cristal'' || [sɛft 'pul:jə kris'tal] ||
|-
|''Çempl a Soil'' || ['tsɛmplə sojl] || 4
|-
|''Tintin in Çer a Auro Nicer'' || T. [in 'tsɛrə 'awro ni'ker] ||
|-
|''Sohp Luna'' || [soxp 'luna] || 9
|-
|''Ammularann sufra Luna'' || [am:ula'ran: 'sufra 'luna] ||
|-
|''Hauz Geliçorf'' || [hawz geli'tsɔrf] || 10
|-
|''Coc in Stoc'' || [kɔk in stɔk] ||
|-
|''Tintin in Tibet'' || T. [in ti'bet] ||
|-
|''Ornammi a Castafiore'' || [or'nam:jə kastafi'ore] ||
|-
|''Bol 714 ad Sednîr'' || [bɔl sɛftɔnhaw'tor ad sed'ni:r] || 11
|-
|''Tintin ac Picaros'' || T. [ak 'pikaros] || 12
|-
|''Tintin ac Alf-Art'' || T. [ak alf'art] ||
|}

Remarks:&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;
1  ''e'', ''o'' in monosyllables are normally [ɛ], [ɔ]&lt;br&gt;
2  ''nk'', ''ng'' are sounded with [ŋ] even across word boundaries&lt;br&gt;
3  Stressed ''o'' before a single consonant is sounded [o]&lt;br&gt;
4  The diphthongs are: ''ai'' [aj], ''ei'' [ej], ''oi'' [oj], ''ui'' [uj], ''au'' [aw], ''eu'' [ew], ''iu'' [iw], ''ou'' [ow]&lt;br&gt;
5  Stressed ''e'' before a single consonant is sounded [e]&lt;br&gt;
6  Stressed ''e'' before more than one consonant is sounded [ɛ]; doubly-written consonants are pronounced long (even in foreign words)&lt;br&gt;
7  ''s'' is always sounded [s]&lt;br&gt;
8  ''io'' is no diphthong&lt;br&gt;
9  ''h'' sounds as [h] or [x] depending on environment&lt;br&gt;
10 Stressed ''o'' before more than one consonant is sounded [ɔ]&lt;br&gt;
11 ''e'' (from ''seft'') and ''o'' (from ''on'') in the composite ''seftonhautor'' &quot;seven-one-four&quot; remain [ɛ] and [ɔ] as in the respective single words; “714” may also be pronounced [sɛft'hɛn: hawtor'tex] (''sefthenn hautorteh'' &quot;seven hundred fourteen&quot;)&lt;br&gt;
12 Foreign pronunciation of ''Picaros''&lt;/small&gt;


=See also=
*[[IBWiki:Xliponian for Travellers|Xliponian for Travellers]]
*[[IBWiki:Xliponia:_Non-Latin_Scripts|The name of Xliponia in non-Latin scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Kyrmse</title>
    <id>2704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-12T19:28:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kyrmse</username>
        <id>225</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;center&gt;http://www.geocities.com/xliponia/RK-Bovlai.jpg&lt;br&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Ronald Kyrmse'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;
In Bovlai Beut | Na Velha Bovlai | In Old Bovlai | In Alt-Bovlai | En Malnova Bovlai | In Oud Bovlai&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

{|
|RK est ''Chargé d'Affaires'' Xleunifoçeqal a '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Hoimtat Xliponia]]''', fraiçeire curator a Resfuplici '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Brasil]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Equador]]''' ac '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''', ac a '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|Union Lusoamerican]]'''. Qudit biça ac ofera a J.R.R.Tolkien tum hautrafars a saihol, ac est autor a [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''] &lt;small&gt;(in Portucalic)&lt;/small&gt;.
||
RK é ''Chargé d'Affaires'' Plenipotenciário do '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Reino da Xlipônia (Hoimtat Xliponia)]]''', bem como curador das Repúblicas da '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', do '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Brasil]]''', do '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Equador]]''' e do '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''', e da '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|União Lusoamericana]]'''. Estudou a vida e a obra de J.R.R.Tolkien durante um quarto de século e é author de [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''].
|-
|RK is Plenipotentiary ''Chargé d'Affaires'' of the '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Kingdom of Xliponia (Hoimtat Xliponia)]]''', as well as curator of the Republics of '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Brasil]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Equador]]''' and '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''', and the '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|Lusoamerican Union]]'''. He has been studying the life and work of J.R.R.Tolkien for a quarter-century and is the author of [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''] &lt;small&gt;(in Portuguese)&lt;/small&gt;.
||
RK ist Bevollmächtigter ''Chargé d'Affaires'' des '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Königreichs Schliponien (Hoimtat Xliponia)]]''' &amp;#383;owie Kurator der Republiken '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Bra&amp;#383;ilien]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Equador]]''' und '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''', und der '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|Lu&amp;#383;oamerikanischen Union]]'''. Während eines Vierteljahrhunderts hat er Leben und Werk von J.R.R.Tolkien &amp;#383;tudiert, und ist Verfa&amp;#383;&amp;#383;er von [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''] &lt;small&gt;(auf Portugie&amp;#383;i&amp;#383;ch)&lt;/small&gt;.
|-
|RK estas Plenrajta ''Chargé d'Affaires'' de la '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Regno de Ŝliponio (Hoimtat Xliponia)]]''' kaj kuratoro de la Republikoj de '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Brazilo]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Ekŭadoro]]''' kaj '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''', kaj de la '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|Luzoamerika Unio]]'''. Dum kvaron-jarcento li studis la vivo kaj verkaro de J.R.R.Tolkien kaj estas aŭtoro de [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''] &lt;small&gt;(portugallingve)&lt;/small&gt;.
||
RK is Gevolmachtigd ''Chargé d'Affaires'' van het '''[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Koninkrijk Xliponia (Hoimtat Xliponia)]]''' alsmede curator van de Republieken '''[[IBWiki:Bahia|Bahia]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Brazil|Brazilië]]''', '''[[IBWiki:Equador|Equador]]''' en '''[[IBWiki:Parana|Paraná]]''' en van de '''[[IBWiki:Lusoamerican Union|Luso-Amerikaanse Unie]]'''. Hij bestudeerde leven en werk van J.R.R. Tolkien een kwart eeuw lang en is de auteur van [http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/Parma.htm ''Explicando Tolkien''] &lt;small&gt;(in het Portugees)&lt;/small&gt;.
|}
----
&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;[http://www.geocities.com/kyrmse/ Facina Fersonal | Página Pessoal | Personal Page&lt;br&gt;Per&amp;#383;önliche Seite | Persona Paĝo | Persoonlijke Pagina]
----
[http://www.geocities.com/otsoandor/ Facina Tolkienal | Página Tolkieniana | Tolkienian Page&lt;br&gt;Tolkien-Seite | Tolkiena Paĝo | Tolkien-Pagina]
----
[http://www.geocities.com/xliponia/ Hoimtat Xliponia | Reino da Xlipônia | Kingdom of Xliponia&lt;br&gt;Königreich Schliponien | Regno de Ŝliponio | Koninkrijk Xliponia]&lt;/small&gt;
----
http://www.geocities.com/xliponia/Flag.gif&lt;br&gt;[[IBWiki:Xliponia|Hoimtat Xliponia (IBWiki)]]
----
&lt;big&gt;'''[[Xliponian|SERM XLIPONIA - XLIPONIAN LANGUAGE]]'''&lt;/big&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Daryush</title>
    <id>2705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-20T18:11:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Armavi]]

[[Pars]]

[[Artakhshathri]]

[[Assurian]]

[[Alamantian languages]]

[[Artakhshandan Empire]]

[[Vushtism]]

[[Parthavan language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armavi</title>
    <id>2706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29090</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T17:48:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>clean up  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Armavi|pronounce=/armaβi/|tu=Alamanti|species=human|in=[[Parizhia]], [[Parsa]], [[Avustrea]], Iniwicia, Armaja, Ispirtia, North Ipriqia, Armavi colonies|no=90 million native, 125 million total|script=[[Armavi script]]|tree=Ayartaic&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Eryanan&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Parizhian&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Armavi'''|morph=Agglutinaitve|ms=Nominative-Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=Nadeem Ahmad|date=May 2006}}

Armavi is a conlang originally designed as an auxlang for Turkish, hence it shares very many properties with Turkish. Over time, Armavi grew into a fully fledged conlang with its own conworld and conculture


== Distribution ==
Armavi has a total of 90 million native speakers and 35 million speakers who learned the language as a second or third (etc) language.

The majority of speakers are concentrated in and around Parizhia, East Avrupea, and western Aghantia. There are also many speakers in north Ipriquia, however there, the language is inn decline in favour of Ipriquian-Avrupean languages.

Armavi is also spoken in the Armavi colonies, which are scattered throughout the globe, mostly on the Aral continent, just north of Parizhia.

Armavi is being considered as one of the base-languages for the International Language due to its ease of learning.

== Phonology ==
===Vowels===
Armavi contains the following vowels:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Armavi vowels with Example Words'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |'''Vowel sound'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''Example'''
|-
!International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA
!Description
!Transliteration
!English translation
|-
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | monophthongs
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || Close front unrounded vowel || ''d'''i'''l'' || 'tongue', 'language'
|-
| {{IPA|y}} || Close front rounded vowel || ''g'''ü'''nbet'' || 'dome'
|-
| {{IPA|ɯ}} || Close back unrounded vowel || '''''ı'''mrtasa'' || 'infantry'
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || Close-mid front unrounded vowel || ''d'''e'''l'' || 'heart'
|-
| {{IPA|œ}} || Open-mid front rounded vowel || ''s'''ö'''nmeğ'' || 'to play the fiddle / violin'
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || Open front unrounded vowel || ''h'''a'''let'' || 'health'
|-
| {{IPA|o}} || Close-mid back rounded vowel || ''mis'''o'''s'' || 'hate'
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || Close back rounded vowel || '''''u'''ğatar'' || 'large drum'
|}


As well as this, there are some diphthongs:

'''ei''' is pronounced /i/, and harmonises like '''i'''

'''ai''' is pronounced /e/, and harmonises like '''e'''

As well as this, any unrounded vowel followed by '''u''', the '''u''' is pronounced /ɸ/ before unvoiced consonants, and /β/ everywhere else


In any other cases where two vowels are next to each other (which is very rare), they are pronounced individually.

===Consonants===
Armavi also contains the following consonants (transliteration as well as IPA is given):
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} (m) || || || || {{IPA|n}} (n) || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}} (n)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} (p) || {{IPA|b}} (b) || || || {{IPA|t}} (t) || {{IPA|d}} (d) || || || || || || || {{IPA|k}} (k) || {{IPA|g}} (g)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || {{IPA|ɸ}} (f) || {{IPA|β}} (v) || || || {{IPA|θ}} (ť) || {{IPA|ð}} (ď) || {{IPA|s}} (s) || {{IPA|z}} (z) || {{IPA|ʃ}} (ş) || {{IPA|ʒ}} (ž) || {{IPA|ç}} (x) || {{IPA|ʝ}} (ğ) || {{IPA|x}} (x) || {{IPA|ɣ}} (ğ) || {{IPA|h}} (h)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} (ts) ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}} (y)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}} (r)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}} (l) || || || || {{IPA|ʎ}} (l)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Fricative|| || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɬ}} (l)
|}


&lt;/div&gt;

'''Notes'''
* The sounds ç and ʝ are allophones of x and ğ respectively if they are followed by any front vowels or the approximant j (y)
* The sound ɬ is an allophone of l when it occurs on the end of words. When suffixes are attached that start with a vowel, it retains its pronounciation. ʎ is an allophone of l before /j/ (y) or /i/ (i) and another vowel.

==Vowel harmony==
{| align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em&quot;
|-
! || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Front || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Back
|-
! || Unrounded || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded
|-
! High
| i || ü || ı || u
|-
! Low
| e || ö || a || o
|-
|}
Vowel harmony is a big part of Armavi (and all Ayartaic languages). There are two types of vowel harmony in Armavi:

===Front / back distinction===
This distinction places the vowels in 2 groups of 4. There are 2 types of vowels here, front vowels, and back vowels. The rules of Armavi state that a (native) word cannot contain both front and back vowels. As a result, suffixes mutate to fit this requirement.

The majority of suffixes that make use of this vowel harmony are of type '''a / e''', however, there are a few others. Any suffix listed as type '''i''', however, takes rounding harmony.

'''Examples:''' (using the suffix ''ver'', which makes the plural)
:Enüşe'''ver''' - girls
:Pesar'''var''' - boys

===Rounding disctinction===
Using the above table, we can see that there are two classes of vowels here as well, round, and unrounded. There is a secondary rule that '''i '''and '''ı''' tend to become '''ü''' and '''u''' respectively after rounded vowels.

'''Examples:''' (using the suffix ''lik'', which makes abstract nouns)
:Genc'''lik''' - ''Youth''
:Düst'''lük''' - ''Friendship''
:Duş'''luk''' - ''Openness''
:Imr'''lık''' - ''Being on foot''

==Consonant mutation==
As well as considering vowel harmony when adding suffixes, there is another factor, called consonant mutation. During consonant mutation, unvoiced consonants change.

===Change to stems===
This applies when we are adding a suffix beginning with a vowel or the letter '''v''' to any word that has the consonants '''k, p, t, c, f''' at the end. The changes are as follows:
: k --- '''ğ'''
: p --- '''b'''
: t --- '''d'''
: c --- '''j'''
: f --- '''v'''

'''Examples:'''
: Kitap (''book'') --- Kitabım (''my book'')
: Toğuc (''bone'') --- Toğuja (''into the bone'')
: Lefaf (''envelope'') --- Lefavvar (''envelopes'')

===Change to suffixes===
This applies when a word ends in '''k, p, t, c, f, s, ş, h, x, ť''' and the suffix begins with '''d, b, g, ğ, j, z, ž,''' (or the other way round). In these cases, 
: ğ --- '''k'''
: p --- '''p'''
: d --- '''t'''
: g --- '''k'''
: z --- '''s'''
: ž --- '''ş'''

'''Examples:'''
:Gitmeğ (''to go'') --- Gittim (''I went'')
:Kitap (''book'') --- Kitaptan (''Away from the book'')
:Emezmeğ (''to buy'') --- Emesşer (''customer'')

==The verb &quot;To be&quot;==
The verb &quot;to be&quot; has three different ways of formation in Armavi.

===Copular &quot;to be&quot;===
This is by far the most common form of the verb &quot;to be&quot; and exists as suffixes which are attached onto the noun.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|+'''Armavi copula'''
|-
! Tense !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
! 1st Person sing
| -dim || -im || -ažam
|-
! 2nd Person sing
| -diş || -iş || -ažaş
|-
! 3rd Person sing
| -di ||  || -až
|-
! 1st Person plur
| -dimiz || imiz || -ažız
|-
! 2nd Person plur
| -diniş || iniş || -ažış
|-
! 3rd Person plur
| -diyver || eyver || aavar
|}

Note that this is not as regular as would be expected. Also, any other mood etc must be expressed using the definite verb &quot;to be&quot; (see below)

===Verbal &quot;to be&quot;===
The verb ''&quot;to be&quot;'' is represented by the verb '''baynmağ'''. This declines like any other normal verb.

Occasionally, the noun which someone is being can take the accusative case. This is common in eastern dialects, however, it is rare in the west.

In [[Illinia]], '''einmeğ''' is used instead. This also declines normally.

===No &quot;to be&quot;===
When using a pronoun, any form of the verb to be is completely omitted. To indicate tense, time phrases are used, such as '''deyvarda''' ''(in the past)'', '''ayartta''' ''(in the future)'', '''emrüz''' ''(today)'', or '''ferda''' ''(tomorrow)''.


==Morphology==
===Noun suffixes===
There are essentially 6 noun cases in Armavi. They are:


{| border cellpadding=3 align=center
|-
! colspan=2|Case endings
|-
|'''Absolute''' 
|align=center|''&amp;mdash;''
|-
|'''Definite-accusative''' 
|''-(s)i''
|-
|'''Dative''' 
|''-(n)e''
|-
| '''Locative''' 
| ''-(n)de''
|-
|'''Ablative''' 
|''-(n)den''
|-
|'''Genitive''' 
|''-(y)en''
|}

They always go at the very end of a noun. 

'''Notes:''' The absolute case serves the purpose of nominative, vocative, and indefinite-accusative. The accusative is used for definite direct objects.

'''Examples:'''
: Amfora şekasttım
: ''I broke an amphora''

: Amforası şekasttım
: ''I broke the amphora''

The dative case indicates ''to where'':
: Eve gittim
: ''I went home''

This case is also used for some objects - objects that are grammatically indirect but English considers direct. There is a slight difference in meaning when any form of accusative is used:
: Sorjene divitti
: ''She caught sight of the sun''

: Sorjesi divitti
: ''She was looking at the sun''

In western dialects, the dative case refers to a direct object where the action happened only temporarily whereas in these dialects, the definitive-accusative is used for longer actions (not in standard Armavi):
: Epistülesi sene ekrivdim*
: ''I wrote a letter to you''

: Epistülene sene ekrivdim*
: ''I was writing a letter to you''

''*Students are discouraged from using this construction as it is only common in the Armavi spoken in western Avustrya Kücük.''

The locative indicates the location of something.
: Evde cagittim
: ''I ran around within the house''

: Her perşerden ekolda
: ''All the students are in school''

The ablative case indicates ''from where'':
: Evden gittim
: ''I left home''

The ablative can also be used in comparisons (see later for more detail):
: Ondan cabuktar
: ''She is faster than he is''

As well as what something is made of:
: Xaktan ev
: ''Sandstone house''

As well as the cause of something* in passives:
: Menden yıkılıyr
: ''It was broken by my''

''*The suffix'' '''''-toloo''''' ''represents &quot;because of.&quot; This does not imply that the suffixed noun was the agent of the action, however, may have influenced it indirectly.''

The ablative also indicates a sense of ''&quot;out of&quot;''. See the following examples for clarification:
: Dev pesarvardan
: ''Two of the boys''

: Aželterin enüşeverden
: ''The prettiest of the girls''

: Perižye vir ğuyuktarın mülkver Ağantyanda
: ''Parizhia is one of the strongest countries in Aghantia.''

''Note the use of'' '''''vir'''' ''as an indefinite article marker in the last example. When this happens,'' '''''vir'''' ''goes before all other adjectives, instead of its usual position next to the noun.''

The genetive is used to convey possession:
: Enüşen ana
: ''The girl's mother''

It is also used to modify spatial nouns as postpositions:
: Even icinde kedim var
: ''Inside the house, there is my cat''

Compare with:
: Xunaşinver beden icin var
: ''The blood vessels go through the body''


There is also a plural suffix, '''-ver''', which goes directly onto the noun. However, this suffix is not used with numbers unless an approximate amount is stated. Here, the definitive-accusative cannot be used, however, it can on normal plurals:

'''Examples:'''
: Dev bülbül gözdüm
: ''I saw two songbirds''

: Dev bülbülü gözdüm
: ''I saw the two songbirds''

: Dev bülbülver gözdüm
: ''I saw approximately two songbirds''

There are other important noun suffixes that are not officially recognised as case endings, however, may serve some purpose there. They are covered later in this article under ''Armavi Lexicon.''

===Verb suffixes===
====Verb tenses====
There are 5 basic tenses in Armavi:

==Syntax==
===Simple syntax===
The basic word order in Armavi is SOV - the subject goes first, followed by the object, with the verb coming last.

However, with adverbs or time or place, the time phrase always goes to the start. Indirect objects go before the verb. Any nouns that are used as an instrument go after the subject. Any other noun phrases or adverbial phrases can be placed anywhere.

Of course, these rules are loose and change between dialects, or when something is emphasised (it is placed before the verb, or at the start)

===Questions===
====Closed questions====
Closed questions take the '''interrogative''' mood of the verb. This is formed by taking the personal ending off the verb and putting the suffix '''me-''' before it:
* Gidiyrim ''I am going'' ---&gt; Gidiyr '''me'''yim? ''Am I going?''
* Rüvdüş ''You went'' ---&gt; Rüvdü meş? ''Did you go?''
* Koştulažğ ''S/he has been killed'' ---&gt; Koştulažğ ma? ''Has s/he been killed?''

: Ahmet vazara gitti '''me''', ekmeği xeritteğ?
: ''Did Ahmet go to the shop to buy bread''

: Ahmet vazara gitti ekmeği xerit '''me'''değ?
: ''Was it to buy bread that Ahmet went to the shop?''

This is usually accompanied by a change in intonation.

As well as this, there is the particle '''ne?''', which can be put at the end of sentences, as if to ask for confirmation:
: Ahmet vazara gitti ekmeği xeritteğ, '''ne'''?
: ''Ahmet has gone to the shop to buy bread, hasn't he?''

In more archaic languages, the particle '''aya''', which is placed at the start of the clause, serves both these functions:
: '''Aya''' Ahmet vazara gitti ekmeği xeritteğ?
: ''Ahmet has gone to the shop to buy bread, hasn't he?''
: ''Did Ahmet go to the shop to buy bread''

====Open questions====
Open questions are characterised by question words:

* '''Ne''' - ''What, which''
* '''Neyec''' - ''Who''
* '''Neyže''' - ''Where''
* '''Ne bera''' - ''Why, what for''
* '''Ne vekt''' - ''When''
These question words simply take the position the answer would in a sentence.

: Neyec var?
: ''Who's there''

: Neyi keriyriş?
: ''What are you doing''

: Meni neyžene gideniyriş?
: ''Where are you leading me?''

: Ne bera şuvu kerdiş?
: ''What did you do that for?''

: Ne vekt sinemana gidiyriş?
: ''When are you going to the cinema?''

There are other question words:

* '''Kodam''' - ''How much, how many''
The word ''kodam'' is borrowed from [[Aryan]], and it always goes at the start of the clause.

: Kodam yeyilşer yedi?
: ''How much food did he eat?''

: Kodam vekt tvaletvere gidiyriş
: ''How many times are you going to the toilets?''

: Kodam portmoneme var?
: ''How much is in my wallet?''

* '''Ce ...''' - ''How ...'' (an adverbial quantifier)
Used in a similar way to ''kodam'':

: Emrüz ferda ce ğuyukuş?
: ''How tall are you nowadays?''

* '''Cera''' - ''Why''
Like ''kodam'', this word is borrowed from [[Aryan]] and also goes at the start of clauses.

: Cera osu ketlediş?
: ''Why did you hit her?''

* '''Cetor''' - ''How, in what way''
Likewise, goes at the start of the sentence:

: Cetor haletin?
: ''How are you?''

: Cetor bužana geliyrimiz?
: ''How did we get here?''

===Subordinate clauses===
Formation of subordinate clauses are generally easy. They take the position of a noun phrase depending on the type of subordinate clause it is (with a few exceptions)

====Adverbial time clauses====
These are clauses of ''when X happened, Y happened''. For this, the verb in the subordinate clause must be turned into a past participle by adding the suffix '''-erte / -arta''' (see further on for more detail on participles).

Examples:
:Gelmeğ (''to go'') --- Gel'''erte''' (''having gone'')
:Aklamağ (''to clean'') --- Akl'''arta''' (''having cleaned'')

As time phrases always go at the start of clauses, likewise this type of subordinate clause goes at the start.

'''Examples:'''
:Evim gelinertem, annem portu baz kerdi.
:''My house having been reached by me, my girlfried opened the door''
:''When I reached home, my girlfriend opened the door''

:Köştülerte, düşmenver eğitti
:''Having been defeated, the enemies fled''
:''The enemies fled once they had been defeated''

:Dev pe-orbitalvar hemeşe kererte, siğma-exette saxtılar
:''When two p-orbitals overlap, a σ-bond is formed''

====Relative clauses====
There are 2 ways of forming relative clauses:
* The most common way is by '''Participles''' (see below). This is very simple, especially in simpler relative clauses where the entire clause can be expressed in a participle. The participle clause goes after the noun it is attached to.

'''Examples:'''
:Enüşesi sužada hören dittim
:''There sitting the girl I saw''
:''I saw the girl who was sitting there''

Note: this is different from ''&quot;I saw the girl when she was sitting there, which would be: &quot;Şužada hörerte, enüşesi dittim&quot;

:Hafte-ye-piş madayesi mene deydeyilerte leğdim
:''I read the book you lent me last week''

* The other way of expressing relative clauses is with '''relative pronouns''' and other related words. This is very uncommon and participles should be used wherever possible. The important lexical units for this type of construction are:
**'''Ke''' --- ''who, what, which''
**'''Hemciz''' --- ''whatever''
**'''Hemkis''' --- ''whoever''
**'''Hemje''' --- ''wherever''

Like normal nouns, these decline like normal nouns.

'''Examples:'''
:Hemjene gider, daşarım.
:''Wherever she goes, I follow her''

:Kelem kele yordum emrüz şekaste.
:''The pen with which I used to write is now broken''

:Hemcizi istiyriş istiyrim
:''I like whatever you like''

====Conjunctions====
Conjunctions are rarely used in spoken Armavi, but literary Armavi dating from 1600 - 1800 AI are littered with them. The main ones are:
* '''aat''' - ''then''
* '''ve''' - ''and''
* '''tağ''' - ''in order that''
* '''ke''' - ''that (used for expressing degrees of adjectives)''
* '''ama''' - ''but, however''
* '''at''' - ''but (switching from positive to negative)''
* '''cünke''' - ''because''

All these are borrowed from other languages. Out of the above list, only '''ve''', '''ke''', and '''tağ''' occur in modern Armavi.

To construct a sentence using conjunctions is easy. The conjunction simply comes between two normal sentences. Often a comma is placed after the preposition.

However, modern Armavi uses a completely different method of indicating conjunctins. Suffixes are added to the end of the verb in the second clause. These suffixes change in accordance with the laws of vowel harmony and consonant mutation. They are:
* '''-den / -dan / -ten / -tan''' - ''and''
* '''-en ğuu / -an ğuu''' - ''then''
* '''-eher / -ahar''' - ''after''
* '''-ele / -ala''' - ''before''
* '''-işle / -ışla / -üşle / -uşla''' - ''while, during''
* '''-tağ / -teğ / -dağ / -değ''' - ''so that, in order that''
* '''-at / -et''' - ''but, however''
* '''-toloo / -tölöö / -doloo / -dölöö''' - ''because''
* '''-el / -al''' - ''that (used in degrees of adjectives''

'''Examples:'''
:Gittim evim kleftilen ğuu
:''I went and then my house was robbed''

:Ahmet vazara gitti ekmegi xeritteğ
:''Ahmet went to the shop to buy bread''

:Tvaletvere gitmelidim rekreasyon kerişle
:''I had to go to the toilet during break''

Note that personal endings and tense suffixes are only applied to the second verb if they are different to the main clause independently (as demonstrated in Example 1).

====Subordination with verbs====
Subordination with verbs happens when you want to say &quot;I want you to go&quot; or &quot;I believe that he is not guilty.&quot;

In these constructions, using the infinitive is necessary. The infinitive is formed by the suffix '''-me''' (+ possessive endings).

A problem occurs, in that the infinitive is tenseless. In sentences where the main clause is in a different tense from the subordinate, time phrases are used, such as '''deyvarda''' ''(in the past)'', '''ayartta''' ''(in the future)'', '''emrüz''' ''(today)'', or '''ferda''' ''(tomorrow)''.

'''Examples'''
: Gelmeni istiyrim.
: ''I want you to go.''

: Deyvarda Ahmet vazara gitmesi veliyrim
: ''I know that Ahmet went to the shop yesterday.''

: Ayartta şokoladan baynavalmamı fekr keriyr meyiş?
: ''Do you think that I will be able to keep away from chocolate in the future?''

====Modal verbs====
A similar construction to the above is using modal verbs. However, here, the infinitive does not need possessive endings and has the usual infinitive ending '''-meğ''' as found in the dictionary.

'''Examples:'''
: Bedminton xayrmağı calışıyrım
: ''I am trying to play badminton''

: Eve gitmeği istiyrim
: ''I want to go home''

====Subordination in comparisons====
These are constructions of the type ''&quot;I am faster than I was yesterday&quot;'' or ''&quot;He is as tall as she is short&quot;''. Like the above constructions, this is also formed using an infinitive.

'''Examples:'''
: Hayarda baynmağdan cabuktar
: ''He is faster than he was yesterday.''

: Kücük baynmasıvı kelli
: ''He is as tall as she is short.''

An exception occurs when the verb in the subordinate clause isn't certain - i.e ''&quot;In someone's opinion&quot;'' etc. Here, the '''dubitative mood''' of the verb is utilised:

: Bayna amağıdan coğun ažel
: ''She is much more pretty than she thinks''

: Bayna amasıdan coğun ažel
: ''She is much more pretty than someone else thinks''

===Order of Adjectives===
There are several factors to be considered when putting adjectives in order before a noun.

Numbers always go immediately before the noun. An exception to this is when the number 1 ('''vir''') is used as an indefinite object marker (in some western dialects), in which case it goes before any other adjectives.

With other adjectives, they are ordered in order of increasing intensity. That is to say, the most intense adjective goes closer to the noun, and the least intense adjective goes furthest from the noun.

Compare the following:

# Ažel kücük enüşe
# Kücük ažel enüşe

In Example 1, the girl is very small and slightly pretty, in example 2, the girl is very pretty and only slightly small.
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Proto-Indo-European</title>
    <id>2709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-13T16:15:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>1158164004</username>
        <id>230</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">


&lt;div  style=&quot;display:none&quot;&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alamantian languages</title>
    <id>2712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-13T21:19:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Here you can find the classification of all the languages on Alamanti:</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senjecan fauna - birds</title>
    <id>2713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45728</id>
      <timestamp>2009-05-26T22:31:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caeruleancentaur</username>
        <id>11</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Galliformes  ĸaĸurćaxas */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=[[Senjecan pronunciation guide]]=
=[[Senjecan classification|Classification]]=
*Domain &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱraadas&lt;/font&gt; - Eukaryota
**Kingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;stemvoras&lt;/font&gt; - Animalia
***Subkingdom &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerstemvoras&lt;/font&gt; - Eumetazoa
****Superphylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;ufħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Deuterostomia
*****Phylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Chordata &lt;font color=green&gt;gúrnypentêes&lt;/font&gt;
******Subphylum &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerħazðas&lt;/font&gt; - Vertebrata &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸĭoxmêes&lt;/font&gt;
*******Superclass &lt;font color=blue&gt;upodegas&lt;/font&gt; - Tetrapoda
********Class &lt;font color=blue&gt;odegas&lt;/font&gt; - Aves &lt;font color=green&gt;aɱêes&lt;/font&gt;
*********Subclass &lt;font color=blue&gt;nerodegas&lt;/font&gt; - Neornithes
**********Infraclass &lt;font color=blue&gt;niterodegas&lt;/font&gt;

†extinct

&lt;font color=red&gt;not found in original Urheimat&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=green&gt;above the species level&lt;/font&gt;

=Neognathes &lt;font color=green&gt;ȝuunϙelunaɱees&lt;/font&gt;=

==Anseriformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ħanſyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==

*Anatidae &lt;font color=green&gt;aneþvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Anserinae
***[[wikipedia:greylag goose|greylag goose]] ''A. anser'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħanſes&lt;/font&gt;
***bean goose ''Anser fabalis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gaares&lt;/font&gt;
***Bewick's swan ''Cygnus bewickii'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;jonϙes&lt;/font&gt; (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;joutsen&lt;/font&gt;, swan)
***whooper swan ''C. cygnus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;eloɱĭes&lt;/font&gt;
***mute swan ''Cynus olor'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħolvĭes&lt;/font&gt;
***&lt;font color=red&gt;whistling swan&lt;/font&gt; ''Cygnus columbianus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭeȝeloɱĭes, 
***&lt;font color=red&gt;black swan&lt;/font&gt; ''Cygnus atratus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøſnyħolvĭes&lt;/font&gt;
***&lt;font color=red&gt;black-necked swan&lt;/font&gt; ''Cygnus melanocoryphus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøſnymonħolvĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**Anatinae
***pintail duck ''Anas acuta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðelgypuxses&lt;/font&gt;
***shoveler ''Anas clypteata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;liħlanetes&lt;/font&gt;
***mallard ''Anas platyrhynchos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;anetes&lt;/font&gt;
***common teal ''Anas crecca'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aneþles&lt;/font&gt;
***garganey ''Anas querquedula'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alćeelćutes&lt;/font&gt;??
**Aythyinae
***European pochard ''Aythya ferina'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćaalumves&lt;/font&gt;
***red-crested pochard ''Netta rufina'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;cascaaluumves&lt;/font&gt;??
**Merginae
***eider ''Somateria molissima'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;eetes&lt;/font&gt;
***merganser, goosander ''Mergus m. merganser'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tares&lt;/font&gt;
**Tadorninae
***ruddy shelduck ''Tadorna ferruginea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðanetes&lt;/font&gt;
***common shelduck ''T.tadorna'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðronanetes&lt;/font&gt;

==Apodiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ooćenćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Apodidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ooćenvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**common swift ''A. apus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćenes&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;ruby-throated hummingbird&lt;/font&gt; ''Archilocus colubris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſŭeraɱes&lt;/font&gt;

==Caprimulgiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ćeluſćexas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Caprimulgidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ćeluſvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**European nightjar ''Caprimulgus europaeus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćeluſes&lt;/font&gt;
==Charadriiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;tiiþćyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Alcidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸilangyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**puffin ''Fratercula spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸilanges&lt;/font&gt;
*Charadriidae &lt;font color=green&gt;tiiþvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**little ringed plover ''Charadrius dubius'' &lt;font  color=blue&gt;ɱerſaɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian golden plover ''Pluvialis apricaria'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiiþćes&lt;/font&gt;
*Laridae &lt;font color=green&gt;maɱvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Armenian gull ''Larus armenicus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;menźymaɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**common gull ''Larus canus'' &lt;font  color=blue&gt;maɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**black-headed gull ''Larus ridibundus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;mooreres&lt;/font&gt;

*Recurvirostridae &lt;font color=green&gt;anćeenſnabıvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**pied avocet ''Recurvirostra avosetta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;anćaanſynabĭes&lt;/font&gt;
*Scolopacidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸĭurvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian curlew ''Numenius arquatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiites&lt;/font&gt;
**common snipe ''G. gallinago'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiles&lt;/font&gt;
**great snipe ''Gallinago media'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſĭuĸĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**red-necked phalarope ''Phalaropus lobatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćustiites&lt;/font&gt;
**whimbrel ''Scolopax p. phaeopus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tiiþles&lt;/font&gt;
**European snipe ''Scolopax rusticola'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸurmes, ĸĭures&lt;/font&gt;
*Sternidae &lt;font color=green&gt;teĸiȝvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Arctic tern ''Sterna paradisaea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;teĸiȝes&lt;/font&gt;

==Ciconiiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;gerıćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Ardeidae &lt;font color=green&gt;arooðvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Ardeinae
***great egret ''Ardea alba'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;mengypeetes&lt;/font&gt;
***grey heron ''Ardea cinerea'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aroodes&lt;/font&gt;
***purple heron ''Ardea purpura'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;viſĸaroodes&lt;/font&gt;
***night heron ''N. nicticorax'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;neĸŭaroodes&lt;/font&gt;
***little egret ''Egretta garzetta'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;arooðles&lt;/font&gt;
**Botaurinae
***great bittern ''Botaurus stellaris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðerɱaɱes&lt;/font&gt;
***little bittern ''Ixobrychus minutus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðerɱaɱles&lt;/font&gt;
*Ciconiidae &lt;font color=green&gt;gerıvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**white stork ''C. ciconia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gerĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**black stork ''Ciconia nigra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøsnygerĭes&lt;/font&gt;

==Columbiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;alunćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Columbidae &lt;font color=green&gt;alunvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**rock pigeon ''Columba livia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tuutes&lt;/font&gt;
**stock pigeon ''Columba oenas'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;dortuutes&lt;/font&gt;
**wood pigeon ''Columba palumbus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pelonves&lt;/font&gt;
**European turtle dove ''Streptopelia turtur'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alunes&lt;/font&gt;
**green pigeon ''Treron ?'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pogunes&lt;/font&gt;

==Coraciiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ćeerolćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Alcedidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ćeerolvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**kingfisher ''Alcedo atthis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćeeroles&lt;/font&gt;

==Cuculiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸuxćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Cuculidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸuxvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**common cuckoo ''Cuculus canorus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸuĸes&lt;/font&gt;

==Falconiformes &lt;font color=green&gt; &lt;font color=green&gt;orćaxas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;==
*Accipitridae &lt;font color=green&gt;orvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Perninae
***honey buzzard ''Pernis apivorus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;veȝooćores&lt;/font&gt;
**Aegypiinae
***black vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħiiɱes&lt;/font&gt;
***Egyptian vulture ''Neophron percnopterus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gŭeltures&lt;/font&gt;
***griffon vulture ''Gyps fulvus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;vaaſes&lt;/font&gt;
***lammergeier ''Gypaetus barbatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alnyħiiɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**Buteoninae
***golden eagle ''Aquila chrysaetos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ores&lt;/font&gt;
***giant eagle ''Aquila giganteus'' &lt;font  color=blue&gt;pempelores&lt;/font&gt;
***imperial eagle ''Aquila heliaca'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;orles&lt;/font&gt;
***steppe eagle ''Aquila nipalensis orientalis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;lenðores&lt;/font&gt;
***white-tailed sea eagle, erne ''Haliaëtus albicilla'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;moorores&lt;/font&gt;
***golden eagle ''Aquila c. chrysaetos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;muȝres&lt;/font&gt;
**Circinae
***marsh harrier ''Circus aeruginosus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;laamooćorles&lt;/font&gt;
**Milvinae
***red kite ''M. milvus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;zŭanes&lt;/font&gt;
***black kite ''Milvus m. migrans'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćøſzŭanes&lt;/font&gt;
**Accipitrinae
***goshawk ''Accipiter gentilis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćores&lt;/font&gt;
***sparrow hawk ''Accipter nisus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;alunooćores&lt;/font&gt;
**Circaetinae
***short-toed eagle ''Circaëtus gallicus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;angŭores&lt;/font&gt;
*Falconidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ooćorlyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**merlin ''Falco columbarius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pelonvooćorles&lt;/font&gt;
**lesser kestrel ''Falco naumanni'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸŭiilpeeþles&lt;/font&gt;
**peregrine falcon ''Falco peregrinus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ooćorles&lt;/font&gt;
**gyrfalcon ''Falco rusticolus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;sniłooćorles&lt;/font&gt;
**European hobby ''Falco subbuteo'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſerpooćorles&lt;/font&gt;
**common kestrel ''Falco tinniculus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gĭoȝĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Pandionidae &lt;font color=green&gt;gaſvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**osprey ''Pandion haliaetus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gaſes&lt;/font&gt;
*Sagittariidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ćerſygemvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;secretary bird&lt;/font&gt; ''Sagittarius serpentarius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćerſygemaɱes&lt;/font&gt;

&lt;font color=blue&gt;tuubes&lt;/font&gt; diurnal bird of prey

==Galliformes &lt;font color=green&gt; &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸaĸurćaxas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;==
*Numididae &lt;font color=red&gt;guinea fowl&lt;/font&gt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;teterĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Phasianidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸaĸurvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**rock partridge ''Alectorix graeca'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaĸures&lt;/font&gt;
**golden pheasant ''Chrysolophus pictus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ausĸaaɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**common quail ''C. coturnix'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ausĸaaɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**peacock ''Pavo cristatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;namiles&lt;/font&gt;
**grey partridge ''P. perdix'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱortoĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**common pheasant ''Phasianus colchius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;?es&lt;/font&gt;
**Caucasian snowcock ''Tetraogallus caucasicus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸuxres&lt;/font&gt;
*Rallidae &lt;font color=green&gt;velixvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian coot ''Fulica atra'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;veliĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**moorhen ''Gallinula cholorpus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;laamĸaĸures&lt;/font&gt;
*Tetraonidae &lt;font color=green&gt;terźyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**ptarmigan ''Lagopus mutus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;jegertyĸuxres&lt;/font&gt;
**black grouse ''Tetrao tetrix'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøſnyĸuxres&lt;/font&gt;
**capercaillie ''Tetrao urogallus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;terźes&lt;/font&gt;
**hazel grouse ''Bonasa bonasia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pinges&lt;/font&gt; (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;pyy&lt;/font&gt;, hazel grouse)

==Gaviiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;laalćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Gaviidae &lt;font color=green&gt;laalvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Arctic loon ''Gavia arctica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;laales&lt;/font&gt;
**common loon ''Gavia immer'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸĭames&lt;/font&gt;

==Gruiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸøxſyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Otididae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸorĸoſvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**great bustard ''Otis tarda'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĸoſes&lt;/font&gt;
**little bustard ''T. tetrax'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸorĸoſles&lt;/font&gt;
*Gruidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸoxſyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian crane ''G. grus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøxſes&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian crane ''G. grus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;gerɱĭes&lt;/font&gt;
*Threskiornithidae &lt;font color=green&gt;liħlarooðvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**spoonbill ''Platalea leucorodia'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;liħlaroodes&lt;/font&gt;
**glossy ibis ''Plegadis falcinellus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;anĸynabĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**northern bald ibis ''Geronticus eremita'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸelɱygerĭes&lt;/font&gt;

==Passeriformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ſparɱyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Alaudidae &lt;font color=green&gt;pĭoltorvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**crested lark ''Galerida cristata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćorudes&lt;/font&gt;
**skylark ''Alauda arvensis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pĭoltores&lt;/font&gt;
*Cinclidae  &lt;font color=green&gt;ſerpomvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**dipper ''C. cinclus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſerpomeses&lt;/font&gt;
*Corvidae &lt;font color=green&gt;goɱvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**raven ''Corvus corax'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćorɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**rook ''Corvus frugilegus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ćŭeernes&lt;/font&gt;
**jackdaw ''Corvus monedula'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;tanges&lt;/font&gt;
**hooded crow ''Corvus cornix'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;goɱes&lt;/font&gt;
**Eurasian jay ''Garrulus glandularius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸiĸĭes&lt;/font&gt;
**magpie ''P. pica'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ɱesaaĸes&lt;/font&gt;
*Fringillidae &lt;font color=green&gt;pingyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**chaffinch ''Fringilla coelebs'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pinges&lt;/font&gt;
**bullfinch ''P. pyrrhula'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;varpinges&lt;/font&gt;
**siskin ''Carduelis spinus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;pĭapes
*Muscicapidae &lt;font color=green&gt;moxlavyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Muscicapinae
***spotted flycatcher ''Muscicapa striata'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;moxlaves&lt;/font&gt;
**Saxicolinae
***nightingale ''Luscinia megarhynchos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;aɱeedes&lt;/font&gt;
*Paridae &lt;font color=green&gt;nangwvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Siberian tit ''Poecile cinctus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nangŭes&lt;/font&gt;
*Passeridae &lt;font color=green&gt;ſparɱyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**house sparrow ''Passer domesticus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſparɱes&lt;/font&gt;
*Prunellidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸolponvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**hedge sparrow ''Prunella modularis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸolponyſparɱes&lt;/font&gt;
*Sturnidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ſtorvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**starling ''Sturnus vulgaris'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ſtares&lt;/font&gt;
*Turdidae &lt;font color=green&gt;méſolvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**blackbird ''Turdus merula'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸafſes&lt;/font&gt;
**song thrush ''Turdus philomelos'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;meſoles&lt;/font&gt;
**mistle thrush ''Turdus viscivorus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;þrozdes&lt;/font&gt;

==Pelecaniformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸarmyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Pelecanidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸarmyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Dalmatian pelican ''Pelecanus crispus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸarmes&lt;/font&gt;

==Phoenicopteriformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ruuðgerıćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Phoenicopteridae &lt;font color=green&gt;ruuðgerıvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**greater flamingo ''Phoenicopterus roseus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðgêrĭes&lt;/font&gt;

==Piciformes &lt;font color=green&gt;piixćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Picidae &lt;font color=green&gt;piixvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**great spotted woodpecker ''Dendrocopus major'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ðronpiiĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**green woodpecker ''Picus viridis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;piiĸes&lt;/font&gt;
==Podicipediformes &lt;font color=green&gt;nønćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Podicipedidae &lt;font color=green&gt;nønvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**horned grebe ''Podiceps auritus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nønes&lt;/font&gt; (&gt; Saami &lt;font color=green&gt;njumalak&lt;/font&gt; ''Podiceps auritus'')
**great crested grebe ''Podiceps cristatus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaſnønes&lt;/font&gt;
**red-necked grebe ''Podiceps grisegena'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ruuðmonynønes&lt;/font&gt;
**black-necked grebe ''Podiceps nigrocollis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸøſnymonynønes&lt;/font&gt;

==Procelariiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;meħtiirtyćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Diomedeidae
**&lt;font color=red&gt;albatross&lt;/font&gt; ''Diomedia spp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;meħtiirtaɱes&lt;/font&gt;

==Psittaciformes &lt;font color=green&gt;gaȝćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*&lt;font color=red&gt;parrot&lt;/font&gt; &lt;font color=blue&gt;gaȝes&lt;/font&gt;

==Strigiformes &lt;font color=green&gt; &lt;font color=green&gt;ulćaxas&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;==
*Strigidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ulvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**Scops owl ''Otus scops'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;jipes&lt;/font&gt; (&gt; Finnish &lt;font color=green&gt;kyypiä&lt;/font&gt;, ''B. bubo'')
**eagle owl ''B. bubo'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ules&lt;/font&gt;
**snowy owl ''Bubo scandiaca'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;unpuϙes&lt;/font&gt;
**tawny owl ''Strix aluco'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;veerules&lt;/font&gt;
**great grey owl ''Strix nebulosa'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ħeerɱules&lt;/font&gt;
**Ural owl ''Strix uralensis'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;menźules&lt;/font&gt;
**pygmy owl ''Glaucidium passerinum'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ulĸes&lt;/font&gt;
**long-eared owl ''Asio otus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;uſules&lt;/font&gt;
**little owl ''Athene noctua'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;minŭules&lt;/font&gt;
*Tytonidae &lt;font color=green&gt;lénðulvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**barn owl ''Tyto alba'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;uges&lt;/font&gt;

==Upupiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;opofćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Upupidae &lt;font color=green&gt;opofvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**hoopoe ''Upupa epops'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;opopes&lt;/font&gt;

=Paleognathes &lt;font color=green&gt;źeerϙelunaɱees&lt;/font&gt;=
==Struthioniformes &lt;font color=green&gt;ȝaanćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Casuariidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ĸaſŭarvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;cassowary&lt;/font&gt; ''C. casuarius'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ĸaſŭares&lt;/font&gt;
*Dinornithidae
*Dromaiidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ȝaanlyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;emu&lt;/font&gt; ''Dromaius novaehollandia'' ȝaanles
*Rheidae &lt;font color=green&gt;nĭandyvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;rhea&lt;/font&gt; ''Rhea sp.'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;nĭandes&lt;/font&gt;
*Struthionidae &lt;font color=green&gt;ȝaanvaalas&lt;/font&gt;
**†[[wikipedia:ostrich#evolution|great ostrich]] ''Megastruthio celox'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝaanes&lt;/font&gt;
**&lt;font color=red&gt;ostrich&lt;/font&gt; ''Struthio camelus'' &lt;font color=blue&gt;ȝaanes&lt;/font&gt;

==Tinamiformes &lt;font color=green&gt;?ćaxas&lt;/font&gt;==
*Tinamidae</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Syntax misc</title>
    <id>2714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-15T11:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Syntactical Miscellany ==

===Paired conjunctions===

A conjunction may appear as a pair, introducing sucessive clauses, each instance of the conjunction having sucessive meanings

;gog... gog:either/or

nellodahi gog rikil gog vlakh su
{|
|nello||dah|| i || gog || rik||il || gog || vlakh || su
|-
|worthy ||be||3p || either || man||this || or || folk || whole
|}

Either this man is worthy, or the whole folk is.

;ushu... ushu:neither/nor

nellodahishe ushu rikil ushu vlakh su
{|
|nello||dah||i||she || ushu || rik||il || ushu || vlakh || su
|-
|worthy||be||3p||neg || neither || man||this || nor || folk || whole
|}
     
Neither is this man worthy, nor is the whole folk.

;enge... enge:even/still

enge nellodahiazh rikil, enge nellodahishe vlakh su
{|
|enge || nello||dah||i||azh || rik||il || enge || nello||dah||i||she || vlakh ||su
|-
|even || worthy||be||3p||cond || man||this || still || worthy||be||3p||neg || folk || whole
|}

Even if this man is worthy, the whole folk is not.

===Comparisons===

The conjunction

;arra:than, as

may be used in comparisons.

nello'ezhmdahi rikil arra vlakh su
{|
|nello||ezhm||dah||i || rik||il || arra || vlakh || su
|-
|worthy||comp||be||3p ||man||this || than || folk || whole
|}

This man is worthier than the whole folk

nellodahilt vlakh su arra rikil
{|
|nello||dah||i||lt || vlakh || su || arra || rik||il
|-
|worthy||be||3p||imp || folk || whole || as || man||this
|}
May the whole folk be as worthy as this man.


===Nouns as first and second person subjects===

If the subject of a first or second person verb is a noun, then that noun is identified with the speaker or hearer

tæpa Kæshroþrast enil!
{|
|tæp||a || Kæshroþrast || en||il
|-
|command||1p || Kæshroþrast || thing||this
|}
I, Kæshroþrast, command this!

{{NavBar|Back_dest=Khangaþyagon Questions etc|Back_name=Questions, Commands, Conditionals and Counterfactuals|Up_dest=Khangaþyagon Syntax|Up_name=Syntax|Next_dest=Khangaþyagon Babel Text|Next_name=The Babel Text}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Keko dc</title>
    <id>2730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>13913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-19T23:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Conlanger</username>
        <id>46</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Se m'ha ocorregut que podies estar fent alguna cosa per ací, en looc de per Wikia/Conlang, però tampoc he vist que hi has deixat cap dubte, ja veus que aixó de les ''ideollengües'' dóna per a molt en Internet... Bé, ja em diràs el què, però millor que ho facis a meua pàgina de discussió en &lt;span class=plainlinks&gt;[http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/User:Conlanger Wikia]&lt;/span&gt; per simplificar les coses. '''[[User:Conlanger|Conlanger]]''' &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Conlanger|talk]]&lt;/small&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://conlang.wikia.com/wiki/User:Conlanger Wikia]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 16:51, 19 September 2006 (PDT)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etimri</title>
    <id>2731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43265</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-19T06:42:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Phonology Chart */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Faranit
|pronounce=/ɛ-'''''tɪ'''''-mʁi/
|tu= theoretically this universe, future
|species=Humanoid
|in=Trovog penninsula and coast southeast of there
|no=~3 million
|script=Faranih and Romanized Equivalent
|tree=believed to be related to Hungarian, but very little evidence
|morph=inflecting
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=SOV
|creator=Humancadaver101 aka Schwhatever aka Buckfush530
|date=August 2006}}
Etimri is a language spoken on and southeast of the Timeritah or Trovog penninsula on the continent of [[Lhined]]. The language contains several [[Faranit]] loan words, but shows very little, if any, linguistic relation.

==Phonology and Orthography==
*&quot;General&quot; Consonants: /d b p t k g h j r x ɣ ʃ ʒ m n ŋ s z f ʋ/
**Romanized As: &lt;d b p t k g h j r c gh sh zh m n ng s z f v&gt;
*Affricatives: /ʦ ʣ p-f b-v ʧ ʤ/
**Romanized As: &lt;ts dz pf bv tsh dzh&gt;
*Vowels: /ɑ e ɛ i o ɔ u ø y/
**Romanized As: &lt;a ai e i o au u ou y&gt;
*Phonological Constraints: (C)(approximant)V(C)
**Exception: Approximant+Approximant+V(+C) is not allowed
**Exception: /j w/ can not be the coda.

==Allophones==
*/ʋ/ shifts to [v] when at the end of a syllable. 
*/i u/ shift to [ɪ ʊ] when in a stressed syllable.
*/xi ɣi/ shift to [çi ʝi]
*/xu/ shift to [χu]
*/e o/ when stressed shift to [eːoː]

==Phonology Chart==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
!Bilabial
!Labio-Dental
!Alveolar
!Post-Alveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Glottal
|-
|'''Stop'''
| align=center | {{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;g}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Nasal'''
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Fricative'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|f}}
| align=center | {{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʒ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|x&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ɣ}} 
| align=center | {{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''Approximant'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʋ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|r}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|j}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Affricative'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|p-f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b-v}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʦ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʣ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʧ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʤ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

==Pronouns, Conjugations, and Declensions==
[[Etimri pronouns]], [[Etimri Conjugations]] and [[Etimri Declensions]]

==Syntax==
Etimri is dechticaetiative, meaning direct objects of monotransitive verbs are in the same case as indirect objects for ditransitive verbs.

 pvi motsh cuto
 1PSINGNOM 2PSING'''''DAT''''' throw.STAT
 I'm throwing you.

&quot;motsh&quot; is the second person familiar accusitive for monotransitive verbs, but dative for ditransitive verbs.

 pvi motsh dvidz cuto
 1PSINGNOM 2PSING'''''DAT''''' 3PFEMSING'''''DECH''''' throw
 I'm throwing it to you.

Etimri has an interesting interrogative system. There are two sets of interrogative pronouns that are used, the responsive and the interruptive sets. The responsive set is used to question what another person has said or ask for more detail. The interruptive set is used to ask about a distantly related or unrelated topic and start a new topic or conversation. For example:

 A: pvi foug ke fjeka
 B: nav ngid ke fjeke?

meaning-

 A: I it.ACC.MASC not like (I don't like it)
 B: You which.R.MASC not like? (You don't like which?)

The responsive form is used as the question directly responds and expands on the statement. The second person could have more colloquially answered &quot;ngid?&quot; as it would have been clear from context what was meant. A more formal version would have asked, &quot;nav ngid ke fjeke?&quot;, substituting the formal pronoun. An example of using the interruptive is-

 A: pvi foug ke fjeka
 B: pvi shizo. fong shoh tetsid njoc?

meaning-

 A: I it.ACC.MASC not like (I don't like it)
 B: I come to understand. It time which is being? (I understand. What time is it?)

Because the question is about another topic, the interrogative is interruptive instead of responsive. The usual intonation
pattern is ignored for questions, where a rising tone is inserted. Informational questions, as shown above, substitute an interrogative pronoun for the subject, object, or compliment. Affirmative-Negative questions, however, use a similar construction to Chinese:

 A: nav shizor ke shizor?
 B: pvi shizo

meaning-

 A: You come to understand not come to understand? (You understand, not understand?)
 B: I come to understand (I understand)

The verb is repeated, once negated, once affirmative. General form is to put the affirmative form first.

The imperative is formed by omitting the subject:

 pfete
 think

Objects are kept before the verb.

 foug cutor
 it.MASC throw

The use of the phrase, ''des njetsh ep'', it may be that, is used before imperatives to indicate a more familiar atmosphere or a more gentle command or even a simple desire or wish. For example:

 des njetsh ep foug cutor
 it be.SUBJ that it.MASC throw
 Would you throw it?

An important issue, unaddressed until now, is the dynamic and static distinction in Etimri. A verb can be conjugated in a static or dynamic form, changing its meaning. For example, the verb pfetroush can mean think in its static forms, but means question or interrogate in its dynamic forms. Another example is cutoush, which can mean throw (dynamically) or fly (statically). The essential distinction is that dynamic forms denote a change in state whereas static forms simply denote action. This is most obvious in the verb ngro, to be (statically) or to become (dynamically). The most common example, however, is that of fjekoush, which means to love/like (statically) or to fall in love (with). For example:

 pvi motsh fjeka
 I thee love.STAT.PRES.PROG.1P.SING
 I love you.

versus-

 pvi motsh fjeko
 I thee love.DYN.PRES.PROG.1P.SING
 I'm falling in love with you.

Tenses are also quite complex, as evident in the article [[Etimri Conjugations]]. Two auxiliary verbs, ngro and dzoush, are used heavily by speakers. There are both perfect and progressive past, a progressive present, a future, a subjunctive, and a conditional tense.

A few examples-

The Static Past Perfect:
 pvi motsh fjekat
 I loved you.

The Dynamic Past Perfect:
 pvi motsh fjeket
 I fell in love with you.

The Static Past Imperfect:
 pvi dza motsh fjekoush
 I come from love you. (I come from loving you = I was loving you)

The Dynamic Past Imperfect:
 pvi dzo motsh fjekoush
 I come from fall-in-love-with you. (I come from falling in love with you = I was falling in love with you)

The Static Future:
 pvi motsh fjekur
 I will love you.

The Dynamic Future:
 pvi motsh fjekair
 I will fall in love with you.

The Static Conditional:
 pvi njetsh motsh fjekoush
 I would love you.

The Dynamic Conditional:
 pvi njai motsh fjekoush
 I would fall in love with you.

The Static Conditional:
 pvi njous motsh fjekoush
 (if) I were to love you.

The Dynamic Conditional:
 pvi njash motsh fjekoush
 (if) I were to fall in love with you.

The use of the past progressive is used to highlight the habitual, processive, or repeated nature of the action, while the past perfect is used to denote a single or quick action. 

For instance,

 pvi motsh fjekat
 I thee love.STAT.PAST.PER.1P.SING
 I loved you.

stresses the singular period of love and its centralness to the action. Instead,

 pvi dza motsh fjekoush
 I come.STAT.PRES.1P.SING thee love
 I was (in) love (with) you.

stresses the longer period over which the love took place and its possible role as backdrop, as it is often used for side stories or phrases only slightly connected with the speaker's main point. (I was in love (PROGRESSIVE) with you, while I ate (PERFECT) this soup.)

The subjunctive is used to denote impossible or highly unlikely events, whereas the conditional is mere possibilities. In short, the indicative, conditional, subjunctive, and negative moods form a spectrum of likelihood from definate to possible to incredible to impossible, respectively, rather than the English structure, which focuses on the syntactic role more than probability.

For example,

 des njetsh foug fjekoush?
 She be.COND him love?

makes evident that it is questionable that she loves him, but does not suggest its implausibility. In the subjunctive, however,

 des njous foug fjekoush?
 She be.SUBJ him love?

denotes that this is highly contrary to other evidence or previous knowledge. This all contrasts with,

 des foug fjeko
 she him love(s).

which can no longer serve as a question, instead the conditional would be used. There are limited other roles for the subjunctive and conditional moods. All of the above could reverse meaning through a simple negative particle to negate the verb or one of several negative prefixes.

==Stress and Pitch==
Stress usually falls on the second syllable. Accompanying this is a pitch system. Stressed syllables and syllables immeadiately following stressed syllables have a high pitch. Syllables immeadiately preceding the stressed syllable have low pitch. All other syllables have medium pitch. Thus:

 ted-RO-gez-e
 L-H-H-M

==Adjectives==
Adjectives decline for gender. The masculine ending is &lt;-d&gt; while feminine adjectives end in &lt;-f&gt;. There are few irregular adjectives.

==Articles==
Only two articles exist, zhi and hjo. Zhi is definite (specifies one of the object) and hjo is indefinite (does not specify as one particular object. There are no plural forms. There demonstratives, quantities, or numbers are used. In many instances the articles are omitted.

==Lexicon==
[[Etimri Lexicon]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etimri pronouns</title>
    <id>2732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45808</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-03T18:55:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Charts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Etimri]] pronouns decline for the nominative, accusitive, dative, and possessive cases. Grammatical gender only exists in the third person. Also, formality and duality only exist in the second person. Inclusive and exclusive first person is not distinguished.

==Charts==
Nominative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| pvi (/pʋɪ/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| hain (/hen/)
  |-
  ! Second Person, Informal
  |align=center| nav (/nɑʋ/)
  |align=center| mai (/me/)
  |align=center| muts (/muʦ/)
  |-
  ! Second Person, Formal
  |align=center| mebv (/mɛb-v/)
  |align=center| mai (/me/)
  |align=center| muts (/muʦ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| fong (/foŋ/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| bish (/bɪʃ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| des (/dɛs/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| besh (/bɛʃ/)
  |-
|}


Monotransitive Accusitive and Ditransitive Dative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| poz (/poz/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| jets (/jɛʦ/)
  |-
  ! Second Person, Informal
  |align=center| motsh (/moʧ/)
  |align=center| zemotsh (/zɛmoʧ/)
  |align=center| met (/mɛt/)
  |-
  ! Second Person, Formal
  |align=center| mrot (/mʁot/)
  |align=center| mek (/mɛk/)
  |align=center| met (/mɛt/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| foug (/føg/) 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| bos (/bos/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| djedz (/djɛʣ/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| bos (/bos/)
  |-
|}


Ditransitive Accusative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| fin (/fɪn/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| hros (/hʀos/)
  |-
  ! Second Person, Informal
  |align=center| medzh (/mɛʤ/)
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Second Person, Formal
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| fjik (/fjɪk/) 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| dvidz (/dʋɪʣ/)
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| 
  |-
|}

Genitive
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| fa
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Second Person, Informal
  |align=center| nai
  |align=center| mai
  |align=center| nai
  |-
  ! Second Person, Formal
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| dvir
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| 
  |-
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faraneit Pronouns</title>
    <id>2733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19624</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-26T00:42:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Faranit Pronouns]] moved to [[Faraneit Pronouns]]: orthographic change</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Faraneit]] contains several personal pronouns. It has the standard singular and plural distinctions and a rarer, but still common, exculsive/inclusive distinction (atleast in the nominative). Other features foreign to English speakers are its animacy distinctions in the third person and the use of a fourth person. A unique aspect is it's split isolating and case system for the dative/ablative. The pronouns decline for nominative, accusitive, possessive, and (in most cases) ablative/dative cases.

Nominative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person, Exclusive
  |align=center| Hav (/ʔav/)
  |align=center| Velheib (/veɻɪb/)
  |-
  ! First Person, Inclusive
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| Feareih (/fɛɾɪʔ/)
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| Nor (/noɹ/)
  |align=center| Moaleih (/mɔlɪʔ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Animate
  |align=center| Doan (/dɔn/)
  |align=center| Tip (/tip/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Inanimate
  |align=center| Doam (/dɔm/)
  |align=center| Tip (/tip/)
  |-
  ! Fourth Person
  |align=center| Teareipeas (/tɛɾɪpɛs/)
  |align=center| Teareipeas (/tɛɾɪpɛs/)
  |-  
|}


Accusitive:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| Hin (/ʔin/)
  |align=center| Fonein (/fonɪn/)
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| Mokein (/mokɪn/)
  |align=center| Molein (/molɪn/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Animate
  |align=center| Dom (/dom/)
  |align=center| Teibein (/tɪbɪn/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Inanimate
  |align=center| Dekein (/dekɪn/)
  |align=center| Teibein (/tɪbɪn/)
  |-
|}


Possessive:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| Heaz (/ʔɛz/)
  |align=center| Voazeis (/vɔzɪs/)
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| Neireis (/nɪɾɪs/)
  |align=center| Meareas (/mɛɾɛs/)
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| Deis (/dɪs/)
  |align=center| Reiz (/ɹɪz/)
  |-
|}


Dative/Ablative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular Dative
  |align=center| Singular Ablative
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| Neih hav (/nɪʔav/)
  |align=center| Veit hav (/vɪt-ʔav/)
  |align=center| Vufheic (/vuθɪʕ/)
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| Neih nor (/nɪʔ-noɾ/)
  |align=center| Veit nor (/vɪt-noɾ/)
  |align=center| Keah (/kɛʔ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Animate
  |align=center| Neih doan (/nɪʔ-dɔn/)
  |align=center| Veit doan (/vɪt-dɔn/)
  |align=center| Deusceac (/dʊʃɛʕ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Inanimate
  |align=center| Neih doam (/nɪʔ-dɔm/)
  |align=center| Veit doam (/vɪt-dɔn/)
  |align=center| Deusceac (/dʊʃɛʕ/)
  |-
|}

NOTE: singulars are formed with the help of particles.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etimri Conjugations</title>
    <id>2734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-26T07:31:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Irregular Verbs */ ngro subjunctive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Present Tenses==
Present Progressive Indicative Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -a 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -id 
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -e 
  |align=center| -our 
  |align=center| -our 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -ai 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ot 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -ai 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ot 
  |-
|}


Present Progressive Indicative Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -o 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -am 
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -or 
  |align=center| -or 
  |align=center| -or 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -izh 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -i
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -izh 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -i 
  |-
|}

==Past Progressive Tenses==
The corresponding present form of dzoush + infinitive

==Past Perfect Tenses==
Past Perfect Indicative Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -at 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -at
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -ip 
  |align=center| -ir 
  |align=center| -ir 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -ir 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ir 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -ir
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -at 
  |-
|}


Past Perfect Indicative Dynamic
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -et
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -et 
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -ef
  |align=center| -ef 
  |align=center| -ef
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -et
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -it 
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -et 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -it
  |-
|}

==Future Tenses==
Future Static

{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -ur 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ur
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -ur
  |align=center| -ur
  |align=center| -ur
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -ur 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ur
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -ur
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ur 
  |-
|}


Future Dynamic

{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| -air 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -air
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| -ite
  |align=center| -ite
  |align=center| -ite
  |-
  ! Third Person, Masculine
  |align=center| -ite 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ite
  |-
  ! Third Person, Feminine
  |align=center| -ite
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| -ite 
  |-
|}

==Subjunctive==
The corresponding subjunctive form of ngro + infinitive

==Conditional==
The corresponding conditional form of ngro + infinitive

==Irregular Verbs==
'''ngro = to be/become'''

Present Progressive Indicative Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| mish 
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njoc
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njoc
  |align=center| ngoc
  |align=center| ngoc
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njoc
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njoc
  |-
|}


Present Progressive Indicative Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| mje
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| ngos
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| ngos
  |align=center| ngos
  |align=center| ngos
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| ngos
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| ngos
  |-
|}


Past Progressive Indicative Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njof
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njof
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njof
  |align=center| njof
  |align=center| njof
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njof
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njof
 |-
|}


Past Progressive Indicative Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| nezh
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| nedzh
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| nedzh
  |align=center| nedzh
  |align=center| nedzh
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| nezh
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| nezh
 |-
|}


Past Aorist Indicative Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njot
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njot
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njot
  |align=center| njot
  |align=center| njot
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njot
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njot
 |-
|}


Past Aorist Indicative Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| mjo
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| mjo
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| mjo
  |align=center| mjo
  |align=center| mjo
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njog
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njog
 |-
|}

Subjunctive Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njous
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njous
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njous
  |align=center| njous
  |align=center| njous
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njous
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njous
 |-
|}

Subjunctive Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njash
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njash
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njash
  |align=center| njash
  |align=center| njash
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njash
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njash
 |-
|}

Conditional Static:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njetsh
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njetsh
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njetsh
  |align=center| njetsh
  |align=center| njetsh
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njetsh
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njetsh
 |-
|}

Conditional Dynamic:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Dual
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person
  |align=center| njai
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njai
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| njai
  |align=center| njai
  |align=center| njai
  |-
  ! Third Person
  |align=center| njai
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| njai
 |-
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etimri Lexicon</title>
    <id>2735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>45809</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-03T19:01:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Etimri]]

==a==
ABVAMOUSH = ''v'' to pay attention

AZHO(F/D) = ''adj'' salty

AIE (/ɑiɛ/) = ''interj'' hey! say! oh!

==ai==
AIE (/eɛ/) = ''interj'' duh, of course 

==au==
AU = ''part'' again, once more, repeated action

AUTSHOUSH = ''v'' remember, recall

AUZOUSH = ''v'' to plow, to turn under (agricultural)

==b==
BASAIZH = &quot;nf&quot; rest-stop, a short stop for food or reposing, from Faraneit bafhej

BESH = ''prn'' 3p, plural, nom, fem

BISH = ''prn'' 3p, plural, nom, masc

BJED = ''nf'' shoreline, coastline

BJOUDZOUSH = ''v'' to recieve, to obtain, to have, to possess

BONIKAIZHOUSH = ''v'' to eat (a more polite, scientific term for it) borrowed from Faraneit boaneicej

BOTYS = &quot;mn&quot; metal borrowed from Western Measceineafh boʉs

==bv==
BVOC = ''nf'' passion

BVOGOUK = ''adv'' passionately, emotionally

BVOGOUSH = ''v'' to feel (emotionally)

BVOGU(F/D) = ''adj'' whiny, over-emotional

BVUC = ''nm'' occupation, job

BVUGHI = ''nf'' title

BVUGHJAT = ''nf'' name, title, description

==c==
CAIDZHNAI = ''nm'' orchard

CJEMJUK = ''adj'' gross, distasteful

CONG = ''mn'' blade, dagger

CUTOUSH = ''v'' to throw

CYNOUSH = ''v'' to have fun, to play

==d==
DATINGEV = ''fn'' exhaustion

DAI = &quot;mn&quot; goods, trading material, from Faraneit delh

DES = ''prn'' 3p, sing, nom, fem

DJARASH = ''n'' shrimp-like organisms used for food

DJEDZ = ''prn'' 3p, sing, acc, fem

==dz==
DZANOUSH = ''v'' to wait (for), to repose (intransitive)

DZAI = ''adv'' previous(ly)

DZAI(F/D) = ''adj'' previous, prior, ex-

DZOUSH = ''v'' to come, to leave

DZUGREZH = ''mn'' berry

DZY = ''mn'' taste, bit, bite, small amount

==dzh==
DZHI = ''adj'' sacred, excellent, awesome, great, wonderful, holy

DZHIMA = ''nm'' sacred grove

DZHOUDZUM = ''nm'' forests

==e==
EDVIZ = ''mn'' commodity, luxury, trading item, bargaining chip

EL = ''mn'' man, male

EMATSHA = ''fn'' behavior, action(s) (zero plural)

EMATSHATOUSH = ''v'' to act, to behave (in such a way), to have a certain air

EP = ''part'' of, belonging to, pertaining to, concerning

ESHJO(F/D) = ''adj'' pretty, beautiful

==f==
FEN = &quot;mn&quot; bitch, little thing/one (insulting), from Faraneit fean

FJEKO(F/D) = ''adj'' loving, lovely

FJEKOUSH = ''v'' to like, to love, to fall in love (with), to begin to like

FJICA = ''n'' platonic love

FONG = ''prn'' 3p, sing, nom, masc

FOUG = ''prn'' 3p, sing, acc, masc

FROUS = ''n'' innocent love

FVA(F/D) = ''adj'' correct, right, true

==g==
GETSHOUTS = ''n'' human(s)(irregular accusative: getshets)

GOTS = ''conj'' because

GRAIFI = ''n'' sexual act

GREFOUSH = ''v'' to lust after/for

GRETSH = ''n'' sexual objectification

GRIDZH = ''n'' sexual object

GRO(F/D) = ''adj'' lustful

GROUD = ''n'' lust

==gh==
GHRINGOUSH = ''v'' to want, to desire

==h==
HAIN = ''prn'' 1p, plural, nom

HI = ''part'' to, at, in, into (takes primary case to signify a completed movement/incorporation, dechticaetiative to signify a partial movment)

HJAZHOUSH = ''v'' to announce, to tell, to speak

HJO = ''art'' indef. a/an, some

HJIN = ''rel conj'' indicates that the subject of the prior sentence is the subject in the following statement

HYM = ''rel conj'' indicates the the subject of the prior statement is a non-subject in the following statement

==i==
IN = ''rel conj'' indicates that a non-subject of the prior sentence is the subject in the following

IM = ''rel conj'' indicates that a non-subject of the prior sentence is a non-subject in the following

==j==
JO(F/D) = ''adj'' gross, icky

==k==
KOU = ''adv'' a lot, very much, extremely

KE = ''adv'' not

==m==
MAI = ''prn'' 2p, dual, nom

MEBV = ''prn'' 2p, sing, formal, nom

MERUFKA = ''nm'' masculine nickname

MODOUSH = ''v'' to hate, dislike, abhor

MORAIN = ''n f'' hope, prayer

MOTSH = ''prn'' 2p, sing, informal, acc

MUTS = ''prn'' 2p, plural, nom

==n==
NAIG = ''n'' fiat, decree

NAV = ''prn'' 2p, sing, nom

NIDOUSH = ''v'' to legislate, to decree, to consider

==ng==
NGAMOUSH = ''v'' doubt

NGIMI = ''prn'' and/but how many/much? (Responsive Pronoun)

NGIS = ''prn'' when? (RP)

NGI(F/D) = ''prn'' which? (RP)

NGJOUC = ''mn'' nut(s) (as in from trees)

NGRAI = ''mn'' stick, branch

NGRI(F/D) = ''prn'' what? who? (RP)

NGRO = ''v'' to be, to become

==o==
OPF = ''n'' one, single

OTSHE(F/D) = ''adj'' dry, barren, lacking

==ou==
OU = ''n'' sex, sexual acts

OU(F/D) = ''adj'' sexy, erotic

==p==
PANGATANG = ''n'' heartbeat, thump thump

PE- = ''prefix'' un- dis-

PVI = ''prn'' 1p, sing, nom

PJEPF = ''n'' thing, (some)thing, (any)thing

==pf==
PFETROUSH = ''v'' to ask, to interrogate, to question

PFIS = ''n f'' questionable activity, absurdity, insanity, conspiracy, treachery, treason

PFVA = ''n m'' a cough, a hack, a weeze

PFU = ''n f'' type, sort, kind, genre

PFVOUSH = ''v'' to cough, to weeze, to hack

==r==
RAIPIR = &quot;mn&quot; dessert, sweet/delicious food, honey, from Faraneit lepir

REFSHA(F/D) = ''adj'' cool, fresh

RI = ''prn'' why? huh? (Responsive Form)

RISHA = ''n'' universe, world

RIZE = ''n'' jewel, gem, piece of jewelry, from Faraneit lizealh

ROUD = ''n fem'' here (acc roun)

ROUZOUSH = ''v'' to eat, drink, consume

==s==
SEBTSOUSH = ''v'' to speak (IN a language, a point/argument, in a certain fashion; not a specific word, any specific series of words, A language)

SECUT = ''mn'' amaranth, from Faraneit fheaqut

SOD = ''fn'' promiscuous woman (middle register, casual but polite), from Faraneit fhod

SY(F/D) = ''adj'' near, around, close, about

==sh==
SHOH = ''n m'' time, part of day, period

SHIZOUSH = ''v'' to understand, to comprehend

SHURA(F/D) = ''adj'' cold, clammy, chilly

==t==
TAKE = ''n m'' a home, a dwelling 

TASHAR = ''mn'' threshhold, doorway, opening, begining

TEDROGEZE = ''adv'' occasionally

TEN = ''prn'' how much/many? IP

TETSI(D/F) = ''prn'' which? IP

TI = ''mn&quot; lean-to, shoddy shelter, from Western Measceineafh tɨ

TISI(D/F) = ''prn'' what? IP

TISH = ''prn'' when IP

TJEN = ''prn'' how? IP

TVO = ''conj'' and, also, in addition

==ts==
TSIPF = ''nm'' path, route, road

TSOU = ''nm'' outsiders (mass count noun)

==tsh==
TSHIGHOUSH = ''v'' to use, to make use (of)

TSHOUSH = ''v'' to know (intangible form)

==u==
UZHOUSH = ''v'' to be made from, to be derived from
==y==
YTSH = ''nf'' fire, flame

==v==
VEDZ = ''mn'' area, place, location

VRETSH = ''n'' loser, pathetic person, failure (person)

==z==
ZASH = ''adj'' warm, hot

ZOUSH = ''v'' to make, to produce, to build, to do

==zh==
ZHI = ''art'' definate, the

ZHIDA(F/D) = &quot;adj&quot; equal, fair, equivalent, from Faraneit jid

ZHIKOC = &quot;fn&quot; profit, revenue, from Faraneit jikosc

ZHIKOCOUSH = ''v'' to profit, to make money, to sell things

ZHIKY = ''mn'' seller, merchant

ZHIM = &quot;fn&quot; cost, price, from Faraneit jeim

ZHRANGANG = ''nf'' lightning

ZHUK = ''interj'' shoot, damnit</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:WAEllison</title>
    <id>2736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-09-26T23:39:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAEllison</username>
        <id>256</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Bikalyo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bikalyo</title>
    <id>2737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-29T14:08:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAEllison</username>
        <id>256</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}

Bikalyo (''Bq'alio'' in its own language) is an ''a priori'' conlang created by William Ellison.

{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Bikalyo'''&lt;br&gt;'''Bq'alio'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||(N/A)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||(N/A)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||(N/A)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||Constructed languages&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Artistic languages&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''a priori'' languages&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Bikalyo'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||VSO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Agglutinative
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Nominative/Accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||William Ellison ||2006
|}

In creating the language, Ellison wanted to create something at once human and yet alien, something that might seem like a language created by a society, but one also something that might seem to be created by an alien civilization light-years away.


== Phonology ==
  ''Main article:  [[Bikalyo phonology]]''

== Orthography ==
  ''Main article:  [[Bikalyo orthography]]''

== Writing ==
Ellison elected to use the Roman alphabet, albeit with some modifications, to represent the sounds of his language.  Some letterforms used in Bikalyo are quite common in Eastern European languages, such as &quot;š,&quot; but others stem from Scandinavian languages, such as &quot;þ.&quot;  Here is the complete alphabet:
  Aa Bb Dd Ee Əə Ff Gg GH/Gh Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Šš Tt Þþ Ww Uu Yy Zz

== Grammar ==
  ''Main article:  [[Bikalyo grammar]]''

Bikalyo is a VSO language in most uses, but the occasional rhetorical usage might be accomplished in SOV, and some grammatical constructions are more easily expressed in SOV.

===Postpositions===
Postpositions can indicate the functions of some words, if such a distinction is needed.  These postpositions can indicate certain senses of the word being modified, or they can indicate what might be indicated by prepositions in English.  An example:

  Ql'myren qil' ghal'lad gh'qat'igh ig elilisiþ'yuq.
  ''That is my seafood in the refrigerator.''

===Verbs===
All Bikalyo verbs end in ''-am''.  They head the sentence and conjugate for mood, tense, and positive/negative, rather like some aspects of the Japanese verb.


== Sample texts ==
Sample texts will be added later.

[[Category:Bikalyo language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bikalyo grammar</title>
    <id>2738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-29T14:14:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAEllison</username>
        <id>256</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added category link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}

Bikalyo (''Bq'alio'' in its own language) is a VSO language with an agglutinative morphology and grammatical elements inspired by English, French, and Japanese, the three languages of its creator.


[[Category:Bikalyo language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ilushan</title>
    <id>2739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35010</id>
      <timestamp>2008-08-06T13:55:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jashan</username>
        <id>200</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Language'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in:
||n/a
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||n/a
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||0
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||''Unknown isolate''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||Varies
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Isolating
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;font color=&quot;#000000&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Created by:'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
||[[:User:Jashan|Jashan A'al]] ||1999?
|}

Ilushan was a thought-project originally meant to experiment with a uniquely [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satanism Satanic] language.  It had specific design goals of:

*A 'softer' verbal flow, with a sound somewhat resembling French. 

*A writing system which is both logical, phonemically exact (no duplicate letters, etc), and useable in a mathematic mystical manner, similar to the Jewish and Greek gematria traditions.

*Moral-relativist base (no terms for &quot;sin,&quot; &quot;damnation,&quot; &quot;evil,&quot; &quot;good,&quot; as absolutes) 

*Primarily mono- and duo-syllabic for core words; isolative morphology and syntactical forms.

*Majority of regular rules, with minimal exceptions (to simplify ease of learning)


===Phonology and Orthography ===
The traditional alphabet is recognized to consist of 18 letters (5 vowels and 13 consonants). The core 18 letters are listed in bold below, with their written form, followed by their phonetic value, then an approximate pronunciation, then finally their spoken name. Additionally, there are 6 so-called &quot;soft letters&quot; which, although they have their own distinct letter-name, are written as variants of the 18 core letters. These are listed in italics. There are 5 diphthongs, which are not considered separate letters, but which are listed here for phonemic completion. Two semi-vowels (y and w) are used in Roman spelling, although they were not present in the traditional script.


{| border=1 width=50%
  ! Roman Script || IPA || Letter Name || Category
  |-
  |align=center| a
  |align=center| {{IPA|[a]}}
  |align=center| a
  |align=center rowspan=5| Vowel
  |-
  |align=center| e
  |align=center| [ɛ]
  |align=center| e
  |-
  |align=center| i
  |align=center| [ɪ]
  |align=center| i
  |-
  |align=center| o
  |align=center| {{IPA|[o]}}
  |align=center| o
  |-
  |align=center| u
  |align=center| [ʊ]
  |align=center| u
  |-
  |height=8|
  |-
  |align=center| ae, ai
  |align=center| {{IPA|[ai]}}
  |align=center rowspan=5| n/a
  |align=center rowspan=5| Diphthong
  |-
  |align=center| au
  |align=center| {{IPA|[au]}}
  |-
  |align=center| ei
  |align=center| {{IPA|[e]}}
  |-
  |align=center| ii
  |align=center| {{IPA|[o]}}
  |-
  |align=center| u
  |align=center| {{IPA|[u]}}
  |-
  |height=8|
  |-
  |align=center| y
  |align=center| {{IPA|[j]}}
  |align=center rowspan=2| n/a
  |align=center rowspan=2| Semi-Vowel/Glide
  |-
  |align=center| w
  |align=center| {{IPA|[w]}}
  |-
  |height=8|
  |-
  |align=center| b
  |align=center| {{IPA|[b]}}
  |align=center| bei
  |align=center rowspan=13| Core Consonants
  |-
  |align=center| c 'or' k
  |align=center| {{IPA|[k]}}
  |align=center| ka
  |-
  |align=center| d
  |align=center| {{IPA|[d]}}
  |align=center| dei
  |-
  |align=center| g
  |align=center| {{IPA|[g]}}
  |align=center| ga
  |-
  |align=center| h
  |align=center| {{IPA|[h]}}
  |align=center| ha
  |-
  |align=center| l
  |align=center| {{IPA|[l]}}
  |align=center| il
  |-
  |align=center| m
  |align=center| {{IPA|[m]}}
  |align=center| mei
  |-
  |align=center| n
  |align=center| {{IPA|[n]}}
  |align=center| na
  |-
  |align=center| p
  |align=center| {{IPA|[p]}}
  |align=center| pei
  |-
  |align=center| r
  |align=center| [ɣ]
  |align=center| ra
  |-
  |align=center| s
  |align=center| {{IPA|[s]}}
  |align=center| sei
  |-
  |align=center| t
  |align=center| {{IPA|[t]}}
  |align=center| tei
  |-
  |align=center| z
  |align=center| {{IPA|[z]}}
  |align=center| zei
  |-
  |height=8|
  |-
  |align=center| bh
  |align=center| {{IPA|[v]}}
  |align=center| bhei
  |align=center rowspan=6| &quot;Soft&quot; Letters
  |-
  |align=center| ch
  |align=center| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
  |align=center| cha
  |-
  |align=center| ph
  |align=center| {{IPA|[f]}}
  |align=center| phei
  |-
  |align=center| sh
  |align=center| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
  |align=center| sha
  |-
  |align=center| th
  |align=center| {{IPA|[θ]}}
  |align=center| thei
  |-
  |align=center| zh
  |align=center| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
  |align=center| zha
  |}


===Alphabet Arrangement===
The traditional arrangement of the alphabet is almost identical to the standard Phoenician-derived order (which can be seen in the Hebrew, Greek, and Roman alphabets, among others). Keep in mind that while soft letters are considered to be part of the alphabet, diphthongs and semi-vowels are not (and strictly speaking, the soft letters are not part of the &quot;core&quot; system, as mentioned):


&lt;center&gt;&lt;tt&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;'''a'''     b     ''bh''     c     ''ch''     d     '''e'''     g     h     '''i'''     l     m     n     '''o'''     p     ''ph''     r     s     ''sh''     t     ''th''     '''u'''     z     ''zh''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/center&gt;


Although the Roman alphabetic order has been adopted for most standard usage, for symbolic writing and occult functions, there still exists the traditional order of the letters.

Traditionally, the 18 core letters were divided into three [3] groups (called ''itre'' or ''l'itre'' in plural) of 6 letters, in the following order:


*'''First Set''' (''Itre A''): a, pei, tei, sei, ka, ha 

*'''Second Set''' (''Itre E''): e, bei, dei, zei, ga, o 

*'''Third Set''' (''Itre I''): i, mei, il, na, ra, u 


The following patterns can be seen intrinsic to the groupings of the sets:


'''A)''' The first member of the itre is [a], which is the low front vowel (and the first vowel in the alphabetic order). It is followed by voiceless core consonants, in order of their increasing &quot;backness&quot; of place of articulation (''i.e.'' [p] is most-forward, being bilabial; then [t], which is apico-dental and slightly further back; [s] which is apico-alveolar; and [k] which is velar). The final member of the series is [h], which, while commonly considered a consonant by literate people, may more accurately be described as a voiceless vocal resonant. That it, it is the voiceless equivalent of a vowel.


'''E)''' The first member of the second itre is [e], which is the mid-level front vowel (and the second vowel in the alphabetic order). It is followed by voiced core consonants, in order of their increasing &quot;backness&quot; of place of articulation (and thus match perfectly as the voiced versions of the consonants in the A-set). The final member of the series is [o], which is the mid-level back vowel (and which is, of course, voiced, as opposed to the &quot;voiceless vowel&quot; at the end of the A-set).


'''I)''' The first member of the third itre is [i], which is the high front vowel (and the third vowel in the alphabetic order). It is followed by nasal and liquid core consonants (both categories have extremely prominant vowel-like qualities, which makes them distinct from other classes of consonants), although these do not follow the previously-seen &quot;place of articulation&quot; ordering.  The final member of the series is [u], which is the high back vowel.


In summary, the patterns can be written as follows:

*'''A)''' low-front vowel + voiceless core consonant (ordered) + voiceless 'vowel'

*'''E)''' mid-front vowel + voiced core consonant (ordered) + mid-back vowel

*'''I)''' high-front vowel + liquid/nasal (unordered) + high-back vowel


What of the 'soft' letters? There is a fourth itre, consisting of these letters. The fourth set, while unofficial, is still sometimes used:


*'''&quot;Whispered Set&quot;''' (''Itre Damai''): phei, bhei, thei, sha, zha, cha 


The pattern seen here is that the letters are ordered based on the place of articulation of the core letter of which they are 'variants' , and their voice-status (voiceless before voiced, similar to how the voiceless A-set precedes the voiced E-set). As diphthongs have never been considered part of the alphabetical system, there is no set which includes them.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bikalyo orthography</title>
    <id>2740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-29T14:15:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAEllison</username>
        <id>256</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WIP}}

''Bikalyo orthography'' concerns the spelling rules of the [[Bikalyo]] language as created by William Ellison.

[[Category:Bikalyo language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Sirica</title>
    <id>2741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44295</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-20T13:18:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Name==

''And yes, so did the Guiding Mind give her body and, melding into the mind of the greatships, bring her peoples out of calamity. The peoples that had faith gave themselves unto her judgement and her wisdom, and she led them out of fire and suffering; for this does the Guiding Mind not deserve praise? Yet she rejected it, and all titles within her life; she requested only to be called Sirica, the name of her birth and upbringing...''

-- &quot;Records of the Guiding Mind&quot;

==Works==

Creations include:

*[[Lein Dynasty]] The present focus.

==Things to Do==

*Fill in a Things to Do list</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44578</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-02T19:08:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lein Dynasty''' ([[Itarakoske]]: Kerana ne-i-Lein) was a dynasty which ruled over the [[Realm of the Tarakasane]], the fifth such imperial dynasty to be historically attested to. Ruling over the Tarakasane for 546 years and over 27 Emperors, the dynasty was the first centralised dynasty of the Empire, representing a crucial break from the semi-feudal governmental tradition of previous dynasties.

==History==

''Main page: [[History of the Lein Dynasty]]''

===Beginnings===

The [[House of the Lein|ruling house of the dynasty]] traces its history back to the [[Murna Dynasty]], when Lein Tegar berInsan was appointed to be the hereditary prefect of a county-sized fief near [[Lake Ernugs]], one of the sources of the [[Atgama River]]. By the late [[Hara Dynasty]], which succeeded the Muma, the Lein had become one of the most powerful nobles within the realm. In 156 Hara, [[Lein Durun berHikas]], the Great Progenitor of the Dynasty, led a revolt against the Hara over disputes regarding tribute, and after a [[Founding of the Lein Dynasty|9 year war]] succeeded in supplanting the Hara and establishing his own regime.

==Government==

''Main page: [[Government of the Lein Dynasty]]''

The Lein Dynasty was the first dynasty, ruling over the Tarakasane, to fully reform and centralise its government. This move towards centralisation began from the very founding of the dynasty; Lein Durun's successful revolt had convinced him of the dangers in giving power and fiefs. While the feudal system of bestowments continued throughout the dynasty, it was conceived of more as an honours system than one giving actual power (though there were some important exceptions).

==Economy==

''Main page: [[Economy of the Lein Dynasty]]''

==Society and Culture==

''Main page: [[Lein Society]]''

==Military==

''Main page: [[Military of the Lein Dynasty]]''

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Tarakasane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14195</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-05T07:54:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''The main article for this page is [[Lein Dynasty]].''

This category is a list of pages concerning the Lein Dynasty, one of the zeniths of Tranon civilisation and power.

[[Category:Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Feudal Lords of the Nar Dynasty</title>
    <id>2744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-06T16:19:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The House of Lein started its rise to power as one of many feudal lords granted fiefs by the Emperors of the Nar Dynasty; while they would end up toppling their masters, the Lein family nonetheless gained a great reputation as skilled defenders and supporters of the Empire throughout its tenure; the placement of their fief in the northern plains, facing both the nomads of the east and the numerous hostile kingdoms and states of the west, also helped it in this sense.

The Lein fief was granted to Lein Asuteni berBasan in Nar 14 by Emperor Nar Nogul berEvison, for services rendered as a general during a campaign against rebel forces in the south of the Empire. After him the Lein would rule their fief until the end of the Dynasty, with frequent expansions from conquest and from rewards in victory. This is a list of the rulers of the Lein fief from Nar 14 onwards.
----

'''Lein Asuteni berBasan'''

Lifetime: Naza 103 - Nar 25 (41 years) 

Tenure: Nar 14 - Nar 25


'''Lein Hisaba berAsuteni'''

Lifetime: Nar 2 - Nar 38 (36 years)

Tenure: Nar 25 - Nar 38


'''Lein Namito berHisaba'''

Lifetime: Nar 26 - Nar 82 (46 years)

Tenure: Nar 38 - Nar 82


'''Lein Verasur berNamito'''

Lifetime: Nar 57 - Nar 96 (39 years)

Tenure: Nar 82 - Nar 96


'''Lein Iharas berVerasur'''

Lifetime: Nar 83 - Nar 104 (21 years)

Tenure: Nar 96 - Nar 104


'''Lein Hikas berNimisur'''

Lifetime: Nar 78 - Nar 120 (42 years)

Tenure: Nar 104 - Nar 120


'''[[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein|Lein Durun berHikas]]'''

Lifetime: Nar 102 - Lein 16 (46 years)

Tenure: Nar 120 - Nar 132 (As Lord of the Lein Fief)

The last of the Lein Lords, Lein Durun inherited the fief at the age of 18 and immediately continued his father's war against the other feudal states, which would end only 12 years later with his coronation as the Emperor of the Lein Dynasty. 

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:House of Lein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor's Attendants (Lein)</title>
    <id>2745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-06T13:48:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Emperor's Attendants''' (Itrani: Ireshnon ne-Tairazun) is an office of the Internal Court, consisting almost exclusively of females, who serve as the Emperor's personal servants, responsible for such diverse things as his room, bedding arrangements, and even his bathwater. While it is administratively not an important office, its proximity to the centre of Imperial power often gives it disproportionate weight in the political landscape.

These attendants are basically the equivalent of the Emperor's personal servants, and most often there are around 30 to 60 of them for any Emperor at one time; Lein Jungi, the tyrannical third ruler of the dynasty, had more than 400, many of them snatched from their families for their looks, and he often used them for sexual purposes. While this particular case is the most widely known and loathed, that other emperors also carry out such acts is also true.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Transcription Office</title>
    <id>2746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-01T09:43:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Emperor's Transcription Office''' (Itrani: Nebo Skresatami ne-Tairazun) is an office situated in the Internal Court, answerable to the Emperor himself, and responsible for his daily matters as well as for administrative functions including the drafting and proofreading of edicts, the recording of Imperial Conference minutes, and other such matters, in effect serving as the Emperor's secretaries. 

This office was founded by Lein Durun, upon his founding of the Lein Dynasty itself. A unique feature of this office is that it is staffed exclusively by females.

==History==

The 12-year war that ultimately installed Lein rule thoughout the realms of the Tranon, as well as the highly centralised system of government that Lein Durun introduced to help ensure the future stability of the empire, also meant a hugely increased workload for the Emperor himself. Whereas most previous rulers of the Empire, or of huge Imperial fiefs, had to write their own edicts and read all petitions, this was recognised early on as being almost impossible for a single person to achieve, if he had the entire Empire under his view. 

It was to this end that the new Emperor, while consolidating his new dynasty and overseeing the expansion of the bureaucracy, organised the Transcription Office to better handle this work. Why females were chosen has not been made very clear, though the emphasis often is for females from non-noble families to be promoted directly to ths office for their skills; it is also well known that Lein Durun, who loved calligraphy but was far from skilled at it, simply preferred narrower, more elegant scripts whose authors tended to be women (Calligraphy was an art widely practiced by both genders amongst the Tranon, even though there were many females who were employed in dictation who actually did not know the meaning of the words they wrote). These females were often also chosen for their memory, and often did the work of looking for certain petitions, checking laws, and recalling the previous history of edicts, in essence serving as additional brains for the Emperor.

==Staff and Training==

The Office comprises: 

*The Transcription Section, headed by the Imperial Personal Secretary who is also the chief of the office, and responsible for drafting edicts and recording minutes; 
*The Readings Section, a team of proofreaders;
*The Literary Section, a team of talented poets who write for the Emperor's entertainment; and
*The Domestic Section, a team of high-ranking servants responsible for the Emperor's room's arrangements, his dress and decorum, who along with the Emperor's personal eunuchs also serve as his go-getters and runners within the Palace.

During the reign of Lein Loran, the four sections had staffs of 4, 4, 2 and 8 respectively; during the reign of Lein Sora, whose reign saw a huge expansion in the Imperial lands and accordingly in the workload of the offices, the sections had 12, 9, 4 and 10 people respectively.

Most staff of the Transcription Office have served as scribe girls in noble houses or other offices (where young girls used as scribes, with precise handwriting but without the comprehension of what exactly they are writing, are valuable workers); they are often selected at the age of 13 to 14 for their handwriting, intelligence, and other merits. Once selected, they are then put through gruelling training, including lessons in rote memorisation and calligraphy practice for days on end, to train them for their role; most of these girls then officially join the Office at around the age of 17 or 18, being personally selected by the Emperor after several examinations.

The skills of these girls in memory and speed of writing is legendary; many writers speak of 'mere young girls, who can recite a hundred edicts two days after reading them, without pause or hesitation'. While this may be an exaggeration, that the people are skilled and intelligent workers is beyond doubt. Many of these girls are often talented writers on their own merit, especially those within the Literary Section. 

Due to the nature of their memories, and the sort of information they are allowed access to, these women who serve the Emperor are also under heavy restrictions. Their building within the Palace Ground is under heavy guard, and they are not allowed to marry while they remain within the Office, which may be for up to 10 years. Six months before they are released, they are in effect locked away from the documents, in order to 'clear out' their memory and make it irrelevant. Even then, though these girls may be around 28 when they are finally eligible for marriage, they are nonetheless much sought after for their skills. Many of them, in the domestically oriented women's society of the Lein, became matriarchal figures of noble houses for their sheer ability.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Conference (Lein)</title>
    <id>2747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T04:59:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''Imperial Conference''' (Itrani: Hakure ne-i-Taitere) refers to a routine conference of officials, held once every two to five days, in the Hall of Lasting Order within Anyesir Palace. These conferences are attended by many important officials, including important generals, ministers, and often delegates from the provinces as and when they come, and are a crucially important means of decision-making within the Imperial Government, especially for major issues that require the Emperor's personal approvement or overview.

==Attendance and Agenda==

The usual Conference may involve scores of officials. Typically the roster of attending officials, as well as the agenda of the conference, will be prepared beforehand and submitted to the [[Lein Imperial Transcription Office|Transcription Office]], which then passes it on to the Tairazun for vetting. Once the Tairazun agrees with the agenda of the meeting, it is then held - normally the next day.

The Conference itself may have anywhere from thirty to fifty officials in attendance, as well as various secretaries, specially appointed officials to present information, and others who enter for one reason or another. The core list of attending officials include:

*The Ministers of the [[Six Ministries]], and the Overseers of the [[New Departments (Lein)|Two Offices]]
*The chiefs of the main Offices within each Ministry
*The General Grand Guardian of the Empire, as well as other generals who are ordered back for reports or for the submission of plans

This list alone would have occupied nearly forty high-ranking officials, to which are added the representatives of the Transcription Office, as well as the Crown Prince (if one is appointed), the Empress, and the Emperor. 

[[category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Constabulary</title>
    <id>2748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-02T13:42:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Organisation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Constabulary''' is the name for the main police force of the Lein Dynasty. Mostly responsible for and based within towns and cities, this force is charged with keeping law and order within their area, including such tasks as arrest, protection and guarding of installations, and street control in case of riots.

==History==

Before the Lein there was no central agency for law and order within the Empire, and even within separate feudal states such services were often restricted to the capital city of the fief itself. For the Lein fief, however, used to large-scale mobilisations or evacuations of the populace as and when war mandated it, the maintenance of such a force in cities and large towns was crucial to the running of the fief in emergencies, and the model was later used by [[Lein Durun]] and extended further by [[Lein Kasan]], his heir and the Second Emperor.

==Organisation==

The Constabulary's forces are mostly urban, and most cities therefore have a Chief Constable, whose office is almost always within that of the Chief Magistrate. The Chief Constable himself is considered subordinate to the magistrate.

Making use of the original Lein system, the men of the constabulary are divided into several ranks:

*Weire Vorasen (Chief Constable)
*Eovese (Superintendent)
*Falvorasen (Inspector)
*Vorasen (Constable)

Within the city, the Chief Constable (who can hold an official rank anywhere from the Inferior Fifth to the Superior Fourth rank) has myriad duties, including investigating crimes, keeping order in case of riots, arresting wanted criminals should they be found, fighting fires, and leading relief efforts should disasters affect the city. 

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Councils</title>
    <id>2749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T05:00:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term &quot;Imperial Conference&quot; (Itrani: Hakure ne-i-Taitere) or &quot;Imperial Council&quot; (Itrani: Dezukar ne-i-Taitere) is used within the Lein court to describe any conference held within the court where the Emperor himself, or someone holding a personal seal of authority and letter of recommendations from the Emperor, is in attendance. As can be expected these councils thus take myriad forms and can be organised into many groupings, from the grand Imperial Summoned Conference, to small, secret meetings.

==Imperial Conference==

While there is no clear-cut definition for what differentiates an Imperial Council from an Imperial Conference, the general agreement is that all meetings with the Emperor present, and which takes place within the Hall of Lasting Order, are considered Conferences. Another differentiating factor tends to be the size; Councils, taking place in rooms, may contain around ten men, but Conferences allow for hundreds to listen at the same time.

'''Summoned Conference'''

''Main article: [[Summoned Conference (Lein)]]''

A Summoned Conference refers to any Imperial conference where, besides the routine members of the government in attendance, other officials of relevant departments or regions are also called up to attend and present their views and information. Given the often large numbers of officials this summoning process tends to involve, as well as the large-scale disruptions to normal administrative matters, a Summoned Conference is mostly used as an emergency conference to discuss affairs of immense effect and weight, such as major natural disasters.

'''Imperial Conference'''

''Main article: [[Imperial Conference (Lein)]]''

An Imperial Conference is a routine meeting of important ministers and officials, presided by the Emperor, and normally held every two to five days (The requirement by law, as set by [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Emperor Athain]], is at least once every seven days). The primary role of these meetings is for officials to present important reports, memoranda and requests or requirements to the Emperor, as well as to other ministers; other than events pertaining to the Emperor himself, however, these other requests and requirements bewteen ministries and agencies are simply noted down and sorted out between the relevant agencies after the conference. 

Before every Conference, the Six Ministries and Inner Court are to submit the core issues for discussion; these issues are then sorted out by the Transcription Office and condensed for submission to the Emperor. Conferences can sometimes take an entire day, from sunrise to sunset, and involve tens of decisions. All minutes of these conferences are then taken down (and often committed to memory) by the secretary of the Transcription Office.

'''Imperial Council'''

''Main article: [[Lein Imperial Council]]''

If an issue happens to be too sensitive, secret or important to be discussed routinely in the Conferences, the official is then expected to submit a request for an Imperial Council. The Imperial Council comprises a small group of officials who gather to give necessary reports to the Emperor, and present highly important decisions for him; the work of organising such a small council is left up to the official, with the Emperor only approving to be present with a scribe, and woe betide the official who submits a council request without properly organising the meeting.

[[category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Inspectorate</title>
    <id>2750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-01T09:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Inspectorate''' or Samika (Itrani: Sabo Mikaraimi ne-i-Taitere, literally 'Office for Inspection of the Empire') is a governmental agency, founded by Lein Loran on the suggestion of his advisor Solu Mitandra; its respnsibility is to investigate wrongdoing and corruption in the civil service. As such it forms an important office within the Personnel Ministry whose aim is to manage the civil service itself.

One of the several agencies within the government with the special right of torture, the agents of the Inspectorate also have the almost unique right of 'Bai Sagornon', or 'No Officials', which means that their agents (so long as they present proof of identity during the arrest) may arrest officials of any rank or precedence, without regard for the rank or precedence of either the arrested or arresting official. These wide ranging powers, however, are curbed by the complete limitation of the Samika's powers to the civil service alone. 

The main roles of the Samika include investigating graft, collusion between officials and certain interests which will therefore undermine the Empire, as well as alleged oppression of the peoples of the Empire. As a watchdog agency with powers over all civil servants, and answerable only to the Prime Minister and the Emperor, the Samika was one of the main reasons for the relatively corruption-free period during the reign of the Four Great Emperors and subsequent strong emperors as well. 

==Quotes and Legal Basis==

''&quot;Bai sagornon, bata trunam sagerimi ra sudremi, der sanati Varatan ne-i-Taitere ne-i-Lein, kisabanoi botarun su-sagor ne-i-Sabo Mikaraimi, masema kureit nanasekri madan ase gralonen botarimi.&quot;''

‘No officials, regardless of rank or precedence, who serve the Imperial Government of the Lein Dynasty, may resist arrest from an official of the Imperial Inspectorate, so long as proper identification and a warrant for arrest is provided.’


[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of Justice</title>
    <id>2751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-04T14:09:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of Justice''' (Itrani: Dasabo Varunaimi ne-i-Taitere, literally Grand Agency for Justice of the Empire) is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty|Six Ministries]] that form the core of the Lein government. As its title makes plain, this Ministry is in charge of most judicial and criminal processes within the Empire, including urban constabulary forces, investigations into crimes, judgement and trial, and ultimately punishment or execution. 

==Organisation==

As a Dasabo, or Ministry, this organisation is headed by a Susarte, or Minister, an appointment of the first rank. The ministry is in turn divided into Offices, or Sabonon, each handling different aspects of the judicial process:

*[[Lein Imperial Constabulary|Imperial Constabulary]] (Itrani: Vorasedun ne-i-Taitere), in charge of law enforcement in most cities, and in making arrests
*[[Lein Judicial Office|Judicial Office]] (Itrani: Sabo Nivajimi), the central authority for all local judges, responsible for monitoring their judgements and informing area judiciaries of new changes in law
*[[Lein Office of Punishments and Executions|Office of Punishments and Executions]] (Itrani: Sabo Kusuraimi ase Gakaseimi), the central authority for recording punishments and for approving executions, in consultation with existing laws and with approval from the Emperor.
*[[Lein Office of Investigations|Office of Investigations]] (Itrani: Sabo Tenedeimi), the authority often required to investigate crimes of all sort, and sometimes also preventively; often working in secret, and in alliance with the infamous [[Lein Imperial Inspectorate|Samika]] of the Inner Court.

The Justice ministry is also extremely important to running the Empire because, at the hamlet and county [[Administrative subdivisions of the Lein Dynasty|levels of administration]], it is the magistrates of the Judicial Office who serve as the representative of Imperial law and administration; as such the Justice Ministry is easily the most involved of all ministries in regional administration, and its powers in areas distant from the [[Meiron|capital]] is very great. 

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Official Ranks</title>
    <id>2752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T04:05:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lein Official Hierarchy''' (Itrani: i-Sekalar Ranaba, the Great Hierarchy) is the name of the system of official ranks, devised by [[Sen Dufan berKanzane]], who was one of the advisors to Emperor Lein Durun. It consisted of a ten-rank structure, with further divisions to delineate the precedence and priority of officials within the same rank. 

The Lein was the first dynasty of the Tranon to create an overall ranking system for officials within the government, applicable to all departments and ministries. Prior to this, the previous dynasties had an impossibly complex system of titles, many with clear orders of precedence within their spheres but not outside; thus it was never clear if the Junior Overseer of the Highways was superior or inferior to a Tiger-Might General - a situation that often led to administrative chaos and sometimes even civil war. 

The ten ranks of the Lein had no names per se, but were instead identified by their costume and appropriate embelishments; by looking at a person in official dress, therefore, one could at least guess at his ranking (if not his precedence) and give appropriate tribute and courtesy. The income of the officials were also defined by their rank and precedence. Also, by the make of and the ornaments on their [[Seals|seals]], it was possible to differentiate roughly which tier of rank they belonged to. 

==Seals==

The seal, being the distinguishing mark of an official's authority and responsibility, is designed to give some information of the official as well. All seals have tassels strung through them, made of either black, blue or red string; these strings represent the Lower, Proper, and Upper precedences respectively, so that if two officials have the same rank their priority can still be determined.

[[Category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Administrative Units</title>
    <id>2753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T13:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Lein Empire was divided into several levels of regional administration, the better to govern a territory its size. While the main divisions have relatively clear definitions, there are also several old titles and terms that are still confusingly used within the realms.

==History==

During old dynasties, political divisions were mostly dictated not by Imperial will but by feudal situations and subsequent decisions. Much of the Empire was divided up into 'States', highly autonomous and organised forces within the Empire itself; 'Fiefs', which were basically smaller but still mostly self-sufficient; and 'Villages', small fiefs whose leaders often were absent and who had to fend for themselves against incursions from other lords. The incredibly complex patchwork of states, fiefs and villages, which often changed by year as the lords of states instated new nobles or deposed certain fiefholders, made delineating any coherent political boundaries for administration very difficult.

When [[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein|Lein Durun]] ascended the throne, he at first tried to follow the system while streamlining it to centralise power; while the feudal system was mostly abolished and appointed officials were sent to govern, the state and fief system remained in force. The historical ambiguity of borders, however, continued to plague the system; even if officials were not at loggerheads it was often hard to tell whose jurisdiction extended where. 

Because of this, the second Emperor, [[Tairazun Kasan berDurun ne-i-Lein|Lein Kasan]], decided to abolish the feudal system of divisions completely. After spending two years on planning, he then announced the new system of &quot;Eleven Provinces&quot;, whereby the Empire was divided into 11 provinces, subdivided into counties and hamlets, with certain autonomous cities and ports, as well as certain family fiefs which were now well delineated.

==Divisions==

*Arsun - The Arsun, or Province, is the largest subdivision of the Empire; while the original division of the Empire called for eleven arsunon, the later expansion of the imperial lands would later carve out another nine, such that the Empire also became known as &quot;demagach Arsunon&quot;, the Twenty Provinces. Each Arsunon is headed by a [[Parasgach]], a provincial governor who oversees the branches of the administration within the province.
*Sheten - the Sheten, or County, is the subdivision of the Arsunon. On average, each Arsun is split into anywhere from 18 to 30 Sheten, which along with the provincial capital can make up millions of population altogether. While a small unit in the perspective of the Empire, each Sheten can contain thousands of households and their development and local governance is essential to the economic health of the Empire as a whole.
*Kasten - the Kasten is the capital of the Arsun, the seat of its administrative headquarters, and most often also the social and economic centre of a province. While they are on the same tier as the shetenon, their status tends to be higher as one takes into consideration their denser population and greater wealth. Many of these capitals are great cities in their own right.
*Mitel - the Mitel, or Hamlet, is the further subdivision of the Shetenon. Each Sheten tends to comprise around 6 to 10 Mitelnon, a few hundred housholds each - a village, or a cluster of smaller settlements. 

[[Category: Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Regions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Prime Minister of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T13:00:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Imperial Prime Minister (Itrani: Weir Sagare ne-i-Taitere) is the post of the highest-ranked official within the Imperial Government, second in position only to the Emperor himself. Responsible for coordinating ministries and basically for authorisation of most large-scale imperial projects, this is a post of both immense responsibility and correspondingly great authority. 

The Prime Minister's Office, or Sabo ne-Weir Sagare, is an office independent of any of the [[Six Ministries]] or the Ordained Offices, and the Prime Minister also has a personal staff to handle his affairs, much like that of the Tairazun himself. As such the Weir Sagare is often the most trusted, skilled and experienced official, the Tairazun's own right arm, so to speak.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T12:45:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The government of the [[Lein Dynasty]] was divided at the highest level into the '''Six Ministries''' ([[Itrani]] Ron Dasabonon), respectively of Personnel, Finance, Rites and Education, War and Diplomacy, Justice and Public Works. This system, the first ever in the history of the Tranon to be divided functionally rather than by territory, was one of the major innovations of the Lein Dynasty as well as a sign and essential of power centralisation.

==History==

The first few dynasties of the Tranon were to varying degrees feudal empires, whose emperors often ruled more by negotiation, bargaining and force of personality rather than by any rule of law. Accordingly, the governmental system was based on territorial divisions of the empire, where governors were deployed to various regions as representatives of the emperor. More often than not, however, these governors were helpless against the entrenched power of the local landholders - or, worse still, would ally with them and find ways to disobey the emperor discreetly, thus increasing local power at the expense of central power.

The founding of the Lein Dynasty, therefore, called for massive reform to consolidate and institutionalise the power of the Emperor. That the ministries were now functionally divided and constantly in competition with each other, and that every ministry now had to send representatives to the provincial administrations, now meant that it was far less likely for collusion or alliances with local governors against central authority. The six ministries were respectively given wide powers of their own, while constantly remaining under the personal purview of the Emperor through the Ministers' attendance for [[Imperial Conference|Imperial Conferences]].

==Organisation==

As with the administrative redivision of the Lein Empire, the government agencies themselves are also very well subdivided for efficiency and clear delineation. The Ministries, along with two other offices - the Internal Palace Office, and the Office of the Outer Kingdoms - form the first level of division. A Ministry, or '''Dasabo''', is then subdivided into Offices, or '''Sabonon''' (singular '''Sabo'''), and finally into Sections or '''Sirtenon'''.

The Ministers of the Six Ministries are recommended by the previous Minister or other high-ranking officials within the relevant ministry, and ultimately approved and appointed by the [[Tairazun ne-i-Lein|Emperor]]. All ministers hold the First Rank, Proper Precedence, which is the highest attainable rank for Lein officials; only the Prime Minister ranks above them, being in the same rank but of Upper Precedence.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Summoned Conference (Lein)</title>
    <id>2756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T05:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''Imperial Conference with Summons''' (Itrani: Hakure mo-nanatanon ne-i-Taitere, literally 'Conference with Summons of the Empire) is a specially convened sort of Imperial Conference, whereby additional 'summoned' members of the Imperial and regional governments will also be in attendance to present their views and information. The numbers of people being summoned to attend conferences can reach the hundreds, though normally around 40 or 50 are summoned.

Summoned Conferences are not often convened, certainly not a matter of routine, and most of the time are called only in reaction to large-scale crises or natural disasters. As the saying goes, &quot;Conference summons are as pigeons in the Tandusar cliff holes&quot; (The Tandusar cliffs are a series of cliffs rising nearly 80 metres above the Meidorien River; their narrowness means that in event of massive flooding the river may reach halfway up the cliffs, driving out the pigeons and creating the sort of catastrophe that would necessitate a summoned conference). 

==History==

While Imperial Conferences were a commonplace event even in dynasties before the Lein, and became a crucial part of decision-making during the dynasty, no provisions were made for adding exra members to the conferences in case of emergency; the chain of command of the ministries was seen as sufficient to deal with most issues. The first case of people being summoned specifically for an Imperial Conference, from outside the capital, therefore, was not during the reign of Lein Durun the Founding Emperor but rather Lein Kasan, the second Emperor, during whose reign the Anaman River burst its banks in massive flooding that killed nearly 30,000 people and left a million homeless; deciding that the chain of command was far too slow, he drafted an urgent letter to be sent to all major local officials in the region, as well as logistics officials of surrounding provinces, demanding information and plans to be sent to the capital as soon as possible. This letter, starting &quot;The Empire orders the presence...&quot; (Itrani: &quot;Taitere pures nasalur...&quot;), a beginning which has since become known to the general public and is sometimes used as a saying to indicate a calamity, eg. ''The harvest this year is such the Empire is ordering my presence''.

[[category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-13T05:06:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category includes articles about the government of the [[Lein Dynasty]]. In [[Itrani]] the concept of government is expressed in the term &quot;Reibanon ase Sabonon&quot;, &quot;Institutions and Offices&quot;; therefore the name of this category.

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Talumze</title>
    <id>2758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T06:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Talumze (Garzas ne-Talumze)
|part of= Nar-Kudam Wars
|date= 14-6-Nar 87
|place= Talumze Field, [[Natoyan Province]]
|result= Nar (Lein) Victory
|1= [[Nar Dynasty]] ([[House of Lein|Lein]] Fief)
|2= Kingdom of Kudam
|1comd= Lein Verasur berNamito 
|2comd= Prince Hastasa, Prince Ganaus
|1str= 11,000 foot, 14,000 cavalry
|2str= 38,000 foot, 3,600 cavalry
|1cas= 2,600 killed or wounded
|2cas= Around 7,000 killed/wounded; 8,200 prisoners
}}

The '''Battle of Talumze''' (Itrani: Garzas ne-Talumze) was a battle in the war between the Nar Dynasty, represented by the Lein lords of the north, and the Kingdom of Kudam, during the 87th year of the Nar and the 66th year of the Lein's rule in the north. 

A great victory for the Lein lords, this battle was historically important for several reasons: the sheer cost of the battle broke the power of the kingdom, which had been both a great annoyance and threat to the Empire since the middle 70s, removing the threat for the next 35 years; also, the battle was a great boost in the reputation of the relatively small Lein fief, especially compared with the dismal failures of other provinces in the defence of the Empire. This would later prove valuable political capital in the Lein's struggle for supremacy in the north, and eventually the whole, of the Nar Empire.

==Background History==

While the Nar Dynasty in its beginning years had been a dominant power in the southern lands and the Meidorien Valley, its power north of those regions had always been under threat from the so-called Western Kingdoms, the peoples of the west races who had proved a constant thorn in the flesh of the Tranon ever since the birth of the Empire. 

[[Category:Battles of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cavalry of the Lein</title>
    <id>2759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-08T15:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The cavalry has always been a crucial part of warmaking for the Lein, a feature inherited from their old power base being situated in the northern plains to the south of the river Kiranava. As a result, after their reunification of the Empire, the Lein dynasty's army for the first time incorporated cavalry tactics into their army on a massive scale.

==Before the dynasty==

The original fief of the Lein family, when they served the Nar Dynasty as a feudal house, comprised mostly plains to the south and east of the river Kiranava, straddling another river called the Loruse; a large part of these lands, not very fertile or suitable for crops but good enough for an abundance of grass and grazing, was therefore used to rear horses. 

Throughout the Nar Dynasty's history, and especially as its central authortiy began to decline, the Lein cavalry became increasingly prominent within the Empire as it defended both the Empire and its own territories from aggressors; on the fields of [[Battle of Talumze|Talumze]] and [[Battle of Three Tree Ford|Niros]] cavalry played decisive parts in the Lein victories, while the invasion of Lein by the neighbouring fief-state of Banten was also defeated with the heavy use of cavalry.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Organisation of the Lein Imperial Army</title>
    <id>2760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T08:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Units of the Navy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Imperial Army of the Lein was, in its time, one of the most formidable military forces in the whole world; its founding itself was an innovation of the newly centralised imperial system it served. Organised to a degree that was simply impossible for earlier dynasties, the army was forged into a superior force, both in training and discipline.

==Units of the Army==

The smallest unit of the army is the Line or &quot;teo&quot;, which contains 10 men. Five lines make a unit called &quot;nartun&quot;, translated as &quot;spur&quot;, of 50 men; 6 spurs make a &quot;kanawa&quot;, or streaming banner, of 300 men. Five kanawanon then make a &quot;burose&quot;, or &quot;flag&quot;, of 1,500 men; and four burosenon then make one March, the main organisational unit of the army, with 6,000 fighting men and maybe up to 3,000 auxiliaries and support personnel. 

Three of these Marches combine to make an Army, with 18,000 men; and five Armies make the largest unit of the Army, a Grand March of 90,000 men, capable of launching extended campaigns and independent movement to better cope with the large size of the Empire. While armies identify themselves as part of a certain Grand March, however, it is not often that entire such units are mobilised; this would pose massive logistics problems.

==Units of the Navy==

The smallest unit of the navy is naturally the single ship, though the nature of naval warfare in those days make single ship combat highly unlikely; ships are grouped into groups of ten, known as a &quot;kuntari&quot; or &quot;squad&quot;. Five kuntarinon make a &quot;tasaga&quot;, or squadron, and two to three tasaganon make a fleet, which in [[Itrani language|Itrani]] is known as &quot;gosare&quot;. Therefore one tasaga has around 50 ships, and a gosare may contain anywhere from 80 to 180 ships.

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles about the military history, culture, organisation and acts of the Lein Dynasty.

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Military]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Infobox Military Conflict</title>
    <id>2762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14126</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-01T10:26:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;&quot;
|- 
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;&quot; | {{{conflict|{{PAGENAME}}}}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background: lightsteelblue;&quot; Part of {{{partof|}}}
|-
! style=&quot;padding-right: 1em;&quot; | Date
| {{{date|}}}
|-
! style=&quot;padding-right: 1em;&quot; | Location
| {{{place|}}}
|-
! style=&quot;padding-right: 1em;&quot; | Result
| {{{result|}}}
|-
! style=&quot;padding-right: 1em;&quot; &lt;i&gt;Casus belli&lt;/i&gt;
{{{casus|}}}
|-
! style=&quot;padding-right: 1em;&quot; Territorial&lt;br&gt;changes
{{{territory|}}}
|}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;&quot; Combatants
|-
| width=&quot;50%&quot; style=&quot;border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;&quot; {{{combatant1|}}}
| width=&quot;50%&quot; {{{combatant2|}}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;&quot; Commanders
|-
| width=&quot;50%&quot; style=&quot;border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;&quot; {{{commander1|}}}
| width=&quot;50%&quot; {{{commander2|}}}
|-
! width=&quot;50%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;&quot; Strength
|-
| width=&quot;50%&quot; style=&quot;border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;&quot; {{{strength1|}}}
| width=&quot;50%&quot; {{{strength2|}}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;&quot; Casualties
|-
| width=&quot;50%&quot; style=&quot;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;&quot; {{{casualties1|}}}
| width=&quot;50%&quot; {{{casualties2|}}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; border-top: 1px dotted #aaa;&quot;
| {{{casualties3|}}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%; border-top:1px solid #aaa;&quot; {{{notes|}}}
|}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;

&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Warbox</title>
    <id>2763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14304</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-08T09:03:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;width: 315px; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; background: #efefef&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: none; text-align: center; font-size: large;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''{{{conflict}}}'''
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-top: none; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| ''{{{part of}}}''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 8px&quot;| '''Date'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%; padding-top: 8px&quot;| {{{date}}}
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px&quot;| '''Location'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%&quot;| {{{place}}}
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 8px&quot;| '''Result'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%; padding-bottom: 8px&quot;| {{{result}}}
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Combatants'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| {{{1}}}
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| {{{2}}}
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Commanders'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| {{{1comd}}}
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| {{{2comd}}}
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Strength'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| {{{1str}}}
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| {{{2str}}}
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Casualties'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| {{{1cas}}}
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| {{{2cas}}}
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; font-size: smaller;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Notes:'''&lt;br /&gt;{{{notes}}}
|}

&lt;noinclude&gt;

This is a summary template for military conflicts (general wars or specific battles) in your conworlds. Created by [[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene]].&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Regalia of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23179</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-10T17:53:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Almighty</username>
        <id>728</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists some of the symbols and devices of imperial authority used in the Lein Dynasty. As with all previous dynasties, the Emperors of the Lein had several signs of their authority - the Sceptre, the Seal, the Tiara, as well as the use of a [[Rafangas|heraldic animal]].

==Imperial Sceptre==

The Imperial Sceptre, shaped like a scabbard of a sword and sometimes a real scabbard with a real ornamented sword within, is the symbol of a Lein Emperor's military power and command. Normally made of snow-white jade mined in the eastern mountains, it is then intricately carved to the specifications of the Emperor; every Emperor thus has his own Sceptre, which must be presented within a year of his accession.

==Imperial Seal==

Like the Imperial Sceptre, the Imperial Seal is also personalised for every Emperor, and is carved with his signature and the words Nikaile Hiruva (Ever Victorious) and Varya Hiruva (Always Virtuous). Mostly carved in the shape of a circle, the Seal is then adorned richly with carved jade and wrought gold and silver. As with the Sceptre it must be presented within a year of the accession of the Emperor, and again like its counterpart it is also a representation of the Emperor's power - but this time in civil matters. 

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:House of Lein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rafangas</title>
    <id>2765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-04T13:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Rafangas''' is a mythical beast that plays a large part in the mythology of the Tranon. A majestic animal it serves as the steed of many gods and goddesses, though it is most often linked with [[Nikela]], the herald and sounder of victory for the gods. Historically it is important as being the heraldic and symbolic animal of the [[Lein Dynasty]].

==Features and Mythology==

The Rafangas has a mixture of features of animals from all over the Trandimir Empire; its head was that of a lion, and its body and hooves those of horses, both of which were relatively common in the northern plains; it had the long bushy tail of the squirrel, ubiquitous in the southern woods; and it had four wings of the great eagles that made their nests in the eastern Benakaru Mountains. As such it is a potent symbol of the entire Trandimir subcontinent over which the Tranon and its kings held sway. Said to be a fierce guardian against evil, and swift both on foot and on the wing, it is used as a steed for many of the gods; the steed of the God of Clouds Hursha, for example, is a white Rafangas named Sarsakan. 

Because of its powers the Rafangas is often used as a guardian animal, placed at the gates of temples or the residences of the powerful. The gates of [[Anyesir Palace]], the main palace of the Naza, Nar, and Lein, had [[The Gate Guards of Anyesir|four such statues]]: a pair flanked the bridge across the moat leading to the Central Gate, and a much larger second pair at the gate itself, standing nearly 16 metres tall, 19 m wide, and 21 m long. 

In mythology Rafangasnon are [[Nikela and the Rafangas|linked]] to two deities mostly: [[Basora]], the stable-guard of the gods, and Nikela the goddess of victory. For this the Rafangas, especially that beast named Shura (Itrani &quot;Shadow&quot;) which was Nikela's steed, is considered a symbol of cunning and victory through strategy. 

==Political and Historical Significance==

The Lein was not the first dynasty to use the Rafangas as its symbol; the Naza, Nar, and even several kingdoms of the Chaos made use of this animal as a sign of royal or imperial power. Certainly, though, it was the dynasty which carried the symbol the farthest and used it most extensively. The [[Imperial Seal (Lein)|Imperial Seal]] of Lein Loran, made from a single piece of snow-white jade, had a finely sculpted figure of a rearing Rafangas in gold on top; while the throne that Lein Durun first commissioned was flanked with eagle wings and had the lion's head over the head-rest. 

The symbol of this imperial beast was often simplified to just its wings, creating a symbol of four arches known as the Wings of Glory.  Unlike representations of the whole animal, this symbol was not reserved for the Emperor but could also be used as a general symbol of the Lein itself, and thus appears in many banners and flags of imperial offices and agencies. 

[[Category:Religion and Mythology of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nikela</title>
    <id>2766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-07T03:17:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nikela, Bringer of Victory''' (Itrani: Meruse Nikela, Netaimun Nikalaimi) is an important goddess in the religion of the Tranon. Personification of many qualities - the name Nikela itself means &quot;Well-planned Victory&quot; - she is seen as the patron saint of generals and leaders. The Lein, being originally a family of generals, therefore have a special reverence for Nikela, and her symbol riding on a [[Rafangas]] is one of the enblems of the Imperial House.

==Description==

Nikela is the daughter of [[Barrun]], the God of War and Conflict, and the twin brother of [[Lesani]], the God of Courage and patron god of soldiers. 

[[Category:Religion and Mythology of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Religion and Mythology of the Tranon</title>
    <id>2767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of articles pertaining to the religion of the Tranon, who also call themselves the People of the Lein. 

[[Category:Tranon]]
[[Category:Religions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Tranon Civilisation</title>
    <id>2768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-05T07:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main article, please see [[Tranon People]].''

This category lists pages regarding the Tranon civilisation, an old race based in the Trandimir Subcontinent.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khangaþyagon Babel Text</title>
    <id>2769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43773</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-04T14:49:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeteBleackley</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Removed some duplicated word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">wiþing Huna su yagon mod beb tramnar kamsar.
halbanut ū gitommingar holar leshnig slatingar yir salaðersh ðership Shinarip, beb dunningar yir zhelbanip.
beb yagingar feldar dirsakhar, &quot;a! apaltar yar vratar beb khorrisaltar yar yir khorrol.&quot; dahingar yar vratar banar yiungar, beb dahing slenna klūra yiungar.
beb yagingar yir, &quot;a! ustraltar yar kemno ya'ungar, beb gærri ū dahikh þusti yiuz zhertip beb apaltar yar men ya'ungar, parushkilaug ū gafatakhusher yar sallebam Huna'uz suuz.&quot;
beb saming Mallapont yiodam beb iðuzhing yi kemno beb gærri ū ustrifœngar iskar rikvlakuz yir.
beb yaging Mallapont, &quot;iðuzhaltar yar! dahir yir vlakh mod, beb wiþing yir sur yagon mod, loremifœr yir þaðo enil. halilig sheyagikhuf enshe yiungar ū slona yir þaðo yi.
a! samaltar yar yaodamar beb khiplaltar yar yagon yiuzar, parushilaug ū gevikhsher feldar yagon dirsuzar.&quot;
beb gafating Mallapont yir zhelbanip sallebam Huna'uz suuz, beb fostingar yir usto kemno.
bengilaug menrugiuf kemno Babal, bengilaug ū khipling Mallapont yagon Huna'uz suuz, beb zhelbanig gatafing Mallapont yir sallebam Huna'uz suuz.

===Vocabulary (roots)===

;wiþ:(v) have
;Huna:(n) world
;su:(adj) all, whole
;yag:(v) speak
;mod:(adj) one
;beb:(conj) and
;tramn:(n) word
;kams:(adj) few
;hal:(n) time
;ū:(conj) such that
;gitomm:(v) travel
;hol:(n) person
;leshn:(n) east
;slat:(v) find
;sala:(adj) flat
;ðersh:(n) land
;dunn:(v) dwell
;zhel:(n) place
;feld:(n, adj) each
;dirs:(n, adj) other
;a:(interj) Exclamation commanding attention
;ap:(v) make
;vrat:(n) brick
;khorris:(v) fire, bake
;khorr:(n) fire
;dah:(v) be
;ban:(n) stone
;slenna:(n) clay
;khlūra:(n) mortar
;ustr:(v) build
;kemno:(n) city
;gærri:(n) tower
;þusti:(n) top
;zhert:(n) sky
;men:(n) name that has a significant meaning
;parushk:(n) purpose
;gafat:(v) scatter
;salle:(n) surface
;sam:(v) come
;mall:(adj) holy
;iðuzh:(v) see
;isk:(n) son
;rik:(n) man
;vlakh:(n) folk
;lorem:(v) begin
;það:(v) do, (n) deed
;en:(n) thing
;sheyag:(v) deny
;slon:(v) desire
;khipl:(v) confuse
;ge:(adj) true
;v:(v) know
;fost:(v) stop
;beng:(n) reason
;rug:(v) give
;Babal:(n) butterfly - &quot;to follow the flight of a butterfly&quot; is proverbially futile.

With these roots and the grammar in the previous chapters, you should be able to follow the text. Happy translating!</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Meiron</title>
    <id>2770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T13:49:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Meiron City''' (Itrani: Kasena Meiron, &quot;Meiron City&quot;) is the capital and one of the largest cities of the [[Lein Dynasty|Lein Empire]]. Located along the [[Meidorien River]], the city is a very ancient one sited at the western edge of the Tranon heartland, and before being the capital of the Lein was also the capital of the Naza and Nar dynasties, and the Nazak kingdom before those times. 

[[Category:Cities of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Battles of the Tranon</title>
    <id>2771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T03:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sezara</title>
    <id>2772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29239</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-19T10:35:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for category=Conlangs.  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Sezara
|pronounce=/sɛ'ʃaʀa/
|tu= theoretically this universe, future
|species=Humanoid
|in=south-central [[Lhined]]
|no=~3 million
|script=Romanized Equivalent
|tree=
|morph=isolating (occasionally fusional)
|ms=Nominative-Accusative
|wo=SVO
|creator=Humancadaver101 aka Schwhatever aka Buckfush530
|date=August 2006}}

Sezara is a language spoken in central [[Lheinead]], by the descendents of the Kang-Eur (aka Kang-Ur) civilization. It shows heavy influence from Quechua and Swahili, despite the fact that its population is generally descendended from Spanish and Cantonese speakers. It is believed that Swahili-speakers from the northeast and possibly also Quechua-speakers from the northwest invaded and to varying degrees installed their language(s) as the official language of the later Kang-Eur people.

More recently, [[Korce]] speakers have influenced it, after their dispersal throughout central [[Lheinead]].

==Phonology==
*/t k q p pʰ tʰ kʰ ʔ t' k' θ s ʃ x h r ʀ l ʟ m ɱ n ŋ/
**&lt;t k q p ph th kh ' t' k' f s z x h rr r l ll m mn n ng&gt;
*/ɑ e i u/
**&lt;a e i u&gt;
*/ɑ~ i~ u~/
**&lt;aa ii uu&gt;
*Phonological Constraints:
**(C)V
**/ʔ/ cannot begin a word

==Allophony==
*/t k q p pʰ tʰ kʰ θ s ʃ x/ &gt; [d g ɢ b bʰ dʰ gʰ ð z ʒ ɣ] medially
*/ti/ &gt; [ʧi] or [ʤi]
*/xi/ &gt; [çi] or [ʝi]
*/ni/ &gt; [ɳi]
*/θu/ &gt; [fu] or [vu]
*/ɱi ɱu/ &gt; [mi mu]

==Pronouns==
[[Sezara pronouns]]

==Syntax==
Sezara is highly isolating and SVO. There are eight main adverbial particles used to denote temporal aspects of the unconjugated verbs:

 zi zara ni
 I speak (perfect)
 I spoke.

 zi zara rra
 I speak (imperfect)
 I am speaking.

 zi zara thu
 I speak (past)
 I was speaking. -OR- I spoke.

 zi zara xi
 I speak (present)
 I am speaking. -OR- I speak.

 zi zara me
 I speak (future)
 I will speak.

 zi zara nga 
 I speak (relative future)
 Then I spoke/will speak/am speaking/speak
This is often omitted when it is felt that it is sufficiently understood that the events are proceeding in a temporal manner.

 zi zara fi
 I speak (relative past)
 Earlier I spoke/will speak/am speaking/speak

 zi zara tuu
 I speak (repeatedly)
 -No proper translation; more information necessary for a proper English translation-

==Stress and Pitch==
Sezara has an unusual stress system. Stressed syllables have low tone, while pre-stress has high tone. The first two syllables after the stressed syllable also have low tone. All other syllables have high tone. Thus:

 se-ZA-ra
 H-L-L

==Lexicon==
[[Sezara Lexicon]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein-Jichei Campaign</title>
    <id>2773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T03:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Lein-Jichei Campaign
|date= 4th month, Lein 149 (Sora 32) - 9th month, Lein 150 (Sora 33)
|place= [[Jichei Kingdom]], [[Isoraya Province]]
|result= Decisive Lein Victory, annihilation of Jichei Kingdom
|1= [[Lein Dynasty]]
|2= [[Jichei Kingdom]]
|1comd= [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Sora]], [[Lun Anil berTenemir]], [[Val Ishung berSadikas]] and others
|2comd= [[King Kupiri]], many other generals
|1str= Estimated at around 500,000
|2str= Est. 600,000 took part
|1cas= Around 100,000 (46,000 dead, 54,000 wounded or missing)
|2cas= Huge numbers; estimates of 4.5 to 5 million
}}

The Lein campaign into Jichei of the 32nd year of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Sora]], also known as the '''Vengeance War''' (Itrani: Krita Garusaimi), was the largest campaign ever launched by [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Emperor Sora]], and one of the largest launched during the [[Lein Dynasty]]. It would also lead to the bloodiest war in the history of the Lein, though the contest was highly unequal: while around 46,000 Lein soldiers died, two-thirds from disease rather than war, it is estimated that around 4 to 5 million Jichei died during the war and the subsequent reprisal operations.

==Background and causes==

The Jichei kingdom was the most northerly, richest, and most powerful of the great array of northwestern kingdoms which Sora's army had mostly managed to destroy over two decades and several great campaigns; it would also have been one of those extinct kingdoms if Sora had had his way. During preparations for a campaign against them in Sora 23, however, the Meidorien River unexpectedly flooded its banks, devastating thousands of [[kir|kirnon]] of prime farmland and displacing hundreds of thousands of people; because of this the campaign was shelved to deal with the disaster, and by the time the Empire had recovered Sora had also gained a more sober assessment of the formidably fortified cities in the Jichei kingdom. For these factors he instead declared a campaign in the northeast and sent envoys to the Jichei; and in the 10th month of Sora 26 a treaty was sealed, fixing the Jichei-Lein border and promising lasting peace.

Events over the next years would overturn the peace, however. In Sora 28 the King of the Jichei was deposed in a coup, and the subsequent struggle between his four sons and corresponding factions eventually led to the crowning, seven months later, of King Kupiri. Aged 22, he was well known to be a dissolute and weak ruler, quick to anger but often vacillating on state issues, and completely under the control of a group of court ministres. When, in autumn the following year, the [[Tairasantha Suin Areya|Empress Areya]] passed away and the Lein Dynasty declared a one-year period of national mourning, the Jichei ministers were quick to take advantage of this period to attempt extending their control over the Lein border, aiming specifically for the port of Nasubar about  85 [[iri|irinon]] south of the border. 

Not wanting to break the mourning by declaring war, Sora was left with no choice but to seek peace and plan his retribution later; he sent several emissaries, as well as relaying instructions to the representative in Jichei, [[Purinzun Rusangel berAmira ne-i-Lein]], to seek peace. The Emperor was even prepared to cede the port to them, as well as all coastal lands between the border and the port, if they so wished; however, at the subsequent meetings with the King, the stakes were raised: not just the port, but all four counties around the port which made up the north of the new province of Isoyara, was demanded. The prince flatly refused, and the meeting broke up.  

The final straw came two days later, when on the orders of some ministers a group of assassins rushed the Lein residence within the capital city of Kanugar, and Rusangel as well as his family and all the emissaries within, nearly 70 men in all, were brutally killed. When the incident reached the ears of the Emperor he was said to have fainted in grief at the loss of one of his most capable nephews, and remained comatose for two days; when finally he awoke, he declared a period of mourning for Rusangel as well, but kept it to six months so as not to extend the total period of mourning. Meanwhile, even as the nation remained in a state without war, the army was already being geared up for the revenge intended upon the Jichei, while a subsequent emissary continued a policy of fake submission by ceding all four counties, as well as giving gifts to the Jichei King worth nearly 30,000 [[Currency of the Lein Dynasty|utanon]].

==Numbers and Preparation==

While the exact numbers of the Lein expedition continue to be disputed, what is beyond dispute is that the mobilisation was on a scale never before undertaken or even planned by the Dynasty. Under the Tairazun's personal orders, two full Grand Marches - the Hunters and the Shieldbearers - were mobilised, as well as his Household Guard of 50,000, and an additional 30,000 trained archers levied from other armies and units. This made for a land force of nearly 360,000 soldiers.

Given the long coastline and powerful navy of the Jichei the Lein also took time to prepare an equally overwhelming force. Five fleets of warships, numbering nearly 850 ships, took part in the invasion, aimed at launching attacks on major ports, blockading them, and destroying or capturing the navies held therein. This naval force itself held nearly 35,000 men, while an additional fleet of 600 transport ships 

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Wars of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Sinoka Field</title>
    <id>2774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T06:06:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Sinoka Field (Garzas ne-raile Sinoka)
|part of= Lein-Jichei War
|date= 2-10- Lein 149 
|result= Decisive Lein Victory
|1= Lein Dynasty
|2= Jichei Kingdom
|1comd= Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein
|2comd= Aras Barsun, Porades Barsun
|1str= 56,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 28,000 archers
|2str= around 60,000 soldiers, plus nearly 50,000 militia
|1cas= around 1,800 killed, 3,000 wounded
|2cas= around 32,000 killed and wounded, 45,000 captured
}}

The '''Battle of Sinoka Field''' (Itrani: Garzas ne-raile Sinoka) was a battle between the [[Lein Dynasty|Lein Empire]], under [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Emperor Sora berAthain]], and the [[Jichei Kingdom]]. The first major battle between the two great powers, it lasted three days between the 11th and 14th days of the 9th month, of the 33rd year of Emperor Sora's reign. The battle was a great victory for the Lein army, which annihilated most of the force sent to block their invasion of the Jichei, freeing the way to the capital. It was also here that Tairazun Sora ordered the first of a long series of atrocities that typified the terrible war between the Empire and the Kingdom.

==Background==

The [[Lein-Jichei Campaign]], launched to avenge the death of Lein emissaries and the humiliating ceding of Lein lands to the Kingdom of Jichei while the Empire was in mourning for the [[Tairasantha Suin Areya|Tairasantha]], attacked the kingdom along three routes. While a strong force of cavalry tore into the kingdom from the east, systematically looting and ravaging villages to provoke a response from the royal army, the main force under Tairazun Sora advanced up the coastal route, first accepting the surrender of the former Lein commander of the port of Nasubar, and then advancing into Jichei proper once the pacification of the former Lein territories was about done.

Crossing the old border in late September, the Lein force soon ran into resistance as it had expected; the Jichei King had sent a force of 60,000 men, probably comprising mainly infantry, under two generals known as the Barsun brothers to block the path of the invading army. 

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Battles of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein</title>
    <id>2775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-06T16:38:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sora berAthain of the Lein''' (Itrani: '''Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein''') (17-9-Athain 15 to 17-6-Sora 60) was the sixth [[Tairazun ne-i-Lein|Emperor of the Lein Dynasty]], and the third of the four [[Dartairazunon ne-i-Lein Misan|Great Emperors of the Early Lein]]. His rule preceded that of [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Emperor Athain berLoran]], and he ruled for sixty years from the 117th to the 177th year of the [[Lein Dynasty]]. His posthumous title was [[Posthumous Titles of Lein Emperors|Great Martial Emperor]].

The rule of Sora, known by many titles including the &quot;Great Martial Years&quot; and the &quot;Great Order of the World&quot;, is famous for being an age of immense expansion; Sora declared war upon several of the longstanding enemies of the Empire, and with a greatly reformed and strengthened army successfully crushed many of those opponents, more than doubling the extent of the Empire. Additionally, he undertook the construction of a mighty navy which first explored, traded with, then extended Imperial control over several tribal alliances on other continents, setting up Lein rulers over the locals, and extending Tranon culture to places which had never been thus exposed before.

[[Category:Rulers of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:House of Lein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Tranon</title>
    <id>2776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-09T11:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main article, please see [[Tranon People]].''

[[Category:Peoples of the Trandimir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Van Itei berMimar</title>
    <id>2777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T08:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Van Itei berMimar''' (11-4-Athain 13 - 16-5-Sora 42) is a general of the [[Lein Dynasty]], during the years of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Emperor Sora's]] reign. By far the Emperor's most trusted general, he was also one of the greatest tacticians and strategists ever seen in the history of the Tranon, and over his career racked up an astonishing list of victories in the service of the Empire.

==Childhood and Youth==

Van Itei was born to Van Mimar berTarisun, a blacksmith of Nai County in Azabor Province, and Tan Riena berSasuri nanMimar, his first wife. The eldest of the family, with two sisters and a brother, Van Itei took on considerable responsibilities in his family even as a child, helping to take care of his siblings and also at the smithy. 

Since by family tradition the youngest child was the one who took over the family trade and responsibilities, as the older child Itei was left to strike out on his own. Fascinated by the army since childhood, he lied to a recruiter that he was already 17 when in fact he was only 15, and was admitted into the army as a cavalry trooper; full of dash and always enthusiastic, he was soon promoted to command a teo, and then a nartun, of cavalry. 

His cavalry unit, posted nearly 220 irinon east of [[Meiron]], was unexpectedly recalled to a much closer position along the river plains in Athain 31, supposedly as the [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Tairazun's]] health deteriorated and it seemed like he would not have long to live. In turn this move would put the soldier in position for contacts that would change his life and career. As the Tairazun lay dying, and his sons were recalled from all over the Empire, Van Itei was ordered to increase the frequency of patrols to prevent undesirable elements entering the city during this tense period; while on patrol, he stopped a suspicious carriage-riding couple, only to be entangled in the struggle for accession of the eventual next Tairazun.

[[Category:Generals of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tranon People</title>
    <id>2778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:18:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Tranon''' are a race whose original homeland lies along the Anaman River in the south of the Trandimir subcontinent. A race with a long history, they would later grow to dominate much of Trandimir, creating the Tranon Empire with its many dynasties.
[[Category:Tranon|*]]
[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tairasantha Suin Areya</title>
    <id>2779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-08T07:16:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tairasantha Suin Areya berIsedui nanSora''' (21-3-Athain 14 - 11-11-Sora 29) was the wife of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Emperor Sora berAthain]], and therefore the Empress of the [[Lein Dynasty|Lein Empire]], from the beginning of Sora's reign until her death. 

==Childhood and Youth==

Suin Areya was born Nin Areya in the 14th year of [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Emperor Athain's]] reign, to a desperately poor family in the northeast of the Empire. 

[[Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:House of Lein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:14:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category lists some famous personalities of the Lein Dynasty, including rulers and famous or infamous generals and officials.

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:People]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kor Sanbe berTase</title>
    <id>2781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-08T15:57:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous Works */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Kor Sanbe berTase (Athain 2 - Sora 27) is a famous bladesmith who was appointed [[Lein Emperor's Smiths|Emperor's Swordsmith]] during Lein Sora's reign. Through the course of his long career under the Emperor, who appointed him on Sora 5, he forged many swords both for the Emperor and his family, as well as for other generals and famous personalities with the Emperor's approval. 

==Famous Works==

Working for none other than the supreme authority of the [[Lein Dynasty|Lein Empire]], many of Sanbe's works have naturally become very famous due to their associations with the greatest men of Sora's time. These are some of his most famous swords.


'''Navarasna'''

Navarasna, which could be translated to &quot;Pallor of Heaven&quot; or &quot;Light of Heaven&quot;, is a long sword forged in Sora 6 for the Emperor himself. A classic Ezrike sword, with a sinusoidal inner edge and a firm, slight curve for the outer edge, it was famous for the sharp final taper from the sinusoidal edge to the tip, as well as the almost angular re-narrowing, creating a sword that was highly distinctive while retaining its deadly effectiveness. Its blade was around 70 cm long, while the whole sword was around 96 cm long. 

As with most such swords made for prominent personalities, the sword is engraved with words. In this case the inscription reads, &quot;Kor Sanbe, swordsmith, forges the sword Navarasna for He (who is) Always Victorious&quot; (Itrani: Sberetaro Kor Sanbe sbaro ezrike Navarasna nite Kasagaimi Nikaile Hiruva). This refers to the primary title of the Emperors of the Lein, Nikaile Hiruv' ase Varya Hiruva (Always Victorious and Virtuous). 


'''Ganudarai'''

Ganudarai, which can be translated as &quot;Darkness of Earth&quot;, is another long cavalry sword ordered by Sora and completed in Sora 6. Being presented with the Navarasna at the same time, it is often considered a paired sword with the Emperor's sword; however, its design is very different, and Sanbe had instead intended the sword Rikasei as the partner of the Navarasna. Rendered a much deeper grey than usual by an unknown process, the Ganudarai is a classic, heavy cavalry marakarai, with a 84 cm blade and a total length of 1.15 metres. 

Unlike the Navarasna, the Ganudarai was not meant for Sora himself but rather for Sora to present as a gift; this had been an idea of his own, that an excellent sword should be made as a reward for whoever was the greatest of his generals. Accordingly, the sword is inscribed: &quot;Be this sword, Ganudarai, for he whom Heaven has appointed to the aid of the Emperor&quot;. Eventually, as might be expected, Sora gifted the sword to [[Van Itei berMimar|Van Itei]] in Sora 35, before a great gathering of Lein officials, generals, and foreign dignitaries (many of whom had met Itei himself in battle, to be vanquished).


'''Rikasei'''

Rikasei, which is a poetic name for the first snows of early winter, was a sword made for [[Tairasantha Suin Areya|Tairasantha Areya]], and the actual paired sword of the Navarasna. Sanbe, keeping in mind the Tairasantha's love for beauty, put great effort into the shaping and carving of the Rikasei, delaying the sword's completion such that it was only presented to the Empress four months after the Emperor had been presented with both his swords.

Certainly the Rikasei was lauded as legendarily exquisite. A specially narrowed and lightened Ezrike for a woman, its grain and the quenching marks left by the cooling process were described as being &quot;like a breeze amongst soft winter clouds&quot;, while its scabbard was ivory wrapped around fragrant wood, carved into a scene of migrating birds. The hilt, topped with ivory, was carved into the shape of a heron - considered a lucky bird and the bringer of the news of spring. The blade was 58 cm long, while the whole sword was around 85 cm long.

[[Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Emperor's Artisan Office</title>
    <id>2782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-06T15:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Emperor's Artisan Office''' (Itrani: Sabo Gankarnondo Furaimi ne-i-Tairazun, literally Office of Artisans for the {Personal} use of the Emperor) is an office in the [[Lein Internal Palace Administration|Internal Palace]], responsible for making all tools and utensils needed for the Imperial Family, as well as for purposes of the Palace itself.

==History==

The Office was founded by [[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein|Emperor Lein Durun]], putting an end to previous systems where scores of artists were kept on the payroll of the Empire while only occasionally being called upon to produce works; now that the number of artisans was much lower the office accordingly became far more efficient in supplying the needs of the Palace and the family, and also coordinating orders for materials as needed.

This system, while efficient and perhaps fitting for a toughened military emperor such as Lein Durun, meant the restriction of styles produced by the artisans and the variety of the designs. Ironically it was the infamous [[Tairazun Jungi berKasan ne-i-Lein|Emperor Lein Jungi]] who &quot;solved&quot; this problem by coercing large numbers of artisans and craftsmen to be ready at any time to make playthings, weapons, or whatever he desired at the moment for him. His method was to issue skilled craftsmen with edicts of recall, such that whenever he wanted something made his cronies could use these edicts to summon the unfortunates to the palace on pain of death. 

After Lein Jungi was deposed, his son and successor [[Tairazun Loran berJungi ne-i-Lein|Lein Loran]] retained but altered this system dramatically. Instead of keeping the edict as a summons letter for craftsmen, he instead issued them as &quot;Letters of Imperial Approval&quot;, issued to recognised craftsmen who had reached great heights and ability within their field. These letters, like the summoning edicts before them, gave the Emperor the power to summon them to the palace for comissions as and when so required; yet they were also great marks of honour, as well as gateways to further patronage and power within their respective craft guilds. This system, much welcomed by the populace and artisans, was later refined when some particularly talented experts were retained in the Court to serve as chief designers working exclusively for the Palace, and who then suggested suitable people to be summoned or issued with the Imperial Letter.

==Organisation==

The Artisan Office plays the dual role of being the Imperial House's designers for personal projects, as well as being the chief contractor on behalf of the [[Palaces in the Lein Dynasty|Palace]] and the Imperial House. As such it is divided into many offices, according to the many tools and objects needed or wanted by the Emperor.

The work scope of the Artisan Office is truly wide, even if its target audience is very small; to earn a Letter of Approval is to be acknowledged as being a master of the craft, and the ultimate goal of many artisans is to make even a single lacquered box for the Emperor, or carve a toy for a Prince. The &quot;officials&quot; of this unique department thus make up a large cross-section of the Empire's greatest talents, whose techniques are often noted down by Imperial demand for the examination and learning of future generations. 

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Rulers of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main articles, please see [[Tairazun]] or [[Tairazun ne-i-Lein]]''.

This category lists the rulers of the Lein Dynasty, which for more than five centuries ruled over the Trandimir and its peoples.

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Rulers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Emperor's Attendants</title>
    <id>2784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14463</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T13:02:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Emperor's Attendants (Itrani: Ireshnon ne-i-Tairazun) is an office of the Internal Court, consisting almost exclusively of females, who serve as the Emperor's personal servants, responsible for such diverse things as his room, bedding arrangements, and even his bathwater. While it is administratively not an important office, its proximity to the centre of Imperial power often gives it disproportionate weight in the political landscape. 

The Emperor's Attendants is often confused with the office of the Imperial Attendants, or ''Ireshnon ne-i-Taitere'', who can number in their hundreds and are responsible for keeping the whole Palace running, serving ministers, officials and the Imperial family alike. Both men and women are present in this office in large numbers, and their work in the palace is endless.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Palaces in the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T03:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Palaces, or '''Kirakanon''' (singular '''kirakan'''), have always been potent symbols and foci of Imperial power, and the Lein Dynasty is no different. Besides serving as administrative centres, the palaces may also serve purposes of fortification, in which case they are known as Agenite Kirakan or fortified palaces. Many prominent officials and members of the Imperial Family also build palaces to serve as their residences. 

Some of the most famous and important constructions of the Lein Dynasty are their palaces, including the new [[Anyesir Palace]] which serves as the nerve centre of the whole Imperial Administration, as well as all the other older palaces around the city of [[Meiron]] which have served the same role for previous dynasties. Many such palaces are barred from entry by commoners, as well as being walled and under heavy guard to ensure the safety of the officials and people therein.

[[Category:Buildings of the Lein Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:House of Lein</title>
    <id>2786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category lists the members of the Imperial House of Lein, the rulers of the Lein Dynasty.
[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anyesir Palace</title>
    <id>2787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T04:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History and Construction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anyesir Palace''' (Itrani:'''Kiranan Anyesir''') is the name of the largest [[Palaces in the Lein Dynasty|Palace]] within the Lein Empire. Situated around 16 [[iri|irinon]] northwest of [[Meiron]], it is the administrative and political nerve-centre of the whole Empire, as well as the residence of the Emperor and his family. 

==History and Construction==

Anyesir Palace is one of a long series of palaces built around the city of Meiron, including [[Rumari Palace]] in the south and [[Asrakalin Palace]] in the west. Even though it was best known as being the headquarters of Lein Dynasty government, though, the core of the palace was in fact built as a fortification by the [[Nar Dynasty]], commissioned in Nar 61 and completed four years later, to command the hills that guard the northern entrance to Meiron city. Their effectiveness in this task was something the Lein understood all too well: during the [[Lein Accession War]], [[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein|Lein Durun]]'s armies spent 4 months trying to break through the hills to Meiron, then held by a coalition of rival noble houses; and it was only after a naval attack surprised Meiron city itself that, with the hills emptied of soldiers, the main army under Durun could enter and capture the palace.

After Durun's accession, appreciating the solidity of the position, he declared that the new palace of the Lein would be built there; with immensely strong walls and occupying a strategic position the original palace was built more like a military headquarters or fortress than a palace. Only later, with the reigns of [[Tairazun Kasan]] and [[Tairazun Jungi]], did the palace expand, in the latter case with huge new palaces to hold the Tairazun's women.

[[Category:Buildings of the Lein Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Buildings of the Lein Empire</title>
    <id>2788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:08:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category describes the many buildings and construction projects during the Lein Dynasty - including roads, canals and other such large scale projects. 

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Office for the Outer Kingdoms</title>
    <id>2789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T04:59:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Tasks and Organisation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Office for the Outer Kingdoms''' (Itrani: Sabo Nagusa Tatorimi ne-i-Taitere) is an agency formed during the reign of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein]], to manage the [[Outer Kingdoms of the Lein|Outer Kingdoms]]. As such it was responsible for liaison and coordination between the centre of Imperial power, and the respective Lein kings in the foreign lands, aiding them and obtaining tribute as necessary.

==Background==

The creation of the Office was necessitated by the massive expansion of the Lein Empire during the campaigns of Tairazun Sora, known as the Ordering of the World. The creation of so many kingdoms overseas, comprising a Tranon ruling class over native peoples, obviously made a coordinating agency necessary, and such an office was created in Sora 35. Originally under the aegis of the [[Lein Imperial Ministry for War]], the office was soon seen as taking on major tasks too big for a Ministry; as a result, 3 years later, Sora decreed that the office be made an Ordained Office on par with the Ministries and the [[Lein Imperial Office for the Palace|Palace Administration]].

==Tasks and Organisation==

While the Lein Dynasty in its homeland claims ultimate suzerainty over the Outer Kingdoms, it does not include them in its administrative divisions, and the ministries do not attach permanent sections responsible for the kingdoms. Instead the Office is in charge of sending requests for manpower and officials to the other ministries, who comply with the requests by sending staff over to the kingdoms for training and other temporary duties. By edict, the Office is not allowed to demand that officials stay in the kingdoms for more than four years.

More importantly, the office serves the purpose of conducting information between the kingdoms and the Empire. Given the distances involved, this is not an easy task; but the Office is nonetheless expected to give a report at least once every two months regarding the kingdoms. It accomplishes this by making use of a rotation system, wherein a group of officials is landed every now and then in the kingdoms and the previous group of officials immediately returns to the Empire to make their reports.

To fulfill its many roles the Ordained Office is subdivided into several offices, the more important ones being:

*[[Lein Office of External Tributes]], aimed at the coordinating of tribute from the outer kingdoms, as well as gifts from the Empire to the kingdoms.
*[[Lein Consulate for the Outer Kingdoms]], responsible for monitoring the conduct of the kingdoms, preventing and mediating disagreements between them, and supporting their efforts at diplomacy with local peoples. It also helps regulate the rulers of those kingdoms, acting as advisors.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Outer Kingdoms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Art of the Tranon people</title>
    <id>2790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-07T17:48:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The culture of the Tranon people is anchored within their art. Tranon art is divided into main categories: Music, Building, Painting, Calligraphy and Writing; these are called the five &quot;High Arts&quot;. Folk arts include a profusion of dance and opera styles as well.

[[Category:Culture of the Tranon People]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tranon Imperial Family Titles and Order of Succession</title>
    <id>2791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T03:20:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The imperial families that rule the Empire of the Tranon follow a complex system of titles to denote its many members, with its basis in the all-important Order of Succession. The Tranon dynastic Order of Succession, having remained largely the same throughout the dynastic periods, comprises four &quot;tiers&quot;, which each have their own male and female titles. The Imperial Throne can only be succeeded by males.

*The incumbent ruler of the Emperor, and therefore the head of the Imperial House, goes by the title of ''Tairazun'', a term originally applied only to founding kings of great virtue in the ancient Tranon kingdoms. The Empress is known as ''Tairasantha''.
*The Crown Prince, appointed from amongst the highest extant tier of succession, goes by the title of ''Kagarazun''. 
*The First Tier of Succession comprises the sons of the Tairazun and the Tairasantha. Princes in this category go by the title of ''Dimirazun''; princesses, ''Dimirasantha''.
*The Second Tier comprises the sons of the Tairazun and his concubines; these sons are legitimate, but will only be included within the order if the First Tier is emptied. Princes in this category go by the title ''Ferstezun'', and princesses, ''Ferstesantha''.
*The Third Tier comprises the Tairazun's brothers and cousins (sons of his father's brothers only). Princes in this category go by the title ''Kaniazun'', and princesses, ''Kaniasantha''.
*The Fourth Tier comprises the sons of the Third Tier princes and their main wives; sons by concubines or mistresses, even if legitimate, are discounted. Princes in this tier are known as ''Purinzun'', princesses, ''Purinsantha''.

[[Category:Customs of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Government of the Tranon</title>
    <id>2792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T04:00:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Organisation of the Lein Imperial Navy</title>
    <id>2793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-08T07:31:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Lein Imperial Navy, though traditionally a powerful force along the valley of the numerous great rivers in the Trandimir, have only recently been launched out onto the high seas; nonetheless, making use of many innovative technologies and the customarily high discipline and morale of their sailors and soldiers, they have emerged as a powerful force. This page discusses their units and ranks.

==Units==

The smallest unit of the navy is naturally the single ship, though the nature of naval warfare in those days make single ship combat highly unlikely; ships are grouped into groups of ten, known as a &quot;kuntari&quot; or &quot;squad&quot;. Five kuntarinon make a &quot;tasaga&quot;, or squadron, and two to three tasaganon make a fleet, which in Itrani is known as &quot;wasare&quot;. 

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zelandish</title>
    <id>2794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32192</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-03T06:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blackkdark</username>
        <id>1214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Language|
| English = Zelandish
| native = Zelandisch
| country = New Zealand
| speakers = 1
| family = Indo-European
| branch = Germanic
| subbranch = West Germanic
| word-order = SVO
| morphological-type = inflecting
| morphosyntactic-alignment = nominative - accusative
| author = Andrew Smith
| date = 1996
| background-color = white
| heading-background = green
| width =
}}Zelandish is a language derived from [[Old English]] by Andrew Smith and used as a journal language.  At the time of writing I have been using it for several years.  These pages will be an attempt to describe and remember the language as I have used it.

The name is derived from New Zealand, the locality in which I write my journal.

==Orthography==

Zelandish is primarily a written language.  There are no hard and fast rules on how it is pronounced.  It has an evolving orthography.

===Vowels===

'''A, a''' /a/

'''E, e''' /ɛ/

'''EE, ee''' /e/ -- Not part of my natural phonology and can be pronounced as a diphthong, also '''EI, ei'''

'''I, i''' /ɪ/

'''IE, ie''' /i/

'''O, o''' /ɔ/ -- also written as '''&amp;#193;, &amp;#225;''', no longer current language

'''OE, oe''' /œ/

'''OU, ou''' /y/ or /ʉ/ -- also written as '''&amp;#218;, &amp;#250;''' no longer current language

'''U, u''' /ʊ/

If the second ''E'' is marked with a dieresis, '''&amp;#235;''', it is pronounced as a diphthong with schwa.

A vowel written with a circumflex is pronounced long.  It generally indicates a consonant has been elided after it, usually '''h'''.

===Consonants===

The following consonants are pronounced the same as in English, particularly a southern hemispheric Commonwealth dialect:

B, C, CH, D, F, H, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Z

'''CG, cg''' is pronounced as 'dg', /dʒ/, in English

'''G, g''' is pronounced hard, /g/.  In '''GJ, gj''' and after a vowel it is silent

'''J, j''' /j/

'''SCH, sch''' /ʃ/

There is no hard and fast rule on post-vocallic '''R, r'''.  It can be pronounced as an approximant or elided.  The non-rhotic pronunciations of vowels are '''ar''' /a:/, '''or''' /ɔ:/, '''ir''', '''er''' and '''ur''' /ɜ/.

=Grammar=

==Pronouns==

===Personal Pronouns===

The subject pronouns / direct object pronouns are:

'''ik''' /ɪk/ I, first person singular

'''dou''' /dʉ:/ thou, second person singular / familiar

'''hy''' /hi:/ he, third person singular masculine

'''sy''' /si:/ she, third person singular feminine

'''hit''' /hɪt/ it, third person singular neuter

'''wy''' /wi:/ we, first person plural

'''jy''' /ji:/ you, second person plural / formal

'''hylie''' /hi:li:/ they, third person plural

The indirect object pronouns are:

'''my''' /mi:/ me

'''dy''' /di:/ thee

'''him''' /hɪm/ him

'''hir''' /hɪɹ/ her

'''ous''' /ʉ:s/ us

'''ew''' /æʊ/  you

'''him''' /hɪm/ them

'''Hit''' with a preposition is replaced with '''deer''' or '''die''' which comes before the preposition.  It is written as one word.  The form depends on whether the preposition begins with a consonant or not.

The possessive adjectives are:

'''myn''' /mi:n/ my

'''dyn''' /di:n/ thy

'''our'''/ʉ:ɹ/ our

'''eur''' /æʊɹ/ your

'''hir''' /hɪɹ/ their

The above are declined as weak adjectives.

'''his''' /hɪs/ his, its

'''hir''' /hɪɹ/ her

'''His''' and '''hir''', when it means 'her', are not declined as adjectives.

==Verbs==

===Infinitive===

The most common form of the infinitive is the verb stem plus the ending '''-e''', such as '''neese''', to visit.  If the verb stem ends in 'l' this ending is silent, such as '''tell''', to tell.

===Subjunctive===

The subjunctive verb uses the verb stem after singular subjects in the present; and an ending similar to the  infinitive after plural subjects.  It is usually used after verbs of communication such as '''tell''', to tell.  It may be used as the primary verb in a sentence if the primary verb is conditional or expresses possibility (may, might).

===Weak Verbs===

A complete paradigm is as follows:

'''toe loeke''', to look

'''ik loek''', I look

'''dou loekst''', thou lookest, you look

'''hy, sy, hit loekt''', he, she, it looks

'''wy, jy, hylie loekt''', we, you, they look

'''ik, hy, sy, hit loeked''', I, he, she, it looked

'''dou loekedzt''', thou lookedest, you looked

'''wy, jy, hylie loeke''', we, you, they looked

'''loekend''', looking, present participle

'''loeked''', looked, past participle

'''loeking''', act of looking, verbal noun

As Zelandish is a journal language written in the third person the 'thou'-forms are rare.  Hypothetically they should be common in spoken Zelandish, where speakers value informality.

When a weak verb ends in 'l' or 'r', such as '''tell''' or '''heer''', the past tenses preserve the 'd' in both the singular and plural forms of the past tense: '''teld''', telde'''; '''heerd''', '''heerde'''.

===To Be===

'''Toe ben''', to be.

The present tense:
{|
||'''ik em'''||/ɪk ɛm/||I am||'''wy 'sinde'''||/wi: 'sɪndə/||we are
|-
||'''dou ert'''||/dʉ: ɛɹt/||thou art||'''jy sinde'''||/ji: 'sɪndə/||you are
|-
||'''hit is'''||/hɪt ɪs/||it is||'''hylie sinde'''||/'hi:li: 'sɪndə/||they are
|}

'''Ik em''' contracts to '''ikem''' or ''''kem'''.

The past tense:

{|
||'''ik wes'''||I was||'''wy weern'''||we were
|-
||'''dou wie'''||thou wert||'''jy weern'''||you were
|-
||'''hit wes'''||it was||'''hylie weern'''||they were
|}

The subjunctive forms of the verb generally only occur after a verb of expression ('they said that...').  In the present tense they are '''sie''' (singular) and '''sien''' (plural), and in the past tense they are '''wie''' and '''weern'''.

With the past participle the present tense of 'to be' is used to mark the passive verb.  If a verb is intransitive it marks the past perfect verb.

The past tense of the verb 'to be' is used similarly to the present tense of 'to be' to mark the past tense of the passive and the pluperfect intransitive verb.

{|
||'''ik be'''||I be||'''wy bet'''||we be
|-
||'''dou bist'''||thou beest||'''jy bet'''||you be
|-
||'''hit bit'''||it be||'''hylie bet'''||they be
|}

The be-forms are used in future sentences, 'will be', axiomatic sayings, and for emphasis or topic-marking, 'the fact is that...'.  The subjunctive forms are '''be''' and '''ben'''.  It has no special past tense.

===To Have===

This verb is irregular.

'''Toe hebbe''', to have

The present tense:

{|
||'''ik heb'''||I have||'''wy hat'''||we have
|-
||'''dou hest'''||thou hast||'''jy hat'''||you have
|-
||'''hit het'''||it has||'''hylie hat'''||they have
|}

It is quite common for the forms '''het''' and '''hat''' to become confused.

The past tense:

{|
||'''ik hed'''||I had||'''wy hedde'''||we had
|-
||'''dou hedzt'''||thou hadest||'''jy hedde'''||you had
|-
||'''hit hed'''||it had||'''hylie hedde'''||they had
|}

The past tense is used as the auxiliary to mark the pluperfect on transitive verbs.

The subjunctive forms are '''heb''', '''hebbe''', and '''hed''', '''hedde'''.

===To Know===

'''Toe witte''', to know (something)

The present tense:

{|
||'''ik wot'''||I know||'''wy witte'''||we know
|-
||'''dou wost'''||thou knowest||'''jy witte'''||you know
|-
||'''hit wot'''||it knows||'''hylie witte'''||they know
|}

The past tense:

{|
||'''ik wis'''||I knew||'''wy wisse'''||we knew
|-
||'''dou wist'''||thou knewest||'''jy wisse'''||you knew
|-
||'''hit wis'''||it knew||'''hylie wisse'''||they knew
|}

The subjunctive forms are '''wit''', '''witte''', and '''wis''', '''wisse'''.  The negative adverb '''nie''' elides with this verb to form a negative verb, '''ik n'wot''', I don't know, pronounced /nɔt/.  The ''w'' becomes silent.

Note that there is also a weak verb '''toe wisse''', to point out, to guide.

===To Go===

'''Toe gon''', to go

The present tense:

{|
||'''ik go'''||I go||'''wy got'''||we go
|-
||'''dou gjeest'''||thou goest||'''jy got'''||you go
|-
||'''hit gjeet'''||hit goes||'''hylie got'''||they go
|}

The '''g''' in the first person singular form of the verb is often elided so it is written '''ik'o'''.

The past tense:

{|
||'''ik eed'''||I went||'''wy ei&amp;#235;'''||we went
|-
||'''dou ei&amp;#235;st'''||thou wentest||'''jy ei&amp;#235;'''||you went
|-
|'''hit eed'''||it went||'''hylie ei&amp;#235;'''||they went
|}

The subjunctive forms are '''go''', '''gon''', and '''eed''', '''ei&amp;#235;'''.

The participles are '''gangend''' (present) and '''jegon''' (past).  The past participle '''agon''' is also very common and has the implication of 'gone and done with, past'.

The present participle nearly always ends in '''-end'''.  It is rarer than in English.  Zelandish has not developed a present continuous tense to the same extent as English and where English uses a present participle after another verb, Zelandish prefers an infinitive, although this rule is not absolute.

The verbal noun ends in '''-ing'''.  There are some latinate borrowings ending in '''-aci&amp;#243;n(e)'''.  These are rarer than in English.

==Nouns==

Plural nouns end in '''-s''', '''-n''', or sometimes '''-e'''.  Some nouns do not change to mark a plural ending.  Some irregular endings are preserved, such as '''childer''', the plural of '''child'''.

The genitive case has become steadily unmarked in Zelandish.  The s-genitive still survives and has been extended by the use of the reduced forms of the third person possessive pronouns, '''-'s''' from '''his''', his, its; '''-'r''' from '''hir''', her, their, and '''-'rn''' from '''hirn''', their (in a prepositional clause or before a plural possession).

The dative case has disappear from the language except in a few fossil forms where it survives as an '''-o''' ending.  In such cases it is not necessary obvious that it is dative.

In words borrowed from latin the '''-um''' ending has survived, but it is used as a prepositional ending rather than accusative.

===Articles===

The definite article has abandoned grammatical gender and only one form survives in the modern language.

'''det''' marks the subject and direct object of a verb in the singular, the plural equivalent is '''do'''.

'''des''' (sg.) and '''der''' (pl.) means 'of the'.  It is generally used without the preposition '''of''' and comes after the possessed noun.

'''dom''' comes after a preposition.  After many prepositions it is reduced to '''-'m'''.  There are also contracted forms such as '''om''', on the, and '''im''', in the.

These forms are used as demonstratives and are qualified by '''hie''' and '''die''', reduced forms of the demonstrative adverbs, directly after the article.

There are two indefinite pronouns: '''an''' and '''sum'''.  Both are declined like adjectives.  If the following noun is singular then '''an''' is used: '''an wief'''.  If there is more than one indefinite object, whether plural or collective, then '''sum''' is used: '''sum wieve, sum folk'''.  '''Sum''' has become an independent indefinite pronoun in its own right meaning 'of them', or 'some'.  It is especially tagged to numerals.  '''Ik heb an sum''', I have one (of them).

==Adjectives==

Zelandish divides adjectives into weak, which have to be supported by a definite article; and strong, which stand independently of the definate article.

Adjectives are marked for case.

'''Riet''', right

{|
||'''Strong'''||Singular||Plural
|-
||Nom. / Acc.||riet||riet
|-
||Possessive||riets||rieter
|-
||Dative||riete||riete
|}

{|
||'''Weak'''||Singular||Plural
|-
||Nom. / Acc.||riete||riete
|-
||Possessive||riete||rieten
|-
||Dative||riete||riete
|}

=[[Zelandish Lexicon]]=

=[[Zelandish Ethnographical Questionnaire]]=

[[Category:Zelandish|*]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zelandish Lexicon</title>
    <id>2795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42846</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-06T04:03:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>- andrew</username>
        <id>211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* T, t */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==A, a==

'''abeck''' /ə'bɪk/ ''adv'' back

'''abië'''  /ə'biə/  ''strong verb''  to expect

'''abirje''' /ə'bəɹjə/ ''verb'' to taste (abirgd)

'''ack''' /ak/ ''conj'' but

'''acwel''' /ə'kwɪl/ ''strong verb'' to die (acwull p.p.)

'''acwell''' /ə'kwɪl/ ''weak verb'' to kill

'''adoun''' /ə'dʉn/ ''adv/prep'' down

'''adreë''' /ə'dɹeə/ ''verb'' to endure

'''afande''' /ə'fandə/ '''weak verb''' to prove, to notice

'''afinde''' /ə'fəndə/ ''strong verb'' to discover (afand)

'''aforn'''  /ə'fɔɹn/ ''adv'' in front

'''african''' /'afɹəkən/ ''adj'' African

'''agon''' /ə'gɔ:n/ ''past participle'' gone

'''ajinnend''' /ə'jɪnənd/ ''present participle'' beginning

'''akenne''' /ə'kɪnə/ ''verb'' to produce

'''alevednessferm''' /ə'le:vədnəsfəɹm/ ''noun'' sickness benefit

'''alieting''' /əlitiŋ/ ''noun'' photocopy

'''aliese''' /ə'li:zə/ ''weak verb'' to save

'''all''' /al/ ''adj'' all

'''also''' /'alsɔ:/ ''adv'' also

'''amerke''' /ə'mɛɹkə/ ''weak verb'' to describe

'''an''' /ən/ ''indef. art./num'' a, an, one

'''and''' /ənd/ ''conj'' and

'''andlang''' /ənd'laŋ/ ''adv'' along

'''anlipig''' /'anlipi:/ ''adj'' separate

'''andswern''' /'andzwəɹn/ ''verb'' to answer

'''andwerd''' /'andwəɹd/ ''adj'' present

'''andwerde''' /'andwəɹdə/ ''verb'' to present

'''andwerding''' /'andwərdiŋ/ ''noun'' attention

'''andwerdness''' /'andwəɹdnəs/ ''noun'' present (time)

'''ane''' /'anə/ ''weak.adj'' only

'''anfeld''' /'aɱfəɫd/ ''adj'' simple

'''ankleew''' /'aŋklæʊ/ ''noun'' ankle

'''anti-tigris''' /'anti:təgɹəs/ ''noun'' anti-tiger (used to discribe black stripes on black fur)

'''areie''' /ə'ɹejə/ ''verb'' to read out (areed)

'''asende''' /ə'sɪndə/ ''verb'' to send away

'''asti&amp;#235;''' /ə'stiə/ ''strong verb'' to go, to get up, to rise, to arise

'''astirn''' /ə'stəɹn/ '''weak.verb''' to move, excite, rouse

'''avelbornness''' /'avəlbɔɹnnəs/ ''noun'' nobility

'''awende''' /ə'wɛndə/ ''verb'' to change, to translate

'''awerpe''' /ə'wɛɹpə/ ''verb'' to throw off, to cast off

==B, b==

'''Babilon''' /'babəlɔn/ ''proper.noun'' [http://babylon5.cybersite.com.au/lurk/lurker.html Babylon]

'''banne''' /'banə/ ''verb'' to call, to summon (in some early entries used to mean 'call by telephone') (been ''1/3.s.past'')

'''be''' /bə/ ''prep'' by

'''beckdur''' /'bɪkdʊɹ/  ''noun'' back door

'''becumme''' /bə'kʊmə/ ''strong verb'' to arrive, to get (somewhere) (becoem ''1/3.s.past'', becoemme ''pl.past, p.p.)

'''bed''' /bɪd/ ''noun'' bed

'''beduw''' /'bɪdʉ:/ ''noun'' combat, fight, battle

'''beed''' /bed/ ''noun'' table

'''beerschip''' /'beɹʃəp/ ''noun'' party

'''beete''' /'betə/ ''verb'' ('''beete''' ''pl.past''

'''befell''' /bə'fɪɫ/ ''verb'' to apply

'''befeller, -s''' /bə'fɪləɹ/ ''noun'' applicant

'''befelling''' /bə'fɪliŋ/ ''noun'' application

'''befellingwrit''' /bə'fɪliŋɹət/ ''noun'' curriculum vitae

'''befeste''' /bə'fɪstə/ ''verb'' to entrust

'''begn''' /bɪn/ '''adv''' both

'''begon''' /bə'gɔn/ ''verb'' to practice (begjeen ''s.past'', begange ''p.p.'')

'''begrinne''' /bə'gɹənə/ ''verb'' to ensnare

'''bejette''' /bə'jɪtə/ ''verb'' to get

'''bejinne''' /bə'jənə/ ''verb'' to begin, to start (bejunne ''p.p.'')

'''bejonde''' /bə'jɔndə/ ''prep'' beyond

'''bell''' /bɪɫ/ ''noun'' bells

'''belleepe''' /bə'lepə/ ''strong verb'' to leap up, to jump up (belleep ''1/3spast'')

'''belocke''' /bə'lɔkə/ ''verb'' locked, closed

'''ben''' /bɪn/ ''verb'' [http://wiki.frath.net/Zelandish#To_Be to be]; being

'''bend''' /bɪnd/ ''noun'' bond

'''berd''' /bɪɹd/ ''noun'' beard

'''bergje''' /'bɪɹjə/ ''verb'' to preserve

'''berjewered''' /'bɪrjəwɪɹəd/ ''noun'' berry-flavoured cordial

'''beschirn''' /bə'ʃɪɹn/ ''verb'' to shave

'''bestriepe''' /bə'stɹi:pə/ ''verb'' to strip, to trim, to prune (trees)

'''besuruw''' /bə'sʋrʉ:/ ''verb'' to surprise  ('''besurd''' ''p.p.'')

'''betiene''' /bə'ti:nə/ ''verb'' to close

'''better''' /bɪtəɹ/ ''comp. adj'' better

'''betwux''' /bə'twʊks/ ''prep'' between

'''betzt''' /bɪtst/ ''sup.adj'' best

'''berne''' /'bɪɹnə/ ''strong verb'' to burn (ik barn, jeburne)

'''bewȗrt''' /bəwʉɹt/ ''past participle'' built

'''bibliodeeke''' /'bəbliədekə/ ''noun'' library

'''biche''' /'bəʧə/ ''verb'' to buy (jebo&amp;#251;t ''p.p'')

'''biching''' /'bəʧiŋ/ ''verbal noun'' buying

'''bidde''' /'bədə/ ''verb'' to ask (for), to request (beië ''p.p.'')

'''bisgo''' /'bəsgɔ/ ''noun'' occupation, business

'''bisig''' /'bəzi:/ ''adj'' busy

'''bisigbodig''' /'bəzi:bɔdi:/ ''pl.noun'' busybodies

'''bismringe''' /'bəzmɹiŋə/ ''pl.noun'' insults

'''bleckhorn''' /'blɪkhɔɹn/ ''noun'' ink cartridge

'''bleet''' /blet/ ''adj'' inactive

'''blerig''' /'blɪɹi:/ ''adj'' bald

'''bletzing''' /'blɪtsiŋ/ ''noun'' blessing

'''blietful''' /'blitfʊl/ ''adj'' joyful

'''blietmoed''' /'blitmœd/ ''adv'' joyfully

'''bliss''' /blɪs/ ''noun'' happiness

'''blisse''' /'bləsə/ ''verb'' to rejoice

'''bloestom, -s''' /'blœstəm/ ''noun'' blossom

'''boek, beek''' /bœk/, /be:k/ ''noun'' book, books

'''boekfoedder''' /'bœkfœdəɹ/ ''noun'' bookcase

'''boekhord''' /'bœkhɔɹd/ ''noun'' archives

'''boië''' /'bɔjə/ ''weak.verb'' to announce (boiëd ''p.p.'')

'''bottom''' /'bɔtəm/ ''noun'' bottom

'''bour''' /bʉɹ/  ''noun'' chamber, apartment

'''brastel''' /'bɹastəɫ/ ''verb'' to crackle

'''brecke''' /'bɹɪkə/ ''strong verb'' to break ('''jebreck'' ''3.s.past'')

'''breie''' /'bɹejə/ ''verb'' to spread

'''briekwerd''' /'bɹikwɪɹd/ ''adj'' enjoyable

'''bringe''' /'bɹiŋə/ ''verb'' to bring ('''bro&amp;#251;t''' ''3.s.past'')

'''brouke''' /'bɹʉkə/ ''strong verb'' to use ('''breek''' ''s.past''; '''brucke''' ''pl.past'')

'''broun''' /bɹʉ:n/ ''adj'' brown

'''bune''' /'bʊnə/ ''noun'' cup ('''cuppe''' is more common)

'''burdlingschell''' /'bʊɹdliŋʃəl/ ''noun'' tortoiseshell (black and white markings suggesting a tortoiseshell)

'''burgsted''' /'bʊɹstəd/  ''noun'' city

'''burst''' /bʊɹst/  ''noun'' injury

'''butling''' /'bʊtliŋ/ ''noun'' building

==C, c==

'''cann''' /kan/ ''aux.verb'' can ''3.s.pres''

'''caro''' /'kaɹɔ/ ''noun'' care, trouble

'''carte, -n''' /'kaɹtə/ ''noun'' paper, document, deed, letter

'''catte''' /'katə/ ''noun'' cat

'''censusleef''' /'sɪnsʊslef/ ''noun'' census form

'''cheepstoew''' /'tʃepstœʊ/  ''noun'' market, usually supermarket

'''cheese''' /'tʃezə/ ''verb'' to choose

'''cherel''' /'tʃɪɹəɫ/ ''noun'' person

'''chesels''' /'tʃɪzəɫ/ ''noun'' small stones, gravel, grit

'''chester''' /'tʃɪstəɹ/ ''noun'' town, city, often used to mean central business district

'''Chesterrich''' /'tʃɪstəɹətʃ/ ''proper noun'' hilly wooded area west of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs_of_Dunedin#City_Centre city centre]

'''chië''' /'tʃiə/ ''verb'' to call, invoke (chigd ''p.p.'', jechiënd ''pres.p.'')

'''chieds''' /tʃidz/ ''noun'' seeds

'''chircolwurd''' /'tʃəɹkəɫwəɹd/ ''noun'' computer

'''child, -er''' /tʃəɫd/ ''noun'' child

'''chirn''' /tʃəɹn/ ''verb'' to return

'''civilisación''' /'səvələsaʧɔn/ ''noun'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization_%28series%29 Civilisation]

'''cleen''' /klen/ ''adj'' clean

'''cleensoukend''' /'klensʉkənd/ vacuum cleaner

'''cleved''' /'klevəd/ ''p.p'' stuck''

'''climbe''' /'kləmbə/ ''verb'' to climb

'''coel''' /kœ:l/ ''adj'' cool

'''compadder''' /kəm'padər/ ''noun'' fellow, peer

'''coud''' /kʉd/ ''sg.aux.v'' could

'''coudlik''' /'kʉdlək/ ''adv'' certainly

'''crave''' /'kɹavə/ ''verb'' to crave

'''cret''' /kɹɪt/ ''noun'' trailer

'''cristen''' /'kɹistən/ ''adj'' Christian

'''crocodiel''' /'krɔkədiɫ/ ''noun'' crocodile (crocodilum)

'''culd''' /kɔɫd/ ''noun'' cold (low temperature)

'''culfer, -n''' /kɔɫfeɹ/ ''noun'' dove

'''cumme''' /'kʊmə/ ''verb'' to come (coem, coemme)

'''cunne''' /kʊnə/ ''verb'' to try, to test, to check

'''cween''' /kwen/ ''noun'' wife

==D, d==

'''danke''' /'daŋkə/ ''verb'' to thank

'''datorum''' /'datɔɹəm/ ''noun'' date

'''de''' /də/ ''rel pron'' that, what

'''dê''' /de/ '''conj''' though

'''decke''' /'dɪkə/ ''verb'' to cover

'''deë''' /deə/ ''weak.verb'' to join, associate

'''deed''' /ded/ ''noun'' deed, act, action

'''deel''' /deɫ/ ''noun'' part

'''deep''' /dep/ ''adj'' deep

'''deer''' /deɹ/ ''pron'' there; ''rel pron'' where

'''deer,-0''' /deɹ/ ''noun'' animal(s)

'''deewe''' /'dæʊwə/  ''weak verb'' to serve

'''deg''' /dɪ/ ''noun'' day

'''degliet''' /'dɪlit/ ''noun'' daylight

'''degnschip''' /dɪnʃəp/ service

'''dende''' /'dɪndə/ ''conj'' while

'''derf''' /dɪɹf/ ''verb'' need ''1/3.s.pres''

'''det''' /dɪt/ ''def/dem art'' the, that, this, definite and demonstrative article

'''dette''' /'dɪtə/ ''rel pron'' what (subject/direct object form)

'''dick''' /dək/ ''adj'' thick

'''diet''' /dit/ ''noun'' direction, purpose

'''diewiese''' /di'wizə/ ''adv'' in this manner

'''dilk''' /dəɫk/ ''adj'' such

'''din''' /dən/ ''adj'' thin

'''ding, -0''' /diŋ/ ''noun'' thing(s)

'''dinge''' /'diŋə/ ''weak verb'' to agree, to settle (wy dingde)

'''dint''' /dənt/ ''noun'' blow, strike

'''disch, -es''' /dəʃ/ ''noun'' dish

'''disig''' /'dəzi:/ ''adj'' foolish, silly

'''doen''' /dœn/ ''verb'' to do (hy did)

'''do...do...''' /dɔ/ ''adverbial construction'' when...then...

'''don de''' /dɔn də/ ''rel adv'' when

'''doun''' /dʉn/ ''noun'' hill

'''dree''' /dɹe/ ''num'' three, 3

'''dre&amp;#235;''' /dɹeə/ ''verb'' to feel (ik dreeg)

'''dreë''' /dɹeə/ ''verb'' to threaten

'''dreets''' /dɹets/ ''pl.noun'' crowds

'''dridde''' /'dɹɘdə/ ''ord num'' third

'''Driete''' /'dɹitə/ '''proper noun''' LORD, divine name

'''drinke''' /'dɹiŋkə/  ''noun'' drink

'''droglik''' /dɹɔlək/ ''adv'' periodically

'''drowung''' /dɹəwʊŋ/ ''noun'' suffering

'''duner''' /'dʊnəɹ/ ''noun'' thunder

'''Dunersdeg''' /'dʊnəɹzdə/ ''proper.noun'' Thursday

'''dur, -e''' /dʊɹ/ ''noun'' door, -s

'''d&amp;#251;r''' /dʉ:ɹ/ ''prep'' through

'''durfe''' /'dʊɹfə/ ''verb'' to need (durfe ''pl.pres'')

'''durl''' /dʊɹl/ ''noun'' hole

'''duromet''' /'dʊɹəmɛt/ ''noun'' doormat

'''d&amp;#251;rwunne''' /dʉɹ'wʊnə/ ''verb'' to continue

'''dweel''' /dwel  ''noun'' washing, noun

'''dweelwindel''' /'dwe:lwɪndəl/ ''noun'' washing basket

==E, e==

'''Ebrees''' /'ɪbɹes/  ''pl.noun'' Jews, Jewish people

'''edniew''' /ɪd'njʉ:/ ''verb'' to renew

'''edwend''' /ɪdwənd/ ''noun'' change

'''ee''' /e:/ ''noun'' river

'''eë, -n''' /eə/ ''noun'' eye

'''eedbilig''' /'edbəli:/ ''adj'' irritating

'''eedig''' /'edi:/ ''adj'' blessed

'''eedigness''' /'edi:nəs/ ''noun'' blessedness

'''eedmeg'''  /'edmə/ ''adv'' perhaps

'''eegder''' /'e:dəɹ/ '''adv''' either

'''eek''' /ek/ ''adv'' including, also

'''eemtig''' /'emti:/ ''adj'' empty

'''eenig''' /'eni:/ ''adv'' any

'''eer''' /eɹ/  ''prep''  before (in time)

'''eer, -n''' /eɹ/ ''noun'' ear

'''eerendwrit''' /'eɹəndɹət/ ''noun'' message, letter

'''eermoenats''' /eɹ'mœnəts/ ''adv'' of the previous month

'''eerst''' /eɹst/ ''ord.num'' first

'''eest, -e''' /est/ ''noun'' grace

'''eestad''' /'estəd/ ''noun'' riverbank

'''eethous''' /'ethʉs/ ''noun'' restaurant

'''eevenmet''' /'evənmət/ ''noun'' evening meal, tea, dinner

'''eeventied''' /'evəntid/ ''noun'' evening

'''eeweer''' /e'weɹ/ ''pron'' everywhere

'''efdanke''' /əf'dankə/  ''noun'' annoyance

'''efest''' /'ɪfəst/ ''adj'' religious

'''eft''' /ɪft/ ''adv'' again

'''efter''' /'ɪftəɹ/ ''prep'' after

'''eftern''' /'ɪftəɹn/ ''adv'' later

'''eg''' /ɛi/ ''noun'' fear

'''eier''' /ɪjəɹ/ ''noun'' eggs

'''eiturl, -0'''  /'ɛɪtʊɹɫ/  ''noun''  window

'''eiwo''' /ɛɪ'wɔ/ ''pron'' everyone

'''eld''' /ɪɫd/  ''adj'' old

'''elder''' /'ɪɫdəɹ/ ''pl.noun''  lives

'''elder, -s''' /'ɪɫdəɹ/ ''noun'' elder

'''elder''' /'ɪɫdəɹ/ ''sup.adj'' older

'''elderdegn''' /'ɪɫdəɹdən/ ''noun'' principal

'''eldern''' /'ɪɫdəɹn/ ''pl.noun'' parents

'''eldfeër''' /'ɪɫdfeəɹ/  ''noun'' grandfather

'''elker''' /'ɪɫkəɹ/ ''adv'' otherwise

'''ellendisch''' /'ɪləndəʃ/ strange

'''ellendischness''' /'ɪləndəʃnəs/ strangeness

'''elo''' /'elɔ/ ''excl'' oh

'''emtwo''' /ɪm'twɔ/ ''adv'' in two parts

'''end''' /ɪnd/ ''noun'' end

'''ende''' /'ɪndə/ ''verb'' to finish

'''erd''' /ɪɹd/ ''noun'' land, homeland, ''Heimat''

'''erde, -n''' /'ɪɹdə/ ''noun'' earth

'''Erdliet''' /'ɪɹdlit/ ''noun'' [http://www.earthlight.co.nz/ Earthlight]

'''erfodful''' /'ɪɹfədfɔɫ/ ''adj'' difficult, troublesome

'''erm''' /ɛɹm/ ''noun'' arm

'''ervodlik''' /ɪɹvədlək/ ''adj'' difficult

'''essol''' /'ɛsol/ ''noun'' ass

'''êt''' /e:t/ ''noun'' property

'''et''' /ɛt/ ''prep'' at

'''ette''' /ɛtə/ ''strong verb'' to eat (dou et, subjunctive; hy eet, eete)

'''ettom''' /'ɪtəm/ ''prep+def.art'' at the

'''evenêt''' /ɛvə'ne:t/ ''noun'' neighbourhood, environment

'''evnliek''' /ɛvn'lik/ ''conj'' just as''

'''evnso''' /'ɛvnsɔ:/ ''conj'' just as

==F, f==

'''fande''' /'fandə/ ''verb'' to attempt, to try

'''farn''' /faɹn/ ''verb'' to travel (hy foer)

'''fê''' /fe:/ ''noun'' money

'''fee''' /fe/ ''adj'' few

'''feer''' /fe:ɹ/ ''noun'' sudden attack

'''feër''' /feəɹ/ ''adj'' fair

'''feeringe''' /'feɹiŋə/ ''adv'' suddenly

'''feership''' /'feɹʃəp/ ''noun'' society, club

'''feet''' /fet/  ''pl.noun'' feet

'''fei&amp;#235;''' /'fɪjə/ ''verb'' to feed (dou feedzt)

'''fel''' /fɪɫ/ ''adv/adj'' many, much

'''fering, -e''' /'fɪɹiŋ/ ''noun'' vehicle, -s

'''ferm''' /fɪɹm/ ''noun'' benefit, rent

'''fermischot''' /'fɪɹmɪʃɔt/  ''noun'' benefit tax

'''fers''' /fɪɹs/ ''noun'' verse, sentence

'''ferspeckend''' /fəɹ'spɹɪkənd/ ''noun'' telephone, &lt;b&gt;phone&lt;/b&gt; is more common.

'''fêtcrefts''' /'fe:tkrəfts/ ''pl.noun'' fighting or combat skills

'''festne''' /'fɪstnə/ ''verb'' to fix

'''fette''' /'fɪtə/ ''verb'' to fetch

'''feur''' /fæʊɹ/ ''num'' four, 4

'''feurschitte''' /'fæʊɹʃətə/ ''adj'' square''

'''fex''' /fɪks/ ''noun'' hair, fur

'''fier''' /fiɹ/ ''noun'' fire

'''fiern''' /fiɹn/ ''adj'' fiery

'''fill''' /fəɫ/ ''verb'' to fill

'''finde''' /'fəndə/ ''verb'' to find (ik fand)

'''firwit''' /'fəɹwət/ ''noun'' curiosity

'''five''' /'fivə/ ''num'' five (originally fief)

'''fleeschmet''' /'fleʃmət/ ''noun'' flesh (as food), meat

'''flet''' /flɛt/ ''noun'' floor, flat, apartment

'''flow''' /fləʊ/ ''verb'' to flow (fleew, ''past.sg'')

'''foen''' /jə'fœn/ ''verb'' to catch (dou fi&amp;#234;st, hy fi&amp;#234;t, hy feeng, jefenge)

'''folk''' /fɔɫk/ ''noun'' people, folk

'''folkwegn''' /'fɔɫkwɛn/ ''noun'' bus

'''for''' /fɔɹ/ ''prep'' for

'''ford''' /fɔɹd/ ''adv'' forth, forward, on, away

'''fordgon''' /fɔɹd'gɔn/ ''verb'' to go out

'''forjeë''' /fɔr'jeə/ ''verb'' to forgive, to pardon (forjef ''1.s.past'')

'''fordjern''' /fɔɹd'jɪɹn/ ''adj'' eager to advance

'''forjette''' /fɔɹ'jɪtə/ ''verb'' to forget

'''forleese''' /fɔɹ'lezə/ ''verb'' to lose (forlorn, lost ''p.p.'')

'''forleete''' /fəɹ'letə/ ''verb'' to abandon (forleete, abandoned)

'''for'm''' /'fɔɹəm/ ''conj'' because

'''forme''' /'fɔɹmə/ ''ord.num'' first

'''forsitte''' /fɔɹ'sətə/ ''verb'' to avoid

'''forstoed''' /fɔɹ'stœd/ ''p.p.'' prevented

'''forstoppe''' /fəɹ'stɔppə/ ''verb'' to stop

'''fôrte''' /'fɔ:ɹtə/ ''verb''

'''free''' /fɹe/ ''adj'' free

'''freelse'' /'frelsə/ ''weak verb'' to celebrate

'''freend, -s /fɹend/ ''noun'' friend

'''freese''' /'fɹezə/ ''verb'' to freeze

'''fremsumness''' /'fɹɪmsəmnɘs/ ''noun'' kindness

'''frette''' /'fɹɪtə/ ''verb'' to eat or chew, the subject is usually an animal

'''Fri&amp;#235;deg''' /'fɹiədə/ ''noun'' Friday

'''frôt''' /fɹɔ:t/ ''adj'' afraid, fearful (a varient of ''fôrt'')

'''frumdig''' /'fɹʋmdi:/ ''adj'' curious

'''frume''' /'fɹʊmə/ ''noun'' beginning

'''fu&amp;#235;l''' /fʊəɫ/ ''noun'' bird

'''fulfremdlik''' /'fɔɫfrəmdlək/ ''adv'' completely

'''fulje''' /'fɔljə/ ''verb'' to follow

'''full''' /fɔɫ/ ''adv'' very

'''full''' /fɔɫ/ ''verb'' to fulfill

'''fulnê''' /'fɔɫne:/ ''adv'' nearly

'''fulwexen''' /fɔɫ'wɛksən/ ''adj'' fulgrown, adult

'''furder''' /'fʊɹdəɹ/ ''adv, adj'' further

'''furdo''' /'fʊɹdɔ/ '''adv'' even

==G, g==

'''gafspreck''' /'gafspɹɪk/ ''noun'' joke, jest

'''gai&amp;#235;rn''' /'gajəɹn/ ''verb'' to collect, to gather

'''game''' /'gamə/ ''noun'' game, sometimes primary school, '''schoel''' has wider use

'''gange''' /'gaŋə/ ''verb'' to walk, to go

'''gjoed''' /jœd/ ''adj'' good; ''weak adj'' '''gjoeië''' /'jœjə/

'''gjoedlik''' /'jœdlək/ ''adj'' nice

'''gjoedwief''' /jœdwif/ ''noun'' title of address to a woman, Mrs, Miss, '''moeiër''' is more common.

'''gled''' /glɪd/ ''adj'' glad

'''gleed''' /gled/ ''noun'' piece of coal or charcoal

'''gleew''' /glæʊ/ ''noun'' pleasure

'''glew''' /glæʊ/ ''adj'' wise

'''god'''  /gɔd/ ''noun'' god (generally not written with a capital g, even when a proper noun)

'''godcund''' /'gɔdkʊnd/ divine

'''gon''' /gɔn/ ''verb'' [[http://wiki.frath.net/Zelandish#To_Go to go]] (gjeet, eed, ei&amp;#235;, jegon, agon)

'''gree''' /gɹe/ ''adj'' grey, gray

'''greet''' /gɹet/ ''adj'' big

'''greeting''' /'gɹetiŋ/ ''noun'' greeting

'''greetness''' /'gɹetnəs/  ''noun'' height

==H, h==

'''hand''' /hand/  ''noun'' hand

'''har, -n''' /haɹ/ ''noun'' hare

'''h&amp;#234;''' /he:/ ''adj'' high

'''hebbe''' /'hɪbə/ ''verb'' [http://wiki.frath.net/Zelandish#To_Have to have]

'''heedern''' /hedəɹn/ ''noun'' storehouse, storeroom (an early word for a shop, now replaced by '''schoppe''', except as a proper noun, where it refers to a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Warehouse local franchise chain].)

'''heemer''' /'heməɹ/ ''noun'' lover

'''heer''' /heɹ/ ''pron'' here

'''heer''' /heɹ/ ''noun'' hair

'''heern''' /heɹn/ ''weak verb'' to hear

'''heest''' /hest/ ''sup adj'' highest

'''heeve''' /'hevə/ ''noun''

'''hegl''' /hɪl/ ''noun'' hail

'''helde''' /'hɪɫdə/ ''verb'' to keep

'''Helend''' /'helənd/ ''proper name'' Jesus, Saviour

'''helf''' /hɪɫf/ ''noun'' half

'''Helfwegwrid''' /'hɪɫfwɪrəd/ ''proper name'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs_of_Dunedin#Halfway_Bush_and_Wakari a suburb]

'''hel&amp;#243;''' /he'lɔ/ ''excl'' hello

'''helpe''' /'hɪɫpə/ ''strong verb'' to help (sy halp)

'''hemdlees''' /'hɪmdles/ ''adj'' shirtless

'''hen''' /hɪn/ ''adv'' from here

'''herdecg''' /'hɪɹdədʒ/ ''adj'' sharp-edged

'''herm''' /hɪɹm/ ''noun'' hurt

'''herte''' /'hɪɹtə/ ''noun'' heart

'''herweed''' /'hɪɹwid/ ''noun'' armour

'''hevig''' /'hɪvi:/ ''adj'' heavy

'''hevigness''' /'hɛvi:nəs/ ''noun'' heaviness, weight

'''hicge''' /hɪdʒə/ ''verb'' to think (hôt ''3.s.present''; ik h&amp;#244;d ''1.s.past'', hogde ''pl.past'')

'''hi&amp;#235;r''' /hiəɹ/ ''adv'' to here, this way, hither

'''hillihomen''' /'həlihɔmən/ ''pl.noun'' crickets

'''hir''' /hɪɹ/ ''poss.pron'' her ''3.s.fem''

'''hit''' /hɪt/ ''pron'' it, ''3.s.neut''

'''hold''' /hɔld/ ''adj'' kind

'''holetting''' /'hɔlətiŋ/ ''noun'' greeting

'''holig''' /'hɔli:/ ''adj'' holy

'''holwend''' /'hɔlwənd/ ''adj'' healing

'''hom''' /hɔm/ ''noun'' home

'''hope''' /'hɔpə/ ''weak verb'' to hope

'''hotte''' /'hɔtə/ ''vt'' to call (heet ''1/3.s.past'')

'''hou''' /hʉ/ ''adv'' how

'''houro''' /'hʉɹɔ/ ''adv'' indeed, really

'''hous''' /hʉs/ ''noun'' house

'''housel''' /'hʉsəɫ/ ''noun'' communion

'''hund''' /hʊnd/ ''noun'' dog

'''hunte''' /'hʊntə/ ''weak verb'' to hunt, weak verb

'''hurd''' /hʊɹd/ ''noun'' vet, vetinarian, vetinary doctor

'''hy''' /hi:/ ''pron'' he, ''3.s.masc''

==I, i==

'''ietmest''' /'itməst/ ''adj'' last

'''in''' /ən/ ''prep in

'''inbords''' /'əmbɔɹdz/ ''adv'' at home

'''Indie''' /'əndi:/ ''noun'' [http://www.littleindia.co.nz/ India]

'''ingon''' /iŋ'gɔn/ ''verb'' to enter ('''ineed''', 1.s.past)

'''inne''' /'ənə/ ''adv'' in (early form; '''bin''' is more common)

'''insigl''' /ɘn'si:ɫ/  ''noun'' seal, ID card

'''interpetting''' /'əntəɹpɪtiŋ/ ''v.n'' dancing

'''intinge, -n''' /ən'tiŋə/ ''noun'' cause

'''irne''' /'əɹnə/ ''verb'' to run (hylie urne)

'''Israhel''' /'əsɹəheɫ/ ''proper.noun'' Israel, Hebrew nation

'''ivel''' /'ivəɫ/ ''adj'' bad

==J, j==

'''jeâte''' /jə'a:tə/ ''weak verb'' to esteem, to value

'''jecheese''' /jə'ʧezə/ ''verb'' to decide (jechorn ''p.p.'')

'''jecleense''' /jə'clensə/ ''verb'' to clean

'''jecoemme''' /jə'kœmə/ ''past participle'' come

'''jedave''' /jə'davə/ ''vt'' to agree to

'''jedoen''' /jə'dœn/ ''past participle'' done

'''jeë''' /jeə/ '''verb''' to give (jef ''s.past'', jeëstou imperative)

'''jeer''' /je:ɹ/  ''noun'' year

'''jedildig''' /jə'dəɫdi:/ ''adj'' patient

'''jefell''' /jə'fɪɫ/ ''strong verb'' to collapse (jefell p.p.)

'''jeflit''' /jə'flət/ ''noun'' conflict, competition

'''jefrette''' /jə'frɪtə/ to eat (used of animals), weak verb

'''jegon''' /jə'gɔn/ ''past participle'' gone

'''jeheelde''' /jə'heɫd/ ''past participle'' reserved, stuck

'''jeheld''' /jə'hɪɫd/ ''noun'' religious service

'''jehelde''' /jə'hɪɫdə/ ''verb'' to hold (jeheldend ''gerund'')

'''jehelding''' /jə'hɪlding/ ''noun'' maintenance

'''jeknucke''' /jək'nʊkə/ ''weak verb'' to knock

'''jelang (et)''' /jə'laŋ/ ''adj'' belonging (to)

'''jelde''' /'jɪldə/  ''verb'' to pay (jald 1s.past, golde ''p.p.'')

'''jelieke''' /jə'likə/ ''weak verb'' to please

'''jelike''' /jə'likə/ ''adv'' like, as

'''jelikest''' /jɘ'likəst/ ''sup.adj'' most like, very like

'''jelimp''' /jə'ləmp/ ''noun'' event

'''jeman''' /jə'man/ ''adj'' common

'''jemind''' /jə'mənd/ ''noun'' purpose

'''jemoet''' /jə'mœt/ ''noun'' meeting

'''jemune''' /jə'mʊnə/ ''verb'' to remember

'''jeogne''' /jə'ɔ:nə/ ''verb'' to prove

'''jerel''' /'jɪɹəɫ/ ''noun'' costume

'''jerke''' /'jɪɹkə/ ''verb'' to prepare

'''jeruw''' /'jɪɹʉ:/ ''adj'' ready

'''jeruwed''' /'jɪɹʉ:d/ ''past participle'' already

'''jeseeligness''' /jə'seli:nəs/ ''noun'' happiness

'''jeschie''' /jə'ʃi:/ ''noun'' pair of shoes

'''jeseeke''' /jə'sekə/ ''verb'' to go (to) (jeso&amp;#251;te)

'''jesied, -s'' /jə'sid/ ''noun'' companion, fellow

'''jesomning''' /jə'sɔmniŋ/ ''noun'' gathering, assembly

'''jespreck''' /jə'spɹɪk/ ''noun'' discussion

'''jesterdeg''' /'jɪstəɹdə/ ''noun'' yesterday

'''jestern''' /'jɪstərn/ ''adv'' yesterday

'''jet''' /jɪt/ ''adv'' yet, still

'''jeto&amp;#251;t''' /jə'təʊt/ ''noun'' view, thought, idea

'''jetrouwe''' /jə'tɹʉwə/ ''weak verb'' to trust

'''jetwisen''' /jə'twəzən/  ''pl.noun'' twins

'''jewane''' /jə'wanə/ ''adj'' lacking, wanting, out of, short of

'''jewelke''' /jə'wɪlkə/ ''weak verb'' to curl up

'''jewende''' /jə'wɪndə/ ''weak verb'' to return

'''jewilk''' /jə'wəɫk/ ''pron'' each (one)

'''jewinne''' /jə'wənə/ ''verb'' to gain (jewun ''sg.past'')

'''jewiss''' /jə'wəs/ ''adj'' certain

'''jewittenness''' /jə'wətənnəs/ ''noun'' witness, testimony, evidence

'''jewittig''' /jə'wəti:/ ''adj'' reasoned

'''jewrit''' /jə'rət/ ''noun'' document

'''jeving''' /'jɪviŋ/ ''noun'' giving

'''jieme''' /'jimə/ ''weak verb, vt'' to watch over, look after, care for

'''jieverness''' /'jivəɹnəs/ ''noun'' greediness, greed

'''jif''' /jɪf/ ''conj'' if

'''jilden''' /'jəɫdən/ ''pl.noun'' members

'''jo''' /jɔ/ ''adv'' already, ago, of old

'''Jobson''' /'jɔbsɔn/ ''proper name'', surname, family name

'''Johannes''' /jɔ:'hanəs/ ''proper name'', masculine first name (Johannem after a preposition)

'''joûve''' /'jəʊvə/ ''noun'' junior warriors, newbies

==K, k==

'''kee''' /ke/  ''noun'' key

'''keld''' /kɪɫd/ ''adj'' cold

'''kiemlik''' /kimlək/ ''adj'' lovely

'''kieping''' /'kipiŋ/ ''noun'' sale

'''kild, -e''' /kəɫd/ ''noun'' cold

'''kill''' /kəɫ/ ''noun'' bottle

'''kinn, -0''' /kən/ ''noun'' kind, beings

'''kinrendeg''' /'kənɹəndə/ ''noun'' family day

'''kirk''' /kəɹk/ ''noun'' church

'''knape''' /'hnapə/ ''noun'' boy

'''kniet''' /hnit/ ''noun'' knight

'''knotte''' /hnɔtə/ ''noun'' puzzle

'''know''' /hnəʊ/ ''verb'' to know  (less common than '''witte''')

'''knucke''' /'hnʊkə/ ''weak verb'' to knock

==L, l==

'''lace'''  /'lasə/ ''noun'' lace

'''lag''' /la:/ ''noun'' law

'''land''' /land/ ''noun'' country (as opposed to city)

'''lang''' /laŋ/ ''adj'' long

'''lave''' /'lavə/ ''verb'' to invite

'''lecge''' /'lɪdʒə/ ''verb'' to lie ('''legt''' 3.s.pres)

'''leedsmid''' /'ledsməd/ ''noun'' plumber

'''leef''' /lef/ ''adj'' favourite, dear, beloved

'''leene''' /'lenə/ ''weak.verb'' to lend, to reward

'''leerd''' /leɹd/ ''adv'' learnedly

'''lees''' /les/ ''comp.adj'' lesser (leesze)

'''leest''' /lest/ ''sup.adj'' least

'''leet''' /let/ ''noun'' light

'''leete''' /'letə/ ''verb'' to let, allow

'''leeve''' /'levə/ ''noun'' faith

'''leeve''' /'levə/ ''pl.noun'' permissions

'''leeve''' /'levə/ ''weak verb'' to leave ('''leeft''' 3.s.pres, leeved 1/3.s.past)

'''leew, -n''' /læʊ/  ''noun'' lion

'''lei&amp;#235;''' /'lejə/ ''verb'' to lead ('''leedt''' 3.s.pres)

'''lencten''' /'lɪŋktən/ ''noun'' spring(time), originally used to mean Lent, this was later dropped

'''lerne''' /'lɪɹnə/ ''verb'' to learn

'''lernerschip /'lɪɹnəɹʃəp/ ''noun'' discipleship

'''letst''' /lɪtst/ ''sup.adj'' latest

'''lex''' /lɪx/ ''noun'' salmon

'''libbe''' /'ləbə/ ''verb'' to live, living

'''lied''' /lid/ ''noun'' limb

'''lief''' /lif/ ''noun'' life

'''liefdeel''' /'lifdeɫ/ ''noun'' lot or part in life

'''lieke''' /'likə/ ''weak verb'' to like, to please

'''liekness''' /'liknəs/ ''noun'' likeness, image, picture

'''lill''' /ləɫ/  ''adj'' little

'''line''' /'linə/ ''noun'' line

'''littel''' /'lətəɫ/ ''weak verb'' to reduce, decrease (litteld)

'''litwoen''' /'lətwœn/ ''adv'' a little, a bit

'''lleefdig''' /'hlefdi:/ ''noun'' lady

'''lleepe''' /'hlepə/ ''verb'' to leap

'''lleër''' /hleəɹ/ ''noun'' sound

'''llië''' /hliə/ ''verb'' to laugh

'''llof'' /hlɔf/ ''noun'' bread

'''lock''' /lɔk/ ''noun'' sport, play, practice

'''llovord''' /'hlɔvəɹd/ ''noun'' lord

'''lo&amp;#234;''' /lœ:/ ''adv'' place, stead, used in the phrase '''on his lo&amp;#234;, on's lo&amp;#234;''', instead

'''loeke''' /'lœkə/ ''weak verb'' to look

'''love''' /'lɔvə/ ''pl.noun'' leftovers

'''luf''' /lʊf/ ''noun'' love

'''luft''' /lʊft/ ''noun'' air

'''luve''' /'lʊvə/ ''weak verb'' to love

==M, m==

'''m'''' /mə/ ''pronoun'' one

'''macke''' /'makə/ ''weak verb'' to make

'''macking''' /'makiŋ/ ''verbal noun'' making

'''mân''' /ma:n/ ''verb'' can '''pl.pres'''

'''manig''' /'mani:/ ''adj'' many

'''manigfeld''' /'mani:fɪɫd/ ''adj'' several

'''mann''' /man/  ''noun'' man

'''mavel''' /'mavəɫ/ ''weak verb'' to speak, especially formally, to make a speech

'''meel''' /meɫ/ ''noun'' marks

'''meerness''' /'meɹnəs/ ''noun'' honour

'''meest''' /mest/ ''adv'' most

'''meette''' /'metə/  ''verb'' to meet (jemeette ''past.pl'')

'''melk''' /mɪɫk/ ''noun'' milk

'''melte''' /'mɪɫtə/ ''verb'' to dissolve

'''mennisch''' /'mɪnəʃ/ ''adj'' human

'''messed&amp;#226;s''' /'mɪsəda:s/  ''pl.noun'' mass days, holy days, holidays, in the last sense it has been largely replaced by '''wecke''', watch, vigil.

'''metsi&amp;#235;''' /'mɪtsiə/ ''verb'' to cater

'''mett''' /mɛt/ ''noun'' mat, carpet

'''michel''' /'məʧəɫ/ ''adj'' big, ''adv'' much

'''mid''' /məd/ ''prep'' with

'''middeg''' /'məddɛ/ ''noun'' midday, noon

'''midfêr''' /'mədfe:ɹ/ ''adj'' mediaeval

'''Midwald''' /'mədwɔɫd/ ''proper name'' [http://www.hwb.school.nz/ name of a school]

'''mildlik''' /'məɫdlək/ ''adj'' kind

'''misse''' /'məsə/ ''weak verb'' to miss

'''mo''' /'mɔ/ more (not a comparative)

'''moedjedank''' /'mœdjədəŋk/ ''noun'' thought

'''moei&amp;#235;r''' /'mœjəɹ/ ''noun'' mother

'''moenat''' /'mœnət/ ''noun'' month

'''moet''' /mœt/ ''noun'' meeting

'''moete''' /'mœ:tə/ ''aux.verb'' may, might, must

'''morn''' /mɔ:ɹn/ ''noun'' morning

==N, n==

'''name''' /'namə/ ''noun'' name

'''n&amp;#234;bour, -s''' /'ne:bʉɹ/ ''noun'' neighbour

'''needl''' /'nedl/ ''noun'' needle

'''neenig''' /'neni:/ ''adj'' any (in a negative sentence)

'''neese''' /'nezə/ ''weak verb'' to visit

'''neeve''' /'nevə/  ''weak verb'' to risk, to venture

'''nemne''' /'nɛmnə/ ''weak verb'' to name

'''nering''' /'nɪɹiŋ/ ''verbal noun'' saving

'''nern''' /nɪɹn/ ''verb'' to save

'''net''' /nɪt/ ''noun'' net

'''nie''' /ni/  ''adverb'' not

'''niet''' /nit/  ''noun'' night

'''niew''' /niʊ/ ''adj'' new, recent

'''niexte''' /nikstə/ ''adj'' next

'''nimme''' /'nɪmə/ ''strong verb'' to take (noem, noemme)

'''nine''' /'ninə/ ''num'' nine

'''no''' /nɔ:/ ''excl'' no

'''noenmet''' /'nœnmət/  ''noun'' lunch, midday meal

'''non''' /nɔn/ ''pron'' none, no one

'''norde''' /'nɔɹdə/ ''adv'' from the north

'''nordmannisch''' /'nɔɹdmənəʃ/ ''adj'' Norse

'''nose''' /'nɔzə/ ''noun'' nose

'''nôt''' /nɔ:t/ ''noun'' nothing, naught

'''nou''' /nʉ:/ ''adv'' now

'''nutt''' /nʊt/ ''noun'' use

==O, o==

'''o''' /ɔ/ ''adv'' always

'''od''' /ɔd/ ''conj'' or

'''odiew''' /'ɔdjʉ/ ''weak verb'' to demonstrate

'''oë''' /ɔə/ ''verb'' to owe

'''oëne''' /'ɔənə/ ''weak.adj'' own

'''of''' /ɔf/ ''prep'' from, of

'''oft''' /ɔft/ ''adv'' often

'''okse''' /'ɔksə/  ''weak verb'' to ask

'''oi&amp;#235;''' /'ɔjə/  ''noun'' workshop

'''on''' /ɔn/ ''prep'' on

'''onbrirde''' /ɔn'bɹɪɹdə/  ''weak verb'' to inspire

'''ondagje''' /ɔn'dajə/ ''noun'' appointment

'''ondwerk''' /ɔn'dwəɹk/ ''noun'' matter

'''oneelend''' /ɔ'nelənd/ ''noun'' ignition, starter, on/off button

'''onfundelness''' /ɔn'fʊndəlnəs/  ''noun'' experience

'''onhiring''' /ɔn'hɪɹiŋ/ ''noun'' copy

'''onlietend''' /ɔn'litənd/ ''noun'' photocopier

'''onjette''' /ɔn'jɛtə/ ''verb'' to feel, to perceive, to notice (onjette '''p.p.''')

'''onsteld''' /ɔn'stɛld/ ''p.p'' established, settled

'''onstolls''' /ɔn'stɔls/ ''pl.noun'' supplies, groceries, shopping

'''ontimber, -0''' /ɔn'tɪmbəɹ/ ''noun'' matter, elements

'''open''' /'ɔpən/ ''adj'' open

'''or''' /ɔɹ/ ''noun'' honour, respect

'''ormoed''' /'ɔɹmœd/ ''adj'' despairing

'''&amp;#244;t''' /ɔ:t/ ''pron'' something, anything, a thing

'''oup''' /ʉp/ ''adv'' up

'''our, -n''' /ʉɹ/ ''poss.pron'' our ''1.p''

'''out''' /'ʉt/ ''adv'' out

'''oute''' /'ʉtə/ ''adv'' outside, about, without, out

'''outgang''' /ʉt'gɔŋ/ ''noun'' parade

'''over''' /'ɔvəɹ/ ''prep'' over, across

'''overcumme''' /ɔvəɹ'kʊmə/ to overcome

'''overseeing''' /ɔvəɹ'seiŋ/ ''noun'' observance, survey

==P, p==

'''peruvianisch''' /'pə'ɹʉviənɘʃ/ ''adj'' Peruvian

'''pitt''' /pət/ ''noun'' well

'''plasma''' /'plazmə/ ''noun'' plasma

'''pleg''' /'plɪ/ ''verb'' to play (plegd(e) ''past tense'')

'''postling''' /'pɔstliŋ/ ''noun'' pill, tablet

'''preutwiel, -e''' /'pɹæʊtwiɫ/ ''noun'' moment

==R, r==

'''reding''' /'ɹediŋ/ ''noun'' reading, lesson

'''reed''' /ɹed/ ''adj'' red

'''reedbor''' /'ɹedbɔɹ/ ''noun'' advisor

'''reeding''' /'ɹediŋ/ ''noun'' reading

'''reeke''' /'ɹekə/ ''verb'' to care for

'''reekels''' /'ɹekəls/ ''noun'' incense

'''reekig''' /'ɹeki:/ ''adj'' smoky

'''reënd''' /ɹeənd/ ''noun'' reader

'''regjistar''' /ɹə'jəstəɹ/ ''noun'' register, dative '''-um'''

'''regn''' /ɹɪn/ ''noun'' rain

'''reie''' /'ɹejə/  ''verb'' to read, to advise (hylie reedt)

'''reninge''' /'ɹeniŋə/ ''pl.noun'' mutterings

'''rerd''' /ɹɪɹd/ ''noun'' voice, language

'''rhad''' /hɹad/ ''adv'' quickly

'''rhamsifling''' /'hɹamsəfliŋ/ ''noun'' garlic condiment

'''rhaver''' /'hɹavəɹ/ ''adv'' rather

'''rheed''' /hɹed/ ''noun'' pen

'''rheël''' /hɹeəɫ/ ''pl.noun'' clothes

'''rheern''' /hɹeɹn/ ''weak verb'' to move

'''rhoer''' /hɹœɹ/ ''adj'' exciting, stirring

'''rhorelbacke''' /'hrɔrɛlbakə/ ''noun'' stirfry

'''riemt''' /rimt/ ''noun'' space

'''riene''' /'ɹinə/ ''weak.verb'' to rain (hit rient)

'''riet''' /ɹit/ ''adj'' okay, right; ''adv'' directly

'''riet''' /ɹit/ ''noun'' right

'''riming''' /'ɹimiŋ/ ''noun'' counting, reckoning, numbering

'''roetlik''' /ɹœtlɪk/ ''adj'' cheerful

==S. s==

'''schanke''' /'ʃaŋkə/ ''noun'' leg

'''scheffe''' /'ʃɪfə/ ''verb'' to hurt, to harm, to injure ('''schoeffe''' ''p.p.'')

'''scheft''' /ʃɪft/ ''noun'' creation, universe

'''schie''' /ʃi:/ ''verb'' shall, will ('''schold''' ''s.past'')

'''schiene''' /'ʃinə/ ''verb'' to shine ('''schon''' ''s.past'')

'''schier''' /ʃiɹ/ ''adj'' bright

'''schilf''' /ʃəlf/ ''noun'' shelf, drawer

'''schilling, -s''' /'ʃəliŋ/ ''noun'' a coin equivalent to NZ$1.20

'''schoe''' /ʃœ/ shoe

'''schoel''' /ʃœɫ/ ''noun'' school

'''schrië''' /ʃɹiə/ ''weak.verb'' to dress

'''schroud''' /ʃɹʉd/ ''noun'' clothing, garment

'''sech''' /sɪtʃ/ ''noun'' man, hero, warrior

'''seche''' /'sɪtʃə/ ''verb'' to say, to mention (the usual word for 'to say' is '''cweie''') (segd(e) ''past tense'')

'''seching''' /'sɪtʃiŋ/ ''noun'' declaration

'''seeke''' /'sekə/ ''verb'' to seek, search, look for

'''seekend''' /'sekənd/ ''noun'' searcher

'''seel''' /seɫ/ ''noun'' season, occasion, opportunity, time

'''seen''' /sen/ ''verb'' to see; seen, past particle (s&amp;#244; ''1/3s.past'')

'''self''' /sɪɫf/ ''noun'' self

'''selfness''' /'sɪɫfnəs/ ''noun'' &quot;selfness&quot;, sense of selfhood

'''selfrietwies''' /'sɪɫfritwis/ ''adj'' selfrighteous

'''sell''' /'sɪɫ/ ''verb'' to sell

'''selt''' /sɪɫt/ ''noun'' salt

'''sende''' /'sɪndə/ ''verb'' to feast

'''seruw, -0''' /'sɪrʉ:/ ''noun'' tool(s), equipment, gear

'''Seternsdeg''' /'sɪtəɹnzdə/ ''noun'' Saturday

'''sette''' /'sɪtə/ ''weak verb'' to set, to put, to place

'''sibb''' /səb/ ''noun'' relationship, peace

'''sicker''' /'səkəɹ/ ''adv'' surely

'''sieddreed''' /'siddɹed/ ''noun'' sub-thread

'''siedlik''' /'sidlək/ ''adv'' lately

'''siet''' /sit/ ''noun'' sight

'''siffe''' /'səfə/ ''conj'' since

'''sifling''' /'səfliŋ/ ''noun'' relish, condiment, sauce

'''simbel''' /'səmbəɫ/ ''noun'' feast

'''sinde''' /'səndə/ ''verb'' are, pl.present

'''singe''' /'siŋə/ ''verb'' to sing (sunge ''pl.past'')

'''sleen''' /slen/ ''strong verb''  to slay, kill (hylie sloeg)

'''sleep''' /slep/ ''noun'' sleep

'''sleepern''' /'slepəɹn/ ''noun'' bedroom, sleeping quarters

'''slow''' /sləʊ/ ''adj/adv'' slow(ly)

'''smeck''' /smɪk/ ''noun'' taste

'''smegje''' /'smɪjə/ ''noun'' to consider, to examine

'''smegjing''' /'smɪjiŋ/ ''noun'' examination, exam, reflection

'''snack''' /snak/ ''noun'' snake, noun

'''snoed''' /snœd/ ''noun'' hood

'''so''' /sɔ/ ''conj'' so, as

'''soed''' /sœd/ ''adj'' real, true

'''soed''' /sœd/ ''noun'' truth

'''soedlik''' /'sœdlək/ ''adv'' truly, really, indeed, certainly

'''songtied''' /'sɔŋtid/ 'noun'' time for singing

'''sorness''' /'sɔɹnəs/ ''noun'' pain

'''sosam''' /'sɔzəm/ ''adv'' so on

'''sowl''' /səʊl/ ''noun'' soul

'''speië''' /spejə/ ''verb'' to succeed

'''speek''' /spek/ ''noun'' case, suit

'''spell''' /spɪl/ ''noun'' story

'''spende''' /'spɪndə/ ''verb'' to spend

'''spendcartspurte''' /'spɪŋkaɹtspʊɹte/ ''noun'' wastepaperbasket

'''spending''' /'spɪndiŋ/ ''noun'' spending

'''spei&amp;#235;''' /'spejə/ ''weak verb'' to succeed (speedt)

'''spiewe''' /'spiʉwə/ ''weak verb'' to spew, vomit

'''spill''' /spəl/ ''weak verb'' to spill

'''spilling''' /'spəliŋ/ ''noun'' waste

'''spitte''' /'spətə/ ''verb'' to spit

'''sprecke''' /'spɹɪkə/ ''strong verb'' to speak, talk (spreck, spreeke)

'''spreek''' /spɹek/ ''noun'' conversation

'''spurte, -n''' /'spʊɹtə/ ''noun'' basket

'''staved''' /'stavəd/ ''adj'' striped

'''sted''' /stɪd/ ''noun'' place

'''stemig''' /'stɪmi:/ ''adj'' steamy

'''stenk''' /stɪnk/ ''noun'' stink, smell

'''steppe''' /'stɪpə/ ''verb'' to step, to walk (stoep ''sg.past'')

'''steps''' /stəps/ ''pl.noun'' steps

'''stoel''' /stœɫ/ ''noun'' chair

'''stoewe''' /'stœwə/ ''noun'' places

'''street''' /stɹet/ ''noun'' street

'''sum''' /sʊm/ ''indef art/pron'' some

'''sunder''' /'sʊndəɹ/ ''adj'' separate

'''sunne'' /'sʊnə'/ ''noun'' sun

'''Sunnendeg''' /'sʊnəndə/  ''noun'' Sunday

'''sunnig''' /'sʊni:/ sunny

'''swelkness''' /'swɪɫknəs/ ''noun'' nature

'''swerd''' /'swɪɹd/ ''pl.noun'' swords

'''swert''' /swɪɹt/ ''adj'' black

'''swester''' /'swɪstəɹ/ ''noun'' sister

'''swied''' /swid/ ''adv'' very

'''swig''' /swi:/ ''adj'' quiet

'''swivest''' /'swi'vəst/ ''adv'' especially

'''sy''' /si/  ''pron'' she ''3.s.fem''

==T, t==

'''tal''' /tal/ ''noun'' tale, story, series, fable

'''tee''' /te/ ''noun'' tea (beverage)

'''teekster''' /'tekstəɹ/ ''noun'' female teacher

'''teerd''' /teɹd/ ''p.p'' tired

'''telephone''' /'tɪləfɔnə/ ''noun'' telephone

'''tell''' /tɪɫ/ ''weak verb'' to tell (teld)

'''tellend''' /'tɪlənd/ ''verb'' narrator

'''ten''' /tɪn/ ''num'' ten

'''tied''' /tid/ ''adv'' time

'''till''' /təɫ/ ''weak.verb'' to gain, to try

'''till''' /təɫ/ ''noun'' position

'''time''' /'timə/  ''noun'' time

'''tinkdo''' /'tiŋkdɔ/ ''noun'' dignity

'''tinke''' /'tiŋkə/ ''verb'' to appear, to seem (to&amp;#251;t /təʊt/)

'''tinkend''' /'tiŋkənd/ ''noun'' thinker

'''tinkendlic''' /'tiŋkəndlək/ ''adj/adv'' seemingly, apparently

'''toe''' /tœ/ ''prep'' to, per, for

'''toedeg''' /tœ'də/ ''adv'' today, adverb

'''toegai&amp;#235;r''' /tœ'gajəɹ/ ''adv'' together

'''toejeens''' /tœ'jəns/ ''adv'' on the way (to), towards

'''toel''' /tœl/ ''noun'' tool

'''toemorn''' /tœ'mɔɹn/ ''adv'' tomorrow

'''toeniet''' /tœ'nit/ ''adv'' last night

'''toever''' /'tœvəɹ/ ''num.adj'' second, other (2nd)

'''toewerd''' /'tœwəɹd/ ''adj'' future, coming

'''top''' /tɔp/ ''noun'' top

'''tumber''' /'tʊmbəɹ/ ''noun'' dancer

'''tuneche''' /'tʊnəʧə/ ''noun'' coat

'''treppe''' /'tɹɪpə/ ''noun'' trap

'''treew''' /tɹæʊ/ ''noun'' trees

'''twelf''' /twɪɫf/ ''num'' twelve (12)

'''twentig''' /'twɪnti:/ ''num'' twenty (20)

'''two''' /twɔ:/ two, number (tweer, tweem)

'''twuwe''' /'twʊwə/ ''adv'' twice

==U, u==

'''uldo''' /'ʊldɔ/ ''noun'' age

'''um''' /ʊm/ ''prep'' about, around

'''umwaië''' /ʊm'wajə/ ''verb'' to go about

'''umwerfe''' /ʊm'wɪɹfə/ to turn around

'''unabië''' /ʊnə'biə/ ''p.p'' unexpected

'''under''' /'ʊndəɹ/ ''prep'' under

'''underjinne''' /ʊndəɹ'jənə/ to undertake

'''undern''' /'ʊndəɹn/ ''adj/adv'' clearly known

'''unhidig''' /ʊn'hidi:/ ''adj'' unhappy

'''universitat''' /'ʉnəvəɹsətət/ ''noun'' university (dative '''universitatem''')

'''unkemped'''  /ʊŋ'kɪmpəd/ ''adj'' uncombed

'''unleed''' /ʊn'led/ ''adj'' miserable

'''unlleste''' /ʊn'hlɪstə/ ''verb'' to unload

'''unmeeg''' /ʊn'me/  ''noun'' outsider, alien

'''unmietig''' /ʊn'miti:/ ''adj'' weak

'''unroet''' /ʊn'ɹœt/ ''adj''' unhappy, sad

'''unweers''' /ʊn'weɹs/ ''adv'' unawares

'''utte''' /'ʊtə/ ''verb''  let us, let's

==V, v==

'''veterinarium'''  /'vɛtərɪnarɪəm/ ''noun'' veterinary clinic

==W, w==

'''wacken''' /'wakən/ ''p.p.'' born

'''wai&amp;#235;''' /'wajə/ ''strong verb'' to go (ik jewoed, I went; hy weed, he went)

'''wann''' /wan/ ''adj'' dark

'''wandern''' /wandəɹn/ ''weak verb'' to wander

'''webb''' /wɪb/  ''noun'' web

'''wecke''' /'wɪkə/ ''weak.verb'' to watch

'''weckne''' /'wɪknə/ ''verb'' to be born

'''wedding''' /'wɪdiŋ/ ''noun'' wedding, marriage

'''weene''' /'wenə/ ''verb'' to expect

'''we&amp;#235;r''' /weəɹ/ ''noun'' weather

'''weestefolk''' /'westəfɔlk/ ''noun'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremen desert people]

'''weet''' /'wet/ ''adj'' wet

'''weg,-s''' /wɪ/ ''noun'' way

'''wegndriver''' /wɛn'dɹivəɹ/ ''noun'' busdriver

'''weldpol''' /'wɪɫdpɔl/ ''noun'' powerpole

'''weldunge''' /'wɪɫdʊŋə/ ''adj'' honoured

'''well''' /wɪɫ/ ''adv'' well

'''welne&amp;#234;''' /'wɪɫne:/ ''adv'' almost

'''welp''' /wɪɫp/  ''noun'' pup

'''welrhew''' /'wɪɫhɹæʋ/ ''adj'' blood-thirsty

'''werd''' /wɪɹd/ ''noun'' worth

'''werd, -s''' /wɛɹd/ ''noun'' guardian, keeper

'''werd''' /wɪɹd/ ''predicate adj'' price

'''werde''' /'wɪɹdə/ ''verb'' to become, to get ('''ward''' 3.s.past, '''jeworde''' p.p)

'''werfe''' /'wɪɹfə/ ''verb'' to change, to turn

'''werk''' /wɪɹk/ ''noun'' work

'''werkdegnship''' /'wɪɹkdənʃəp/ ''noun'' employment service

'''werke''' /'wɪɹkə/ ''verb'' to work

'''werkcreftig''' /'wɪɹkkɹɪfti:/  ''adj''  mechanical

'''werkwod''' /'wɪɹkwəd/ ''noun'' jobhunt

'''werm''' /wɪɹm/  ''adj'' warm

'''wern''' /wɪɹn/ ''weak verb'' to wear

'''werpe''' /'wɪɹpə/ ''verb'' to throw (ik warp, wurp)

'''wes''' /wɪs/ '' verb'' was, ''3.s.past''

'''weshendseruw''' /'wɪʃəndsɪrʉ:/ ''noun'' washing machine

'''wet''' /wɪt/ ''interrogative pron'' what

'''wetter''' /'wɪtəɹ/ ''noun'' water

'''wever''' /'wɪvəɹ/ ''conj'' whether

'''wexe''' /'wɪksə/ ''verb'' to grow (hylie weexe)

'''wicke''' /'wəkə/  ''noun'' witch, wiccan

'''wie''' /wi/ ''verb'' to want (wold)

'''wief''' /wif/ ''noun'' woman

'''wielo''' /'wilɔ/ ''adv'' for a while, sometimes

'''wierd''' /wiɹd/ ''noun'' fate

'''wilk'''  /wəɫk/ ''interogative adj'' which

'''win''' /wən/ ''noun'' friend, used to mean fiance

'''windelock''' /'wəndəlɔk/  ''noun'' curly locks of hair

'''windig''' /'wəndi:/ ''adj'' windy

'''winsumness''' /'wənsʊmnəs/ ''noun'' delight

'''winter''' /'wəntəɹ/ ''noun'' winter

'''wise''' /'wizə/ ''noun'' way, fashion, manner

'''wistling''' /'wəstliŋ/ ''noun'' whistling

'''witte''' /'wətə/ ''verb'' to know (wiss)

'''wittig''' /'wəti:/ ''adj'' conscious

'''wlitschien''' /'wlətʃin/ ''adj'' lovely, beautiful

'''wlotte''' /'wlɔtə/ ''verb'' to look for

'''wo''' /wɔ/ ''interrogative.pron'' who

'''woed''' /wœd/ ''adj'' mad

'''Woei&amp;#235;nsdeg''' /'wœjənzdə/  ''noun'' Wednesday

'''woreld''' /'wɔrəɫd/ ''noun'' world

'''woreldwied''' /'wɔɹəɫdwid/ ''adj'' world-wide

'''worn''' /wɔɹn/  ''noun'' number, amount

'''wrang''' /ɹaŋ/ ''adj'' wrang

'''wrenkwered''' /'ɹɪŋkwɪɹəd/ ''noun.pl'' trick-or-treaters

'''write''' /'ɹitə/ ''verb'' to write ('''wriet''')

'''writbord''' /'rətbɔɹd/ ''noun'' desk

'''wrive, -n''' /'ɹəvə/ ''noun'' band

'''wrixel wordo''' /'ɹəksəɫ 'wɔɹdə/  ''verb'' converse, exchange words

'''wuck, -e''' /wʊk/  ''noun'' week

'''wuckend''' /'wʊkənd/  ''noun'' weekend

'''wuder''' /'wʊdəɹ/ ''noun'' woodsman, forester

'''wunelik''' /'wʊnələk/ ''adv'' usually

'''wunne''' /'wʊnə/ ''weak verb'' to stay

'''wurmpostling, -s''' /'wʊɹmpəstliŋ/ worm tablet

'''wurtettend''' /'wʊɹtɪtənd/ ''noun'' vegetarian

'''wurtjerds''' /'wʊɹtjəɹdz, 'wʊɹʧəɹdz/ ''noun'' gardens

'''wy''' /wi:/ ''pron'' we ''1.pl.subject''

[[Category:General lexica]]
[[Category:Zelandish]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Ranged Warfare</title>
    <id>2796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T05:14:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Lein Army, as did all its predecessors, made use of high-quality ranged weapons, and ranged warfare - showering an enemy with missiles before actually closing in for combat - has always been an integral part of Tranon war tactics. The [[Lein Dynasty]], by tightly organising the army and introducing extensive training for all bowmen in its ranks, refined the system tremendously, creating a fearsome force that could strike the enemy with near impunity.

The archers and bowmen of the army are mixed amongst the units of the army, though in battle they tend to operate as a single mass, raining arrows down on the enemy. Disciplined and hardy, they are often also equipped with light armour, and most of them purchase their own shortswords or knives in case they should be caught by an enemy. 

Though horse archers also use bows, and were a new and powerful fixture in the army of the Lein, they are discussed in the page [[Lein Cavalry]].

==Weapons==

'''Bows'''

The arsenal available to the Lein archers are the result of centuries of invention and innovation as the Tranon refined their methods of warmaking to the broad plains, where the use of massed archers instead of individual bowmen in the forests allowed them to wreak havoc en masse. To enhance this devastating capability they have put in much effort, improving the firepower of the ranged weapons greatly.

The primary weapons of the Lein bowmen were the fearsome composite foot-bows, known as ''[[bursang]]'', as well as the crossbows, known as ''[[tushup]]''. The foot-bows were symmetrical recurve bows, which could be up to 1.4 metres long, and which were derived from truly ancient Tranon designs; the crossbows, on the other hand, were a relative innovation introduced during the century of civil strife known as the [[Foreign Kingdoms and Warring States period]]. The strength required to draw many of these weapons is 
quite amazing, especially the bursangnon, most of which have a draw strength of around 180 pounds.

While the array of one-man weapons used by Lein bowmen is already impressive, other more impressive and fearsome weapons were also know. The ''[[datushup]]'', or Great Crossbow, is in fact a wooden frame mounted with two crossbows, operated by winches and firing arrows up to 1.8 metres long; with an immense draw strength when fully strung, it could shoot its deadly projectile up to 600 metres or more, and at close range could often skewer two or three ranks of troops. Many stories told of three or even four men, nailed to each other and to a tree or wooden wall, with these long bolts.

'''Arrows'''

Long experience with [[Arrows(Tranon)|arrows]] gives the Tranon great expertise in their manufacture and design, and the normal bowman sets out for battle with several types of arrows in his quivers. 

Several main types of arrows are used. The first and oldest design, used originally for hunting, is a broad-headed arrow, meant for slicing through the flesh of unprotected targets or of animals; the broadness of the head makes it very difficult to remove, and it can provoke massive internal bleeding if anyone should attempt to extract it. The second sort, known as the ''haspeya'' or &quot;one-point&quot;, is akin to the English bodkin arrow; long, narrow-headed, it was enhanced by the use of a long metal point to increase the weight and penetrative power of the arrow, as well as the tiny notches and barbs all along the arrow point that make extraction potentially fatal.

Besides being purely killing tools, the arrows were also an integral part of Lein signalling techniques. Whistling arrows are commonly used as a means to signal, as well as to terrify the enemy; while they retained their points and could also kill, they had shorter ranges due to their whistles. Nonetheless the use of whistling arrows in battles, where massed archers would fire off whole volleys all of whistling arrows, is well-documented; many enemy records spoke of the &quot;awful sound as though of demons descending upon the field, blackening the sky with their flights, and striking our men down in their masses&quot;. Other more specialised arrows included fire arrows, often used for sieges to set entire camps and towns alight; they had a haspeya head with longer, forward facing barbs, behind which oily cloth was tied and set aflame, so that as they hit the arrow would &quot;claw&quot; onto a surface and set it alight.

As for the great crossbows, there were also multiple types of ammunition available; while the standard option was a larger version of the haspeya point, this time without any barbs but with an even heavier forward section to provide it with its legendary &quot;man-skewer&quot; ability, there are also fire arrows, as well as a unique blunt-headed arrow with small blades tied to its shaft such that, upon impact, the knives would be jerked free and bounce around, causing injury to anybody in the way. 

==Tactics==

The use of ranged firepower to overwhelm enemies from a distance has always been an integral part of Lein army tactics, before the use of cavalry to encircle enemies; the archers would often be set up behind a strong force of infantry, to shower arrows down on enemies at range using arcing fire. The firepower used by these mass tactics can be truly horrifying: at the [[Battle of Uzake]], the outnumbered Lein army nonetheless commanded 6,000 bowmen and 1,800 crossbows, and the order for volleying fire was given 38 times throughout the battle.

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Cavalry</title>
    <id>2797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T03:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The cavalry has always been a crucial part of warmaking for the Lein, a feature inherited from their old power base being situated in the northern plains to the south of the river Kiranava. As a result, after their reunification of the Empire, the Lein dynasty's army for the first time incorporated cavalry tactics into their army on a massive scale.

==Organisation and Types==

The Lein, having had extensive experience of the extremely fluid and mobile style of warfare employed by the northeastern nomadic tribes as well as the powerful charges of heavy cavalry from the western lands, made sure upon their founding of the Lein Dynasty to incorporate their experiences into the Imperial Army at large; in the reforms and reorganisation of the army, therefore, new tactics and training ended up in the creation of the two cavalry types.

The heavy cavalry of the Lein was known as the '''Steel Cavalry''' ([[Itrani language|Itrani] Kan'agun Garagos]]), and though it was not as heavily armoured as the scale-covered Iron Horse cavalry of the western kingdoms it was both far more mobile and far more versatile. Armed with recurve bows that could go through the scales of their adversaries at 80 paces, as well as lances and the formidable [[Bukaraya]], a curved heavy cavalry sword, they were also well-armoured with chain mail, and their horses with hardened leather and mail. Their versatility allowed them to engage heavier targets by first softening them with a barrage of arrows, and then a full-tilt charge, and it also allowed them enough speed to run down enemies.

The lighter, raiding cavalry of the Lein, highly influenced by the nomads, was known as the '''Winged Cavalry''' or '''Flying Cavalry'''. A revolutionary addition to the army, though influenced long ago by Lein imitations of nomad tactics as they ruled their northern fief in the [[Nar Dynasty]], they wore light armour and made use of the same composite recurve bow, known as the [[dom bursang]] or &quot;short bow&quot;, that the nomads used extensively. Besides this they also carried lighter swords which were basically more curved versions of the [[Ezrikes]] for close combat, though their normal response at coming too close to enemy lines is to escape.

[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Buildings of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-09T11:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kaldoin Fortress</title>
    <id>2799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-09T11:30:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Background and Construction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A fortress built along the [[Akirlisaya River]], far to the northeast of the Trandimir subcontinent, Kaldoin Fortress (named after Kaldoin Cliffs, on which it is built) is a system of fortifications built during the reign of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein]], as a major node in the defence of the northern Empire. In the following years, as relationships between the [[Lein Dynasty]] and the nomadic peoples of the north turned to war again, the fortress became a symbol of the resilience of the Lein Empire against the &quot;northern barbarians&quot;. 

==Background and Construction==

Tairazun Sora's plan of fortifying the Empire was in a sense the extension of his father [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Athain]]'s intentions to forestall war by fortifications, even though the first half of his reign was a dramatic move in the opposite direction. After nearly 20 years of war with the [[Tamu`deni]] and [[Sumatar]] peoples, and having driven them north of the river, Sora decided that the best policy would be to pursue peace while ensuring a formidable and prominent deterrence. It was towards that goal that the construction of Kaldoin Fortress was ordered.

Construction began, under the direction of the architect [[Tuin Risad berPanor]], in spring of Sora 34, and the central forts were completed around Sora 36, and fully operational by late Sora 37. The fortress was mostly constructed of stone, quarried upstream in the northern mountains and then painstakingly rolled and floated downstream to the area where they were shaped and placed; bricks brought upstream, as well as wood from the south, was also used in large quantities for this fortress.

[[Category:Buildings of the Lein Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Governmental Office Classifications</title>
    <id>2800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-14T13:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Ministry or Ordained Office */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page discusses the classifications and gradings of offices within the [[Lein Dynasty]] Imperial Government.

The bureaucracy evolved by the Lein Dynasty to manage its vast and now centralised empire was, as the empire itself, organised on a level of multiple tiers. Unlike previous geographically-divided agencies, though, the administration was now functionally divided, with each ministry maintaining representatives in the provinces.

==Ministry or Ordained Office==

''Articles: [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty]], [[Lein Imperial Office for the Outer Kingdoms]], [[Lein Imperial Office for the Palace]]''

The Ministry ([[Itrani]] Dasabo), of which there are six within the government, as well as the so-called Ordained Offices (Itrani ''Teinel Sabo''), make up the top tier of Lein government. Amongst them, the Ministries are headed by a ''Sagare'', or Minister, while the two Ordained Offices are each led by a ''Sagor ne-Tein'', or Ordained Official. These men are by law of [[Lein Official Ranks|First Rank, Proper Precedence]].

==Office==

Ministries are in turn subdivided into Offices, or ''Sabonon''. Each office was responsible for a certain area of responsibility within its ministry, related to the overall sphere of influence of the ministry itself; their powers were often great but highly restricted to their own respective areas. They are led by Overseers, or ''Sirtenon'' (singular ''Sirte''); but there are less restrictions on the rank of officials holding such posts. Most officials with a rank of Fourth Rank, Proper Precedence or above are eligible to be thus appointed.

==Section==

The smallest division of administration, and often a fluid one with new sections being set up or disbanded as needed, the sections or &quot;Durinon&quot; are responsible for most of the field work of their offices. The representatives of ministries in distant provinces, or certain local administrative branches, are often known as sections since they do not fit the functional scope of an office.

[[Category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Tranon Imperial Family Titles and Order of Succession</title>
    <id>2801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T03:08:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Questions:
*What happens if there's no one in any of those four tiers?  If female lines are excluded, it would be quite possible for there to be no princes out to first cousin
*Which tier is the Emperor's father's brothers classified in?  Also, are only the children of brothers of the Emperor's father by his main wife included in tier three, or are the children of brothers of the Emperor's father by concubines included?
*When a new Emperor succeeds, do princes' status change?  For example, the Crown Prince's brothers would be in tier one, but would they then be demoted to tier three once the Crown Prince becomes Emperor?

Also, &quot;Sons of father's brother&quot; are not &quot;cousins first-removed&quot;.  A cousin once removed is the the child of a cousin, or the cousin of a parent.  Your father's brother's son would be your patrilateral (or paternal) parallel cousin, to use technical terms. [[User:Nik|Nik]] 23:21, 8 October 2006 (PDT)

Wow I didn't know that. All right, I will edit accordingly and keep your questions in mind. Thanks for reading! [[User:Sirica|Sirica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Orion script1.png</title>
    <id>2802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-09T13:52:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phreq</username>
        <id>259</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'Revolutionary' in native Orion script.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eeree'en</title>
    <id>2803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T06:46:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phreq</username>
        <id>259</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Peoples of the Trandimir</title>
    <id>2804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:06:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists the peoples and polities of the Trandimir region of Vraltir.

[[Category:Ethnicities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Office for the Palace</title>
    <id>2805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T06:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Lein Imperial Office for the Palace, normally simply known as the Palace Office ([[Itrani]] ''Tein Sabo ne-kirakan'', or just ''Saneki'') is the office within the Lein Government responsible for administering the [[Anyesir Palace|palace]] itself, as well as the Imperial Capital of [[Meiron]].

Given the status of the palace as the heart of the whole Empire, the administration of the palace in turn helps ease the work of other agencies and ministries. The Palace Office, besides taking care of the welfare of the Imperial Family housed therein, also takes care of the accomodation and feeding of its workers, the work of transmitting messages around the palace, and finally the administration and guard of the Capital.

==Offices and Organisation==

The palace office has a wide job scope that includes many of the domestic offices of the administration. Just a few such offices include:

*[[Administration of Meiron City]]: housing the governor of the capital and his staff, this office is responsible for the administration of the capital, the keeping of order therein, and the maintenance of its buildings and spaces.
*[[Lein Imperial Transcription Office]]: the Tairazun's secretaries, these young women are extremely well-trained and skilled, and serve as his drafters, writers, and readers of edicts.
*[[Lein Imperial Attendants]]: the great body of servants, numbering in the hundreds, who serve the Imperial Family as well as taking care of miscellanous tasks within the palace.
*[[Imperial Kitchen]]: The body responsible for preparing the meals of the Tairazun and his family, as well as for the residents of the palace.
*[[Imperial Artisans' Office]]: A centralised office used to mobilise skilled artisans and craftsmen on the order of the Tairazun or the demands of the palace and court.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Asori Ford</title>
    <id>2806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T06:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Asori Ford (Grazas ne-Shiden Asori)
|partof= [[Lein-Jichei Campaign]]
|date= 12-1- Sora 33
|place= Asori Ford, Uroma River
|result= Decisive Lein victory
|1= [[Lein Dynasty]]
|2= [[Jichei Kingdom]]
|1comd= [[Tairazun Sora berAthain]] 
|2comd=
|1str= 40,000 infantry, 56,000 cavalry, 31,000 bowmen
|2str= nearly 80,000 soldiers, mostly infantry; 6,000 cavalry; around 35,000 
|1cas= around 9,000 dead, 4,000 wounded
|2cas= around 65,000 dead, 28,000 captured
}}

The Battle of Asori Ford {[[Itrani]]: Garzas ne-Shiden Asori} was the single largest and bloodiest battle of the Lein-Jichei War, for both the Lein and the Jichei. Fought at a series of crossings of the [[Uroma]] River as the Lein army sought to cross and strike at the Jichei capital, it was also the last major act of resistance launched by the Jichei army against the overwhelming force of the Lein army.  Lasting from sunrise to just before sunset, the battle was so bloody that the Uroma River would later gain the appellation of Gin Newel or &quot;Red River&quot;.

[[category:Battles of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Customs of the Tranon</title>
    <id>2807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T04:07:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists the articles that describe the society, governance, and other customs of the [[Tranon people]].

[[Category:Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Currency of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T12:30:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">One of the most important acts of the [[Lein Dynasty]], at its inception, was the standardisation of currency throughout the Empire. Whereas previous dynasties allowed respective feudal states great discretion in money policies, to the extent of issuing their own systems of currency, the Lein in order to centralise and unite the Empire had no room for such measures. The standardisation of currency was one of the first [[Imperial Edict|edicts]] passed by [[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein]], who made use of the Lein system of currency - ironically a self-issued system that ignored the currency of the Nar Dynasty then - as the Imperial standard:

1 uta = 12 berenon

1 bere = 12 teknon

1 tek = 6 pirinon

Besides these divisions, there are also other divisions present, but most of those exist on a regional level - again, a residue of ancient feudalism that has not quite faded amongst the populace. For the most part, given the relatively small values of those local currencies, the government does not interfere; but neither does it recognise those systems in its transactions.

[[Category:Economy of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Economy of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:49:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category includes articles on the economy of the Lein Dynasty.

[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Economics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tranon Imperial Consort Systems</title>
    <id>2810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-14T14:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page discusses the systems of ranking consorts throughout dynasties, as well as some of the conditions thereof.

The system of Imperial consorts is aligned with the Tranon social view, where polygamy is allowed and indeed sometimes encouraged; the large number of consorts many [[Tairazun|Tairazunon]] take, however, necessitate a complex system of ranking and priority. This system, known in [[Itrani]] as the ''buson kiranan'' or &quot;rear palace&quot;, has at its top the [[Tairasantha]] or Empress.

==Ranks of the Emperor's Consorts==

'''Tairasantha'''

The term Tairasantha is, for ambitious concubines at least, the ultimate aspiration. As the Tairazun's chief consort, her power officially extends to every member of the rear palace and all women within the administration, but unofficially it often stretches far more deeply, through her influence on the Emperor. Another powerful sign of dominance for the Tairasantha is that her sons with the Tairazun are placed above all other consorts, in the First Tier for Succession.

To become a Tairasantha, however, has certain characteristics; the Tairasantha, by the law of many dynasties including the Lein, must have a ''surviving, rightful prince''; &quot;rightful&quot; here means he fulfills the conditions for accession to the throne, mainly being that he is free of glaring physical defects. Only then, with a presumably healthy child as a potential heir, can she be given the position.

Besides this condition, however, given the youth of most Tairazunon at accession their chief consorts normally will not fulfill this condition; as such, the first or most favoured wife of the Emperor as of his accession.

[[Category:Customs of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tairazun</title>
    <id>2811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T06:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tairazun''' is the [[Itrani]] term for the Emperor, the supreme ruler of the Tranon Empire. Itself derived from the legendary king Taira, who in legends led the Tranon people out of the south into the present Tranon heartland more than 1,300 years before the founding of the Empire, the word itself holds in pre-Imperial days the connotation of power held with virtue; as such it was seen as an appropriate title for the first Emperor.

[[Category:Customs of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arun Savas berLetiman</title>
    <id>2812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T06:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arun Savas berLetiman''' (12-8-Athain 28 - 11-11-Keragel 4) is a poet, civil servant and diplomat of the [[Lein Dynasty]]. One of the most important officials in [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Sora's]] government, he has served in such posts as [[Lein Minister of Finance|Minister of Finance]], [[Lein Ordained Official of the Outer Kingdoms|Ordained Official of the Outer Kingdoms]], and [[Prime Minister of the Lein Dynasty|Prime Minister]], and is often grouped as one of the &quot;Great Ministers of the Great Martial Reign&quot;. 

==Childhood and Youth==

Arun Savas berLetiman was born in the night to Arun Letiman berKakur, a local official in the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Finance]], in the city of [[Salguz]]; his mother was the second wife of his father, and died when Savas was just three. As the only son in the family (his father's first wife had borne three daughters), he was especially doted on by his father, and received an excellent education from the many scholars in the city. Even in childhood he had shown himself to be of great aptitude and foresight.

The defining moment of Arun Savas' childhood came when his father brought him along on a meeting with [[Kan Gusan berHaler]], a famous general of the reign of [[Tairazun Athain berLoran ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Athain]]. A personal friend of the general, Arun Letiman was sending him off for [[First Sora-Tamu1deni Campaign|Sora's first campaign]], and Kan Gusan asked the man what his assessment of the campaign was; before he could answer, however, his 10 year old son cut in saying: &quot;The Great Tairazun shall wander the fields as a man chasing a fast horse&quot;. His father immediately reprimanded him for his impudence, but the general later agreed with this assessment; seven months later, after Tairazun Sora returned in defeat, the general mentioned to him that a ten year old had already foreseen his defeat; in shock the Tairazun immediately asked for Arun Savas.

[[Category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of Finance</title>
    <id>2813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T12:55:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of Finance''' ([[Itrani]] ''Dasabo Seterimi ne-i-Taitere'') is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty]], and in many senses the most important. Besides simply acting as a finance ministry, it is also responsible for the management of trade and economic growth, crucial matters for any state.

Due to its role, the Ministry of Finance has a large representation within the Imperial centre, as well as many branches in major cities around the Empire which are responsible for economic planning and other administrative functions. The fact that [[Prime Minister of the Lein Dynasty|Prime Ministers]] to be are mostly appointed as Ministers of Finance for a period before ascending the hallowed post is proof of the political clout and significance of the Ministry.

==Organisation and Offices==

The Finance ministry handles a huge range of tasks, and it is said that some of its offices can match the strength of another kingdom's court in its entirety. Some of these offices, crucial to the running of the Empire, include:

*[[Lein Office of Agriculture]], responsible for agricultural planning.
*[[Lein Revenue Office]], responsible for taxation and the inflow of revenues into the Imperial coffers.
*[[Lein Treasury]]: easily one of the most important offices, the Treasury manages the Imperial coffers and allocates funds as ordered.
*[[Lein Trade Monitors' Office]], responsible for promoting and controlling trade in accordance with the long-standing policy of the Lein Tairazunon.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of Public Works</title>
    <id>2814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T15:05:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of Public Works''', or just the Ministry of Works ([[Itrani]] ''Dasabo Katangaimi ne-i-Taitere'') is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty]], responsible for the construction and upkeep of the many public works projects and networks that the Empire depends on for its economic survival. With a job scope spanning from city wall repair to the construction of inter-province highways, it is often known as the &quot;Quiet Ministry&quot; for its importance in underpinning Lein rule, along with its relative silence in political circles. 

==Organisation and Offices==

As with all ministries the Dasabo Katangaimi, or Daskata, is divided into several Sabonon or offices, each dealing with an aspect of the job scope of the whole ministry. The major offices are as follows:

*[[Office of Canals]] (''Sabo hurotaimi''), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the many transportation canals between rivers that were built during the Dynasty.
*[[Office of Irrigation]] (''Sabo pirashaimi''), responsible for the even more important task of maintaining and expanding irrigation networks, crucial in many areas of the Empire for maintaining the productivity of the land.
*[[Office of Palaces and Forts]] (''Sabo Kirananimi ase Ratugaimi''), responsible for building palaces to the order of the Tairazun, as well as the design of large forts and castles, for fortification purposes.
*[[Office of Roads]] (''Sabo Lezeimi''), responsible for building and maintaining the immense network of roads that now span the Empire, crucial both for troop movements and for the flow of commerce from one city to another.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sumatar</title>
    <id>2815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T03:35:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Sumatar''' are a powerful confederation of the nomadic peoples that since time immemorial have lived on the fringes of civilisation, to the northeast of the Trandimir, north of the realms of the [[Tranon people|Tranon]]. People of the great seas of grass that stretches from the mountains of the Trandimir northwards without end, they are consummate warriors and hunters, and their interaction with the peoples to their south, with their cities and forts, has been infinitely complex, and has played a powerful part in the legends and culture of both civilisations.

While the peoples are ancient beyond history, the Sumatar confederation is not; formed during the early Tranon Empire, it had existed for centuries, often helping to topple regimes with its fast and deep raids into the Trandimir. In peacetime they were formidable allies and mercenaries, and in wartime fearsome foes like shadows; but whichever role they played they had a great part in the history of their southern neighbours.

[[category:Nomads of the Northeast]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of War and the Borders</title>
    <id>2816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T13:22:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of War and the Borders''' is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty|Six Ministries]] that form the core of Lein government; as is clear, it is responsible for the defence of the Empire, as well as its diplomacy and foreign relations. 

While the Tranon are by and large a peaceful civilisation, their close proximity to many other civilisations also makes war an unpleasant but frequently recurring state of reality for them. The Lein, to a greater extent than any other preceding state, brought the armies under a single imperial system and organised them into an incomparable force; this in turn required consistent and excellent administration. Being in charge of all the soldiers and matters of war, the Ministry is therefore also responsible for large parts of the Imperial economy, in the form of war coffers, border controls and most importantly the [[Sakuzak]] agricultural system.

==Offices and Organisation==

*[[Lein Imperial Army Office]], responsible for the administration of the Imperial Army's many units
*[[Lein Imperial Navy Office]], serving much the same purpose as its army counterpart
*[[Lein Imperial Logistics and Supply Office]], responsible for the manufacture of armaments, and the handling of equipment to the army; it is also responsible for ship construction.
*[[Lein Office Sakuzaknon]], responsible for the handling of the military agricultural colonies known as sakuzaknon.

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Cities of the Tranon</title>
    <id>2817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:13:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists the many major cities that the Tranon, in their rule over the Trandimir, have founded or built upon and inhabited.

[[Category:Tranon]]
[[Category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of the Civil Service</title>
    <id>2818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T12:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Offices and Organisation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of the Civil Service''' is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty|Six Ministries]], responsible for the important task of manpower shifts, recruitment, and the maintenance of standards of the civil service itself.

No country can be run without a competent, honest and efficient civil service, much less a sprawling empire like that of the [[Lein Dynasty]]. This Ministry was therefore set up in order to ensure that the officials that serve the Empire and its people conform both to the laws of the land and to the highest standards of education and personal virtue.

==Offices and Organisation==

The Civil Service Ministry's roles within the government are clear - to ensure that only the best enter the government, both in quality and character; and to ensure that, once they are within the centres of power, they stay upright. Some of its important offices include:

*[[Lein Imperial Inspectorate]], a highly feared office, is responsible for the arrest and judgement of civil service members who have been implicated in crimes or corruption.
*[[Lein Imperial Examinations Office]], responsible for the setting and monitoring of the [[Imperial Examinations (Lein)|Imperial Examinations]], where the civil servants are selected.
*[[Lein Office of Promotions]], responsible both for promoting and demoting officials in accordance to their records, and for the handling of position switches and arrangements within other offices.

[[Category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Imperial Ministry of Education and Rites</title>
    <id>2819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T13:08:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial Ministry of Education and Rites''' is one of the [[Six Ministries of the Lein Dynasty|Six Ministries]], responsible for religious affairs, the education of state scholars, and the recording and storing of knowledge for future generations.

Being ordained to rule the Empire by the many gods of the Tranon, the [[Tairazun]] and his people at large are all responsible for the great task of appeasing the gods, such that the elements which are beyond man - disasters, rain, the state of the climate and so on - may yet be in the favour of men. At the same time this Ministry is in charge of the education and conduct of [[Saimzanon]], the scholars of the Empire, as well as for storing the knowledge they have created.

==Offices and Roles==

The Ministry's offices each reflect an aspect of its wide-spanning role.

*[[Lein Office of the Saimzanon]] (Sabo Saimzanonimi), responsible for managing the Saimzanon as well as their institutes, the [[Saiveteng|Saivetengnon]], which are the main institutes of higher learning in the Empire.
*[[Lein Office of Sacrifices and Worship]] (Sabo Gurasanimi ase Nisanimi), responsible for managing the Tairazun's worships and scheduled sacrifices to the different gods and goddesses.
*[[Lein Office of Astrology and Astronomy]] (Sabo Horasaimi ase Horadisaimi), responsible both for divination using the stars, and for the study of those stars themselves and their movements.

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lein Judicial Office</title>
    <id>2820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T14:42:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Judicial Office''' represents the judiciary branch of the [[Lein Dynasty]], and as such it is a pivotal part in the functions of the [[Justice Ministry]] which it represents. Though it is only an Office within the ministry, it is nonetheless one of the most powerful offices of all, with its officials being instrumental local governors and magistrates throughout the Empire. 

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Justice Ministry</title>
    <id>2821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-10T14:42:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Justice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Institutions and Routines</title>
    <id>2822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T04:48:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists some of the important routines and procedures of the Lein Imperial government, including its major meetings and some of its main tools.

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Order Seals</title>
    <id>2823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T05:01:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Order Seals''' were an innovative new system instituted by [[Tairazun Durun]] during his reign. Basically a temporary &quot;boost of power&quot; granted by the Tairazun himself, the order seal allows an official thus endowed to, for a certain period of time, circumvent certain higher authorities in order to get its task completed. The name comes from the fact that such seals normally came with distinct orders, ie. the task that was meant to be achieved in the first place. 

While this system of temporary circumvention is well-known within the military, it has never been instituted in the civil service before the accession of the Lein. Yet, even as Tairazun Durun began and pushed the sweeping and massive reforms that saw the centralising of state power in his Six Ministries, he realised that the multi-tiered bureaucracy, while more than adequate for day to day tasks, might be ill-suited for crises. For that, as for military crises, one needed an officer to be authorised to carry out orders at all cost for the time being; drawing on that experience he instituted the order seals.

The issuing of order seals contains several procedures. Firstly, the Tairazun must draft and sign an appropriate edict, and order the making of a wooden seal which could be carved and made in two days; then, once both the edict and seal are complete, the official is summoned, the orders that are his are read to him, and the period of authorisation is made clear. Since all Imperial documents must be dated, this makes it easy to trace if any official has been overstaying his authorisation by comparing the date of the document with the date of expiry of the seal. 

Such seals are, of course, potentially dangerous political weapons; because of that they are often only given in times of crises, as to a particular canal official during a flood to allow him to mobilise men and repair barriers, or to a military logistics official to allow him to mobilise manpower to move a particularly important supply caravan to relieve an army. By law the authorisation period should not be less than 10 days, and certainly must not be more than a year.

[[category:Institutions and Routines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nomads of the Northeast</title>
    <id>2824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T03:36:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles about the nomads inhabiting the northeast of the Trandimir.

[[category:Peoples of the Trandimir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batai</title>
    <id>2825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T12:25:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Batai''' is the [[Itrani]] word for a seal, an important device for many Tranon used as a signature and a stamp of authority.

==History==

Batainon have been used amongst the Tranon since time immemorial. The use of such seals, for stamping one's name, appears to have begun with the use of pottery, when the wet clay would be stamped with the name of the maker or the owner before being fired. Many wooden products also have the names of their owners carved on them.

Later, with the spread of paper and ink, the batai became a carved device using ink to mark its owner's identity. Pottery stamps, used for wet clay, still exist, but for most purposes the batai is used for many purposes - marking ownership, approving contracts and agreements, and so on. As such batainon are seen as important, treasured items for many of the Tranon; it is sometimes said &quot;Write your name a hundred times, or stamp it with a seal&quot;, to signify how highly the seal is regarded as a personal symbol.

==Materials and Manufacture==

Batainon can be made from any sort of material, though stone and hard wood are the favoured materials. A prized piece of white jade or dark green grass-stone, of the right dimensions to make a good seal, can often cost thousands of [[utanon]] simlpy because they would make great seals. The carving of these seals is a laborious process, and can either use the original Itrani script or - if the required  engraving will take up too much space - make use of a [[beruseti]] glyph instead, designed by the commissioner of the seal.

==Personal Seals==

Personal seals are the most common types of seal, used simply for personal identification. As such it can have myriad uses and applications; whether it be letters, contracts or paintings, they are used. 

==Official Seals==

[[category:Customs of the Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Uzake</title>
    <id>2826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T05:33:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Uzake
|partof= [[Campaign of Sora 18]]
|date= 11-6- Sora 18
|place= near Uzake town, [[Erganzaw Kingdom]]
|result= Decisive Lein victory
}}

[[category:Famous Battles of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tairazun Sora berAthain</title>
    <id>2827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-11T06:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Battles of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:02:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[Category:Wars]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Salguz</title>
    <id>2829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T04:54:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The city of '''Salguz''' is the provincial capital of [[Rumisa Arsun]]. It has a population of around 31,000 households, which makes nearly 150,000 people, making it an important city of the eastern Empire.

Originally founded as a market town for the rich agricultural produce of the area, the city later became the capital of several great feudal fiefs and other entities, including two kingdoms of the [[Warring Principalities period]]. During the [[Lein Dynasty]], it was in turn made into a provincial seat, and as such hosts the governmental centre of the region, as well as being a famous cultural centre. A famous saying about this city, as well as the city of [[Basari]] in the southern [[Burlaz Arsun]], states: &quot;Food carts leave Basari emptied; Ink carts leave Salguz dry&quot;. The city is also known as the &quot;green-walled&quot;, since its location in the eastern lowlands often causes morning mists and fog that wetten the stone of the walls, leading eventually to the growth of a layer of algae. 

[[category:Cities of the Tranon]]
[[category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arsunon of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14530</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-14T14:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Empire under the [[Lein Dynasty]] was divided into first eleven, then twenty ''arsunon'' or provinces. This is a list of these provinces.

*[[Natoyan Arsun]]
*[[Isodaya Arsun]]
*[[Rumisa Arsun]]
*[[Burlaz Arsun]]

[[category:Subunits of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Subunits of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>2831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T04:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Outer Kingdoms</title>
    <id>2832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T05:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main article, please refer to [[Outer Kingdoms of the Lein]]''

This page lists articles about the kingdoms that were set up around the world during the [[Lein Dynasty]]. These kingdoms, many ruled by external scions of the [[House of Lein]], would play a large role in the transmission of Tranon culture outside of the Trandimir.

[[category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Regional Government (Lein)</title>
    <id>2833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T06:22:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page discusses the regional governments of the Empire during the [[Lein Dynasty]]. As centralised rule led to the appointment of officials to the regions from the centre, a proper structure of governance was established, known as the &quot;nabatorzan&quot; or representative system.

Under this system, which was set up by the first [[Tairazun Durun]], each ministry of the government had a branch of representatives within a province or county, who would be updated of edicts and changes in the law; they in turn would be under local office chiefs, and eventually the provincial governor. The governor can be from any Ministry, but is expected to have some understanding of the workings of all the ministries; as a result only highly experienced officials who have made rounds in many offices tend to get appointed to provincial posts.

The tension between regional government and the government in the centre, a long-standing theme of Imperial politics, also has significant effects in the Lein. While appointment as a governor is certainly a grat honour, &quot;promotions&quot; which involve shifts to other provinces, out of or farther away from the imperial centre at [[Meiron]], is often simply a euphemism for political exile.

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zal Biran berGordas</title>
    <id>2834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14489</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T06:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Zal Biran berGordas''' (12-2-[[Loran]] 16 - 28-3-[[Sora]] 18 was a famous naval commander during the reigns of [[Tairazun Athain]] and Tairazun Sora. His long career was marked by his great victories over southern pirates during the reign of Athain, and his role in the naval expansion during the reign of Sora that would prove to be a crucial factor for later expansions and the founding of the [[Outer Kingdoms]]. 

[[category:Personalities of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military Council (Lein)</title>
    <id>2835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T06:49:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military Councils''' ([[Itrani]] ''Bekesten Dezukar'') are often conferences of the Empire's top-ranking [[Saizan|generals]], with the [[Tairazun]] in attendance. Convened for determining war strategy and planning long-term campaigns, these councils are often held as top military secrets within the [[Mal ne-Harim]] in the western enclosure of [[Anyesir Palace]].

==Organisation and Form==

The convening of a military council is often one of the first acts of a newly-enthroned Tairazun, the aim being to discuss his military goals and receive briefings on the military situation of the Empire; while having its origins in the militaristic tradition of the Lein, these meetings are also extremely important given the near-constant state of hostility with the many neighbours of the Tranon Empire. 

[[category:Institutions and Routines]]
[[category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ministerial Enclosures</title>
    <id>2836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-12T07:00:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ministerial Enclosures''' ([[Itrani]] ''Nirachnon ne-Dasabo'') is the term used to describe the separate &quot;palaces&quot; of governmental agencies within [[Anyesir Palace]]. The Palace, being the heart of Imperial government especially after the edict of [[Loran]] 4 ordering the centralisation of all [[Six Ministries|ministries]] within its walls, has large walled areas reserved for each ministry. These are, in order of Ministry:

*[[Western Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Basedi Nirach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of War and the Borders|Ministry of War]]
*[[Southern Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Murin Nirach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of the Civil Service|Civil Service Ministry]]
*[[Eastern Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Osele Nirach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Finance|Ministry of Finance]]
*[[Northern Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Tarudi Nirach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Justice|Ministry of Justice]]
*[[New Western Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Nila Basedi Nirach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Public Works|Public Works Ministry]]
*[[New Northern Enclosure]] (Itrani ''Nila Tarudi NIrach''), for the [[Lein Imperial Ministry of Education and Rites|Rites Ministry]]

Arranged around the Central Palace, which has the [[Five Halls]] as its centrepiece and where the Emperor works during the day, they 

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five Halls</title>
    <id>2837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:08:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Five Halls''' form the centre of the western portion of [[Anyesir Palace]], known as the Front Palace. The working quarters of the [[Tairazun]], the [[Prime Minister of the Lein Dynasty|Prime Minister]], the ministers and their staffs, it is the supreme headquarters of the whole Empire.

The Five Halls include some of the grandest buildings of the [[Lein Dynasty]], including:

*[[Hall of Lasting Harmony]], the main meeting hall in the centre of the palace, where all [[Imperial Conferences]] are held.
*[[Three Streams Court]], a building within a garden where the Tairazun works by himself, housing also the [[Imperial Transcription Office]], and other relevant staff.

[[category:Offices and Institutions of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[category:Buildings of the Lein Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bekelbir</title>
    <id>2838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14499</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-13T05:10:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bekelbir''' is the [[Itrani]] word for a sort of noodle, made of [[seumoya]] flour, which forms an important staple food for the western and northwestern areas of the Trandimir. 

The noodle is normally white in colour, very smooth in texture, and rolled flat into sheets before being cut into strips. Well made bekelbir should be very bouncy and have a slightly chewy but soft texture in the mouth. Bekelbir is used extensively in all manner of dishes made by the Tranon.

[[category:Tranon cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Tranon cuisine</title>
    <id>2839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16159</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[category:Customs of the Tranon]]
[[Category:Food]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Maailmaniag</title>
    <id>2840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39123</id>
      <timestamp>2008-10-26T18:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maailmaniag</username>
        <id>263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Proto-Ōšqʷiť]],&lt;br&gt;
[[Proto-Utājen]],&lt;br&gt;
[[Yaenar]],&lt;br&gt;
[[Amòssi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gjatalin</title>
    <id>2841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-13T19:22:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maailmaniag</username>
        <id>263</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Gjatalin (Gjatálin, {{IPA|[gja taː lin]}}, /g_ja.t_da:.lin/)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gyatalin</title>
    <id>2843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T21:18:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maailmaniag</username>
        <id>263</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prepositions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Gyatalin'''&lt;br&gt;'''Gjatálin'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in: 
||Gjatá
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||(unnamed)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||436,391,390
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||(unnamed)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Shalian&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Gyatalin'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Inflecting
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Nominative-Accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||maailmaniag ||2006
|}

The language of the Gyatalin people (&lt;i&gt;Eng: Gyatalin&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Nat: Gjatálin&lt;/i&gt;) is a language spoken on the planet of Meishuko, in an alternate universe. It is spoken by approximately 436,391,390 people, and is the most widely spoken of the Shalian languages found on the planet.

The language itself superficially (and sometimes even semantically) resembles some of the Slavic languages (particularly Polish), partly due to the fact that it was, indeed, the Polish who exposed the Gyatalin people to the Latin alphabet and several semantic ideas.

==Phonology/Orthography==
===Consonants===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=19 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Retroflex||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || || || n || || || || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || p || b || || || t || d || || || || || || || || || k || g
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Ejective || p' || || || || t' || || || || || || || || || || k'
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || f || w || || || s || z || š || ž || ś || ź || || || ch || || h
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || || || || || tš || dž || tś || dź
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || ẃ || || || || || || || || || || || || j
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

====Digraphs====
bj bl bn bw bẃ
&lt;br&gt;
dj dl dw dẃ
&lt;br&gt;
džl	džw	džẃ
&lt;br&gt;
dźj	dźw	dźẃ
&lt;br&gt;
fj	fl	fẃ
&lt;br&gt;
gd	gj	gl	gw	gẃ
&lt;br&gt;
hl	hm	hn	hẃ
&lt;br&gt;
kj	kl	kn	ks	kš	kś	kw	kẃ
&lt;br&gt;
k’j	k’l	k’n	k’s	k’š	k’ś	k’w	k’ẃ
&lt;br&gt;
lj	lẃ
&lt;br&gt;
mj	mẃ
&lt;br&gt;
nj	nẃ
&lt;br&gt;
pf	pj	pl	ps	pw	pẃ
&lt;br&gt;
p’f	p’j	p’l	p’s	p’w	p’ẃ
&lt;br&gt;
sf	sk	sk’	sl	sm	sn	sp	sp’	st	st’	sw	sẃ
&lt;br&gt;
šf	šk	šk’	šl	šm	šn	šp	šp’	št	št’	šw	šẃ
&lt;br&gt;
śj	św	śẃ
&lt;br&gt;
tj	tl	ts	tw	tẃ
&lt;br&gt;
t’y	t’l	t’s	t’w	t’ẃ
&lt;br&gt;
tšl	tšw	tšẃ
&lt;br&gt;
tśj	tśw	tśẃ
&lt;br&gt;
w	wj	wl	wẃ
&lt;br&gt;
chj	chw	chẃ
&lt;br&gt;
zd	zg	zj	zm	zn	zẃ
&lt;br&gt;
žd	žg	žj	žm	žn	žẃ
&lt;br&gt;
źj	źw	źẃ

===Vowels===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close || i || ü || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lax Close || || || y || || ||  
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close-Mid || || || || || ë || o
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open-Mid || e || ö || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-Open || ä
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open || a
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

====Diphthongs====
There are six diphthongs in Gyatalin, and no more:

aj, ej, ij, oj, uj, yj
/ai Ei ij oi uj yj/

====Vowel Length====
There are a total of 2 vowel lengths in Gyatalin: long and short. The short vowels are marked as previous, and the long vowels are marked as follows:

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close || í || ù || || || || ú
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lax Close || || || ý || || ||  
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close-Mid || || || || || è || ó
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open-Mid || é || ò || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-Open || à
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open || á
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

Long diphthongs are formed in exactly the same way:
áj éj íj ój új ýj

==The Cases==
Gyatalin makes use of six grammatical cases: the nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, and vocative. Each case is marked, normally in with a different ending for each case.

==Pronouns==
===Personal Pronouns===
Among other things that decline into each of the six cases, the personal pronouns do.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Personal Pronouns
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Nominative ||colspan=2| Accusative ||colspan=2| Dative ||colspan = 2| Genitive ||colspan=2| Locative ||colspan=2| Vocative 
|-
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 1 singular || yś |||| mý |||| mny |||| mne |||| ym |||| moj
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 2 singular || tü |||| dý |||| tè |||| ty |||| dá |||| doj
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 3 singular m. || žoj |||| žë |||| žu |||| ža |||| žü |||| žu
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 3 singular f. || žaj |||| žy |||| žä |||| ži |||| žö |||| žy
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 3 singular n. || žej |||| žej |||| žu |||| že |||| žy |||| žo
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 1 plural inclusive || il |||| il |||| ẃim |||| wi |||| jeg |||| il
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 1 plural exclusive || yl |||| mü |||| il |||| mü |||| mil |||| myl
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 2 plural || jätś |||| wjej |||| wjo |||| wjo |||| joź |||| joj
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 3 plural anim. || fën |||| dau |||| dë |||| dë |||| dwò |||| dwo
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| 3 plural inanim. || fè |||| dá |||| dèn |||| dè |||| dwò |||| dwó
|}

&lt;/div&gt;


==Verbal Morphology==
Like many Indo-European languages, verbs decline by person and number. However, Gyatalin verbs do not decline by tense; they decline somewhat by aspect, but the conjugations of the verbs don't match up exactly in meaning. The closest natural language aspect is the telicity found in Finnish or Estonian.

For the sake of neatness, already existing grammatical aspects are used to name Gyatalin aspects. However, a brief description of what the actual Gyatalin aspect is will follow the heading.

Before actually viewing the verbal morphology of Gyatalin, it is important to look at the structure of the verb infinitive (which ALWAYS ends in -t'j). 

There are two classes of verbs, so aptly named Class 1 and Class 2. Class 1 verbs have either: a, y, o, u, ë, or a consonant before the typical t'j ending. Verbs in Class 2 have either: e, i, y, ü, ä, or ö before the t'j ending. It is impossible to tell whether a particular -yt'j verb is from Class 1 or Class 2.

To discover the stem of the verb, simply remove the vowel and the t'j ending. In the case of the consonant+t'j endings, only remove the t'j.

===Perfective Aspect===
This is the simplest of the aspects. In Gyatalin, this aspect implies that the action being referred to has been completed. 

====Class 1 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 1, Perfective Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| póchat'j ||colspan=2| ytyt'j ||colspan = 2| wlùbot'j ||colspan=2| źlut’j ||colspan=2| gànśët’j ||colspan=2| títant'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || -u |||| póch&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || -ešt |||| póch&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || -oj |||| póch&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || -aj |||| póch&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || -ej |||| póch&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || -my |||| póch&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || -li |||| póch&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || -é |||| póch&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || -ju |||| póch&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || -jut |||| póch&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| yt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| wlùb&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| źl&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| gànś&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| títan&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}


====Class 2 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 2, Perfective Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| pljanet'j ||colspan=2| bytit'j ||colspan = 2| žùdžyt'j ||colspan=2| kwalüt’j ||colspan=2| mächtät’j ||colspan=2| polöt'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || -ju |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || -iš |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || -joj |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || -jaj |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || -jej |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || -ymi |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || -yli |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || -je |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || -ja |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || -jat |||| pljan&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| byt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| žùdž&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| kwal&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| mächt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| pol&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

===Progressive Aspect===
The progressive aspect implies that the verb is happening, but has not been completed. This aspect also carries the meaning of the intention of completing the action. (for example, with the verb &quot;to go there&quot;, in the progressive aspect, English would represent the meaning as &quot;to be on one's way there, and having an intention of reaching the final destination&quot;)

====Class 1 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 1, Progressive Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| póchat'j ||colspan=2| ytyt'j ||colspan = 2| wlùbot'j ||colspan=2| źlut’j ||colspan=2| gànśët’j ||colspan=2| títant'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || ja- || -u || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || ja- || -ešt || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || ja- || -oj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || ja- || -aj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || ja- || -ej || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || ja- || -my || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || ja- || -li || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || ja- || -é || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || ja- || -ju || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || ja- || -jut || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

====Class 2 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 2, Progressive Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| pljanet'j ||colspan=2| bytit'j ||colspan = 2| žùdžyt'j ||colspan=2| kwalüt’j ||colspan=2| mächtät’j ||colspan=2| polöt'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || ja- || -ju || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || ja- || -iš || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || ja- || -joj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || ja- || -jaj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || ja- || -jej || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || ja- || -ymi || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || ja- || -yli || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || ja- || -je || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || ja- || -ja|| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || ja- || -jat || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

===Imperfective Aspect===
The imperfective aspect implies almost the opposite ot the perfective aspect. The verb is happening, and has not yet been completed, but the subject has no intention of finishing the said action.

====Class 1 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 1, Progressive Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| póchat'j ||colspan=2| ytyt'j ||colspan = 2| wlùbot'j ||colspan=2| źlut’j ||colspan=2| gànśët’j ||colspan=2| títant'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || ja- || -um || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànśm&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || ja- || -et || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || ja- || -o || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || ja- || -a || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || ja- || -e || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || ja- || -ym || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || ja- || -il || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || ja- || -è || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || ja- || -uj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || ja- || -ujt || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;jag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

====Class 2 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 2, Progressive Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| pljanet'j ||colspan=2| bytit'j ||colspan = 2| žùdžyt'j ||colspan=2| kwalüt’j ||colspan=2| mächtät’j ||colspan=2| polöt'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || ja- || -u || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || ja- || -ešt || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || ja- || -oj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || ja- || -aj || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || ja- || -ej || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || ja- || -my || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || ja- || -li || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || ja- || -é || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || ja- || -ju|| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || ja- || -jut || &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

===Prospective Aspect===
The prospective aspect implies to the listener that the action has not yet been started; however, the speaker has intentions of finishing the action.

====Class 1 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 1, Prospective Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| póchat'j ||colspan=2| ytyt'j ||colspan = 2| wlùbot'j ||colspan=2| źlut’j ||colspan=2| gànśët’j ||colspan=2| títant'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || da- || -u || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || da- || -ešt || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || da- || -oj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || da- || -aj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || da- || -ej || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || da- || -my || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || da- || -li || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || da- || -é || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || da- || -ju || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || da- || -jut || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

====Class 2 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 2, Prospective Aspect
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| pljanet'j ||colspan=2| bytit'j ||colspan = 2| žùdžyt'j ||colspan=2| kwalüt’j ||colspan=2| mächtät’j ||colspan=2| polöt'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || da- || -ju || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || da- || -iš || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;iš&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || da- || -joj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;joj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || da- || -jaj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jaj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || da- || -jej || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || da- || -ymi || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ymi&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || da- || -yli || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;yli&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || da- || -je || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;je&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || da- || -ja|| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ja&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || da- || -jat || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jat&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

===Progressive/Imperfect Aspect===
This aspect of the Gyatalin verb has no grammatical name. It implies that the action has not yet started, and the speaker has no intention of ever completing the action.

====Class 1 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 1
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| póchat'j ||colspan=2| ytyt'j ||colspan = 2| wlùbot'j ||colspan=2| źlut’j ||colspan=2| gànśët’j ||colspan=2| títant'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || da- || -um || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànśm&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;um&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || da- || -et || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;et&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || da- || -o || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;o&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || da- || -a || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;a&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || da- || -e || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;e&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || da- || -ym || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ym&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || da- || -il || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;il&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || da- || -è || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;è&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || da- || -uj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;uj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || da- || -ujt || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;póch&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;dag&lt;/b&gt;yt&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;wlùb&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;źl&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;gànś&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;títan&lt;b&gt;ujt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

====Class 2 Verbs====
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=15 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Class 2
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: left; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Ending ||colspan=2| pljanet'j ||colspan=2| bytit'j ||colspan = 2| žùdžyt'j ||colspan=2| kwalüt’j ||colspan=2| mächtät’j ||colspan=2| polöt'j ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yś || da- || -u || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;u&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| tü || da- || -ešt || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ešt&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žoj || da- || -oj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;oj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žaj || da- || -aj || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;aj&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| žej || da- || -ej || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ej&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| il || da- || -my || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;my&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| yl || da- || -li || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;li&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;i&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| jätś || da- || -é || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;é&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fën || da- || -ju|| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;ju&lt;/b&gt; ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;| fè || da- || -jut || &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pljan&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;byt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;žùdž&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;kwal&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;mächt&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; |||| &lt;b&gt;da&lt;/b&gt;pol&lt;b&gt;jut&lt;/b&gt; ||
|}

==Nominal Morphology==
Nouns in Gyatalin have a somewhat mixed system of noun classificaton. It's half-gender, half-animate. 

There are 3 genders in Gyatalin: masculine, feminine, and neuter. In addition, both the masculine and feminine genders can be broken into animate or inanimate classes, for a total of 5 distinct groups.

The gender of a noun is apparent upon inspection: masculine nouns either end in consonant, o, u, all +j. Feminine nouns end in either a or i, each +j. And neuter nouns all end in e or ej. No nouns ever end in a long vowel, y, yj, or a diaresis vowel (ä, ë, ö, ü, +j).

===The Article===
Nouns in Gyatalin are only marked if they are indefinite (i.e. the English equivalent of a, an, some). If a noun is unmarked, that means that it is definite (i.e. the English equivalent of the). The article (a, an) declines according to gender as well as case.

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| The Article
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Masculine Anim. ||colspan=2| Masculine Inanim. ||colspan=2| Feminine Anim. ||colspan=2| Feminine Inanim. ||colspan=2| Neuter 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nominative || źje |||| źje |||| źja |||| źja |||| źjo
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Accusative || źjë |||| źje |||| źjy |||| źja |||| źjo
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Dative || źju |||| źjë |||| źjä |||| źjy |||| źju
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Genitive || źja |||| źju |||| źji |||| źjä |||| źje
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Locative || źjü |||| źjü |||| źjö |||| źjö |||| źjy
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Vocative || źjë |||| źje |||| źjy |||| źja |||| źjy
|}

===Masculine Gender===

====Declension 1====

====Declension 2====

====Declension 3====

===Feminine Gender===

====Declension 1====

====Declension 2====

====Declension 3====

===Neuter Gender===

==Prepositions==
Prepositions don't work in the same way they do in English. There are only a handful of prepositions (numbering less than 10) in the whole Gyatalin language, compared to the 50 or so in English.

Each preposition takes a certain case to mean a certain thing. One preposition can mean up to 4 different things, taking either the accusative, dative, genitive, or locative case. Therefore, 2 sentences that look similar could mean completely different things because of the case.

These are the prepositions used (semantic meaning will be covered in the following sections, broken up into case): k’ölź, lẃant, dùch, gdom, chwodj, hnýs, bjël, škof, kjüp’

===The Accusative Form===
When a succeeding noun is put in the accusative case, the prepositions carry the following meanings:

k’ölź - for&lt;br&gt;
lẃant - in&lt;br&gt;
dùch - around&lt;br&gt;
gdom - onto&lt;br&gt;
chwodj - at&lt;br&gt;
hnýs - together with&lt;br&gt;
bjël - during&lt;br&gt;
škof - about&lt;br&gt;
kjüp’ - among

===The Dative Form===
When a succeeding noun is put in the dative case, the prepositions carry the following meanings:

k’ölź - to (a person)&lt;br&gt;
lẃant - since&lt;br&gt;
dùch - with&lt;br&gt;
gdom - on&lt;br&gt;
chwodj - after&lt;br&gt;
hnýs - besides (other than)&lt;br&gt;
bjël - against&lt;br&gt;
škof - over&lt;br&gt;
kjüp’ - until

===The Genitive Form===
When a succeeding noun is put in the genitive case, the prepositions carry the following meanings:

k’ölź - of&lt;br&gt;
lẃant - because of&lt;br&gt;
dùch - without&lt;br&gt;
gdom - on top of&lt;br&gt;
chwodj - despite, in spite of&lt;br&gt;
hnýs - with (as a means of use)&lt;br&gt;
bjël - instead of&lt;br&gt;
škof - opposite, across&lt;br&gt;
kjüp’ - between

===The Locative Form===
When a succeeding noun is put in the locative case, the prepositions carry the following meanings:

k’ölź - to (a place)&lt;br&gt;
lẃant - into&lt;br&gt;
dùch - through&lt;br&gt;
gdom - by, near&lt;br&gt;
chwodj - before&lt;br&gt;
hnýs - next to&lt;br&gt;
bjël - underneath&lt;br&gt;
škof - behind&lt;br&gt;
kjüp’ - ago

===Using Prepositions===
Prepositions change up the word order in a sentence, slightly. Normally, the indefinite article precedes the noun.

When using a preposition, the preposition always comes right before the noun. Therefore, if an indefinite article is in use, the article comes right before the preposition. Of course, if there is no article, then this doesn't pose a problem for learners.

k’ölźy pwotly - for the woman&lt;br&gt;
hnýsü t’sëlšü - next to the island

BUT:

źjy k’ölź pwotly - for a woman&lt;br&gt;
źjü hnýs t’sëlšü - next to an island</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arophania</title>
    <id>2844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18135</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-06T10:40:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Definition and boundaries */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

'''Arophania''' {{IPA|[æɹə'feɪniə]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Araphein''''' {{IPA|/'arəfi:n/}}, [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Arophan''''' {{IPA|/'arəfa:n/}}) is one of five continents of [[Ilethes]], in the south of the planet. It is the location of one of the three traditional [[Ilethes cradles of civilisation|cradles of civilisation]], and home to one of the greatest civilisations, the [[Areth]]. Arophania constitutes approximately 13% of the total land area of Ilethes, and accounts for almost 24% of its population.
{{Translit|what=toponyms|why=historical|what1=modern political names|scheme1=respective transliteration schemes of the local languages concerned|what2=geographical features known to the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical world]]|scheme2=[[Vesian system]]}}

==Etymology==

==Cartography==

[[Image:Arophania physical.jpg|thumb|right|360px|Physical map of Arophania with relief and drainage shown.]]

Arophania is usually depicted, in the [[Gathenic depiction]], at the bottom of maps towards the middle, south of [[Marcasia]] but with [[Eresphria]] and [[Canthres]] on the west, and [[Istheusia]] on the east; i.e. the map is centred on Marcasia. For this reason the southern areas of the continent are exaggerated and overrepresented due to distortion in the equatorially-oriented projection.

===Definition and boundaries===

Besides the mainland, offshore islands belonging to the Arophanian continental shelf are also considered to be part of Arophania. While this definition presents little problem concerning the [[Tumides archipelago|Tumides]] and [[Sissemen archipelago|Sissemen]] islands, the [[Ingas archipelago]] rightly belongs on the [[Marcasia]]n continental shelf save a few islands, but are culturally closer tied to Arophania. In the same way, the [[Hibondassian archipelago]] sits on the [[Arophanian plate]], but are considered geopolitically and culturally part of [[Istheusia]].

==Geology==

The rock and soil of Arophania is rich in ferromagnesian compounds, which besides constituting excellent ground for cultivation, also gave rise to a well-developed mining industry in [[Arithia]]. Due to the rock composition, volcanoes in Arophania erupt the more fluid basaltic lava, which spreads rapidly across larger areas before cooling and solidifying to form fertile lava plateaus, such as the [[Nimaean plain]].

==Land and climate==

===West Arophanian Plain===

{{main|West Arophanian plain}}


===Alerryagi and the Eastern Seaboard===

{{main|Alerryagi}}
{{main|Hallaryagi}}
{{main|Eastern Seaboard}}
{{main|Nimaean plain}}


===Sissemen and Tumides archipelagos===

{{main|Sissemen archipelago}}
{{main|Tumides archipelago}}


==Territories and regions==

The single most prominent political entity on Arophania is the republic of [[Arithia]], whose Arophanian portion (known as [[Cadaeria]]) occupies the eastern half of the continent as well as parts of the [[West Arophanian Plain]], lying across the [[Alerryagi]]. 

===Historical regions===

Owing to the long human presence on Arophania, the continent has been divided and redivided a great many times over by various peoples, rulers and states. As such, the borders of most historical regions have been obfuscated by time and confusion. The following is a list of the more prominent of them:

*[[Calagia]], a coastal region on the northeastern coast and the traditional heartland and core of Areth civilisation; the region encompasses in totality
**[[Lazeia (region)|Lazeia]], the rough historical extent of the [[Lazeia (kingdom)|early Areth kingdom]] centred around the historical city of [[Lazea]], excluding its [[Marcasia]]n possessions.
**[[Gambria]], the area of an eponymous early Areth kingdom rival to Lazea.
*[[Nimaea]], in the southeast of the continent, the location of the [[Nimaean plains]] and the source of the [[Theph river|Theph]] and [[Nes river|Nes]] rivers.
*[[Ajatia]], an especially fertile crescent in the West Arophanian Plain, of great strategic importance in olden times due to its location at the crossroads of many major transport routes, and consequently the site of many terrible and bloody battles.

==Water==

===Oceans, seas &amp; straits===

The continent of Arophania is bounded on the north by the [[Chisthian Sea]], which separates it from [[Marcasia]], channeling into the [[Issol A'i]] eastwards (meeting the [[Ingas archipelago]] midway) and opening up into the [[Denurean Sea]] westwards. East of Arophania lies the [[Auzirean Sea]], and also the [[Issol Ardem]] that separates the [[Sissemen archipelago]] from the mainland. On the south Arophania meets the [[Thorfu]], and beyond the [[Issol Nau]] lies the [[Tumides archipelago]]. The [[As am Iraph]], or, misleadingly, the ''Eastern Ocean'' (see article on the origin of the English name), lies to the west of Arophania.

===Rivers &amp; lakes===

Whereas the west of Arophania is an immensely fertile plain and the east is considerably more mountainous, the east is richer in rivers and lakes than the west, boasting of the prominent [[Theph river|Theph]] and [[Nes river|Nes]] rivers that both source from the meltwater of the snow-capped [[Alerryagi]] and empty into the Chisthian, and the [[Varant river]] flowing west to east and emptying into the Auzirean. Crisscrossing the rest of the [[Eastern Seaboard]] are various tributaries of the three such as the [[Eithan river|Eithan]], the [[Dobrae river|Dobrae]] and the [[Loda river|Loda]], the latter of which begins life in [[Lake Charia]], the highest and consequently most remote, pristine and scenic of the [[Barrier Lakes]], of which other major members include the lakes [[Lake Rist|Rist]], [[Lake Everodes|Everodes]], [[Lake Augars|Augars]] and [[Lake Dumache|Dumache]]. The [[West Arophanian Plain]], on the other hand, counts just the [[Caine river|Caine]], [[Sami river|Sami]] and the [[Tamos river|Tamos]] rivers (all of which originate in the [[Hallaryagi]]) among its notables, and contains just one lake (albeit of considerable size), [[Lake Tago]].

==Ethnography==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Modalnian</title>
    <id>2845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-14T20:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maailmaniag</username>
        <id>263</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Modalnian'''&lt;br&gt;'''Špüchre Modalnia'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Spoken in: 
||Modalnia
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Timeline/Universe:
||(unnamed)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Total speakers:
||528,319,211
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Genealogical classification:
||(unnamed)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Modalnian&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Modalnian'''
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Basic word order:
||SVO
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphological type:
||Inflecting
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|Morphosyntactic alignment:
||Nominative-Accusative
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; color=&quot;#000000&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Created by:'''
|-
||maailmaniag ||2006
|}

Modalnian (&lt;i&gt;Eng: Modalnian&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;Nat: špüchre modalnia&lt;/i&gt; is a language spoken on the planet of Meishuko, in an alternate universe. Spoken by approximately 528,319,211 people, it is the most widely spoken of the Modalnian languages.

Modalnian has been heavily influenced by the German language, as large numbers of German-speaking people migrated to Modalnia in the years prior to, and the years during World War II. 

==Phonology/Orthography==
===Consonants===
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiodent. ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || n 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || p || b || || || t || d || || || || || c || g
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || f || v || s || z || š || ž || || || ch || || h
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || ts || dz || č || ğ ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || || ř 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Flap || || || || || r
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

====Digraphs/Trigraphs====
bl br bř bv &lt;br&gt;
ch cl cm cn cr cř &lt;br&gt;
dl dr dř dv dz &lt;br&gt;
fl fr fř &lt;br&gt;
gl gn gr gř gs gš gv &lt;br&gt;
mb ml mr mř &lt;br&gt;
nd ng &lt;br&gt;
pf pl pr př ps pš &lt;br&gt;
sb sc sč sf sl sm sn sp squ sr sř st sv &lt;br&gt;
šc šč šl šm šn šp šqu šr šř št &lt;br&gt;
tl tr tř ts tv &lt;br&gt;
vl vr vř &lt;br&gt;
zl zm zn zr zř &lt;br&gt;
žğ žl žm žn žr žř &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
chl chn chr chř &lt;br&gt;
pfl &lt;br&gt;
scl scm scn scr scř &lt;br&gt;
spl spr spř &lt;br&gt;
str stř &lt;br&gt;
šcl šcm šcn šcr šcř &lt;br&gt;
špl špr špř &lt;br&gt;
štr štř &lt;br&gt;

===Vowels===
{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-Front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close || i || ü || || || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-Close || || || ï || || ||  
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Close-Mid || || || || || || || || o
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || || ë
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open-Mid || e || ö || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Near-Open || ä
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Open || a
|}

====Diphthongs/Triphthongs====
ai au äi âi âu āi āu &lt;br&gt;
ei eo eu êi êo êu ēi ēo ēu &lt;br&gt;
ia ie ii io iu iä ië iï iö iü iî îa îe îi îo îu īa īe īi īo īu iā iē iī iō iū &lt;br&gt;
oi öi ôi ōi &lt;br&gt;
ua ue ui uo uä uë uï uö uü ûa ûe ûi ûo ûu ūa ūe ūi ūo uā uē uī uō uū &lt;br&gt;
As can be seen, i u are allophones for &lt;j w&gt;

iai iau iäi iâi iâu iāi iāu uai uau uäi uâi uâu uāi uāu &lt;br&gt;
iei ieo ieu iêi iêo iêu iēi iēo iēu uei ueo ueu uêi uêo uêu uēi uēo uēu &lt;br&gt;
ioi iöi iôi iōi uoi uöi uôi uōi &lt;br&gt;

====Vowel Diacritics====
A circumflex denotes irregular stress in single vowels, and separation in diphthongs.

A macron denotes a long vowel.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Translit</title>
    <id>2846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T04:05:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;width: 400; background: #ddffdd; border: 1pt solid #aaaaaa; margin: 2.5% 2.5%; padding: 0 10px&quot;
| '''Note on transliteration in this article:'''&lt;br /&gt;This article makes use of more than one transliteration scheme for {{{what}}} due to {{{why}}} factors. While {{{what1}}} employ the {{{scheme1}}} scheme, {{{what2}}} are transliterated by the {{{scheme2}}}. This is not nonstandard text, substandard work or ignorance on the part of the article's author.
|}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chisthian Sea</title>
    <id>2847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T16:01:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chisthian Sea''' {{IPA|['kɪsθiən]}} ([[Modern Arithide]] '''''Kisthias''''' {{IPA|['kisθi.as]}}) lies in between the continents of [[Marcasia]] to the north and [[Arophania]] to the south, opening up to the [[As am Iraph]] in the west and tapering off to the [[Issol A'i]] in the east. From the perspective of the [[Areth]], it might be considered the most important sea, due to its great contributions to the rise and dominance as well as the economic well-being of the Areth, who have settled around, ruled and controlled the sea for more than two thousand unbroken years.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vesian system</title>
    <id>2848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-13T16:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Vesian system''' {{IPA|['veɪʒən]}} or {{IPA|['vi:ʒən]}} is the official [[Dethric language|Dethric]] scheme of cross-language transliteration, as devised by [[Dethrians|Dethrian]] lexicographer [[Deriauda Ves]]. It is the scheme used to romanise not only names pertaining to [[Dethria]], the Dethrians and the Dethric language, but also most names known to the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical world]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Transliteration systems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ilethes</title>
    <id>2849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T12:41:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists the articles and subcategories of articles that relate and pertain to the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ethnography of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T04:24:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists pages related to the peoples, culture, customs and languages of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Languages of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:00:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the languages and linguistic geography of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deriauda Ves</title>
    <id>2852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16534</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T05:35:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deriauda Ves''' ('''Alairo Eivain Deriauda Giredal Nichery-Ves''' {{IPA|/ə'lerə 'i:ven ðeri'o:ðə 'ʒirðəl 'niʃry 'vɛs/}}, b. 3 Deiar 31 Ava 12, d. 3 Phassu 6 Maryna 5) was a major Dethrian lexicographer, writer, philosopher and later prime minister of the [[Rygian dynasty]]. Besides his voluminous works on the nature of being and investigations into the dynamics of the social fabric, his most notable contribution is the [[Vesian system]] of transliteration across many languages.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Personalities of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Dethria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithide language</title>
    <id>2853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19801</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-04T09:14:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Arithide (Arithīde)|pronounce='ærɪθi:d (&lt;span style=&quot;font: 11px GentiumAlt, Gentium&quot;&gt;arɯ'θi:de&lt;/span&gt;)|tu=[[Ilethes]]|species=Human&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Areth]]|in=[[Arithia]]; major auxiliary language in [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|the West]]|no=Native ''600 million''&lt;br&gt;Total ''≈1.1 billion''|script=Lazeic alphabet|tree=[[Arophanic languages|Arophanic]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Arithidic languages|Arithidic]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[North Arithidic languages|North Arithidic]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Arithide'''|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=late 2005}}

'''Arithide''' is an [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic language]] of the [[Arithidic languages|North Arithidic]] branch, spoken by more than a billion people. It is the largest and most historically significant member of the [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic language family]], and is also one of the earliest attested languages of [[Ilethes]]. The language has an unbroken literary tradition, written in the [[Lazeic alphabet]], of at least 2,500 years.

Academically, the names '''Arithide''' or '''the Arithide language''' are umbrella terms covering [[Modern Arithide]] and its diachronic predecessors (most notably [[Classical Arithide]]), and, in certain circles, closely-related regional lects. In common parlance, however, they simply refer to the modern language, at times specifically the standard variant.

Unlike French, whose use is overseen by the ''Académie française'', there is no official regulatory body charged with standardising Arithide usage, vocabulary, grammar and orthography. Similarly to English, however, the language regulates itself through the standardising effects of the print and broadcast media, particularly through the authority of four major dictionaries, the ''[[Renquau Dictionary of the Arithide Language|Renquau]]'', ''[[Anvers Comprehensive Dictionary|Anvers]]'', ''[[Caema Compendium|Caema]]'' and ''[[Complete Dictionary of Modern Arithide|Līs]]''. The first three are compiled and published by eponymous universities, while the last is published by the [[Lazea]]n broadsheet ''Līs Ōrēs'' (hence the common appellation).

==Name and Genealogy==

The name ''Arithide'' is from the Arithide ''arithīde'', combining ''Areth'' with ''-īde'', the suffix denoting languages. An older name for the language was ''[[Arithian]]'', but this name gradually fell out of favour as [[Nativisation]] gained traction in the 1990s [[CIE]].

==Geographic distribution==

Arithide is spoken as a first language by over 580 million people in [[Arithia]] and another 170 million across 14 other states in [[Marcasia]] where the language has official status, and of these, more than 600 million are native, ethnic [[Areth]] speakers. A further estimated 350 million speak it as a second or third language, mainly centred in and around [[Dethria]] and southern [[Marcasia]] where the sociocultural influence of the [[Lazeian Empire]] is still felt, bringing the total number of speakers of Arithide to approximately 1.1 billion people today across the world.

===Official Status===

Outside of [[Arithia]], the 14 other states with Arithide as an official language are, in alphabetical order:

#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#

==History==

{{main|History of the Arithide language}}

==Characteristics==

==Writing==

===Lazeic alphabet===

{{main|Lazeic alphabet}}

===Orthography===

==Dialects==

==See also==

*[[History of the Arithide language]]

*[[Ancient Arithide]]
*[[Classical Arithide]]
*[[Vulgar Arithide]]
*[[Koine Arithide]]
*[[Renaissance Arithide]]
*[[Modern Arithide]]

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arithide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chisthias Sea</title>
    <id>2854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T05:24:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Chisthias Sea]] moved to [[Chisthian Sea]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chisthian Sea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Geography of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:11:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles pertaining to the geography of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Continents of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T05:36:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating to the continents on the planet of [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Seas of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-10T12:59:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Arophania</title>
    <id>2858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T05:39:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating or pertaining to the continent of [[Arophania]] in the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dethric</title>
    <id>2859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T05:40:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Dethric]] moved to [[Dethric language]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dethric language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Marcasia</title>
    <id>2860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14592</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-15T05:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating or pertaining to the continent of [[Marcasia]] in the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithide</title>
    <id>2861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T16:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Arithide''' may refer to:

*The [[Arithide language]], or any of its more specific historical forms:
**[[Ancient Arithide]]
**[[Classical Arithide]]
**[[Koine Arithide]]
**[[Modern Arithide]]
*The [[Lazeic alphabet]], which originated from the Areth and is still used to write the Arithide language, among others
*Anything related to the [[Areth]] people, culture or history

The word in its first sense is a direct borrowing from the Arithide; in its latter two senses, it derives from the Arithide ''arithidas'', &quot;of or relating to the Areth&quot;.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Marcasia</title>
    <id>2862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T15:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Marcasia''' {{IPA|[mɑ:'keɪʒə]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Marcassein''''' {{IPA|/mɔ'kassi:n/}}, [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Marcasan''''' {{IPA|/'markəsa:n/}}) is the second largest of five [[Continents of Ilethes|continents]] on the planet [[Ilethes]], after [[Istheusia]], and straddles the equator, spanning five climate zones. Due to its almost-round shape and its location at the centre of all the continents, it is sometimes called the &quot;gem of the world&quot;, or the &quot;pearl continent&quot;.

The [[Irus River]] delta on the [[Artya]] coast is one of the three [[Ilethes cradles of civilisation|cradles of civilisation]] of the world, and its surrounding plains, nourished over the millenia by the shifting course of the Irus, are the most fertile in the world.
{{Translit|what=toponyms|why=historical|what1=modern political names|scheme1=respective transliteration schemes of the local languages concerned|what2=geographical features known to the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical world]]|scheme2=[[Vesian system]]}}

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continents of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-22T07:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Gathenic depiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Traditionally, the '''Five Continents of Ilethes''' are, from north to south, [[Canthres]], [[Istheusia]], [[Eresphria]], [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]]. Unlike the continents of Earth, the Iletheride continents are visually &quot;centred&quot; around and lie rather close to Marcasia, leaving more than a third of the planet's surface covered by the [[As am Iraph]] or Eastern Ocean.

==Cartography==

===Gathenic depiction===

The [[Gathenic depiction]] is the most common and usual way of arranging the five continents on a map. With [[Marcasia]] approximately in the centre of the map, [[Arophania]] at the bottom, [[Istheusia]] to the right and [[Canthres]] and [[Eresphria]] near the top-left corner, the depiction splits the [[As am Iraph]] between the left and right extremes of the map, much as the Pacific Ocean is on most maps of the Earth.

The Gathenic is the most favoured cartographic arrangement, as it conveniently represents as well the anthropological divisions of [[Ilethes]]: not only the east-west division between the [[Old World (Ilethes)|Old]] and [[New World (Ilethes)|New World]]s, but also the sometimes overlapping separation of the world into [[Arithic culture|Arithic]], [[Nospheric culture|Nospheric]], [[Carabaeic culture|Carabaeic]] and [[Dethritic culture|Dethritic]] blocs of cultural influence.

===Sopharic depiction===

The [[Sopharic depiction]] centres the map approximately in the [[Denurean Sea]]. The depiction minimises the splitting of geographically and politically contiguous areas by clustering all the continents to the left of the map, and depicting the [[As am Iraph]] as a large open body of water on the right.

===Arophanic depiction===

The [[Arophanic depiction]], so named by historians, was most commonly used in the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|classical era]], and centred the map around [[Arophania]], which, along with the [[Thorfu]], was shown disproportionately larger than either [[Marcasia]] or [[Istheusia]], which were squashed in the top and right areas of the map. In early maps, neither [[Canthres]] nor [[Eresphria]] was shown, while in later productions their depiction gradually progressed from incomplete land masses trailing off the edge of the map, to full standalone continents, albeit still inaccurately drawn.

==Old &amp; New Worlds==

[[Ilethes]] is commonly divided into the [[Old World (Ilethes)|Old]] and [[New World (Ilethes)|New]] worlds, a geographical division east-west that spans the culturally- and historically-based division into the [[Eastern civilisation (Ilethes)|Eastern world]] and the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|Western world]].

The terms are intriguingly accurate from a prehistorical point-of-view: the Old World includes the long-inhabited continents of [[Istheusia]], [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]] (which have shown traces of human presence dating back hundreds of thousands of years), while the New World continents, [[Eresphria]] and [[Canthres]], were only inhabited by humans less than 40,000 years ago, as far as archaeological evidence has shown.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etimri Declensions</title>
    <id>2864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44078</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-12T17:59:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Nouns==
[[Etimri]] has a fairly simple declension system for nouns.

{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! Nominative
  |align=center| -
  |align=center| -oum 
  |-
  ! Primary, Feminine
  |align=center| -out  
  |align=center| -oud
  |-
  ! Primary, Masculine
  |align=center| -ouk 
  |align=center| -oud 
  |-
  ! Secondary
  |align=center| -etsh 
  |align=center| -ets 
  |-
  ! Genitive
  |align=center| -ash 
  |align=center| -as
  |-
|}


For the purposes of this article, accusitive means &quot;monotransitive accusitive and ditransitive dative&quot; and dative means &quot;ditransitive accusitive.&quot; Possessive is formed with the particle &lt;ep&gt;, meaning beloning to.

==Adjectives==
Adjectives decline for gender but not for number.

{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Masculine
  |align=center| Feminine
  |-
  ! Ending
  |align=center| -d
  |align=center| -f 
  |-</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kasshi Empress</title>
    <id>2876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33220</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-21T07:23:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Kasshi Empires''' were led by an Empress, who were advised (and, to an extent, limited) by an [[Imperial Family Council]].

== History of the Institution ==
=== First Empire ===
=== Second through Fifth Empires ===
The first Empress of the [[Second Kasshi Empire]] was [[Chalanya]].  Chalanya began her career as a member of the [[Council of Twelve]], and was soon named as [[Nrastaist Supreme Matriarch|Supreme Matriarch]] (as a puppet of certain high-ranking church leaders), following which, she united the Nrastaist states into the Second Empire, with herself as Empress.  As she claimed more power for herself, centralizing the Second Empire, and expanding it, the Council of Twelve began criticizing her, and demanded that she step down from the leadership of the faith.

She began formally separating the offices of Empress and Supreme Matriarch.  Her daughters, and later granddaughters and great-granddaughters, were proclaimed Imperial Princesses, and organized into an [[Imperial Family Council|advisory Council]].  She established that neither the Empress nor the Supreme Matriarch should have absolute power in her sphere, but rather, should listen to, respectively, the Imperial Family Council and the Council of Twelve.  She ordained that succession to the Throne should be by election, with the Imperial Princesses electing one of their own to the position of Empress, and that the Empress should appoint a new Supreme Matriarch.

After 96 Galhafan years (68 Earth years) of power, she formally resigned her dual positions, though retaining significant influence in both the sacred and the secular spheres of power until her death.

== Succession ==
The Kasshi did not practice primogeniture, and succession could often move between distant relatives.  Imperial Princesses (descendants of the dynastic founder) were divided into ranked categories, according to a simple principle.  Daughters of an Empress (whether the reigning one or a previous one) were Princesses of the First Degree.  Granddaughters of an Empress were Princesses of the Second Degree, Great-granddaughters were Third Degree and so forth.  Descent was only counted along maternal lines.  There was one minor complication to this - a granddaughter of a still-living Empress whose mother predecesed the Empress would be considered a Princess in the First Degree, though ''her'' daughters would remain Third Degree.  A great-granddaughter of an Empress whose mother and grandmother likewise predeceased the Empress would also become First Degree.

Any adult Princess in the First Degree was eligible to succeed to the Throne.  If there were no adult Princess in the First Degree, then adult Princesses in the Second Degree would be eligible, and if no Second Degree Princesses were available, then Third-Degree, and so forth.  There was, generally speaking, a preference for succession by the previous Empress' daughter, though at times, the Throne would rotate among two or three branches of a family.

Upon the death or resignation of an Empress, the Imperial Family Council would convene to elect a new Empress from among the eligible Princesses.  During this Interregnum, the IFC and the [[Council of Rulers]] would collectively wield the powers of the Throne.  Frequently, the previous Empress would have expressed an intended heir, and such heir would, in most cases, be elected, though there was no rule that the Council had to elect the previous Empress' designated heir.

== Imperial Family ==
In principle, any female-line descendant of the dynastic founder were classified as Imperial Princesses or Imperial Prince.  In principle, beyond the seventh or eighth degree, Princesses tended to descend to the [[Kasshi Nobility|nobility]], being granted a noble title while being stripped of their Imperial Title.  Such descended Imperial Family members and their descendants were excluded from the succession, being a new noble clan.

Some Imperial Princesses were granted special hereditary titles which granted their holder a certain Imperial Degree independent of their actual geneological descent.  However, such titles could never carry an honor above Imperial Princess in the Fourth Degree.

== Non-Standard Successions ==
In the event that no adult Imperial Princesses exist, the Interregnum would continue for longer than the conventional period.  If any First Degree Princesses existed, then the first one to reach adulthood would automatically become Empress.  If no First Degree Princesses existed, then the first Second Degree Princess would automatically become Empress upon reaching adulthood, and so forth.  During such lenghthy Interregna, the Supreme Matriarch would wield the powers of the Crown.  The [[Council of Twelve]] would elect a Supreme Matriarch in the event of a vacancy during a Long Interregnum.

In the event that ''no'' Imperial Princesses existed, the [[Council of Twelve]] would elect a new Empress, who would become a dynastic founder.  Frequently, the new Empress would have some geneological connection with the previous dynasty, possibly belonging to a noble clan descended from the old dynasty, or having a male-line connection.  Dynasty-founding Empresses would frequently take a husband from among the Imperial Princes, especially those close to the last Empress of the last dynasty.

== Dynasties ==
*[[Chalanya Dynasty]]

[[Category:Kasshi Empresses|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lheinead Pitch Split</title>
    <id>2877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30374</id>
      <timestamp>2008-04-01T03:16:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Abandoned Idea</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Nevermind.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lazeic languages</title>
    <id>2878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-20T03:30:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lazeic languages''' are a branch of the [[Arithidic languages|Arithidic sub-family]] that descended from [[Classical Arithide]], spoken in central and western [[Marcasia]]. Their name derives not from the city of [[Lazea]], but from the [[Lazeian Empire]] of the [[Areth]], which brought the Classical and [[Vulgar Arithide]] tongues with their conquest of the region. Though genetically Arithidic, the Lazeic languages today, despite being similar to one another, are markedly different from the Classical Arithide descendants spoken in [[Arophania]], or even in southern Marcasia, due to historical geopolitical factors and the [[Pharrian linguistic union]].

==High vs. Low Lazeic==

==Litsena==

==Samecian==

==Vethudic==

==Hyrrgonian==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Arithide</title>
    <id>2879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46363</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-23T12:49:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See also */ category cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Classical Arithide''' is an ancient [[Arophanic languages|Arophanic language]] of the [[Arithidic languages|Arithidic branch]], originally spoken in [[Calagia]], the coastal region in northeast [[Arophania]] immediately bordering the [[Issol A'i]] and surrounding the ancient capital of [[Isphea]]. It was the formal administrative language of the [[Lazeian Empire]], and later adopted as the liturgical language of [[Acian Pheism]]. The language is highly inflecting, relying on morphological affixes instead of word order for its grammatical structure.

Today, despite being universally acknowledged as a dead language, with very few fluent and no native speakers, Classical Arithide is still significant in fields such as science, academia and law, providing many terms and neologistic roots, and as a subject (variously as &quot;Classics&quot;, &quot;Classical studies&quot; and the like) it is still widely studied in schools across [[Ilethes]], reflecting its enduring importance as the major international language of the historical world. 

==History==

{{main|History of Classical Arithide}}

Classical Arithide is the common appellation of the highly stylised Isphean dialect of the [[Arithide language]] in the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|classical age]], which, by virtue of Isphea's situation as a political, cultural and economic centre, had been exposed to and influenced by various other dialects and languages of the early [[Lazeian Empire]].

The language developed from [[Ancient Arithide]], the oldest form of the language spoken by some of the earliest settlers in [[Calagia]], records of which have been found inscribed on pottery and drawn on paintings. Whereas the ancient language was written with a mixed system (see [[Koeta inscriptions]]) of a syllabary interspersed with ideographical symbols for certain special words or phrases, by the establishment of the empire a well-developed alphabet had already been in use for a while, though the details of this advancement are sketchy at best.

By virtue of its position as the dialect of the capital, Classical Arithide was spoken in the courts of the Lazeian Empire, and, with this bolstering prestige, gained widespread currency through the Empire's [[Exploratory Delegations of the Lazeian Agia Dynasty|trade and exploratory expeditions]], [[Cultural influence of the Areth|cultural influence]], and establishment of colonies, tributaries and vassal states across a large swathe of the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western world]]. It hence served also as the language of learning, throughout antiquity to the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]]. With its rich vocabulary and many expressive possibilities, it was the dominant literary language even in areas outside the Empire, influencing such tongues as [[Dethric language|Dethric]], and it remains an important source of neologistic roots today. Classical Arithide is also the primary liturgical language of the [[Pheide]] faith.

For more than a thousand years, Classical Arithide served as the ''lingua franca'' in trade, diplomacy, history, literature and many other fields besides. While most records found from that period&amp;mdash;with its multiple golden ages of literature&amp;mdash;are written almost uniformly in the elaborate literary form used in the courts, evidence suggests that centuries of common and daily use had eroded much of the classical tongue away by phonological changes and semantic shifts, resulting in a dichotomy between the written Classical Arithide, and [[Vulgar Arithide]] as actually spoken by subjects of the empire.

At the same time, given its long lifetime as the primary international auxiliary language in the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western Ilethes]], Classical Arithide also developed, in parallel, into [[Koine Arithide]], an alternative, albeit less highly-regarded, lingua franca. While the koine came to be widely used in the spheres of trade, missionary work, and other assorted forms of low-level contact, high-level international discourse in diplomacy, conferences and the like continued to be held in the classical tongue, and treaties, laws, contracts and other legally, politically or symbolically significant documents were still written therein.

In the years leading up to and following the collapse of the [[Lazeian Empire]] in 1187 [[CIE]], the use of literary Classical Arithide waned sharply, while the vulgar dialects gained in local use, and accelerated their divergence both from the classical tongue and from one another, as the gradual disappearance of the written standard removed a common benchmark, such that the language of the middle and upper classes slowly merged with that of the plebeian masses. The [[Koine Arithide|koine]] managed to sustain itself for considerably longer, due to its nature as an auxiliary language, which favoured linguistic stability. As other trading nations rose in prominence, however, and the [[Areth]] started to fade, use of the koine also dropped, in favour of [[Dethric language|Dethric]], [[Kanandu language|Kanandu]] and various other languages.

This ebb in the fortunes of Classical Arithide would last through the [[Dethria]]n rise to economic power, till the 16th century [[CIE]], when the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] created an impetus for its revival in the need to create numerous new terms and expressions that followed the rapid scientific advances and other social developments of the age. Classical roots were borrowed and reborrowed in the coining of new terms, classical terms were accorded new meanings as they were loaned directly into the vernaculars, creating doublets. Interest in classical studies also soared, as scientists looked to the past for noteworthy theories and inventions that had fallen out of the collective consciousness, composers tried to revive the classical musical flavour, the new aristocrats sought to recreate imperial grandeur in architecture and cityscape, and poets romanticised the old empire in their verses.

As the relative isolation of the [[Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)|Middle Ages]] turned into the increased international contact, the need for a politically neutral language for use in diplomacy and negotiation triggered the revival of Classical Arithide, albeit with modified pronunciation and a widely expanded vocabulary, known as [[Renaissance Arithide]]. This language enjoyed a brief spread to general use, but quickly fell out of favour as national vernaculars continued to absorb large numbers of classical coinages, and expediency as well as pragmatism prompted the eventual adoption of those languages, notable among them modern Arithide, even as the classical tongue grew in importance in academia as a widely-understood auxiliary language in which to publish papers.

===Legacy &amp; contemporary use===

{{seealso|Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use}}
{{seealso|Classical Arithide roots}}

Ever since the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|Renaissance]] up till modern times, Classical Arithide has reemerged as a significant language&amp;mdash;no longer in people's homes or in the marketplace, but in academic, especially scientific, circles, where the language remains an important source of roots for neologisms, across many different tongues from [[Modern Arithide]] to [[Dethric language|Dethric]] to [[Finean language|Finean]] and even, directly or indirectly, [[Kiryeb language|Carabaean]].

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=13 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} || || || || || || {{IPA|n}} || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #c0c0c0&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ŋ}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}} || || || || || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}} || {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}} || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #c0c0c0&quot;&gt;{{IPA|dz}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || || || {{IPA|l}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

===Vowels===

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; float: left;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; margin-right: 12px;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Short vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|y}} || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #c0c0c0&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɛ}}&lt;/span&gt; || || || || || || || &lt;span style=&quot;color: #c0c0c0&quot;&gt;{{IPA|ɔ}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Long vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| Near-front ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| Near-back ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || {{IPA|i:}} || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|u:}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High-mid || || || {{IPA|e:}} || || || || || || || {{IPA|o:}}
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low-mid || || || || || || || || || || 
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || {{IPA|a:}}
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

==Orthography==

===Romanisation===

==Grammar==

{{main|Classical Arithide grammar}}

The grammar of Classical Arithide, though in modern times based on a system not unlike the European one based on parts of speech, was [[Traditional Arithide grammar|traditionally]] centred on the dichotomy between a class of words which underwent declension (the Nominal class), and one which underwent conjugation (the Verbal class). This distinction had blurred by the height of the Equora dynasty, with the adoption of declension in certain cases for the Verbal class, for example, and is almost certainly not definitive in the Classical Arithide studied today, which is the literary language of the Equora.

===Nominal class===

{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}

The use in [[Classical Arithide]] of lexical classing means that each declension class shares a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be six, but the sub-classes that are sometimes sufficiently distinct from their ostensible parent class render the number about double. Factoring in overlapping and coincident declensions, modern grammarians generally accept the existence of 8 discrete groups, numbered declension classes I to VIII respectively. Only 7 were lexical: I to IV were productive due to their nature&amp;mdash;they are still productive in [[Modern Arithide]]&amp;mdash;and the separate but largely coincident declensions thence resulting were categorised under an eighth class. Each of the eight classes were inflected for two numbers, singular and plural, and 11 cases as listed:

The 11 cases of Classical Arithide are:
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' &quot;about, regarding&quot; or ''etel'' &quot;by (agentive)&quot;
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' &quot;with&quot;
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' &quot;heaven&quot; + ''innos'' &quot;top&quot; &gt; ''saluminnum'' &quot;in heaven&quot; (lit. &quot;on heaven&quot;; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' &quot;city&quot; + ''dolō'' &quot;around&quot; (from ''dolos'' &quot;surroundings&quot;) &gt; ''alladolō'' &quot;around the city&quot;
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as

===Verbal class===

{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}

Classical Arithide verbals are divided into five conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in ''-a'', ''-e'', ''-i'' or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stems that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.

Each class is conjugated for four voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and three tenses:

*'''Voices:''' active, passive, causative, potentive
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, perfective habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]] (also the interrogative)
*'''Tenses:''' present, past, future

The predicative use of certain verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order. Verbal-class or verbal adjectives, owing to their nature as stative verbs, may conjugate in two tenses, present and past, denoting the present and past states of the noun modified.

==See also==

*[[Classical Arithide grammar]]
*[[Classical Arithide roots]]
*[[Classical Arithide poetry]]
*[[Classical Arithide phrases in contemporary use]]
*[[Arithide Sample Text Corpus]]


[[Category:Ilethes]]
[[Category:Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Arophania]]
[[Category:Marcasia]]
[[Category:Eresphria]]
[[Category:Canthres]]
[[Category:Arithide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Areth</title>
    <id>2880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29410</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-28T17:08:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Terms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Areth''' are a people inhabiting the continents of [[Arophania]] and [[Marcasia]], and whose country, [[Arithia]], spans the two. While not all Areth live within the borders of modern-day Arithia and not all Arithians are ethnically Areth, the concept of [[Areth nationhood]] has always been closely tied to that of an [[Arithide]] state.

==Terms==

The name ''Areth'', while in common use even among the Areth, is not autonymous, instead being of [[Dethric language|Dethric]] origin. The name arose on contact with the [[Exploratory Delegations of the Lazeian Agia Dynasty|exploratory delegations]] of the [[Lazeian Empire]] during the [[Agia Dynasty]], which first arrived in [[Dethria]] in 260 BCE (Agia 65). It is said that due to differences in language, when the [[Dethrians]] approached the party that had disembarked from the [[fevoun]]s, enquired about their provenance and gleaned the reply that they had come from the &quot;venerable realm of the Agia&quot; (''ō alēmir lisogāros Agiarēthir''), all they could remember were the last three syllables ''arēthir'', whence derived the appellation. While the anecdote is most probably apocryphal, ethnologists consider the name ''Areth'' almost certainly to have been derived from ''Agiarēthir''.

The Areth of old called themselves the ''iounai'' (sing. ''ither''), literally meaning &quot;the I people&quot;. While it is as yet unclear regarding the origin of the name, the word gradually evolved two plurals, one being the original irregular ''iounai'', and the other the regularisation ''ethirai''. ''Ither'' has undergone a semantic broadening, catalysed by contact with the Dethrians, and its modern guise, ''iter'', means simply &quot;person&quot; today. While the fossilised regular [[classical plural]] ''ethirai'' also broadened to mean &quot;peoples&quot; as a collective noun, ''iounai'' shifted with the rise of nationalism to denote the Areth as a whole nation, ethnically speaking.

==History==

{{main|History of Arithia}}

===Origins===

Due to the ambiguity of archaeological evidence, the origins of the Areth are shrouded in doubt, and while the [[Origins of the Areth#Marcasian Theory of Origin|Marcasian Theory of Origin]] has gained widespread currency both in academic circles and among the general public, much of it relies on inference, deduction and intelligent hypothesis to fill in the gaps left by archaeology, or the deficiencies thereof.

According to the Marcasian Theory, the Areth first arose as a distinctive ethnicity ([[Arithide language|Arithide]]: ''kyteos'') as the sedentary, agricultural [[Erda culture]] along the lower reaches and delta of the river [[Or river|Or]], more than 6,000 years ago. The Erda were in turn descended ultimately from the hunter-gatherers who had settled in southwest [[Marcasia]] approximately 67,000 years ago. Hemmed in by the [[Chisthian Sea]] and the [[Iryagi]], the Erda peoples faced, from the beginning, very visible limits to the the land and its fertility, and such persistent population pressures led to successive waves of emigration, some northwards over the Iryagi into the Marcasian interior, but most were headed south across the Chisthian, the easier route by far for a fishing people. This so-called [[Southerly Movement]], by which the Areth came to settle in northeastern [[Arophania]], was once thought to have emptied their homeland in [[Erdia]] and attritionally established the settlements of the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures along the way, but is now considered to have left a minority behind, who fled a flooding of the Or to establish the mentioned three successor cultures..

==Culture, customs and religion==

===Language===

===Names===

===Dress===

===Rites and rituals===

===Regional variation===

==Areth outside Arithia==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Peoples of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Peoples of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:25:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links to articles relating to the peoples (nations, races, ethnicities) of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Ethnicities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Disambig.png</title>
    <id>2882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14713</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-20T05:25:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Disambig</title>
    <id>2883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-20T05:25:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;width:600; border-top:1pt solid #dfdfdf; border-bottom: 1pt solid #dfdfdf; padding: 8px;&quot;
|style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot;|[[Image:Disambig.png|30px]]
|style=&quot;vertical-align:middle;&quot;|''This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If &lt;!-- you are viewing this online as opposed to as a [[hard copy]] and --&gt;an [[Special:Whatlinkshere/{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|internal link]] led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.''
|}

[[Category: Disambiguation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Main</title>
    <id>2884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T01:57:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Main article: [[{{{1}}}]]''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Prominent Historical Figures of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T05:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:History of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:43:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the history of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category:History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lazea</title>
    <id>2887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27867</id>
      <timestamp>2008-01-01T12:01:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lazea''' ({{IPA|[lə'zeɪə]}}, [[Modern Arithide]] {{IPA|[la'za:]}}, [[Classical Arithide]] '''''Lazeas''''' {{IPA|['laze.as]}}) is the capital city of [[Arithia]], and has been for the past two thousand years and more. It is Arithia's largest city both by population and area, as well its economic, political and cultural centre, hosting a plethora of organisations 

==Site &amp; situation==

==History==

{{main|History of Lazea}}

The city of Lazea began as a solitary manor named ''Lezauris'' when, after a tour to the [[Calagian Pass]], the [[Duke of Andebrea]] took a fancy to the pleasing weather in and vibrant scenery of the region, and commissioned the manor as a secondary, summer mansion.

==Climate==

==Economy==

===Industry &amp; commerce===

===Finance===

===Tourism===

The city's rich history and beautiful scenery attract droves of visitors to it annually.

==City life==

===Politics===

===Transportation===

===Entertainment===

===Suburbia===

==Landmarks &amp; tourist attractions==

*[[Guard's Gate]], the former main eastern gate of the city

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Cities of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Lazea</title>
    <id>2888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T12:40:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

The '''history of [[Lazea]]''' traces the history of [[Areth]] high society: sited on the confluence of the [[Taphae River|Theph]] and [[Nes River|Nes]] rivers in the scenic [[Calagian Pass]] at the exit from the fertile [[Nimaean plain]], its superior environment has made it an attractive site for residences and retreats of royalty and nobility since its founding, helped by its proximity to the old coastal capital of [[Isphea]].

==Founding &amp; early history==

*colony of south-expanding ispheans

==Ancient Lazea==

===Economic growth &amp; cultural ascendancy===

*trade, transport hub, location near [[Isphea]]
*pleasant environment &amp; climate attracted upper classes
*fine arts centre: [[Theatre Lazea]]

===Political &amp; strategic importance===

*isphea attacked/besieged from the sea (by...?)
*lazea as launchpad of counteroffensive: protected location (mountains, far from sea) with easy access to surrounding farmland + close to heartland
*made capital after war

==Classical Lazea==

{{seealso|Lazeian Empire}}

kingdom followed to unite areth and establish empire

*names: lazeian empire, lazeic alphabet
*culture: writing, dialect

==Later Lazeia==

{{seealso|Lazeia (kingdom)#Later Lazeia}}

===Sieges of 1216, 1234 and 1275===

==Modern Lazea==

===Historical sites===

===Tourist attractions===

==Notable Lazeans==

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Arithia</title>
    <id>2889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-22T17:11:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Origins &amp; Urheimat */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

The '''history of Arithia''' is the history of the unbroken autonomy of the [[Areth]] civilisation, reaching more than 6,000 years before the present. While [[Arithia]] was already inhabited by hunter-gatherers more than a million years ago, the discernible start of a distinctive Areth culture comes well after the widespread adoption of sedentary agriculture, and the precursor of the modern Areth is widely accepted to be the [[Erda culture]] of six millenia ago. 

Owing to the pioneering invention of writing by the Areth, modern historians are blessed with a wide array of historical sources and texts in various levels of detail from various perspectives and time periods; for the same reason, however, they are also beset with a complicated indistinction between folk legend, speculation and fact regarding the origins and early history of the nation.

==Prehistory of Arithia==

===Origins &amp; Urheimat===

{{main|Origins of the Areth}}

Archaeological evidence suggests that the homeland of the predecessors of the Areth is located in [[Erdia]] on Marcasia, a narrow coastal plain in the southwest of the continent drained by the river [[Or river|Or]] and the site of the [[Erda culture]], the earliest sedentary settlement found, dating to more than 6,000 years ago.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lazeian Empire</title>
    <id>2890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-13T16:56:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Equora dynasty (480 CIE&amp;mdash;907 CIE) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

The '''Lazeian Empire''' (326 BCE - 1187) was the longest-lasting empire in the history of [[Ilethes]]. It was so named after its latter capital city of [[Lazea]], but did not in fact have an independent autonym, being known only by its dynastic titles. [[Dethria]]n records of ''erevan Lazeaan eminothauris'' (&quot;the most beautiful empire of Lazeaia ''(sic)''&quot;) first appeared around 64 BCE, but evidence of contact survives from the middle [[Agia Dynasty]].

==Kingdom of Ispheia==

===From city to kingdom===

{{main|Ispheia (kingdom)}}

The roots of the Lazeian Empire lie in the city of [[Isphea]], which became its very first capital. Beginning as an alliance of an assortment of [[List of the ancient Areth tribes|Areth tribes]] city-state 

===From Isphea to Lazea===


==Dynasties of the Lazeian Empire==

===Agia dynasty (326 BCIE&amp;mdash;103 CIE)===

The first dynasty of the Lazeian Empire, the Agia dynasty ({{IPA|['agia]}}) was reputed for its stabilising influence on the empire even as it expanded. With a strong familial tradition of erudition, impartiality and benevolence that ensured the competency of each imperial heir, the Agias managed to sustain their rule for more than 400 years, during which the Lazeian empire firmly established trade as its ''raison d'être'', founding trading posts across Arophania and much of Marcasia, forging trading relations, blocs and alliances with nations it encountered.

====Dadorean interlude (1 CIE&amp;mdash;3 CIE)====

The Dadorean interlude was a shortlived insurgency in Agia 326 (1 [[CIE]]) following the chaos resulting from the catastrophic [[eruption of Mount Eramena]]. Seen by later historians as merely an opportunistic attempt at gaining power, the insurgent movement initially made significant gains, wresting control of large swathes of northeastern [[Cadaeria]] and briefly forcing the [[Agia House]] from power, but faltered after barely two years as infighting broke out among the rebels, dissatisfaction turned many against them, and the Agias rapidly recovered their influence and reestablished control.

===Balathias dynasty (103 CIE&amp;mdash;221 CIE)===

The Balathias dynasty was known for its militarism and expansionism, especially compared to the Agia before it.

===Ospedia dynasty (221 CIE&amp;mdash;281 CIE)===

===Aphoiros dynasty (281 CIE&amp;mdash;443 CIE)===


===Neira dynasty (443 CIE&amp;mdash;486 CIE)===

The shortlived Neira dynasty presided over a series of conflicts in a civil war originating in the late Aphoiros.

===Equora dynasty (480 CIE&amp;mdash;907 CIE)===

The Equora dynasty marked the apex of the Lazeian Empire, during which it became the largest and richest state in the world, with trading posts, colonies and tributary and vassal states stretching from [[Eresphria]] to [[Istheusia]]. At its height, the empire controlled all of [[Arophania]], three-quarters of [[Marcasia]], the southern quarter of Eresphria and much of the Istheusian west coast, dominating the seas and trade routes in between. The language of the middle three hundred years of this dynasty is what is commonly known today as [[Classical Arithide]], and it was during those [[three hundred golden years]] that most of the enduring works of [[Arithide literature]] were penned, and the expressive possibilities of the language greatly extended.

===Hennem dynasty (908 CIE&amp;mdash;969 CIE)===

===Canart dynasty (969 CIE&amp;mdash;1024 CIE)===

===Thorain dynasty (1024 CIE&amp;mdash;1187 CIE)===

The last dynasty of the Lazeian Empire, the Thorain was, throughout its existence, plagued by internal rift, external threats and a general economic malaise that was exacerbated in its later years by severe famines owing to years of drought.

==Collapse and aftermath==

{{main|Mediaeval Age (Ilethes)}}

The collapse of the Thorain dynasty was initially to have led directly to the establishment of a replacement dynasty, led by the rebels, but with the betrayal of the Andu and their capture of [[Isphea]] and [[Lazea]], the rebels swiftly descended into infighting and split into multiple factions, each of which established its own kingdom in various parts of the former imperial territory, kickstarting the Mediaeval Age in [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|the West]]. A shortlived alliance, or union, existed among the feudal states for a time in opposition to the Andu, but once the two historical capitals were recaptured the concord quickly broke down once more, and Arithia would not be reunified until the [[Unified Arithia|conquests]] of [[Robecos Tivoui]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isphea</title>
    <id>2891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27868</id>
      <timestamp>2008-01-01T12:02:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

'''Isphea''' ({{IPA|[ɪs'feɪə]}}, [[Modern Arithide]] {{IPA|[is'fa:]}}, [[Classical Arithide]] '''''Ispheas''''' {{IPA|['isfe.as]}}) was the first capital of the [[Lazeian Empire]]


{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Cities of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Or river</title>
    <id>2892</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18126</id>
      <timestamp>2007-01-06T03:40:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Or river''' {{IPA|[ɔ:]}} ([[Modern Arithide]] {{IPA|[œ:]}}, [[Classical Arithide]] {{IPA|[ɔr]}}) originates in the central [[Iryagi]], and follows the Iryagi foothills closely first southwest then southeast into [[Erdia]] before emptying into the [[Chisthian Sea]] through a triangular delta.

==Etymology==

The name of the Or derives ultimately from [[Proto-Arophanic]] ''*uora'', meaning, simply, river. From the same root also arose the modern word for &quot;river&quot;, ''ores'', as well as the names of the [[Yos river|Yos]], [[Jedi river|Jedi]], [[Varant river|Varant]] and [[Ous river|Ous]] rivers.

==Historical course shifts==

Due to the softness of the alluvial plain (partially the work of the Or's own rich mineral deposits) through which the lower Or flows, course shifts brought about by the sheer erosive power of its discharge have been very common throughout history, and are well documented by historians due to their magnitude and impact. While continually replenishing the mineral stock of the plain and assuring continued fertility, the swings of the river have proven disastrous for settlement, most recently, in 1992 [[CIE]], almost severing the water supply to the city of [[Kyris]] at its mouth. Historically, a shift in the course of the Or is believed to have resulted in the flooding of the [[Erda culture|Erda settlements]] sometime after the [[Southerly Movement]], triggering the flight to the telefluvial areas of the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Risevne</title>
    <id>2893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:44:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page discusses the history of the two islands, [[Masalne]] and [[Agalmare]], which comprise the country of [[Risevne]]. 

==Prehistory and Early civilisations==

''Articles: [[Mengolam Culture]], [[Narusgerya Culture]], [[Histari Culture]], [[Pelisadas Culture]], [[Agalmare A Culture]], [[Agalmare B Culture]], [[Ostunisalme Civilisation]]''

Some of the earliest stone tools to be found on the islands include chisels and hand-held adzes dating from nearly 27,000 BDN, marking the possible beginning of the paleolithic age in Masalne. The Mengolari Culture, discovered in a series of small caves near the present-day town of [[Mengolari]] in [[Lusedon Province]], was distinguished by a large number of flint plates in the shape of gingko leaves, speculated to have a ritual purpose; the Agalmare B Culture across the inland sea may be closely related to the Mengolam, and certainly both trade and conflict seems to have happened amongst them.

In 1956 DN excavations for a high-rise housing estate to be built on what was then the outskirts of [[Isana]] uncovered several artifacts pointing to a neolithic civilisation in that area, including pottery, polished stone tools and long stilt houses of wood and coastal palm leaves - the remains found in the site, reconstructed, were estimated to be nearly 30 metres long, standing 1.2 metres on stilts, and around 4 metres wide. At first estimated to be around 3,500 years old, later dating placed it at around 3,000 BDN, making it a type site of a culture (now called the Narusgerya Culture after the district of its discovery) now believed to have stretched from 9,000 BDN to around 2,000 BDN.

While the Narusgerya culture was the most advanced, populated and widespread civilisation on Masalne at the time, it was not the only one. Discoveries in [[Serteni Province]] in 1932, and later in [[Basene Province]] in 1946, reveal the existence of two other cultures, now known respectively as the Histari and Agalmare A Cultures; the first lasted from around 6,000 BDN to 2,200 BDN before the sites were mysteriously abandoned and eventually taken over by the Late Narusgerya, while the civilisation on Agalmare seems to have prospered around the same time as the Narusgerya on Masalne - extensive amounts of artifacts from both civilisations have been found on each other's territories, suggesting a well-developed trade network that survived even the collapse of the Narusgerya culture and its replacement by what is known as the [[Ostunisalme]] civilisation (which nonetheless retained much of the cultural aspects of the culture they conquered).

Most important amongst the developments of these multiple cultures was the eventual adoption of a system of writing; some of the earliest markings shown definitively to be writing date from around 2,200 BDN, and within two centuries historical finds containing writing were common finds throughout  Masalne and later Agalmare. By around 800 BDN, the scripts of the island had coalesced into two main scripts, known separately as [[Proto-Semasar A]] and [[Proto-Semasar B]].

[[category:History of Valmante]]
[[category:Risevne]]
[[Category:History of Risevne|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erda culture</title>
    <id>2894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-31T06:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Erda culture''' {{IPA|[ɜ:də]}} ([[Modern Arithide]] {{IPA|[ɛʁðə]}}, [[Dethrian language|Dethrian]] {{IPA|[ɛrðə]}}) is the name given by archaeologists to the group of early [[Areth]], Neolithic settlements excavated in [[Erdia]] along the lower course of the [[Or river]], dating to more than 6,000 years ago. The first representative settlement found of the culture lay approximately 6 ''[[keth]]'' (21km) northwest of modern-day [[Kyris]].

==The river Or: genesis &amp; destruction==

The shifting course of the Or and the soft alluvial clay of the region probably was a double-edged sword to the Erda peoples: while the river ensured a constant replenishment of mineral deposits throughout the area to sustain the fertility of the region that had attracted settlement in the first place, the softness of the soil likely provided meagre protection from the heavily seasonal precipitation in the area or the hydraulic power of the Or. When the settlement ruins were first chanced upon, they were already severely eroded, and artefacts therefrom were scanty, consisting almost entirely of buried bones and stone tools, although the signs of human habitation are unmistakable: a buried mud-brick house exposed thanks to the erosive force of the river alerted archaeologists to the existence of a ruin in the first place.

==Significance of finds==

Despite being the oldest culture found in the area, the Erda is considered the most advanced, with evidence found of rice and wheat cultivation, including preserved grains. The buried bones found in and around the settlements included those of domesticated sheep and cattle, as well as marine animals, indicating a significant degree of pastoral farming and fishing; an incomplete human skeleton was also discovered, thought to have originally been buried in a wooden or bamboo casket. While pottery or shards, key to undertsanding a newfound culture, was not found at any of the Erda sites, diverse and highly polished stone tools (including not a few made of obsidian) suggest a considerable level of technological advancement, as well as some degree of specialisation.

The degree of destruction wrought by the river Or has been suggestive to archaeologists regarding the connection between the Erda culture and the somewhat younger but visibly closely related [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures: a hypothesis rapidly gaining in popularity and acceptance in academic circles today posits the establishment of the latter three cultures by flood refugees from the minority of the Erda people who had remained behind in the [[Southerly Movement]]; the siting of those three cultures considerable distances away from the river is claimed to be strong evidence.

==Scholarly debate==

{{main|Origins of the Areth}}

It is widely accepted that the [[Areth]] originated from the Erda culture, though the notion is still contested by certain individuals who believe that the Areth came to Erdia from [[Arophania]] rather than the other way round, citing as grounds for their stand the fact that artefacts excavated in Arophania date further back than any found thus far on [[Marcasia]].

Other discovered settlements&amp;mdash;of the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures, among others&amp;mdash;have been linked to the Erda as successor cultures despite their relative backwardness. Proponents of the Arophanian Theory of Origin prefer to class those cultures as having arisen independently and subsequently subsumed into the invading Areth.

==See also==

*[[Origins of the Areth]]
*[[Calagian culture]]
*[[Nuroi culture]]
*[[Pisa culture]]
*[[Duvai culture]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Prehistory of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Origins of the Areth</title>
    <id>2895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19488</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-21T17:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Non-archaeological evidence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wip}}

Due to the ambiguity of archaeological evidence, the '''origins of the Areth''' are shrouded in doubt, and while the [[#Marcasian Theory of Origin|Marcasian Theory of Origin]] has gained widespread currency both in academic circles and among the general public, much of it relies on inference, deduction and intelligent hypothesis to fill in the gaps left by archaeology, or the deficiencies thereof. For that reason, a vocal minority prefers the alternative [[#Arophanian Theory of Origin|Arophanian Theory]], which, while entirely based on solid archaeological evidence, suffers from its proponents' disregard of certain suggestive possibilities that are not as well-attested.

==Common ground==

Fossils unearthed in [[Eoris province|Eoris]] establish the time-frame of early habitation in present-day [[Audoria]] as approximately 1.2 million years ago, and mitochondrial DNA dating has conclusively affirmed that the first modern humans in Audoria lived approximately 67,000 years ago as hunter-gatherers. While the existence 10,000 years ago of several advanced sedentary, rice-growing cultures is not disputed due to the strength of the evidence (see [[Marija culture]]), those cultures are not considered distinctly Arithide. The oldest artefacts believed to indicate the emergence of a discrete Arithide identity are pottery shards found in northeastern [[Arophania]] dating back 6,000 years at the sites of the [[Calagian culture]], which have left archaeologists confounded over their provenance, given the uniqueness and elaboration of their decoration (which precludes importation) and the refinement of the technique used in their making, which imply a certain degree of advancement.

Current archaeological excavations have unearthed numerous other settlements, mostly younger than 6,000 years and generally classifiable into four cultures, namely the [[Meia culture]] (3700 BCE - 2400 BCE) located near the border between [[Phithera]] and [[Sirrac]] provinces, and the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]] (3600 BCE - 3000 BCE), [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] (3400 BCE - 2200 BCE) and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] (3300 BCE - 1800 BCE)) cultures in the southernmost parts of [[Marcasia]]; all four exhibit cultures substantially inferior to the society that would credibly have left behind the pottery shards found in Arophania. One group of settlements, united by their common, severely eroded state, was the [[Erda culture]], and while the scarce remaining artefacts pointed to a relatively advanced culture, no evidence of pottery was unearthed, although given the level of progress evinced, pottery had logically had to be long in use and refined.

==Marcasian Theory of Origin==

While specific details of the theory may vary depending on the conservativeness of the source, proponents of this view generally believe that the Areth first arose as a distinctive ethnicity ([[Arithide language|Arithide]]: ''kyteos'') as the sedentary, agricultural [[Erda culture]]. The Erda were in turn descended ultimately from the hunter-gatherers who had settled in southern [[Marcasia]] approximately 67,000 years ago. Hemmed in by the [[Chisthian Sea]] and the [[Iryagi]], the Erda peoples faced, from the beginning, very visible limits to the the land, and such persistent population pressures led to successive waves of migration, some initially northwards over the Iryagi into the Marcasian interior, but most were headed on the easier route south across the Chisthian via the narrow [[Issol A'i]], itself a rich fishing ground.

By this so-called [[Southerly Movement]], the Areth came to settle in northeastern [[Arophania]], leaving behind in their homeland in [[Erdia]] only a minority of the tribe. The presence of other settlements along the way&amp;mdash;notably the [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures, both of which are proximate to the Issol A'i&amp;mdash;was once explained as attritional settlements (i.e. settlements established by people who &quot;dropped out&quot; of the migration midway), but are now thought to be successor cultures to the Erda when the original homeland was extensively eroded and eventually flooded. Due to the nature of these new cultures, which were significantly more centred on fishery and seafaring given the lack of arable land, and which were also far less affluent than the Erda (since they were founded by presumably desperate refugees), Marcasian Theorists believe, attention turned away from the traditional craft of pottery, explaining the dramatic shift to simplistic patterns from the assumed complexity of the Erda.

With the rise of the Areth on [[Arophania]] a number of centuries afterwards, the Urheimat of the [[Erdia]] region once again fell under mainstream Areth influence and control as a flow of reverse migration, known either as ''Nerioris Enos'' or, more simply, ''Nerienos'' (see [[Northerly Return]]), began to take place for a number of reasons, and the more complex culture that the Arophanian Areth had developed diffused throughout the lands that they settled.

===Non-archaeological evidence===

*'''Linguistics:''' Empirical evidence from the study of language distribution has ascertained that the highest density of sufficiently distinct dialects, which is a useful general indicator of the geographic origins of a people, occurs in southern [[Marcasia]], around the [[Erdia]] region. At the same time, these dialects exhibit features and constructions, such as a partial pitch accent in a few regional lects, and remnants of highly complex inflectional variations dependent on the speaker's social stratum, dating considerably further back than the general standard, or than even the [[Classical Arithide|classical tongue]], which further serves to reinforce the view of a [[Marcasia]]n Urheimat.

*'''Lore and religion:''' Due to the not minor differences in climate between [[Erdia]] and [[Calagia]], certain discrepancies and odd references have been observed in the folklore and religious motifs of the Areth. The most obvious of these are the absence of the fir, pine and maple trees in the most traditional of Areth customs, in spite of their preponderance in [[Arophania]], while extensive references are made to the cypress, birch and oak, which did not cross the [[Chisthian Sea]] or even spread very near the [[Issol A'i]] until beginning the late [[Lazeian Empire|Aphoiros dynasty]], when human settlement and movement, and industry and commerce initiated the propulsion of the species eastwards and southwards, and onto Arophania, when the Aphoiran [[Emperor Lourant]] had the revered trees brought into Lazea and planted across much of Calagia. Other such indicators include the mythical [[Mount Emeris]], the abode of the gods and deities, whose descriptions in various ancient sources lead to a mountain uncannily similar to [[Mount Concogue]] in [[Erdia]].

==Arophanian Theory of Origin==

While settlements discovered around the Erda sites (such as the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures) are generally agreed to have been successor cultures remnant after the ''Hibundivagos'' (&quot;[[Southerly Movement]]&quot;), the Arophanian Theory posits that these were settlements of a separate ethnos, who were either overrun or assimilated into the Areth when the latter arrived from across the [[Chisthian Sea]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Prehistory of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Southerly Movement</title>
    <id>2896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-31T06:11:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Southerly Movement''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Hibundivagos''''' {{IPA|[hibɯn'divəgɔs]}}) was a period of mass migration of the [[Areth]] southwards from their Urheimat in southwestern [[Marcasia]] across the [[Chisthian Sea]] to [[Arophania]], and would mark the beginning of rapid Areth development and growth leading eventually to Areth ascendancy and dominance in the [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|Classical world]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gund</title>
    <id>2897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T01:14:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mezzo</username>
        <id>267</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Gund or Gundsk was started By Samuel Martinez of Lawrence,Indiana

contact him at: mezzox3@sbcglobal.net


Phonlogy


Plosive /p b t d k k_s ɡ/ &quot;p b t d k x g&quot;

Nasal /m n/ &lt;m n&gt;

Fricative /f v θ ð t_s s ʃ z h/ &quot;f v þ ð z c š s h&quot;

Aproximant /ɹ l j/ &quot;r l j&quot;

Semi-vowels /w/ &quot;w&quot;

Vowels /ɑ aʊ ɛ i o ø ʌ ɪ ɛ: u: ɑ: æ/ &quot;a á e i o ø u y é ú aa ae&quot;


Diphthongs /ɔɪ ʌɪ ɪə/ &quot;eu ei ie&quot;


Word finally:

c, /s/ &gt; /k/

e, /e/ &gt; /@/

a, /a/ &gt; /@/


Some speakers would (if there were any) pronounce þorn unvoiced or eþ voiced


Alphabet:

A Á B C D Ð E É F G H I J K L M N O Ø P Q R S Š T Þ U Ú V W X Y Z

a á b c d ð e é f g h i j k l m n o ø p q r s š t þ u ú v w x y z

Names in Gund pronunciation:

ah á be cé dé eþ uh éh ef gé hé ie je ke le em en oh ø pe ké ahr ess šé té þorn uhe úhe vé wé yx øps zet


Morphology:

Verbs are conjugated for person and tense

1st person: stem + i

2nd person: stem + st or est if the consonat is a t or d

3rd person: stem + t or et if the consonat is a t or d

Plural 1st: unconjugated

*all plural forms of verbs for 2nd and 3rd are the same in plural


there is one prefix in Gund, ge /g@/ which marks the present participle. A final &quot;t&quot; is also added to the verb stem.

ge + stem + t


Gund has 4 suffixes, &quot;and&quot;, &quot;os&quot; &quot;ys&quot; &quot;ysan&quot;

&quot;and&quot; marks the present participle.

in Gund the use of the word &quot;am&quot; which is a form of the verb &quot;to be&quot; is unecessary.

&quot;yss&quot; marks the past tense

&quot;os&quot; marks the plural

&quot;ysan&quot; marks the past progressive


Pronouns:


Pronouns have three cases, nominative, accusative, and Genitive. Gund has four types of 

pronouns, Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, and Inanimate

1st person singular nominative...Ek

2nd person singular nominative...Ðú 


(3rd person singular nominative:

Masculine...Ar

Feminine...Sar

Neuter...het

Inanimate singular nominative...et)


1st person singular accusative...Mec

2nd person singular accusative...Þyk

(3rd person singular accusative:

Masculine...Arem

Feminine...Sarem

Neuter...het

Inanimate singular accusative...etem)

1st person plural nominative...Uss

2nd person plural nominative...Ðose

(3rd person plural nominative:

Masculine...Aros

Feminine...Saros

Neuter...hetos

Inanimate plural nominative...etos)


1st person plural accusative...Mec

2nd person plural accusative...Þykos

(3rd person plural accusative:

Masculine...Arom

Feminine...Sarom

Neuter...hetos

Inanimate plural accusative...etemos)


Genitive:


1st person singular...Mehn

2nd person singular...þehn

(3rd person singular:

masculine...arehn

feminine...sarehn

neuter...hetehn

inanimate...etehn)

1st person plural...áer

2nd person plural...þehnos

(3rd person plural:

masculine...arohn

feminine...sarohn

neuter...hetohn

inanimate...etohn)


articles:


*The plural form of all the articles except &quot;this&quot; is the same as the femine form
*Ðie serz = The girl, Ðie serzos = the girls


nominative


**the:** 

masculine --- Ðén

feminine --- Ðie

neuter --- þy

indefinate --- þet


**a:**

masc. --- an

feminine --- anie

neuter --- anyn

indefinate --- anet


accusative


**the:**

masculine --- Ðénem

feminine --- Ðiem

neuter --- þym

inanimate --- þetem


**a:**

masc. --- anem

feminine --- aniem

neuter --- anym

inanimate --- anet


This and that don't have gender:


this --- Ðyss

plural --- Ðoss

accusative --- Ðyssem

plural --- Ðosem

that --- Ðaet

plural --- Ðaetos

accusative --- Ðaem

plural --- Ðaemos


Syntax


Gund is SVO with V2 word order like German it has 11 tenses:


Present

I write the book, I write the-accusative book

Ek šreibi þym buk


Future

I will write the book, I will the-acc. book to-write

Ek villi þym buk šreiban


Present Progressive

I am writing the book, I am-writing the-acc. book

Ek šreiband þym buk,


Past Progressive

I was writing the book, I write-pst-pro the-acc. book 

Ek šreibysan þym buk


Future Progressive

I will be writing the book, I will the-acc. book to-be to-write-pre-prt

Ek villi þym buk benan šreiband


Present Perfect

I have written the book, I have the-acc. book to-write-pst-part.

Ek hyvi þym buk gešreibt


Past Perfect

I had written the book, have-past-tense the-acc. book to-write-pst-prt

Ek hyvys þym buk gešreibt


Future Perfect

I will have written the book, I will the-acc. book to-have to-write-pst-prt

Ek villi þym buk hyvan gešreibt


Present Perfect Progressive

I have been writing a book, I have the-acc. book to-be to-write-pr-prt

Ek hyvi þym buk benan šreiband


Past Perfect Progressive

I had been writting the book, I have-past-tense the-acc. book to-be to-write-pre-prt

Ek hyvys þym buk benan šreiband 


Future Perfect Progressive

I will have been writting the book, I will the-acc. book to-have to-be to-write-pre-prt

Ek villi þym buk hyvan benan šreiband


The only irregular verb:


Benan - to be

1st person --- ben

2nd person --- best

3rd person --- best

inanimate --- best

Plural 1st --- benan


Thing you would learn in kindergarten:


Days, months

Monday...Mondak

Tuesday...Ðúsdak

Wednesday...Vensdak

Thursday...Donsdak

Friday...Frédak

Saturday...Samsdak - a tribute to me (my name is Sam  ;)  )

Sunday...Sonsdak


Months(in correct order):

Janú

Febú

Merch

Apryl

Mei

Jún

Júle

Ágúst

Septembar

Aktobar

Novembar

Dézembar


Numbers:


ahn

dún

þrie

fie

fef

syš

seb

akt

nien

zik

alf

zølf

þriezik

fiezik

fefzik

syšik

sebzik

aktzik

nienzik


dúnie

þrienie

fienie

fefie

syšie

sebie

aktie

nienie


húndar

ahneðehúndar

dúneðehúndar...</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calagian culture</title>
    <id>2898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T11:54:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Calagian culture''' is a Neolithic culture named after the [[Calagia]] region on the north coast of Arophania, heartland of the [[Areth]]. It is generally considered to be the direct successor to and of the [[Erda culture]] of southwest [[Marcasia]], and is the earliest appearance of the Areth in Arophania.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calagia</title>
    <id>2899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T16:52:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calagia''' ({{IPA|[kə'leɪdʒə]}}; [[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Kalagein''''' {{IPA|['kaləgi:n]}}) is a region on the north coast of [[Arophania]] It was and still is the heartland of the [[Areth]] civilisation, being the location of the [[Calagian culture]] of more than 5,000 years ago, as well as that of the two largest cities of [[Arithia]] in modern times, the capital [[Lazea]] and the former capital [[Isphea]].

==Site &amp; situation==

Calagia sits at the doorway of Arophania to and from [[Marcasia]]. Occupying the northern coastal plain, the region overlooks the rich fishing grounds of the [[Issol A'i]], and, coupled with the fertility of its own soil thanks to mineral deposits from the [[Taphae-Nes river]], forms a conducive environment for the emergence of an advanced civilisation.

==Modern territorial divisions==

Modern Calagia is divided among the [[List of Municipalities in Arithia|municipalities]] of Lazea and Isphea, and the [[List of provinces in Arithia|provinces]] of [[Kynein province|Kynein]] and [[Adegnein province|Adegnein]] (see map).

==Historical significance==

Areth settlement first began on Arophania in Calagia. The advanced Neolithic [[Calagian culture]], of which settlements were excavated over most of the region, most notably under the cities of [[Lazea]] and [[Isphea]] themselves. Thanks to the abundance of the plains of Calagia, agriculture flourished, the Areth population grew rapidly, and specialisation was able to take place. Having given birth to the first Areth cities and kingdoms, Calagia has remained the core of Arithia and the centre of Areth power throughout history, by virtue of its superior location on vital trade routes passing through the [[Issol A'i]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Regions of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Narusgerya</title>
    <id>2900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-01T13:52:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Narusgerya''' is a neighbourhood in [[Isana]], in [[District 4]] on the eastern side of [[Gardaus Bay]]; it is often thought of as being centred around [[Narusgerya Station]] of the [[Isana Underground]]. Narusgerya means &quot;Smiths' Street&quot;, and is a reference to the history of the area (see below).

Originally planned as a new housing estate on what was then the eastern outskirts of Isana, construction was paused when a 1957 housing project stumbled upon what is now the type site of the [[Narusgerya Culture]]. The entire area was subsequently designated a First Class National Historical Site by the Risevani government, and presently part of it houses the [[Narusgerya Culture Museum and Research Centre]]; while there are still residential units in the neighbourhood they are mostly low-rise, and the area serves instead as a commercial centre for the surrounding high-rise districts, as well as a relatively popular tourist attraction.

Something Narusgerya is famous for to locals rather than tourists, however, is the so-called Sound Street in the older area near the north exit of the Underground station. Formerly a congregating place for blacksmiths, and then for artisans specialising in small objects such as gears and clockwork, it was cleared out as part of post-war redevelopment plans; the blocks of shophouses are now famous for the abundance of shops selling, repairing, and modifying audio equipment - from mp3 players and amplifiers to radios, surround sound systems, microphones and even loudspeakers. 

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Narusgerya Station</title>
    <id>2901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14810</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T08:50:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Narusgerya Station is one of the stations in the [[Isana Underground]], serving [[Isana Underground Line 3|Line 3]]. Opened as part of the first phase of Line 3, in 1962 DN, it is presently one of the more well-known stations of the line, both for the [[Narusgerya Culture Museum and Research Centre]] near it, which is a well-known tourist attraction, and for its aboveground garden which is often a hanging-out spot for youth and a convenient centre of the shopping district for the locals.

The station has been revamped and modernised several times over its long lifespan, most recently in 2023; during that renovation a glasshouse was erected on one corner of the garden, and now it houses &quot;Outlet&quot;, a well-known music bar and often a place amateur musicians aspire to play in. 

[[category:Stations of the Isana Underground]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Keth</title>
    <id>2902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T17:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''keth''' is a unit of length measurement first used by the [[Areth]] and now in common use throughout [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|the West]], corresponding to approximately 3.4667 km.

==Conversion==

===To Iletheride units===

{|style=&quot;width:150px; border:1pt solid #c0c0c0; background:#dfdfdf&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
| 1 [[saptos]] = 60 keth
|}
&amp;nbsp;
{|style=&quot;width:150px; border:1pt solid #c0c0c0; background:#dfdfdf&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
| 1 keth = 10 [[toul]]
|-
| 1 keth = 60 [[nibis]]
|-
| 1 keth = 240 [[adira]]
|-
| 1 keth = 3,600 [[os]]
|-
| 1 keth = 216,000 [[nag]]
|}
&amp;nbsp;
===To SI and Imperial units===

{|style=&quot;width:150px; border:1pt solid #c0c0c0; background:#dfdfdf&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
| 1 keth = 3.4667 km
|-
| 1 keth = 2.1456 mi
|}

[[Category: Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parinzas</title>
    <id>2903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-01T13:52:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Parinzas is a neighbourhood of [[Isana City]], sited in District 6 on the eastern side of the city. It is served by [[Parinzas Station]] of [[Isana Underground Line 3]]. 

Though mostly a quiet residential neighbourhood, it is well known throughout the city for the large 4 storey mall near the station, most of which is taken up by a single large used bookshop that buys old books, stationery and CDs directly from people on one side of the store, and sells them in another part; the remaining top floor is a municipal library. This means it is often frequented by students seeking materials, and in the weekends the neighbourhood is considerably livelier from the presence of these students.

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>University of Isana</title>
    <id>2904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-05T15:02:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isana Aufeschera''', or the University of Isana, is a collegiate university in [[Risevne]].

==History==

IA (as it is known in [[Mirselec]]) is one of the oldest universities in the country; while the first known ''Daurista'' or &quot;Studying Hall&quot; known to history was founded in 1031 by Merisa Nira, brother to the ruling king of [[Masal]], and the first proper college or ''Dauranzal'', [[Asorasa College, University of Isana|Asorasa College]], was known to be founded in either 1193 or 1194, the university itself did not come into being until 1481 with a Royal Order.

==Organisation and Administration==

===Academic Year===

===Admissions===

==Reputation==

==Culture and Cultural Significance==

The University is often seen as one of the top universities in the world, and many of its individual colleges are often ranked amongst the top fifty universities in annual international rankings. While each college has its own insignia, motto and colours, the overall colours of IA are blue, silver and black, and a stipulation in force since the foundation of the University states that all colleges within the University must have one and only one of these three colours within its [[Agin]]; over time this has led to the creation of separate and informal (but gradually more formal) &quot;Orders&quot; of colleges, according to which colour is mounted on their Agin. At present the Blues comprise 11 colleges, while the Blacks and the Silvers both have 9 each.

==Famous Alumni==

[[category:Universities of Risevne]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erdia</title>
    <id>2905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T18:17:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erdia''' {{IPA|['ɜ:diə]}} ([[Modern Arithide]] '''''Erde''''' {{IPA|[ɛʁθ]}}, [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Erdan''''' {{IPA|[ɛr'ða:n]}}) is a narrow coastal region on the southwest coast of [[Marcasia]], consisting of a fertile alluvial plain drained by the [[Or river]]. It is known best for being the site of the [[Erda culture]], considered the precursors to the modern [[Areth]]; other Neolithic settlements found include the [[Nuroi culture|Nuroi]], [[Pisa culture|Pisa]] and [[Duvai culture|Duvai]] cultures. Today the region is dominated by the city of [[Kyris]] on the Or delta.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Regions of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Rivers of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T18:19:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles on or relating to the rivers of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithia</title>
    <id>2907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19800</id>
      <timestamp>2007-03-04T08:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arithia''' {{IPA|[ærɪ'θi:a]}} ([[Modern Arithide]] '''''Arithein''''' {{IPA|[arɯ'θi:n]}}) is a country straddling eastern [[Arophania]] and southern [[Marcasia]], sitting across the [[Chisthian Sea]] at the [[Issol A'i]]. It is considered the modern successor state to the [[Lazeian Empire]] of the [[Areth]], which are its largest ethnic group, of [[Classical Age (Ilethes)|antiquity]]. Due to its economic might, coupled with historical factors, Arithia wields significant influence in international politics.

With over 580 million people, Arithia is one of the most populous states in the world. It is also the second largest country by area.

==Names of Arithia==

==Geography==

===Terrain===

===Climate===

===Environment &amp; environmentalism===

==History==

{{main|History of Arithia}}

===Prehistory===

===Civilisation===

===Empire===

{{main|Lazeian Empire}}

===Feudal era===

===Enlightenment &amp; the modern republic===

==Government &amp; Politics==

===Ideology===

===Regions &amp; administrative subdivisions===

===Military===

==Economy==

==Culture==

{{main|Culture of Arithia}}

===Religion===

===Cuisine===

===Art, literature &amp; music===

==Demography==

===Languages===

===Immigration===

==See also==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Political territories of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Political territories of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T18:34:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the modern political territories of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]], including but not restricted to states, dependencies, disputed areas and territories under international jurisdiction.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Regions of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14804</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-23T18:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists pages related to the historical regions of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]]. Included are regions that wholly correspond to modern administrative units or subunits.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Cities of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles on or about the cities of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category:Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Isana</title>
    <id>2911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:54:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main article, see [[Isana]].''

This category lists pages to do with the city of Isana, the capital of [[Risevne]].

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isana</title>
    <id>2912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-12T14:13:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography and Climate */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isana''' is the capital and largest city of [[Risevne]], and one of its three Designated Cities - cities which are treated as equivalent to [[Subdivisions of Risevne|Provinces]]. It is located in southwestern [[Masalne]], and borders the city of [[Bresnga]] to the north, and [[Feladmena Province]] to the east. The total urban population, living within the city limits, is 13,386,740.

Isana forms the centre of the huge conurbation in the south of Risevne, known as Ibretal after the three main cities of Isana, [[Bresnga]] and [[Taluste]], which stretches across the [[Feladmena Plain]]; together the conurbation contains around 38 million people. Accounting for around 1/6 of the Risevani population by itself, the city is both a major global city and the undisputed economic, political and social centre of Risevne.

==Name==

The word ''Isana'' simply means &quot;Capital&quot; in Classical Mirselec, the variant of the language spoken during the late first millenium DN; this reflects the fact that, for longer than most other cities, Isana has been a political centre of the Risevani. Besides this, there are many other titles, like ''Shakonoyenori'', literally meaning &quot;Nine-Citadel City&quot;, and ''Yoneiganori'', literally &quot;Blue-Gated City&quot;, after the five old city gates, three of which are still visible, which were painted blue.

==Geography and Climate==

The city of Isana occupies a total area of 1678 square kilometres, in a rough rectangle that occupies most of the [[Gardaus Peninsula]] and surrounding areas. To its north is the municipality of [[Bresnga]], while to its east is [[Feladmena Province]].

Geographically the city is clearly divided into two, by the [[Rushalya river]] and [[Gardaus Bay]]; the east was, and remains, by far the older city, while the west was only made part of the city around the 1830s, just before the beginning of the period known as the [[Ibakizaro]], and has undergone many great changes and upheavals. The only significant elevations are the hills south of the Waranye, including Nortekone or the Swallows' Hill on which the famed [[Garnoye]] stands.

Formerly there were at least 8 known rivers which flowed into Gardaus Bay, the largest being the Rushalya; presently most of these rivers are underground, however, the only exception being the [[Waranye river]] which still flows into Gardaus Bay from the east at [[Ekusinada-dego]].

===Definition of Isana===

Modern day Isana, administratively known as Isana City, is one of the first-level [[subdivisions of Risevne]]. Within this large area of the Gardaus Peninsula the original city, now known as the Old Capital {Kode Sanasir}, occupies the area between the [[Waranye river]] and the Rushalya, southwards to the Bay. The present municipality took its shape following redefinitions of borders in 2033, when two new districts in the northeast were carved out from Feladmena Province.

Unlike many other large cities in the world Isana is rarely defined in terms of a &quot;Greater Isana&quot;; in Risevan parlance the more often used term is Ibretal, though it includes a far larger area that stretches all the way to the other side of the Feladmena Plain in [[Taluste]]. Feladmena Province has many towns and urban areas which are often called &quot;Hotel Towns&quot;, a reference to the extensive numbers of people commuting to work in the city and return only for the night. 

===Subdivisions===

{{main|Areas and Districts of Isana}}

While Isana is considered as a single division under the City Government, it is in fact divided into ten Areas, or ''Remis''; each one is then farther subdivided into Districts, or ''Dego''. The areas each possess their own municipal agencies, and most affairs belonging exclusively within their districts are delegated to them, including local infrastructure. Sometimes people go so far as to suggest that Isana is in fact ten cities, rather than one, an impression bolstered by the nomenclature (since the area governments are called Municipal Offices); though the devolution of power is indeed considerable, however, the city is administratively a single unit.

===City Planning===

''See [[Izanosan Plans]]''

==History==

{{main:History of Isana}}

The lower valley of the Rushalya river, and the surrounding plains, have been sites of human inhabitation since time immemorial; in the neighbourhood of [[Narusgerya]] is the type site of a neolithic civilisation known as the [[Narusgerya culture]], but this is just one of several discoveries of ancient cultures within the city; the most recent find was in 2007 in the east of the city.

==Economy==

Isana is one of the major financial centres of the world, as well as a centre of commerce and commodity trading.

==Government==

==Transport==

==Education==

In keeping with the traditional Risevan attitude of great respect for education, Isana has a highly developed educational system, with many institutions of higher learning including the world famous [[University of Isana]]. Students from all over the country, as well as all over the world, come to Isana to study; this trend has only increased in recent decades with increasing links to developing countries, and has become such that several areas of the city are often known as &quot;Student Towns&quot;. The famous [[Iruzeni]] musician [[Dinges Arildun]] once said of Isana that &quot;&quot;

==Culture and Society==

==Famous Areas and Buildings==

This is a necessarily incomplete list of some well-known buildings and districts within the city.

===Squares and Memorials===

*[[King Sarus Square]], an area in commemoration of [[King Sarus I]] under whom Masalne was united.

*[[Square of the Guard]], a square in commemoration of the dead of the [[Third Global War]]

*[[Risevan Shrine to the Unknown Soldier]]

*[[Risevan War Memorial]], built 1949 to commemorate the dead of the [[Fourth Global War]]

*[[Restoration Square]], the largest and most famous square of the city

*[[Nisor's Arch]], an arch commemorating the Restoration as well

*[[Gunasarne Memorial]], commemorating the [[Nine Years' War]]

===Museums and Art Galleries===

===Commercial===

*[[West Bay]] - a huge shopping district that forms the coastal half of [[Awenkara remis]], formed by the amalgamation of many districts over time, including:
**[[Victory Road]], a world-famous road in the north of West Bay City.
**[[Taiberseimi]], literally &quot;Above the Bridge&quot;, the generic term for the area north of the [[Soruta Bridge]]
**[[Taibergute]], literally &quot;Below the Bridge&quot;, the term for the area south of the bridge.

*[[Belegras Dockyards]], a large developmental area opened in the 2020s, and formerly part of the port

===Others===

*[[Garnoye]], the famed White Fort that is a city symbol

*[[Isana Royal Palace]], one of the three official residences of the [[Risevan royal family]]

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]
[[category:Cities of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Narusgerya Culture</title>
    <id>2913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T09:31:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Narusgerya Culture''' ([[Mirselec]] &quot;Narusgeryate Boruni&quot;) is a prehistoric civilisation in [[Risevne]], centred around the [[Feladmena Plain]] and stretching north along the west coast of [[Masalne]]. Their existence stretches from the neolithic to the beginnings of the iron age on the islands, around 9,000 to 1,000 BDN; this historical scope is only rivalled by the [[Pelisadas Culture]] on the east of Masalne, though of the two the Narusgerya was undoubtedly the more populated and advanced. 

[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Prehistoric Cultures of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Cities of Valmante</title>
    <id>2914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:13:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category lists pages about the cities in the world of [[Valmante]].

[[category:Valmante]]
[[Category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:History of Risevne</title>
    <id>2915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:44:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For main article, see [[History of Risevne]].''

This category lists pages about the history of [[Masalne]] and [[Agalmare]], the two islands that make up the nation of [[Risevne]], as well as the history of Risevne itself as a unified nation.

[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mengolam Culture</title>
    <id>2916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T10:01:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Mengolam Culture''' is a Paleolithic culture sited along the eastern coast of [[Masalne]].

[[category:Prehistoric Cultures of Valmante]]
[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Subdivisions of Risevne</title>
    <id>2917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T02:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The nation of [[Risevne]] is divided into 43 Provinces (Denai) and 3 Designated Cities (Nori), as well as three so-called &quot;departments&quot; (Alzer) for offshore islands, one each for the east, west, and south. Therefore in total there are 49 provincial-level areas. Provinces are in turn divided into prefectures (Kine) and then counties (Wase).

The provinces of Risevne have both a number and a name, and in published lists are published according to numerical order. Cities, on the other hand, have no number and are simply addressed by name. The provincial-level territories are:

===Cities===

[[Isana]]

[[Bresnga]]

[[Taluste]]

===Departments===

The three Departments are governmental agencies for the governing of the [[Risevan Outer Islands]], divided into three zones: East, West, and South.

[[Eastern Islands Department]]

[[Western Islands Department]]

[[Southern Islands Department]]

==Masalne==

===South Masalne===

1. [[Ostema Province]]

2. [[Eonis Province]]

3. [[Inezama Province]]

4. [[Feladmena Province]]

5. [[Ngaba Province]]

6. [[Horeston Province]]

7. [[Enimdanoi Province]]

8. [[Ofalna Province]]

9. [[Abanamide Province]]

10. [[Osbane Province]]

===Central Masalne===

11. [[Baseniga Province]]

12. [[Serteni Province]]

13. [[Osagona Province]]

14. [[Naguse Province]]

15. [[Lyonaske Province]]

16. [[Pires Province]]

17. [[Besurgana Province]]

18. [[Hadamfe Province]]

19. [[Lorudac Province]]

20. [[Neiberin Province]]

21. [[Hyomeniga Province]]

===North Masalne===

22. [[Tineye Province]]

23. [[Tasenir Province]]

24. [[Imerte Province]]

25. [[Darnevgana Province]]

==Agalmare==

===Southern Agalmare===

26. [[Hisani Province]]

27. [[Mignero Province]]

28. [[Kalsamda Province]]

29. [[Seke Province]]

30. [[Neyarba Province]]

31. [[Basene Province]]

32. [[Savmic Province]]

===Central Agalmare===

33. [[Bordilne Province]]

34. [[Nanka Province]]

35. [[Mermeinas Province]]

36. [[Atastarne Province]]

===Western Agalmare===

37. [[Bifeno Province]]

38. [[Sonaira Province]]

39. [[Mongar Province]]

40. [[Dunise Province]]

41. [[Toringed Province]]

42. [[Usaldo Province]]

43. [[Gaimoye Province]]

[[category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Histari Culture</title>
    <id>2918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:22:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Histari Culture''' is a paleolithic to neolithic culture in present-day [[Risevne]], concentrated around the coastline of [[Serteni Province]] and across the [[Gana Strait]] to [[Velimik Province]]. The oldest site of theirs has been dated to around 12,000 BDN, while the latest known site is around 5,500 BDN.

Characteristics of the Histari Culture include cave-dwelling and pit burial; some pits were especially elaborate and were topped with mounds. More than 630 such pits have been excavated, and in nearly three quarters of them - especially the later tombs - there are slabs of stone, shaped like gingko leaves. This symbol has since been taken to be a unique characteristic of the Histari Culture until subsequent excavations of [[Narusgerya Culture]] sites revealed the use of such shaped stone pieces as well. This has led to a theory linking the two civilisations.

[[category:Prehistoric Cultures of Valmante]]
[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Neiberin Province</title>
    <id>2919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15499</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T04:31:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Towns and Cities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Neiberin Province''' (Mirselec ''Neiberin denai''), also known as Province 20, is a province of [[Risevne]], situated in northwestern [[Masalne]]. It borders [[Lorudac Province]] to the south, [[Hyomeniga Province]] to the east and [[Tineye Province]] to the north. Its capital is [[Bermisaye]].

==Geography==

==History==

The first historical mention of Neiberin Province dates to around 730 DN, when it is said to be part of a kingdom along the western coast of Masalne known as [[Nadogal]]; as a province then Neiberin included not just modern day Neiberin, but also part of the [[Barnisa Hormagos]] which now form the western third of Hyomeniga Province, bordering on the [[Hyomene Plateau]]. Though it was part of that kingdom, it was relatively desolate except for its coast and the fishing settlements thereon.

In the age of the Masal Kingdom, from 1027 onwards, Neiberin province was called [[Elsange]], while its borders were redrawn such that it became a purely coastal province, much more like its present borders. With the founding of the kingdom and the increase in trade between the north and the south, Neiberin profited and grew as a conduit for goods from north and south, providing way-stations on the coastal roads. In 1091 the town of Bermisaye was officially founded, though Elsange's capital for the era remained in the town of [[Nosad]].

==Economy and Demography==

The location of the province on the west coast of Masalne, facing the long continental shelf of the Risevan Home Islands, makes it an important area for the fishing industry, while its many small streams and rivers and the quality of the water therein has long been noted in the past. Because of this some of the most famous traditional products of Neiberin have been processed foods: pickles, salted fish, and the many kinds of noodles to which hard water imparts improved texture.

Even now there are many food firms in Neiberin, as well as many high-tech chemical or biological companies, similarly attracted to the natural quality of the area. These industries have replaced some of the older, more polluting extractive works; whereas stone such as granite was once quarried in the area, the industry has long since diminished. The quarries themselves have sometimes been taken over by interesting new tenants; the biomedical research branches of several large firms have recently relocated to the new [[Neiberin Biomedical Research Complex]], completed in 2034, which is built inside one of the largest old quarries and is mostly below ground level.

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Bermisaye]]

*[[Nidarsa]]

*[[Alvesod]]

*[[Nosad]]

*[[Holbari]]

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Varant river</title>
    <id>2920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-04T15:48:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Varant river''' ({{IPA|[və'ɹɑ:nt]}}, [[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|[va'rant]}}) is a river in the [[Eastern Seaboard]] of [[Arophania]], originating in the slopes of the southern [[Hallaryagi]] and flowing west to east, around the southern reach of the [[Alerryagi]] and emptying into the [[Auzirean Sea]] in an estuarine delta.

==Etymology==

The Varant is a [[Synerian language|Synerian]] name (the language is usually considered one of the [[Arithide language|Arithide]] dialects), deriving from ''vare'', a hydronym descending ultimately from the [[proto-Arophanic]] root  ''*uora'', meaning &quot;river&quot;, and ''ante'', the [[Classical Arithide]] word for &quot;water&quot;. It is often simply called the ''Vare''. Other rivers whose names share the same root include the [[Or river|Or]], [[Yos river|Yos]], [[Jedi river|Jedi]] and [[Ous river|Ous]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bermisaye</title>
    <id>2921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T04:30:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bermisaye''' is a city in [[Risevne]], the provincial capital of [[Neiberin Province]] in northwestern [[Masalne]]. It has a population of 294,791.

==Geography==

Bermisaye lies along the last segment of the [[Bermisig river|Bermisig River]] (''Bermisig ainos'', but also ''Bermisek asaye'' in the local dialect), the portmanteau of whose name is the name of the city. It is famous throughout the country for its dramatic setting; it is set on a sloping plain following the course of the river towards the coast, while being surrounded on three sides by steep ridges and mountains which afford stunning night views of the city. Because the plain is about 25 km east-west along the river, but only 6 km wide, the city also follows this shape.

The river flowing through the city is mostly too shallow to be navigated by large craft, but along certain sections which are demarcated sports kayaking and canoeing are allowed. Every year several high schools and universities hold races along the Bermisig, including the famous [[Tri-Province Race]] where [[Lorudac]], [[Neiberin]] and [[Hyomeniga]] provinces each provide two of their top high school teams for a six-way race down a 4.6 km stretch of the river. Within the city the coastal areas where the river flows into the sea is mainly commercial in nature, while the residential areas are distributed inland. 

In terms of architecture the city is mostly low-rise, rarely exceeding seven storeys even in the commercial regions.

==History==

==Economy==

==Society and Culture==

==Famous People==

*[[Tenya Asolin]] (Born 12 September 2013 DN), vocalist of the famous band [[Icha and the Northeasterners]].

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tenya Asolin</title>
    <id>2922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tenya Asolin''', born September 13 2013 [[DN]], is a famous Risevani singer and the vocalist and titular character of the band [[Icha and the Northwesterners]]. 

==Childhood and Youth==

==Career==

===Beginning===

It was a chance encounter with the other two founding members of the band that began Tenya's career; while lining up to sign up for the 2035 round of a singing contest, she ran into [[Jenan Gamer]] and [[Arin Basatc]], whose assigned singer had quit them in the last moment. Tenya agreed to join them, and the group - known at first as the Karabanani or the northwesterners - eventually came in second. (Incidentally the first place went to another band that would later achieve great fame, [[Three Suns]].)

[[category:Risevani performers]]
[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Neighbourhoods of Isana</title>
    <id>2923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T14:07:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles regarding separate neighbourhoods in the city of [[Isana]].

[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Theph river</title>
    <id>2924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T15:50:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Theph river''' {{IPA|[θɛf]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Taphae''''' {{IPA|[ta'fai]}}) is one of the most important rivers of [[Arophania]], with three of the largest [[Arithia|Arithide]] cities sited along its course: the old royal capital of [[Isphea]] on its delta, the historic and vibrant capital of [[Lazea]] at its confluence with the [[Nes river]], and the southern economic centre of [[Aebea]] along its mid-course. As the [[Taphae-Nes river system]] it has the largest drainage basin and discharge volume on Arophania, and makes up one of the three [[Great Rivers of Arithia]].

The English name is from the [[Dethric language|Dethric]] corruption.

==Course==

The Theph starts in the slopes of the south-central [[Alerryagi]], flowing first east then turning northwards on the [[Nimaean plain]] towards the [[Ordaryagi]], then flowing once again eastwards along it, before merging with the [[Nes river]] at and exiting to the north through the [[Calagian Pass]] as the [[Taphae-Nes river system|Taphae-Nes]], emptying into the [[Chisthian Sea]] in a triangular delta.

==Importance==

===Agriculture &amp; fishery===

The Theph has been an important source of food fish for the [[Areth]], and remains so today. More than 30 species of edible freshwater fish are known to live along its course, including the famous [[Besrian catfish|Besrian]]. In recent times, however, concerns over water pollution midcourse as well as overfishing of certain species has put a damper on fishing, though in more rural areas recreational angling is still a common pastime.

{{seealso|Fishes of the Theph river}}

Besides fishing, the Theph plays a key role in the agriculture of the region, thanks to its origin in the [[Alerryagi]], which erodes and dissolves from the mountain slopes many minerals that enrich the land downstream through which the river passes. Farms on the [[Nimaean plain]] depend heavily on the river (and, to a lesser extent, on the [[Nes river|Nes]]) for irrigation as well.

===Industry, commerce &amp; transport===

As the continent's largest navigable river and the site of [[Arithia]]'s three largest cities, the Theph is a natural conduit for trade and transport. In the early days of Areth expansion, the river was the first, most convenient, and most common way to access the [[Arophania]]n interior. Even today, fully half of the Arithide internal trade is carried on the waters of the Theph, ranging from industrial inputs like oil and cotton from [[Audoria]], to manufactures like automotive vehicles or even farm produce. Hovercraft commuter links have been established along the river's lower course in recent years, replacing the old passenger boats, ships and ferries that used to ply the waters.

The three cities of [[Isphea]], [[Lazea]] and [[Aebea]] also all draw their water supply from the river, its tributaries and its throughflow. 

==Pollution==

Due to its large discharge, the Theph has been able to sustain a degree of relative cleanliness and purity of its waters despite the heavy agriculture that has been going on in its basin for thousands of years.

In the [[Ilethes in the Industrial Age|Industrial Age]], however, as the nation rapidly industrialised around its cities (most of which, not coincidentally, are located on the river), the Theph became increasingly polluted due to chemicals and other toxic effluent from factories, and synthesised fertilisers from agriculture, which are much harder to break down or flush out. When improvements in technology in the [[Ilethes in the Modern Age|modern era]] allowed ever more aggressively intensive cultivation of the land, especially pastoral farming, the condition of the Theph's waters rapidly deteriorated, especially as industry began to use more chemicals in manufactures, without ascertaining the environmental impact thereof.

In 1934 [[CIE]], water quality became so abysmal that at [[Regea]], an industrial town, the river turned a noticeably dark shade of brown, giving off a stench that came from the burgeoning bacterial population in the waters and that carried all the way downstream to [[Lazea]]. Eutrophication had caused large numbers of fish and other aquatic life to perish, and the decomposing matter did not poison only the air: in the sixth month of that year, large-scale water poisoning in many cities occurred, and economic activity almost ground to a halt as water supplies were cut, investigations were made (which eventually concluded perfunctorily), and alternative water sources were found.

The Theph was cleaned up in a large-scale civil engineering operation from 1935-1938 [[CIE]], and environmental laws and regulations were drastically tightened, polluting industries and firms shuttered or forced to overhaul their operations, and farms likewise barred from using toxic fertiliser and forced to treat heavily chemical-laden sewage, among others in a series of stringent measures to protect the river. The damage had been done, however; marine species in the river fell from an estimated 3,600 before industrialisation to less than 600, and is still recovering: at last count, in 2001 [[CIE]], scientists listed just 1,400 species.


[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eithan river</title>
    <id>2925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T14:15:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eithan river''' {{IPA|['i:θən]}} is a major tributary of the [[Theph river]] in the [[Arophania]]n [[Eastern Seaboard]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nes river</title>
    <id>2926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-04T15:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Nes river''' is one of the major rivers of eastern [[Arophania]], flowing from the southern [[Alerryagi]] east across the [[Nimaean plain]] before turning north to join up with the [[Theph river]] as the [[Taphae-Nes river system|Taphae-Nes]], passing through the [[Calagian Pass]] and emptying into the [[Chisthian Sea]] in a triangular delta.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dobrae river</title>
    <id>2927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T14:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dobrae river''' {{IPA|['dəʊbɹaɪ]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|[də'brai]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Duver''''' {{IPA|['duvɛr]}}) is a tributary of the [[Theph river]] in the [[Arophania]]n [[Eastern Seaboard]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Loda river</title>
    <id>2928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-24T14:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Loda river''' {{IPA|['ləʊdə]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|['lo:da]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Leud''''' {{IPA|[lu:ð]}}) is a tributary of the [[Nes river]] in the [[Arophania]]n [[Eastern Seaboard]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Furinalmi</title>
    <id>2929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15046</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-01T15:41:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Furinalmi''' ([[Mirselec]] &quot;Library&quot;, lit. &quot;Book-Storeroom&quot;) is the Mirselec word for a library; more specifically, it refers to the neighbourhood in Precinct 2 on the [[Radungai District]] which is centred around several libraries. 

It is normally taken to include the so-called Library Square - a city block comprising the [[Risevani National Central Library]], the [[University of Isana Library for Arts and Social Sciences]], the [[Risevani National Archives]] and several other buildings - as well as the adjacent streets and the nearby [[Izuriwa Park]]. The area is served by [[Izuriwa Station]] on the [[Kalana Line]], which exits near the park, as well as [[Madrenase Station]] on the [[East Bay Line]] which is nearer the cafes. 

==History==

The Library Square originally comprised just the Central Library and the National Archives, both of which have been housed there on royal-granted land since the 1840s. In 1949, after the [[Fourth Global War]], the University Social Sciences Library was also moved to that site, and before long the area became famous for its libraries and the large groups of university students and other people who gathered there to study and read. 

In the 1980s and again in the 2010s, as part of drives to promote reading habits, new buildings were added to the same block; the Central Library was expanded to include many films and multimedia resources as well, and during the latest upgrade the New Arts and Social Sciences Library building was built, with 5 storeys devoted to resources on arts and social sciences, as well as performance, seminar and lecture theatres. New libraries include the Film Library and the Military Library.

==Present-Day==

Furinalmi stands in contrast to many of the other areas in the East Bay financial district as a student-filled, generally intellectual place. The rows of shophouses which flank Library Square are home to many famous cafes and small restaurants, often with discounts for students; many come to the cafes to play music, engage in debate, or just relax before and after studying. 

Izuriwa Park, which lies between Library Square and [[Sansertha College, University of Isana]], is another favourite gathering area and often hosts student fairs from Sansertha and other nearby colleges; ever since 2004 annual concerts have been held in the central field of the park, organised by the university and with the aim of raising funds for needy students, and the event has also become a part of Isanani cultural life.

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lingone</title>
    <id>2930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29134</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-17T20:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Added Category:Conlang  [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Description'''

Lingone is an international auxlang of Esperanto-like type, optimized to be used for international communication. 

'''Uniqueness'''

The language is unique in the sense that it is both highly regularized, and also has strong inbuilt flexibility. 

'''Design principles'''

- Pure agglutinative word building. 

- Strong desambiguation. 

- Shortness of roots. 

'''Language sources'''

''Grammar:'' 

- Inspired on Esperanto and Ido, but agglutinized and simplified. 

- Many afixes have been inspired by both Latin and English. 

''Vocabulary:''

1-Indo-European roots, if they are still recognizably present in IE offspring languages. 

2-Many Latin verbs for derivational recognizability. 

3-Many English nouns and adjectives. 

'''Interest of others'''

Either because they have a general interest in languages, or specificly because the language is interesting candidate as formal international language (if any such language would sometime be adopted). 

'''Sample translation'''

Christian prayer Our Father plus (sort of literal )translation to English: 

Nose patro qua si en la hevno - Our father that is in heaven, 

Tuse nomio magi si sanktenite - your name be hallowed, 

Tuse imperyo magi veni - May your kingdom come, 

Tuse vlio sai eventi bi-up la tero, kom en la hevno - Your will shall happen on earth, as in heaven, 

Doni ad nos nose denole pano - Give to us our daily bread, 

Pardoni nos nose kulpos, kom nos pardoni altreos silse kulpos - Forgive us our mistakes, as we forgive others their mistakes, 

Ed ne duki nos en ofdukio - And don't lead us into temptation, 

Ma frieni nos di la maleo - but free us from evil, Amen! 


'''External links'''
http://www.testground.net/E_LingoneMain.htm

(Site author: Joris Bollen. Site language: English)
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hlötderb</title>
    <id>2931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T00:34:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Hloterb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sansertha College, University of Isana</title>
    <id>2932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-05T14:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sansertha College''' is one of the 29 colleges in the [[University of Isana]]. 

==History==

Sansertha College is one of the older colleges of IA. In 1587 [[Ulinai Sansertha]], a noted scholar and official in the royal court, began a private initiative to expand the University of Isana; his goal was to found a new college for research in the social sciences and public administration. After 5 years of such efforts the plan was put forth to the royal court, and [[Arnen II of Risevne|King Arnen II]] officially granted the royal decree for the college two years later in 1589.

While Sansertha was founded with a specific range of courses in mind, the founding of the [[University of Isana Institute for Political and Social Sciences]] in 1926 has superseded it as a specialist college; long before that, in the mid 19th century DN, Sansertha had already begun expanding into other courses. Now it is considered one of the &quot;comprehensive&quot; colleges, though the number of social science students still take up around 70% of the school population.

The original campus of the school is in modern day [[Waranyebara remis]], within the boundaries of the old city and near the [[Ayareine|Goose Gate]]; in 1833 [[Kanir Elidae]] donated the land for the present site of the college, near [[Furinalmi]] in [[Awenhine remis]], and in 1838 the college was moved into its new home - only to suffer a fire four years later, which burned down a side building but did not cause any casualties.

==Location==

The campus of Sansertha College, where it has been sited since 1584, is in present-day [[Isana]] Precinct 6; it is just adjacent to the famous [[Furinalmi|Library Square]], and its own library is only a short walk from the area. Most of the buildings on the campus date from around the 17th century, though there are several new buildings (known as the Second West Quad) built in modern style but similarly surrounding a central courtyard. The campus is served by several bus lines, and is a ten minute walk from [[Sansertha Station]] on the [[Isana Underground]] Line 5.

==Rankings, Culture and Achievements==

The colours of Sansertha College are blue and white, which places it within the [[Blue Sect]] of the University.   

==Famous Alumni==

[[category:Colleges of the University of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]
[[category:Universities of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Sect</title>
    <id>2933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14873</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-25T08:50:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sects (University of Isana)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sects (University of Isana)</title>
    <id>2934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-25T14:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The comprehensive colleges of the [[University of Isana]] tend to be grouped unofficially into one of three groups known as ''Sects'', or ''Shirba'' in Mirselec. There are three such sects, Blue, Silver and Black.

The division arose from the very founding of the university, under a stipulation in the royal edict for the university's colleges that all future colleges' individual colours must include one, and only one, of those three colours. The reason for the law was to allow easy identification of any college as belonging to the university and the nation, since the three same colours were those of IA and of the royal house as well. 

[[category:Risevani culture]]
[[category:Colleges of the University of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arnen IV of Risevne</title>
    <id>2935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-04T12:27:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* War Years */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arnen IV''', born Arnen Nesari Pragan Nimya (11 May 1889 - 28 December 1957), was the [[Monarch of Risevne|King]] of [[Risevne]] from 16 January 1938, when he succeeded [[Nesari II of Risevne|Nesari II]], to his abdication in favour of his son [[Itaran IV of Risevne|Itaran IV]] in 1956. 

Arnen IV's rule was by far one of the most eventful of any Risevani monarch since the Restoration. During his reign Risevne entered the [[Fourth Global War]], during which it would lose nearly 3 million dead out of a population of 58 million; throughout the course of this war the King was famous as a symbol of national resistance, especially by his refusal to move out of [[Rasami Palace]] even after he was wounded by shrapnel when the palace was bombed. After the war he became an outspoken advocate of international cooperation to enforce peace, and helped turn public opinion in favour of Risevne's participation in the [[International League]]. In 1954 he set up the [[Risevne Royal Peace Award]], and in 1956 the League awarded him the [[International Achievement Prize for Peace]]. 

==Childhood and Youth==

==Marriage and Family==

==Accession==

==War Years==

War broke out just two years into the King's rule, in June 1940, and though he had spoken out in concern over the peace of the country since even before his reign he would prove to be a moving force behind the nation's entry into the war. Immediately after the war broke out he ordered a conference of generals and politicians to discuss joining the war; during this, the [[Conference of Melimaye]], he made clear his pro-war stance:

''&quot;It cannot be the desire of any ruler who loves his country to lead a people into war. But the duty of any human is not to stand by as the world suffers the aggression of its nations who dream of worldwide hegemony. Do we fight as the allies of the downtrodden, or wait until our potential allies have all been put down and fight alone?&quot;''

The conference eventually concluded that while Risevne should join the war it would not be immediately and directly involved; it would only be the [[Golkate Island Incident]] of September 1940 that prompted the [[Afengar]] and Cabinet to approve the declaration of war. 

Throughout the War, and even as the bombing of Risevan cities began from mid-1941, Arnen refused to leave the city of [[Isana]] which, owing to its prime economic importance to the country, was a central target of enemy bombers. He did, however, order the movement of the entire royal family and most of the employees of the palace, leaving himself with just a handful of workers within the palace. In his later memoirs he would famously describe the wartime palace as &quot;A huge empty room of echos, reverberating all day with the sounds of the struggle above us&quot;. In October 1941 several bombers attacked the palace for the first time in the war, and the Afengar immediately requested that the King move out to join his family for safety; the King however refused in a [[Royal letters (Arnen IV)|letter]] which was later read to the public; some quotes from the letter, including the phrase &quot;Here we must remain&quot; (actually &quot;Here ''I'' must remain&quot;), would become wartime slogans.

On 17 March 1943, a group of bombers attacked the palace, and a bomb scored a direct hit on the residential halls where Arnen was having dinner; in the explosion several people were injured, including the King who would require five stitches for a gash on his left arm caused by falling debris. According to witnesses his first words upon leaving the hall and seeing his injury was, &quot;So that's what it's like!&quot; again the Afengar requested his departure, and again he refused; instead, the day after he received treatment, he went on a tour of the city to assure his people that he was only slightly injured. He continued to conduct these tours, as well as write open letters exhorting the people which were broadcast on radio.

Besides the personal danger that the King placed himself in, the war also affected him in more serious ways. A distant but well-loved nephew of his, [[Miras Kagorsi]], was the captain of the light cruiser [[Risevani Light Cruiser Graunac (1929)|Graunac]], and died when it was torpedoed and sunk in 1946, while another, [[Esinar Nimya]], was an army commander who was killed in 1945.

==Post-War==

On October 27 delegates from 146 belligerent nations - 97 victorious, and 49 defeated - gathered on board the [[Risevani Battleship Fusalne (1936)|Fusalne]], sailing in the [[Mirosair Sea]], to sign the [[Fusalne Treaty|treaty]] ending the Fourth Global War; two days later the King delivered [[October 29 Address|one of his most famous addresses]] to the parliament, putting across his view of peace via collective mediation and enforcement. 

A believer in the ideal of a community of nations, Arnen would prove a powerful tool in the subsequent debate on whether to join the [[International League]]; placing all the political weight he had behind the proponents of such a theory he helped ensure, after a fierce debate between these proponents and politicians wary of new wars, a surprisingly clear victory in the subsequent [[League Membership Referendum|referendum]] on the issue.

==Legacy and Modern Views==

==Others==

[[category:Rulers of Risevne]]
[[category:Royal Family of Risevne]]
[[category:Persons of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esinar Nimya</title>
    <id>2936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14898</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-26T05:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Esinar Bironas Alaime''' (12 March 1910 - 26 April 1943), known as Esinar Nimya (Nimya meaning &quot;Prince&quot; in [[Mirselec]]), was a prince of [[Risevne]] who was killed in the [[Fourth Global War]], during the [[Battle of Sini Baksese]]. He was the second son of [[Arnen IV of Risevne]] and [[Oseya of Risevne]].

==Childhood==

==Family==

==Military Service==

Esinar enlisted in the army in 1926, entering [[Marsad Military College]] and graduating in 1928; he was ranked 3rd in the cohort of 486 students, and specialised in artillery. By 1934 he commanded the artillery corps of a division; and when war broke out he was then given command of the 42nd Division - which at the time comprised merely a reinforced brigade. Over the course of 1940 and early 1941 he was responsible for training and bringing the division to full strength, and in August 1941 he led the division to [[Solmais]].

[[category:Royal Family of Risevne]]
[[category:Persons of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevne Royal Peace Award</title>
    <id>2937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-26T14:48:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Risevne Royal Peace Award''' is an annual award established by [[Arnen IV of Risevne|King Arnen IV]] in 1954 DN. The founding statement of the award, written by the King himself, emphasises that the award is given to &quot;one of any nationality in this world, whose efforts bring about progress on the road to lasting peace&quot;. 

==Award==

The award itself comprises two main parts, a medal and the prize money. 

The medal is made of pure gold, and thus far there have been a few major redesigns. The present design, which has been awarded since 2003, bears the image of a broken sword and bow on the obverse, and that of the False Camellia, Risevne's national flower, on its reverse. Around these images are words in Mirselec; on the obverse they state &quot;Let &quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huttu</title>
    <id>2938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-26T22:50:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarnawa</username>
        <id>196</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>October 29 Address</title>
    <id>2939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32921</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-15T18:14:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''October 29 Address''' ([[Mirselec]] &quot;Zar-Mur-Gye ta Nartinge&quot;, literally &quot;Address of Ten-Two-Nine&quot;) is a famous address from [[Arnen IV of Risevne]] to the [[Risevani Assembly]], given just two days after the signing of the [[Fusalne Treaty|official peace]] ending the [[Fourth Global War]]. In it he argues that the peace can lead to two courses, and that the best course to a lasting peace was that of collective action, then implied to be [[Risevne|Risevan]] membership in the [[International League]] (though this term is never mentioned within the speech.

==Background==

While the war was only officially ended on October 27, most major fighting had already ceased by late September. On September 20 the [[Third Asela League]] produced the [[Proposal for a League Across Nations]], which on the Risevan side was endorsed by the foreign minister [[Tarsen Krafec]]; within Risevne, however, opinion was severely divided over whether to endorse the league within the Assembly as well as the general public.

The King, however, was an ardent supporter of the League; when asked about it in early October he is reputed to have told a secretary that &quot;If a man my age and experience, having lived through three wars now, should think it unnecessary or undesirable, then I am not worthy of everything I have lived through&quot;. He therefore took the opportunity of the postwar address to state his views, and arguably his efforts paid off - in the [[1947 Risevan Referendum on the International League]], a surprising 68% of voters came out in favour of Risevan involvement, compared to 45% just two months before.

==Full Text==

Speaker, Honoured Members, 

By now the signing of the Fusalne Treaty is common knowledge around the world; with their signatures a total of 143 states have put an end to the most devastating war in human history, and peace is once again upon our shattered world. 

Mourning and sorrow accompany the loss of so many lives for their countries, but more uncertain and more pressing are the fortunes of those fortunate enough to survive. We may proclaim aversion to rhetoric, but there is no other way to put this; we stand now on a threshold of history never before arrived at by man. The road to this opportunity has been paved with blood and tears, death and suffering, and now we the living hold in our hands the shape of the world for ages to come.

One only has to walk a short distance from the palace or the Assembly hall to see for himself the celebrations all over Isana with the declaration of peace. It is only natural that we should feel exhilaration and jubilation at our victory; anticipation of victory has been part of why we have kept on going, in the darkest and most hopeless days of the conflict. Nonetheless these must be tempered by reason, and by a sober knowledge of what we have truly won. If we are to keep this peace, we must know what it is and what it is not.

The peace is, for one, not an invitation for us to return to the past. Often we have convinced ourselves, during the dark days of bombing and austerity, that with victory would come the good old days again; even I sometimes embraced this view, though then as now I oppose it. To view an event of this magnitude as something that will leave us on the same historical course is inconceivable; the old times will never return, and if the old times include the old international system with its rivalries we should be glad to be rid of them. We cannot look back now; for better or worse we are of the generation that must look to the time when we are already gone but our children yet survive, the time that is yet to be.

A simple tallying of numbers drives the point home to us. For this is not the first, nor even the second global war; but its cost in lives outweighs the last two wars combined. The same technologies of mechanization and industry, which allow us to enjoy life as never before in peace, also give us the power to take lives as never before in war; now nobody is safe, even if he is distanced by sea, far from the front. When in 1932 the military historian Stevgan Nis said that “the next war shall be one without fronts, for the whole nation will become a front” we took his words for granted – in retrospect we cannot but admit we only saw that obvious part of his prophecy. The true meaning of his words is that under no circumstances can we afford a war like this again.

If we can acknowledge that much it becomes clear what must be done, what the past mistakes are that we cannot repeat and what was not conceived then that must be conceived now. For seventy years we have talked about the horrors of war, even when the said horrors were never more than three days’ march from clearly drawn lines on maps. For the same seventy years we have shuffled between war and peace with terrifying frequency. Now this option of swinging back to war is not only morally repugnant; it will be fatal, for nations, for peoples, and for the world at large. And this defines what the treaty on the Fusalne is not; it is no longer a national peace; it is no longer, and cannot be, a way for any one nation or league to assert dominance over another and dictate the treaty that the vanquished quietly signs. Three times, after great wars, we followed that same course of national vengeance and the quest for dominance; three times the supposedly crushed rose from the ashes and fought again. Risevne, which has been both master and victim in the past, surely knows this well. 

This backhanded compliment to human resilience leaves us two courses. As a nation in competition with other nations a lasting victory would entail crushing opponents over and over, employing ever more advanced technologies until they or us are knocked out of the race for existence. But there is another way, and another lasting victory, for no single nation but rather for all peoples; that is the course of committing ourselves to reconciliation, of dedicating ourselves to the community of nations, and of putting our efforts to the collective enforcement of a peace that will hopefully extend across the world. 

If there is one good thing that the war has brought us it is solidarity, unity of purpose and a commitment to one’s allies. Without aid from our allies we could not have lasted in this war; thousands of men from other nations died that we could remain clothed, fed, and our fighting will sustained. Equally thousands of Risevani gave their lives in the defence of our allies, for during the war our fate was coterminous with theirs. Now the key is for us to preserve this loyalty to our allies while reconciling ourselves with those who were, until recently, our enemies; for still our fate is coterminous with everybody’s. No longer are we fighting a war against another nation, or another group of nations; we are fighting a war against war, and we fight on behalf of those who will enjoy this world in generations to come. This fight cannot be shirked if we are to deem ourselves humans of reason and duty. 

The tragedy of a generation that has come through such a calamity as war is that their generation has already been spoken for in history; we as individuals will have little chance to alter the depictions, or to add asides to the overwhelming volumes of images that war conjures. A century, two centuries from now, people will not look upon us as a generation of anything else; we are and forever will be the people of the Fourth Global War; that choice was made before and cannot be changed. 

The hope for our generation, then, lies in our will to shape the future. We may choose the course that will lead us to be forever recalled as yet another generation that left a fuse for another war, that will claim twice the present toll and cripple half of the countries involved; that is the course of the arena of nations. Or we may choose the course that, in a century, two centuries, will allow people to look back and say of some day in our near future, “from here – from this blessed day on – the world was at peace”. The peace we can make may well be imperfect; but it cannot be ours to not expect a peace, not to do the utmost we could, if there is a chance for it. 


[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Speeches]]
[[category:Historical Articles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Niharo Street</title>
    <id>2940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Niharo Street''' is a street on the [[West Bay District]] of [[Isana]], in precinct 12 near the [[Aresetaris Bridge]] over [[Gardaus Bay]].

It is primarily famous as a gathering place for writers, both historical and modern. [[Mertanis College, University of Isana]] is sited just a five minute walk away, and as it has in its recent history nurtured and housed some prominent writers - most famously [[Erai Raldergye]], who lectured there between 1912 and 1929 - this nearby street, and the bars and restaurants along it, were some of the haunts of these men of letters.

During the 1980s and 1990s a group of writers called themselves the [[Niharo Clique]]; besides being a literal statement about their meeting here, the street is also used as a symbol of the whole city of Isana itself. In turn these writers tended to focus on issues regarding the city and the country at large.

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]
[[category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erai Raldergye</title>
    <id>2941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Plays */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erai Raldergye''' (19 November 1879 - 4 January 1934) is a famous [[Risevani]] writer. He wrote mostly short stories and novels, though two plays of his also survive.

Over a thirty-year period Raldergye produced some of the most famous works of [[Mirselec literature]], many of which are still read worldwide today. Known for his variety of styles, from the evocative richness of the [[Rushalya Elegies]] to the sparse, terse style of his later novels and short stories, he introduced many foreign literary innovations into his work while at the same time working to promote Mirselec literature worldwide. For this he is often known as one of the &quot;Fathers of modern Mirselec literature&quot;, and his works are taught to schoolchildren in Risevne, as part of their compulsory literature course. 

==Childhood and Youth==

==Early Career==

==Maturity Years==

==Later Years==

==Works==

This is a list of some of his more famous works.

===Novels===

*Gatartun (Hesitation), 1904 

*Orisain (Midnight), 1906

*Anive so der (The Elect), 1907

''[[Rushalya Elegies]] (5 novels for a River):''

*[[Kagorbe tari ta Rushalya]] (Rushalya from the Mountains), 1910

*Nortebusunmi ta Gager (Walks in the Valley Bottom), 1915

*Hinoru ta Dongan (Grandfather's Clock), 1917

*Haiste ta Kirban (The Dawn Watch), 1921

*Wantanor gari ta Rushalya (Rushalya to the Sea), 1924

*Nakemi ta Sostoruc (The Lament of the Sparrows), 1928

*Persander (The Prodigal), 1930

*Varesur (The Fig Tree), 1931

*Farsekarka (Fireworks), 1933

===Plays===

*Barne Yazor ta Ursan (Children of the North Wind), 1912

*[[Erunmitir]] ([[Erunmitir (play)|Erunmitir]]), 1932

[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[category:Risevani poets and writers]]
[[category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kagorbe tari ta Rushalya</title>
    <id>2942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:03:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Kagorbe tari ta Rushalya''' (Rushalya from the Mountains) is a novel by [[Erai Raldergye]], and the first of his series of five novels known as the [[Rushalya Elegies]]. Of the five it is probably the most well-known and most commonly read, and even today it is part of the high school literature course;  it has also been translated into more than 100 languages worldwide. 

The first line of the novel is one of the most famous lines in modern Risevan literature, and most [[Risevani]] can quote it: &quot;Following the stream up the mountains one reaches the harsh midslopes; the spring that is the river's mother could hardly be seen amongst the rock and snow. Of all facts this must be the most inconceivable.&quot; The novel itself, meanwhile, deals with the first generation of the two families of Anesker and Masera, from around 1816 to around 1840 - the years immediately before and after the [[1827 Restoration]].

[[category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevani</title>
    <id>2943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-29T08:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevan Royal Navy</title>
    <id>2944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-10T14:47:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Risevan Royal Navy''', known in [[Mirselec]] as '''Risevan Koraide Nusair''', is the naval arm of the [[Risevan Royal Armed Forces]].

The [[naval history of Risevne]] can be traced back to the [[Mirselani]] raids of the first and second centuries DN; the modern Royal Navy of Risevne, however, dates back to the [[First Constitution]] when the two arms of the military were first placed under the control of the monarch and constitution as standing forces. Given Risevne's nature as an island nation the Navy became the senior arm, and even now it is known as the Senior Service (Kresaime Anaos). 

The navy played a hugely important role in all four of the [[Global Wars (Valmante)|Global Wars]] in which Risevne participated, and over the course of these wars it grew into one of the premier navies in the world. This trend continued through the 20th century, and even as the [[Risevan Royal Army]] gradually shrank in size the growth of the navy continued. By the 2010s it was the largest navy in the world, as well as one of the most advanced, and is a full-fledged blue-water force.

==History==

===Ancient Roots (1st century - 9th century)===

===Reform and Growth (10th century)===

===Decline and Revival (late 10th century - early 15th century)===

===The Standing Force (15th century - 17th century)===

===Age of Expeditions (17th century - 19th century)===

===The Global Wars (19th century - mid 20th century)===

===After the Wars===

==The Navy Today==

The modern RKN is rightly viewed as one of the most powerful navies in the world, and one of the four or five which can maintain a global projection of power especially with its carrier groups. 

===Roles===

The stated role of the RKN is to protect the interests of Risevani at home and around the world, as well as to carry out the policies of the Monarch and the Government of Risevne. As Risevne is an island nation, the navy naturally forms an integral portion of home defence; but it also has a network of bases around the world from which it operates.

Though the RKN is not a member of any international military alliance since the disbanding of the [[Third Asela League]] in 1948 and its withdrawal from the [[Eighteen-Power Coalition]] in 1950, its forces nonetheless take part in many international exercises as observers and active participants. The navy also makes major contributions to peacekeeping forces, both of regional alliances and of the [[International League]].

===Assets===

{{main|List of Ships of the Risevan Royal Navy}}

The RKN is outfitted for a great spectrum of tasks, beyond that of most other navies and befitting its blue-water orientation. The core of their long-range power projection ability lies in the six [[Rushalya class aircraft carriers]], accompanied by escorting destroyers and submarines which are themselves a powerful force in combat.

==The Navy and Risevan Culture==

==Famous Ships==

==Famous Navy Personnel==

[[category:Armed Forces of Risevne]]
[[category:Navies of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:New talk</title>
    <id>2945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>14948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-29T13:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;usermessage plainlinks&quot;&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''
[http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=User_talk:{{PAGENAMEE}}&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new &lt;font color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;Click here to leave a message on my User talk page!&lt;/font&gt;]'''&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;
  Put this template on your User page to help/encourage visitors to leave &lt;br&gt;a message on your User talk page&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Since the magic word &lt;nowiki&gt;{{TALKPAGENAMEE}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; doesn't work in the version of &lt;br&gt;Mediawiki that this wiki uses [[User:Melroch|I]] had to use an ugly &lt;br&gt;workaround to have it work as intended.&lt;br&gt;I think this can be painlessly changed once the software is updated.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;(This note will not be visible when the template is included on a page!)
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Ships of the Risevan Royal Navy</title>
    <id>2946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T14:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Type 9 Destroyers (Varunim Class) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page is a list of the ships in the [[Risevan Royal Navy]], or RKN, currently in commission. It also illustrates the naming tradition of ships in the Navy.

==Aircraft Carriers==

The longstanding tradition with regards to aircraft carriers has been to name them after mountains, while battleships were named after rivers. The first aircraft carrier to serve in the RKN was [[KV Kaona (1917)|KV Kaona]], launched in 1915 and completed 1917. With the advent of nuclear carriers as well as the gradual demise of battleships as a potent force on the seas, the river titles of the latter gradually were used for the former, in a sense affirming the nuclear carrier succeeding the battleship as queen of the seas.

Presently, after the decommissioning of the last of the conventional carriers in 2038, the RKN has completed its transition to an all-nuclear carrier force with six Rushalya class nuclear carriers. These carriers, presently in the middle of their service life, will remain the mainstay of the navy for a long time as there are no plans to replace them by the government.

===Nuclear Carriers===

''[[Rushalya Class]]'':

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Rushalya (2006)|KV Rushalya]], flagship of the Fleet

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Anesa (2008)|KV Anesa]]

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Kezarte (2011)|KV Kezarte]]

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Irtausa (2013)|KV Irtausa]]

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Ainzera (2015)|KV Ainzera]]

*[[Risevan Aircraft Carrier Imon (2018)|KV Imon]]

==Destroyers==

The destroyers of the Risevan Navy are named on a variety of themes, including weather and climatic phenomena, as well as ancient provinces of Risevne and the names of mountains. 

===Type 9 Destroyers (Varunim Class)===

The [[Varunim class destroyer|Varunim class]] is named after old provinces and subdivisions of Risevne; there are presently 26 ships in commission, making it the mainstay of the surface escort forces. Armed with a wide array of weapons including the [[Sorvane command system]], these ships are some of the most capable surface combat units in the world.

*[[KV Varunim]]

*[[KV Bosa]]

*[[KV Atrasne]]

*[[KV Obidir]]

*[[KV Anstai]]

===Type 12 Destroyers (Vasoseye Class)===

The [[Vasoseye class destroyer|Vasoseye class]] is named after weather phenomena; Vasoseye is the Mirselec word for a hurricane or typhoon. A newer and more advanced version of the Type 9, with a lengthened hull and distinctively raised forecastle, there are presently 14 such ships in service, and there are plans to refurbish and overhaul the Varunim class to Vasoseye class standards.

*[[KV Vasoseye]]

*[[KV Saburseye]]

*[[KV Ichatesabu]]

*[[KV Shoebume]]

==Frigates==

The frigates of the RKN are mostly named after the outlying islands of the country. 

==Landing Command Carriers==

The RKN has a force of three large landing carriers as the core of its marine fighting capability; the ships are under the control of the Risevan Royal Marines, which form a command under the Navy. The three carriers are named after mountains, taking over the designation for battleships in the past.

===Kaona Class===

The [[Kaona Class Landing Carrier|Kaona Class]] is a formidable ship capable of landing, supporting, and supplying troops on extended operations. Each ship is capable of landing a 1,600 man Royal Marine Battalion and all its equipment, as well as keeping it supplied by air and providing powerful fire support with its squadron of helicopters and attack aircraft. 

*[[KV Kaona]]

*[[KV Hegamari]]

*[[KV Nogorin]]

[[category:Armed Forces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hlotderb</title>
    <id>2947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43251</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-19T01:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Phonology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hlotderb (/ɬoʈ.ɛʁb/) is the language spoken through out the base of the western mountain range of [[Lheinead]]. It is believed to be a language isolate, but with heavy influence from Turkic and Altic languages, among others. The name Hlotderb is derived from Hlotde(/ɬoʈ.e/), meaning mountain people.

==Phonology==
*Consonants: /dˁ tˁ kˁ gˁ t p b d k g n ŋ m v f ʒ ʃ z s ç ʝ ɬ l ʁ r̝ ʣ ʤ ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ/
**Romanized As: &lt;dh th kh gh t p b d k g n ng m v f j ss z s c ÿ hl l r rh dz dj sz zs td dt&gt;
**Exceptions: 
***/tˁ dˁ kˁ gˁ/ are marked as &lt;t' d' k' g'&gt; before &lt;hl&gt;
*Allophones: 
**/t d k g p b/ become [tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ pʰ bʰ] initially
**/l/ becomes [ɭ] when in a cluster with /ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ/

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
!Bilabial
!Labio-Dental
!Dental
!Alveolar
!Post-Alveolar
!Retroflex
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
!Glottal
|-
|'''Stops'''
| align=center | {{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʈ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ɖ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;g}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Emphatic Stops'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|tˁ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;dˁ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|kˁ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;gˁ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Nasals'''
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Fricatives'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʒ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʂ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʐ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ç&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʝ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; 
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Approximants'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|r̝&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ɬ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;l}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʁ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''Affricates'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʣ}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʤ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

*Vowels: /e i ɛ æ ə ɑ ɔ o u/
**Romanized As: &lt;e i eh aa y a ô o u&gt;
***Differentiation: 
****/ɛ/ proceding /ɬ/ is denoted by &lt;e'l&gt; instead of &lt;ehhl&gt; or &lt;ehl&gt; (which means /ɛl/
*Phonological Constraints: (S or F)(S or F)(N)(A)V(N)(A)(F)(P)
**Where S=stop, F=fricative, A=approximant, N=nasal, and V=vowel
**Also with identical voicing and usually similar point of articulation
**For stop combinations, only regular+emphatic and regular+regular are permitted
**For stops/fricatives, retroflexes do not combine with other stops/fricatives in the cluster

==Pronouns==
Nominative:
{| border=1
  ! 
  |align=center| Singular
  |align=center| Plural
  |-
  ! First Person, Exclusive
  |align=center| ghro (/gˁʁo/)
  |align=center| bim (/bim/)
  |-
  ! First Person, Inclusive
  |align=center| - 
  |align=center| bij (/biʒ/)
  |-
  ! Second Person
  |align=center| dja (/ʤɑ/)
  |align=center| sse (/ʃe/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Animate
  |align=center| cuÿ (/çuʝ/)
  |align=center| tcom (/tçom/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Cultural
  |align=center| coss (/çoʃ/)
  |align=center| côtd (/çɔʈ/)
  |-
  ! Third Person, Natural
  |align=center| côsz (/çɔʂ/)
  |align=center| côtd (/çɔʈ/)
  |-  
|}

==Voice==
There are four grammatical voices in Hloterb: Active, Passive, Locative, Reflexive. The first three are distiguished by prefixes (or in the case of the active voice, the lack of a prefix), whereas the reflexive voice is simply active voice with a corresponding reflexive pronoun as the object.

A few examples:

 Dhlap ssônirh jaadz
 Herding -produce.PRES wool
 Herding produces wool

an active sentence,

 Jaadz ossônirh dhlap
 Wool PASS.produce.PRES herding
 Wool is produced by herding

a passive sentence,

 Hlotde aassônirh jaadz
 Hlotde LOC.produce.PRES wool
 At Hlotde wool is produced

a locative sentence,

 Ghro ssônirh kehsz
 I produce myself
 I made myself

a reflexive sentence.

In slang or more colloquial speech, however, the locative voice has been re-analyzed as a genitive constructive. For example,

 Côsz aadazirh jaadz
 It.NAT underwent the shaving of wool
 It was shaved of (its) wool

==Syntax and Morphology==
Hloterb is SVO, resulting in the abandonment of case endings, except for the locative case -aa, which survived attached to the verb as a voice ending. Direct objects proceed indirect objects. The locative and genitive cases are now formed from prepositions, which vary depending on dialect, case, and gender.

Hloterb distinguishes three genders: natural, cultural, and animate. The last is reserved for humans and beloved pets. The first includes general household items (with a few exceptions), living organisms (not scanned as animate), and natural formations (mountains, deserts, etc.). The cultural gender is used in relation to all remaining nouns, commonly less ordinary produced items (Cotton, the final product, for instance)

Adjectives decline for the gender but fairly straightforwardly. Verbal adverbs also agree with the voice of the verb. It has been suggested that this reduces confusion in multiple verb predicates. Adverbial Adverbs and Adjective Adverbs agree with the modifier that they modify.

Verbs are conjugated for voice and tense, but no other issue. Mood and aspect are often worked into a sentence through various adverbs. Person and number are determined from context or the nominative pronoun. In this respect, Hloterb is highly isolating.

==Lexicon==
[[Hloterb Lexicon]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belegras Dockyards</title>
    <id>2948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T11:03:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Belegras Dockyards''' (Mirselec ''Belegras Hadunen'') is a part of [[Isana]] that comprises the western half of the [[Port of Isana]], until the early 21st century.

Formerly part of the busiest port in the world, the Dockyards gradually diminished in importance as shipping was routed more to the better-equipped and newer [[Port of Bresnga]] during the 1990s. In 2007 a plan was launched to convert the Dockyards, which comprises around two-thirds of the entire port, to a commercial and leisure district, involving several major programmes like the greening of the entire area, the construction of an [[East Bay Line, Belegras Extension|extension underground line]] serving the area, as well as the conversion or rebuilding of many original facilities. 

==History==

===As Harbour===

===The Move===

Over the 1980s and 1990s, the port of Bresnga continued to grow and Isana went on with its transition to a mostly service-based economy, plans began to be proposed to convert the Dockyards.

==Belegras Dockyards Today==

===Site and Situation===

Though it is the most prominent, Belegras Dockyards is not the only major developmental project to take place on land vacated by the moving of the port; along stretches of the coast, as well as farther inland, many residential areas have sprung up as well, and property values for residential space in this new district has been rising steadily after an initial sluggish period while the infrastructure was being completed. Now the area is one of the youngest residential districts of the city, and even the design of many of the estates - revolving around relatively small condominia catering for singles, or young couples - reflect this trend.

In modern Isana parlance &quot;Belegras Dockyards&quot; refers to the western two-thirds of the former port, adjoining [[Henoris Wharf]], which has been rebuilt into a commercial district; the real [[Port of Isana]], on the other hand, is simply known as the Port. The main passenger terminus and jetties, meanwhile, have been relocated to within [[Gardaus Bay]] in a brand new building that was completed in 2012.

Throughout the 2010s the area was known as &quot;the city's largest construction site&quot;, and even now in the 2040s much major construction and development is still going on in the area, making it one of the most vibrantly developing areas of the city. 

Even while the development of the area is going on speedily, however, efforts are constantly being made to ensure continuity with tradition, as well as the desirability of the environment. In the conversion of the dockyards most of its large docks were kept intact, as were many canals formerly used for transportation between docks in the past. Road and foot bridges, many of innovative design, connect these islands; but there is also a system of small boats which ply the canals, mostly carrying tourists. At the same time major landscaping has turned the dockyards, formerly mostly asphalt and concrete, into a much greener area.

===Administration===

Belegras Dockyards in fact straddles two districts, or dego, of [[Hirsa remis]], namely [[Belegrasharel-dego]] and [[Nirateharel-dego]]. 

==Major Constructions==

===Warehouse Malls===

===Concert Halls===

*[[28 Kasinoda Wharf]], one of the most spectacular buildings in the area, converted from several large warehouses (formerly 26 - 31 Kasinoda, with 28 being the central building). 

*[[Sidefona]] - literally &quot;Little Chambers&quot; a complex with six small black box theatres, converted from 38 Neti Wharf.,

===Other Buildings===

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hloterb Lexicon</title>
    <id>2949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24590</id>
      <timestamp>2007-08-18T23:59:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This a lexicon of all terms in the language [[Hlotderb]].

==a==
AELHEI = ''adv'' repeatedly, (archaic) yearly

==b==
BIJ = ''prn'' 1P, plural, inclusive, nominative

BIM = ''prn'' 1P, plural, exclusive, nominative

==c==
COSS = ''prn'' 3P, singular, cultural gender, nominative

CÔSZ = ''prn'' 3P, singular, natural gender, nominative

CÔTD = ''prn'' 3P, plural, natural or cultural, nominative

CUÝ = ''prn''  3P, singular, animate, nominative

==d==
DAZ = ''v'' to shave, to shear, to cut away

DHLAP = ''n'' herding

DHLAPI = ''adj'' pertaining to herding

DHLAAP = ''v'' to herd, to raise

==dh/d'==

==dj==
DJA = ''prn'' 2P, singular, nominative

==dt==
DTDHNLÔMLHST = ''n'' irrigation ditch

==dz==
DZEJ = ''n'' failure (person, action, anything...)

==e==

==eh/e'==

==f==

==g==

==gh/g'==
GHNGEHYMBATH = ''n'' cedar tree leaves (used as an incense)

GHRADZ = ''n'' oil, hydrocarbons, fuel

GHRADZ KRIDZ = ''n'' coal

GHRADZ TDLISZ = ''n'' natural gas

GHRO = ''prn'' 1P, singular, nominative

==i==

==j==
JAADZ = ''n'' wool

JDJALZSMI = ''n'' weaving tools; shuttle, loom, wheel, etc 

JDJAON = ''n'' loom

==k==
KAKHIMARRHA = ''n'' polyester or other synthetic material cloth, synthetic clothing

KÔTIN = ''n'' cotton

KÔTINDZAAHL = ''n'' cotton plantation

KÔJYC = ''n'' copper

==kh/k'==
KHOB = ''n'' loom

==l==

==hl==
HLOZULTD = ''n'' lapis lazuli

==m==
MINTTEA = foreigner, stranger

MOÔM = ''v'' to stare, to intimidate

MÔLDI = ''n'' hawk

==n==

==ng==
NGAASS = ''n'' muzzle

==o==

==ô==

==p==
PT'HLNI = ''n'' nitrate(s)

PUP = ''n'' city-dweller

PUSSCÔDZ = ''n'' mountains

==r==

==rh/r'==

==s==

==ss==
SSE = ''prn'' 2P, plural, nominative

SSCHLEB = ''n'' floodplain

SSHLÔDZT = ''n'' river

SSÔN = ''v'' to make, to produce

==sz==
SZFANRADT = ''n'' small level area, mesa

==t==
TEA = ''n'' riverbank, streambank

TCOM = ''prn'' 3P, plural, animate, nominative

TSSAAV = ''n'' pole, stick, rod

==th/t'==
THE = ''adj'' evil

==td==

==u==
UTH = ''interj'' yeah, yes, verily

==v==
VRHIJ = ''n'' desert, barrens

==y==

==ÿ==

==z==
ZNEDT = ''adj'' shiny

==zs==</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elimyen</title>
    <id>2950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-04T20:20:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Napalmbrain</username>
        <id>183</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Elimyen is an agglutinative conlang.

==Phonology==
Elimyen is written using an abugida script (an abugida is a script where each character represents a consonant and vowel together). There are characters for each consonant-vowel pair (and lone vowel)  below, except for 'du', 'tu' and 'yi', which do not appear in the language. There is also some overlap between s/z and dh/th, which are considered individual phonemes. The absence of a vowel following a consonant is indicated explicitly.

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| b || b
|-
| d || d
|- 
| dh || ð
|-
| g || ɡ
|-
| j || dʒ
|-
| k || k
|-
| l || l
|-
| m || m
|-
| n || n
|-
| p || p
|-
| r || ɹ, ɻ
|-
| s || s
|-
| sh || ʃ
|-
| t || t
|- 
| th || θ
|-
| v || v
|-
| y || j
|-
| z || z
|}

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Letter !! IPA symbol(s)
|-
| a || æ, ɑ
|-
| e || ɛ
|-
| i || i
|- 
| o || ɒ
|-
| u || ʌ, ʊ
|}

==Grammar==
===Word order and stress===
Elimyen's word order is Subject Object Verb. Unlike English, Elimyen uses Time Manner Place to order adpositional phrases. For example, instead of saying &quot;I went to the shop yesterday&quot;, it would be &quot;I went yesterday to the shop&quot;.

Normally, the second syllable of a word is stressed.

===Declension===
Elimyen has 6 cases:

* Nominative- Not marked
* Accusative- Marked by &quot;-mol&quot;
* Dative- Marked by &quot;-dash&quot;
* Genitive- Marked by &quot;-yen&quot;
* Locative- Marked by &quot;-von&quot;
* Ablative- Marked by &quot;-nim&quot;

===Plurals===
Plurals are suffixed by &quot;-yez&quot;. It is also used as a sign of respect to the person being spoken to.

===Verbs===
Verbs are inflected to distinguish between transitive, ditransitive, and intransitive verbs:

* Transitive- Not marked
* Ditransitive- Marked by &quot;se-&quot;
* Intransitive- Marked by &quot;go-&quot;

===Grammatical person===
* First person singular- &quot;ben&quot;
* First person plural- &quot;bizi&quot;
* Second person singular- &quot;sen&quot;
* Second person plural/formal- &quot;zizi&quot;
* Third person (singular and plural)- &quot;on&quot;

There are no grammatical genders.

===Negatives===
To negate a noun or adjective, the word &quot;deye&quot; is added to the end of the sentence. Verbs are negated by adding the prefix &quot;me-&quot;.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevne</title>
    <id>2951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fevoun</title>
    <id>2952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-10-31T07:14:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fevoun''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|[fi'u:n]}}) is an immense wooden ship invented in and employed by the [[Lazeian Empire]] for the purposes of trade, diplomacy and exploration. Measuring 8 x 3 x 2.6 [[adira]] long, wide and tall (approx. 380 x 140 x 120ft), it displaced almost 2000 tons and was easily the world's largest ship.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithide Sample Text Corpus</title>
    <id>2953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22060</id>
      <timestamp>2007-06-01T06:05:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* The Georgics (Orpheus &amp; Eurydice): Geōrgikae (Orpheus &amp; Eurydicē) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists available [[Arithide language|Arithide]] texts, alongside their translations and in some cases their pronunciations in IPA. The texts may be in [[Modern Arithide]], [[Classical Arithide]], or a number of other varieties as noted (e.g. [[Koine Arithide]]).

==Classical Arithide==

===Lord's Prayer: Trithe Feyns===

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Latin
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Late Classical Arithide
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Phonetic
|-
| width=33% valign=top | Pater noster, qui es in caelis, sanctificetur nomen tuum. Adveniat regnum tuum. Fiat voluntas tua, sicut in caelo et in terra. Panem nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie, et dimitte nobis debita nostra sicut et nos dimittimus debitoribus nostris. Et ne nos inducas in tentationem, sed libera nos a malo. Amen.
| width=33% valign=top | Fābā rikin, saluminnum hero, histamesit illos ayn. Egura lisgas ayn. Reskeresit deiros ayn, halaginnum saluminnumena. Rikin emnatir haro omnat kreruras, nam kansaruras rīkae syndrē, rikisyndoris syndirēnēs kansariena. On riko avlataguras orgrei, nege riko magāruras vokyrōn. Amen.
| width=33% valign=top | 'fa:ba: 'rikɛ̃ sa'luminnʉm 'hero, his'tamesit 'ɪllɔs ajn. 'egɯra 'lisgas ajn. rɛs'kɛrəsit 'di:rɔs ajn, ha'lajinnʉm sa'luminnʉmena. 'rikɛ̃ 'emnatim 'haro 'ɔmnat 'krerɯras, nam kan'sarɯras 'rikai 'syndre:, rikɯ'syndəris syndi're:ne:s kansə'riena. ɔ̃ 'riko avlə'tagɯras 'œ:gri:, nej 'riko ma'ga:rɯras 'vokyro:n. 'amɛn.
|}

===The Georgics (Orpheus &amp; Eurydice): Geōrgikae (Orpheus &amp; Eurydicē)===

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Latin
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Classical Arithide word-for-word
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Prosaic syntax
|-
| width=33% valign=top | Ipse cava solans aegrum testudine amorem&lt;br&gt;
te, dulcis coniunx, te solo in litore secum,&lt;br&gt;
te veniente die, te decedente canebat. &lt;br&gt;
Taenarias etiam fauces, alta ostia Ditis,&lt;br&gt;
et caligantem nigra formidine lucum&lt;br&gt;
ingressus manesque adiit regemque tremendum&lt;br&gt;
nesciaque humanis precibus mansuescere corda. &lt;br&gt;
At cantu commotae Erebi de sedibus imis&lt;br&gt;
umbrae ibant tenues simulacraque luce carentum,&lt;br&gt;
quam multa in foliis avium se milia condunt&lt;br&gt;
vesper ubi aut hibernus agit de montibus imber,&lt;br&gt;
matres atque viri defunctaque corpora vita &lt;br&gt;
magnanimum heroum, pueri innuptaeque puellae,&lt;br&gt;
impositique rogis iuvenes ante ora parentum,&lt;br&gt;
quos circum limus niger et deformis harundo&lt;br&gt;
Cocyti tardaque palus inamabilis unda&lt;br&gt;
alligat et noviens Styx interfusa coercet. &lt;br&gt;
Quin ipsae stupuere domus atque intima Leti&lt;br&gt;
tartara caeruleosque implexae crinibus angues&lt;br&gt;
Eumenides, tenuitque inhians tria Cerberus ora&lt;br&gt;
atque Ixionii vento rota constitit orbis. &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Iamque pedem referens casus evaserat omnes;&lt;br&gt;
redditaque Eurydice superas veniebat ad auras,&lt;br&gt;
pone sequens, namque hanc dederat Proserpina legem,&lt;br&gt;
cum subita incautum dementia cepit amantem,&lt;br&gt;
ignoscenda quidem, scirent si ignoscere manes. &lt;br&gt;
Restitit Eurydicenque suam iam luce sub ipsa &lt;br&gt;
immemor heu! victusque animi respexit.  Ibi omnis&lt;br&gt;
effusus labor atque immitis rupta tyranni&lt;br&gt;
foedera, terque fragor stagnis auditus Avernis.&lt;br&gt; 
Illa « quis et me » inquit « miseram et te perdidit, Orpheu,&lt;br&gt;
quis tantus furor?  En iterum crudelia retro &lt;br&gt;
Fata vocant, conditque natantia lumina somnus. &lt;br&gt;
Iamque vale:  feror ingenti circumdata nocte&lt;br&gt;
invalidasque tibi tendens, heu non tua, palmas! »&lt;br&gt;
dixit et ex oculis subito, ceu fumus in auras&lt;br&gt;
commixtus tenues, fugit diversa, neque illum,&lt;br&gt;
prensantem nequiquam umbras et multa volentem&lt;br&gt;
dicere, praeterea vidit, nec portitor Orci&lt;br&gt;
amplius obiectam passus transire paludem.
| width=33% valign=top | Nakēa kanitis subitī bēlo sakragitis sofio,&lt;br&gt;
hete, amō mediā, hete veirē kigum kitis,&lt;br&gt;
hete egītis natān, hete vagītis koerire.&lt;br&gt;
Taenarinē idon kaugē, siōna opta Dīsne,&lt;br&gt;
nam vobulo egnītis sōditis folpa&lt;br&gt;
riēth, nam Manis ivage egineisi robārīei&lt;br&gt;
avkeītam zīritis ēbretis sabasēn soldē.&lt;br&gt;
Sina koerosis fānerāt, Erebne thēsōn nassōn&lt;br&gt;
ēspēs hōnisene listēs agedēssi rynno baesīēs,&lt;br&gt;
ena rea reveriri alareis imbinteis seinalitis&lt;br&gt;
neān, kyr ān viodhinos dynkansa riagēn ulos,&lt;br&gt;
mādēs sinam ōdhēs, korrākāteis kitheissi ariōn&lt;br&gt;
dābesinēs pūrēnus, neēte avlātāteis deētesi,&lt;br&gt;
kalēmēs turerinnum dhetēnessi men glasēn vithorenēs,&lt;br&gt;
zōdolō math egnī nam oluros nag&lt;br&gt;
Cocytne lādos stauran avsofiābāt dondtam&lt;br&gt;
seboro tallodēs Styx kekonzānīos kombēra.&lt;br&gt;
Sōi, agera obsōre sāmēs sinam akis Lēthne&lt;br&gt;
Tartarenēs assulithēs konzarafēm sīnira slēreistam&lt;br&gt;
Eumenidenēs, sinam halat ahiānēs hev Cerberou pugēs&lt;br&gt;
nōn Ixioninos vetira arorīos gēle noros.&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Dāntam vosēs entagnis fugidē nubat pan;&lt;br&gt;
enpethēm Eurydicēnōn bisioris egire āmēae&lt;br&gt;
agnī kuorī (kor ognor kalare Prōserpina dīmotor),&lt;br&gt;
zōān satērōn tēnor solūrōn nakt sofionē,&lt;br&gt;
kōdābāt aeda, nossōna do kōdēn Manēs:&lt;br&gt;
dakte, Eurydicēstam neto dān ryntandum kēnou&lt;br&gt;
iakurī ae! abdento mnossi engate. Tum pan&lt;br&gt;
obtūre abrat sinam agōdos duode ankōlus&lt;br&gt;
spētos, hevlodēstam bāmbos stagnīum sebitoste Avernum.&lt;br&gt;
Mena &quot;an dēs dege&quot; thaere &quot;sisito es hete kondōrat, Orpheō,&lt;br&gt;
an sororros roga? Īde tath zurōnēs enēn&lt;br&gt;
Mēsēs labi, futitam lārīē segē nollos.&lt;br&gt;
Dānsi aheu: damosta vōbitis dolītis taititis&lt;br&gt;
roimē hinai tera, ae hēv hes, kylē!&quot;&lt;br&gt;
palla segēn satērē, plūnena āmēae&lt;br&gt;
lapsāt setit, luso abterē, penede,&lt;br&gt;
biderīo avitrē stothei reor pallossīo&lt;br&gt;
sissyba tygne, vade baeron Orcne&lt;br&gt;
audam kondorgīa graedivagāre staura.
| width=33% valign=top | Nakēa kanitis sakragitis bēlo sofio subitī,&lt;br&gt;
hete, amō mediā, hete veirē kitis kigum,&lt;br&gt;
hete egītis natān, hete vagītis koerire.&lt;br&gt;
Idon Taenarinē kaugē, siōna opta Dīsne,&lt;br&gt;
nam vobulo egnītis sōditis folpa&lt;br&gt;
riēth, nam Manis egineisi robārīei ivage &lt;br&gt;
zīritis ēbretis soldē sabasēn avkeītam.&lt;br&gt;
Sina koerosis fānerāt, Erebne nassōn thēsōn &lt;br&gt;
ēspēs listēs agedēssi rynno baesīēs hōnisene,&lt;br&gt;
neān reveriri seinalitis imbinteis alareis ena &lt;br&gt;
rea, kyr viodhinos ulos riagēn dynkansa ān,&lt;br&gt;
mādēs sinam ōdhēs, ariōn korrākāteis kitheissi &lt;br&gt;
dābesinēs pūrēnus, neēte avlātāteis deētesi,&lt;br&gt;
men vithorenēs glasēn turerinnum kalēmēs dhetēnessi,&lt;br&gt;
zōdolō egnī math nam oluros nag&lt;br&gt;
Cocytne lādos avsofiābāt dondtam stauran &lt;br&gt;
seboro tallodēs kekonzānīos Styx kombēra.&lt;br&gt;
Sōi, sāmēs sinam akis Lēthne Tartarenēs agera &lt;br&gt;
obsōre assulithēs slēreistam sīnira Eumenidenēs&lt;br&gt;
konzarafēm, sinam Cerberou hev pugēs ahiānēs halat &lt;br&gt;
Ixioninos arorīos noros nōn vetira gēle.&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Dāntam vosēs entagnis pan fugidē nubat;&lt;br&gt;
enpethēm Eurydicēnōn agnī kuorī bisioris &lt;br&gt;
āmēae egire (kor Prōserpina ognor dīmotor kalare),&lt;br&gt;
zōān satērōn solūrōn tēnor sofionē nakt,&lt;br&gt;
Manēs kōdēn nossōna do kōdābāt aeda:&lt;br&gt;
dakte, dān kēnou ryntandum neto Eurydicēstam &lt;br&gt;
iakurī ae! mnossi abdento engate. Tum pan&lt;br&gt;
abrat obtūre sinam agōdos spētos ankōlus&lt;br&gt;
duode, stagnīum Avernum hevlodēstam bāmbos sebitoste.&lt;br&gt;
Mena &quot;an dēs sisito dege es hete kondōrat, Orpheō,&lt;br&gt;
an sororros roga?&quot; thaere. &quot;Īde tath zurōnēs Mēsēs &lt;br&gt;
enēn labi, nollostam lārīē segē futi.&lt;br&gt;
Dānsi aheu: vōbitis dolītis taititis damosta &lt;br&gt;
roimē kylē hinai tera, ae hēv hes!&quot;&lt;br&gt;
palla segēn satērē, āmēae lapsāt &lt;br&gt;
setit plūnena, abterē luso, avitrē&lt;br&gt;
stothei biderīo, reor pallossīo penede &lt;br&gt;
sissyba tygne, baeron Orcne vade &lt;br&gt;
kondorgīa staura audam graedivagāre.
|}

{{footnote|1}} Usually ''kur''.&lt;br&gt;
{{footnote|2}} Usually ''dento''; ''ab-'' for emphasis.&lt;br&gt;
{{footnote|3}} Not actually used by the Areth, here only for purposes of translation accuracy.

==Modern Arithide==

===Social Contract: Artrem Etilidas===

The following is a translation of the first paragraph and a footnote of Chapter 4, Book 4 of ''Du contrat social'' by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | French
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Arithide
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Phonetic
|-
| width=33% valign=top | Nous n’avons nuls monuments bien assurés des premiers temps de Rome ; il y a même grande apparence que la plupart des choses qu’on en débite sont des fables* ; et en général la partie la plus instructive des annales des peuples, qui est l'histoire de leur établissement, est celle qui nous manque le plus. L’expérience nous apprend tous les jours de quelles causes naissent les révolutions des empires; mais comme il ne se forme plus de peuples, nous n’avons guère que des conjectures pour expliquer comment ils se sont formés.

* Le nom de ''Rome'' qu’on prétend venir de ''Romulus'' est grec, et signifie force ; le nom de ''Numa'' est grec aussi, et signifie ''Loi''. Quelle apparence que les deux premiers rois de cette ville aient porté d’avance des noms si bien relatifs à ce qu’ils ont fait?
| width=33% valign=top | Rik ou Roma ne lesim nevos in peribale fensegrēs eg nieve; dairusa lethēs a sēholē librengēs* he balvalos myra lepsere; on, lefkithē, nabathereryns ablum in sagsissastim tikos, antopoi ethūstaroris soestos, ou othrakastere. Davartos pannatē heiravaes in verkonnegtēs a zeike silos eg karsi; sina eri nabatherēs ou thūstimeve van, rik ou nossenim a thūste roithos paro verim febradei bale.

*''Roma'' meta ''Romulus'' o avene pathryns illos ou Hellenero ''didekos'' meta julle; ''Numa'' meta illos ou sines Hellenero ''dīmotos'' meta julle. Sit allas in irīga des oin ja irō agna lethēs sūs ognē filamos sena illos eg souna balvalos ou isseda?
| width=33% valign=top | rik u: 'roma ne 'lesim 'nevɔs in pe'ribəle 'fɛnsjere:s je 'nieve; 'dairɯsa 'leθe:s a 'sjɛhole: li'brɛŋge:s he 'balvəlɔs 'myra 'lɛpsəre; on, 'lɛfkiθe:, na'baθəryns 'ablʉm in sag'sisastim 'tikɔs, 'antəpei eθy:stə'roris 'sɔistɔs, u: oθrə'kastəre. da'vɔ:tɔs 'pannate: 'hi:rəvais in fɛ:kə'nɛkte:s a 'dzi:ke 'silɔs je 'kɔ:si; sina 'eri na'baθəre:s u: 'θy:stimeve fan, rik u: 'nɔsənim a 'θy:ste 'reiθɔs parə 'verim febrə'di: bale.

*'roma meta 'rɔmulus o 'avəne 'paθryns 'ɪllɔs u: he'lenəro 'didəkɔs meta 'jʊlle; 'numa meta 'ɪllɔs u: sinɛs he'lenəro 'di:mətɔs meta 'jʊlle. sit 'allas  in i'ri:ga 'dezeiɲ ja i'ro: 'aŋna 'leθe:s sy:s 'ɔŋne: 'filəmɔs sena 'ɪllɔs je 'su:na 'balvəlɔs u: 'isseda?
|}

===Sinews of Peace: Valonin Tistēs===

This is a translation of an excerpt of Winston Churchill's ''Sinews of Peace'' speech, more commonly known as the ''Iron Curtain'' speech.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | English
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Arithide
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Phonetic&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory. Nobody knows what Soviet Russia and its Communist international organization intends to do in the immediate future, or what are the limits, if any, to their expansive and proselytizing tendencies. I have a strong admiration and regard for the valiant Russian people and for my wartime comrade, Marshal Stalin. There is deep sympathy and goodwill in Britain - and I doubt not here also - towards the peoples of all the Russias and a resolve to persevere through many differences and rebuffs in establishing lasting friendships. We understand the Russian need to be secure on her western frontiers by the removal of all possibility of German aggression. We welcome Russia to her rightful place among the leading nations of the world. We welcome her flag upon the seas. Above all, we welcome constant, frequent and growing contacts between the Russian people and our own people on both sides of the Atlantic. It is my duty however, for I am sure you would wish me to state the facts as I see them to you, to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe.

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an &quot;iron curtain&quot; has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | Jegē lynmyrin irnnos ibat rynna pymmenaerinn i tormos a kossina. Jegenai um Sovietidas Russein nam nossin Komynistim graedimyrim saraftheros a tagus lethos, nit nossenimin kelepsare nam demnorathe hindarioris onēs eg, senun do, pandaideos ou keieve. Russe andekim ounai nam ravatnevyns daefil ita Ankromon Stalīn i, dou didekim saranos nam thavemos eg sene. Britanum ou – nam sines okūm meta hesse – pan Russinēs in ounaēs i ryrim opsaelos nam perydeiros eg seno, sines nevissim filinos eg thūstari nevum pou obagnēs nam gennēs eg konauttoite verhessos eg sene. Doech orodir in pan balvalos eg makrarebat iravim menhisas um pessiere meta Russidas oneros eg vertygne. Ilethes in hatōgim myrēs neri ne sounula kompulos i Russein eg enyste. Asērinn i nin kaed eg enyste. Pan bisinn, Russe ounai pyn denim Atlantarin despidarum in ounai in verabatim, ivelim nam pouari lyntopēs eg enyste. Sina lougos sene: siai bat tygne opsinig sempos eg noktei deiresit entig hē van, Eurōp um legim kallos paro ne sene sempos eg siarai.

Baltasum Shchetsīn o Adriatasum Trst i ou sēhalag i graetē “frasae vorhaung” a kossina. Sit hisos fūrd um Moist nam Oulava Eurōpin korim myrēs in hatollas a souble. Varshava, Berlīn, Praha, Vīn, Budapest, Beograd, Bukureshti nam Sofja; panokin illosseni allas nam nossenim dol in zierindos a illumore Sovietidas likutas iri souble, nam panos a, evegkim bonos ibat, evverirē Sovietidas verjoulevn i, sina Moskva o ne laetinig es sennevē pouari saraftopos i issesit.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | jege: 'lymmyrɛ̃ 'ɪ:nnɔs ibat 'rynna 'pymmənairinnʉ i 'tʰœ:mɔs a 'kɔssɨna. je'genai ʉm sovi'etʰidas 'russi:n nam 'nɔssɛ̃ 'komynistʰim 'graidɯmyrim sa'rafθərɔs a 'tagʉs 'leθɔs, nit 'nɔsnimɛ̃ kə'lɛpsəre nam 'dɛmnəraθe hində'rioris 'one:s je, 'senʉn do, pan'dedeɔs u: 'kʰi:eve. 'russe 'andəkʰim u:nai nam ra'vatnəvyns 'daifɪl ita 'aŋkrəmɔ̃ 'stali:n i, du: 'didəkim 'sarənɔs nam 'θavəmɔs je sene. 'britənʉm u: - nam sinɛs 'oky:m meta 'hɛsse - pan 'russines in u:najes i 'ryrim ɔp'sailɔs nam pe'rydɪrɔs je se'no, sinɛs 'nevissim  'filɯnɔs je 'θy:stəri ne'vʉm pu: 'ɔmbaŋnes nam 'gɛnnes je konot'teite fɛ:'hɛssɔs je sene. dɔiʧ 'ɔrədir im pam 'balvəlɔs je ma'krarəbat  'iravim 'menisas ʉm pe'siere meta 'russidas 'ɔnərɔs je 'fɛ:tʰyŋne. i'leθez in ha'to:gim 'myres neri ne 'su:nɯla 'kɔmpɯlɔs i 'russi:n je 'enyste. a'se:rinnʉ i 'nɛ̃ kaid je 'enyste. pan 'bisinnʉ, 'russe 'u:nai pʰỹ 'denim at'lantərɛ̃ dɛspi'darʉm in 'u:nai in ve'rabətʰim, 'ivəlim nam 'pʰuari 'lyntəpes je 'enyste. sina 'lu:gɔs 'sene: si'a.i bat 'tʰyŋne 'ɔpsinej 'sɛmpɔs je 'nɔktʰi: 'di:resit 'ɛntej he: van, 'europ ʉm 'legim 'kɔllɔs 'paro ne 'sene 'sɛmpɔs je si'arai.

'baltasʉm 'ʃʧɛtsi:no adri'atasʉm 'tr̩sti u: 'sjɛhalaj i 'graite: 'frasai 'fɔʁhɔŋ a 'kɔssina. sɯ'tʰisɔs 'fʏ:dm̩ 'meist nam 'ulava 'europɛ̃ 'kɔrim 'myres in 'hatœlas a 'su:ble. var'ʃa:va, bɛɐ'li:n, 'praha, 'vi:n, buda'pɛʃt, 'beograt, bu'kurɛʃtʰi nam 'sofja; 'panokɛ̃ i'losəni 'allas nam 'nɔsnim dœl in 'dze:rindɔs a ɪl'lu:məre sovi'etʰidas 'likɯtas iri 'su:ble, nam 'panɔs a, e'vɛkkʰim 'bonɔs ibat, ɛv'verire: sovi'etʰidas 'vɛ:juljɔ:ni, sina 'mɔskva o ne 'laitʰinej ɛs 'sɛnnəve: 'puari sa'raftəpɔs i 'issesit.
|}

===Les feuilles mortes: Revēs Ossim===

The following is a translation of Yves Montand's famous song.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | French
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Arithide
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Phonetic
|-
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | Oh, je voudrais tant que tu te souviennes&lt;br&gt;
Des jours heureux ou nous étions amis.&lt;br&gt;
En ce temps-là, la vie était plus belle&lt;br&gt;
Et le soleil plus brûlent qu'aujourd'hui.

Les feuilles mortes se ramassent à la pelle&lt;br&gt;
Tu vois, je n'ai pas oublié&lt;br&gt;
Les feuilles mortes se ramassent à la pelle&lt;br&gt;
Les souvenirs et les regrets aussi.

Et le vent du nord les emporte&lt;br&gt;
Dans la nuit froide de l'oubli.&lt;br&gt;
Tu vois, je n'ai pas oublié&lt;br&gt;
La chanson que tu me chantais...

C'est une chanson qui nous ressemble&lt;br&gt;
Toi tu m'aimais, et je t'aimais&lt;br&gt;
Nous vivions tous les deux ensemble&lt;br&gt;
Toi qui m'aimais, moi qui t'aimais.

Mais la vie sépare ceux qui s'aiment&lt;br&gt;
Tout doucement sans faire de bruit&lt;br&gt;
Et la mer efface sur le sable&lt;br&gt;
Les pas des amants désunis.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | Ō, ao sofionēs hē ria natēs eg&lt;br&gt;
Fenesunei ognē deire.&lt;br&gt;
Sit nevum, legnatō ra arie ou rīsoreri&lt;br&gt;
Nam simar ou lasioreri.

Revēs ossim ou tauvol ibat sthere&lt;br&gt;
Tygnura, abyssav&lt;br&gt;
Revēs ossim ou tauvol ibat sthere&lt;br&gt;
Eg fenesēs sines perhistēs.

On mar loityns nossenimeg ave&lt;br&gt;
Neig taite abyssyns um.&lt;br&gt;
Tygnura, abyssav,&lt;br&gt;
Ao dei koeri kore eg…

Denim eg opsine kore hē,&lt;br&gt;
Aou deg sofii, nam dou ag sofii.&lt;br&gt;
Denim ou verdesē bat soni,&lt;br&gt;
Deg sofii aos, ag sofii de.

Sina arie ou kesofionēs eg optage,&lt;br&gt;
Rea kinnē, jou nie.&lt;br&gt;
Nam as a aratum in&lt;br&gt;
Ebreronerin tos eg niare.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''(tbc)''
|}

===Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat: Ersag, Abrad, Nīs nam Buos===

This is a translation of an excerpt of Winston Churchill's ''Blood Toil Tears and Sweat'' speech.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | English
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Arithide
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Phonetic
|-
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | I say to the House as I said to ministers who have joined this government, I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many months of struggle and suffering.

You ask, what is our policy? I say it is to wage war by land, sea, and air. War with all our might and with all the strength God has given us, and to wage war against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the dark and lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy.

You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word. It is victory. Victory at all costs - Victory in spite of all terrors - Victory, however long and hard the road may be, for without victory there is no survival. Let that be realized. No survival for the British Empire, no survival for all that the British Empire has stood for, no survival for the urge, the impulse of the ages, that mankind shall move forward toward his goal.

I take up my task in buoyancy and hope. I feel sure that our cause will not be suffered to fail among men. I feel entitled at this juncture, at this time, to claim the aid of all and to say, &quot;Come then, let us go forward together with our united strength.&quot;
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | House i ou ok therepsyrros i kelyna midrēs iena palle: skaribale lethos ou verim ersag, abrad, nīs nam buos. Rikin ultum ou kantadurastim polyns stritos eg sene. Rikin ultum ou rea, rea pou gaeēs in irithos nam penadir eg sene.

Ao thaere: rikin thereptropos ou anda? Turai, asia nam sahia bat vertoitei meta palle. Rikin pan toros ibat nam Feos a rikei kala didekos ibat ou ravat, nam iterim vokir in skyst nam sultula thereseger i ninevē bisagna safiresim retherir isae vertoitei. Sit ou rikin thereptropos hē.

Ao thaere: rikin sytos ou anda? Ir rem ibat klusibale. Irnnos hē. Andaroithē irnnos – pan safir in abtur i irnnos – sinon dum ou andē massere gennere, irnnos asad ou latharie ou nie van. Sit ou saberesit. Britanidas Heiravas i ou nia latharie, Britanidas Heiravas a relevta lethos i ou nia latharie, iteria a poidos ira ultivagai meta ōrekyns teranos, karindos i ou nia latharie.

Ouros nam pons ibat tielet eg kontagei. Iter neri rikin poidos a assiraresitev meta entig saele. It roros, ok hirin i ou mesinnim saele, i panyns dyge eg krēpei nam i pallei: “Ilā, rikin irara didekos ibat til ultivaguta.”
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''(tbc)''
|}

===Living with a strong Russia (Economist, Jul 15th): Didekim Russein itel sonei===

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | English
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Arithide
! bgcolor=&quot;#dfdfdf&quot; | Phonetic
|-
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | FORGET the formal agenda at this weekend's G8 summit, given over to energy security, infectious diseases and education. The really awkward issue for the leaders of the seven rich democracies gathering in St Petersburg concerns their host: how to live with a strong, but increasingly undemocratic, Russia.

Since Vladimir Putin became president in 2000, Russia has in many ways been a remarkable success. Thanks largely to high oil prices, its economy has grown by an average of 6.5% a year. Living standards have improved and a sizeable middle class has emerged. The stockmarket has boomed. Russia is running a huge current-account surplus, it is paying off the last of its debt and the rouble has just been made fully convertible. At the summit Russia also hopes to surmount the last hurdles to its joining the World Trade Organisation.

Russians are grateful for these things. They like the stability that Mr Putin has brought in place of the chaos under his predecessor, Boris Yeltsin. They welcome their country's bounceback from the dark days of August 1998, when it defaulted and devalued. They are proud that, as the summit demonstrates, Russia once more counts for something in the world. No wonder Mr Putin has a popularity rating in the 70% range—an achievement that none of his guests can match.

Yet as well as these steps forward Russia has taken steps backwards (see article). In Mr Putin's early years optimists hoped that stability and prosperity would not come at the expense of liberty and democracy. Western leaders gave him the benefit of their doubts over such matters as the war in Chechnya or curbs on the media. But it has become ever clearer that Russia is moving in the wrong direction. Greater state control of the economy, especially in the energy industry, has bred corruption and inefficiency. Any serious political opposition has been crushed. The broadcast media have been shut down or taken over by the government and its allies. Regional governors have been squashed—one of the last elected governors was arrested recently—and parliament has been emasculated, continuing the Kremlin's drive not merely to centralise, but to monopolise, political power.

There is much debate over when Mr Putin started to go wrong. Many date it to the attack on Yukos, Mikhail Khodorkovsky's oil firm, that began three years ago this month; others say the clampdown started after the Beslan school siege in September 2004; still others point to the “orange revolution” in Ukraine at the end of 2004, when Russia's choice for president, Viktor Yanukovich, lost to the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko. In an irony of timing, only days before the summit, the Chechen terrorist who was responsible for Beslan, Shamil Basayev, was killed; and Mr Yanukovich re-emerged as a possible prime mini-ster of Ukraine.

Yet the truth is that there was no particular moment when Mr Putin “started to go wrong”. Even Kremlin insiders admit that he was determined from the outset to control the television channels and to stamp out political opposition. They concede that Mr Khodorkovsky is in prison for political reasons. Such things reflect Mr Putin's background as a KGB officer. To him, restoring order, staying in charge and reviving Russia's influence are what matter—not wishy-washy worries over democracy and human rights.

So what can the West do? The short answer is, not a lot. In the 1990s an economically enfeebled Russia needed help from abroad. Unless the oil price unexpectedly collapses, no such leverage will be available in the near future. Politically, too, pressure from outside is likely to rebound. With the Kremlin once again firmly in control, Russia will almost certainly change only from within—or not at all.

This is not to say that the West has no influence. Mr Putin, like other Russian leaders before him, is sensitive to outside criticism. The Kremlin was this week in high dudgeon because senior Western officials attended a conference in Moscow organised by some of Mr Putin's few remaining opponents. The Russians are also neurotically keen to curtail the activities of non-governmental organisations.

Here lie some clues to what Western leaders should and should not do about Russia. They should speak out against Mr Putin's moves away from democracy, against his policy in Chechnya, or against Russian use of energy to bully its neighbours (many west European countries have been too timid in their criticism). They should continue to help NGOs and others who are trying to establish a civil society that may, one day, provide an alternative to the dead weight of the Kremlin. As the next presidential election of March 2008 nears, they should insist that any move to amend the constitution so that Mr Putin can run again is unacceptable—and would result in Russia's expulsion from the G8. They should do what they can to press for free and fair elections, even if the Kremlin's chosen candidate seems sure to win.

There are things they should not do, as well. Russia's membership of the G8 may be an embarrassment, since it is supposedly a club of democracies. But to throw it out now would only push Russia farther out of the West's orbit, and risk making it even less help-ful over such issues as curbing Iran's nuclear ambitions. Equally, Americans and Europeans are right to assist countries in Russia's near-abroad that want to escape its baleful influence. But to push for Ukraine or Georgia, say, to join NATO before they are ready would serve no good purpose. Above all, Western leaders should avoid giving the impression that what they really object to is not an illiberal and undemocratic Russia but a strong and rich one—a paranoia that even Russia's few remaining liberals all too often share.

Sixty years ago a wise American diplomat, George Kennan, proposed that the right policy of the West towards an expansionary Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin should be “containment”. Russia today is clearly no such threat. But it still matters, and the West should care about where it is going. The best policy now is no longer containment but “wary engagement”.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | Ok seirinyns G8 ōdonroutos um hortryns pessina, deumi aedrēs nam eremaros i rilakota esteilim agnesis eg abyssu. Sankt Pyoturburg um indalla ec morterim thellisgaerin latagonēs i nonnē habasserim alethos ou naremon paro hē: didekim sina pouari dosthellisgim Russein itel sonei roithos.

Vladimir Putin a 2000-innis um Rūthex i halla ōne, Russein ou pou sterēs i halare tagallos hē. Lefkithē laet ettilin rebat a eperybon o ene, nossin thethrepos a innis i duvorē 6.5%ē arifti. Sonyns antorēs a ultitoso talossene konēsenonia a danofta. Kostilisos non esheffyra. Russein a nonsyns kolossamos i verrea efrepos eg seno, kothtos eg ogoinikassum sinam roubel a jegē otortē kannagtebalaresta. Sinon ōdonroutos um Russein a Ilethes Kannagtos Myratheros i kelyne ismīga sangos eg kansarei deire.

Russīs ou panokēs eg perybe. Putin-ori a, ultoron ita Boris Jeltsin itand in hāorir eg relo, ava konthūstos eg dasie. Obgoinos nam agkollos in skystim natēs ita 1998-innis 8-gae o nossin myr in thyrbondos eg enyste. Hakōrere ou, ōdonroutos a verevte ena, i sena iruha a Russein eg stantos i Ilethes. Omōros fysē Putin-ori a 70% seni enysttapryns holos eg soune—sit ou nin feulēs a themda non kombebalev falyssos hē.

Sissinorum, okin ultine tosērin abtur i, Russein non fūrdine tosēs eg fala. Putin-ori ne lesim innēs um riōleionēs ou konthūstos nam vereriftos a elamdos nam thellisgos eg evrelo idelei deiri. Iravim latagonēs ou Chechnjomin ravat nit pyntoulos in kandelos solon meta lethērum inn nei tos eg haleta. Sina Russein a syndim stera i honi meta ōre silisere. Hortros abradias o fyre lepsorim syrroris thethrepos in sountagos a kanhelir nam okontagir eg fekta. Senun kontygne allisgim auffyros a hokouresit. Dairustoulos a nit fōgtesit nit therebos nam daefilēs ibat ibasolesit. Tirrarin lisgonēs a fyktesit—kontūda lisgonēs in ismīgerinos a jegē hardaresit—nam komposoras a nevelekesit, Kremlinin allisgim serros eg evverirē konindarei sina irētagarei verfyros a ansouni.

Putin-ori a symfyredakta nevos paro pou verposos eg sene. Pou a 3 innyns ultumin ok gae um dakta Mihail Hodorkovski-ne ettilkasan ine kovagos i parue. Essene a 2004-innis 9-gae ne Beslan ellas sakatos syba kompōgtos a dakte meta palle. Lē antos a 2004-inninos an Ukraenum in “anarin verkonnegtos” i diegme, i a Russein in Rūthexine elea eraenos ita Viktor Janukovich i Iravi-jegim Viktor Jushchenko luda nevos. Sparoris firrosum, ōdonroutyns verirē petrinatēs ansa, Beslan in egnidai, Chechen forrveleion ita Shamil Basajev, a tholesit, nam Janukovich-ori a Ukraenin bale hatōmidra meta iruha danofta,

Ahi sempe ou, Putin-ori a “symfyredakta” versenim hyrin eg nie. Kremlinin nerionēs non, irō kilotygnyns nelēs eg basolo allisgim auffyros eg ninokansarei kakemaneri meta kesabre. Hodorkovski-ori a allisgim febrerō ene karakum hē meta kalpalle. Ognēros ou Putin-ori ne KGB klatheston meta noftos eg thyrevte. Nei, stanti an ou datos eg ankarei, rethas um lestei, sinam Russinin verjoulevn eg ariarei meta lethos hē—thellisgos nam iterthropos parone narrim bastos hēv.

Ognē Irav a anda eg bale? Kes klusos ou, rea hēv. 1990-innēs an thethreporinn iroima Russein a myrdynō ne dyge eg lassi. Ettilinrebat a avanselegē konkossine haber, jegenai um ognyns asganos ou niai. Allisgim sines dynō ne verhastos a thyrbondebalessene. Kremlin a iruha basolos um didekē ikānabe, Russein ou aula ikeiē neriō haberē, nit brivē, avnegotai.

Irav ou verjoulevn a niei meta palliev. Putin-ori a, ultorim essena Russidas latagonēs ena, dynōne dusulpios i laessaelere. Kremlin ou, ok seir, Moskva um Putin-ori ne fysim lathi allisgonēs a konthera symposos i Iravim ōdommidrēs a astora van kandasere. Sinon Russein a dostherebenim sarafthererin agnēs eg koptei faedrissenē deirere.

Okūm Iravim latagonēs a Russein paro tagula nam tagavula leths isae faralos a souble. Putin-ori ne thellisgorō ne tosēs isae, Chechnjom in therebtropos isae, nit Russein a hortros ibat kauzinēs eg kavalli an isae dapallula (pou iravum-Eurōpin myrēs a dusulpios um os roeri). DTS solon, Kremlinin ōsstantos i solnerus eg segarebali erema etilia eg ethūstaretori itrēs i, dyge eg kalula. 2008-innis 3-gae ita kolore rūthegei ne kontūdos a jegeni nevum, Putin-ori a iruha iraenebale sytei dīmotremeg in andon segrnegtetoros a dusissestebale meta kompallula, meta G8ō ne Russineg in haberos i hallei. Kremlinin eraenos a ikeiē irnnebalun do lamdim nam esallim kontūdēs eg verthaerei serros eg konsagula.

Tagavula lethēs non sene. Thellisgaerin indallos hūla ita G8 um Russinin rindoros a arigonos hēsina, lum daboligun do verirē Iravin rorivagos o lēmakraro, Iranin aksmin napen parone dekeros eg onorei solon alethēs isae fysorē sagsissim hallarei safir eg sene. Valē, Amerikēs nam Eurōpēs a Russinin jegim myrdynum in, halannim verjoulevn eg fyrus myrēs eg dyge an ou mānere. Sina, Ukraen nit Diarrdia ena eg mithere ansa NATO i kelynei fossei ou nia poidos eg sakes. Pan bisinn, Iravim latagonēs a, nonnē auffyre an a olamdim nam dosthellisgim Russein avho didekim nam morterim nos hē meta rakos eg avkaletore—sit ou Russinin fys lathi elamdeleionēs myra ivelē saele dolforrvir hē.

Zassol innyns ultan setāvim Amerikim oeler ita Diarrgi Kenen a, Josef Stalīn itand um kelepsarii Soviet Irarmyr i Irav in sakse therebtropos a “onoraros” hē meta segarpalle. Omnat Russein ou signyns jaradir silisē hēv. Sina stantos eg este seno, Irav non nossin ivagas paro kakessula. Lum in etim therebtropos ou aska onoranos avho logidi telkoloros hē.
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''(tbc)''
|}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Sample Texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rushalya river</title>
    <id>2954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15703</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T07:00:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Agriculture and Fishery */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Rushalya river {[[Mirselec]] ''Rushalya ainos'') is a river in [[Masalne]] which flows through the [[Feladmena Plain]]. It is one of the most important and culturally significant rivers of [[Risevne]]; often known as the Great River or ''Matainos'', it was a central part of the nation's agricultural economy and figures heavily in literature and art.

==Geography==

==Human History==

==Economic Importance==

===Agriculture and Fishery===

Flowing through some of the most fertile land in all of Masalne, the Rushalya's historical title of ''Matainos'' came partly from its importance to the economy of the area. The Rushalya's drainage basin includes nearly three quarters of the [[Feladmena Plain]], from the south of [[Feladmena Province]] north to [[Horeston Province]]; and as a result the river and its tributaries are some of the most tapped rivers for irrigation canals. Over the centuries thousands of canals were built in the area to carry water from the river into a large system of holding ponds, which served both as centres of aquaculture as well to hold water in the dry season when the Rushalya can recede to half its normal flow.

===Industry and Transport===

==Cultural Significance==

===Art===

In Risevan art, the Rushalya at [[Varulsekaya|Hunter's Gorge]] is one of the [[Five Great Scenes of Risevne]], seen as the representative of &quot;Strong Flows and Deep Silences&quot;. Besides this many other views of the Rushalya are also popular themes in painting and sculpture.

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Izuriwa Park</title>
    <id>2955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16248</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Izuriwa Park''' is a park situated in Precinct 2 of the [[Radungai District]], forming part of the [[Furinalmi]] neighbourhood. While small for a city park, at least in comparison with areas like the [[Royal Outer Gardens]] or [[Tanabina Park]], its location near many prestigious high schools, the Library Block, as well as [[Sansertha College]] of the [[University of Isana]], makes it a very well-known and popular spot for students and youth. 

==Site and History==

==Significance==

[[category:Parks of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tanabina Park</title>
    <id>2956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-01T16:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tanabina Park''' is a public park in the west of [[Isana]], around the area known as Tanabina Ponds. One of the largest parks in the city, and a relatively new one, the park covers an area of around 2.9 square kilometres. The park is named after the [[Tanabina]] tree, groves of which are planted all around the park in view of its history. The park is under the administration of the [[Isana Parks and Public Spaces Department]].

==Site and History==

Tanabina Park straddles Precincts 2, 3 and 5 of [[Olmedor District]] in the western half of the city, and is joined by a series of ponds and artificial streams and rivers known collectively as the Tanabina Ponds. 

===Origins===

The history of the park, and of these &quot;ponds&quot;, is a unique one arising from the [[Fourth Global War]]. During that war, repeated bombings had completely devastated many neighbourhoods of western Isana, owing mostly to the dense and shoddily constructed buildings; the area that is now the park was one of the worst hit. During the postwar reconstruction, as special effort was taken to rebuild a more spacious city this time, the [[Izanosa Commission]] found itself hard-pressed for areas to build large parks in until they came across this area; on their recommendation the government hired [[Sharede Nisau]] and [[Ifesin Asav]] to design a park on the site in 1948.

The proposal to build a park on the site sparked considerable resistance from the public, as the area had once been residential land and many victims of bombing had been buried there during the bombings; nonetheless work began in 1949, with the compromise that any exhumed bones and remains would be cremated and placed within a [[shrine (Risevani)|shrine]] in the park. The huge craters left behind in the bombings, many of which had filled up with rainwater, proved an inspiration; they were drained and reinforced with concrete before being filled with water again, after which the largest ponds were joined by a series of streams to form a complete system winding through the park. This core project was completed by 1952, and by 1957 work on the landscapes was mostly complete; the next year, in March 1958, the park was formally opened to the public.

==Features and Situation==

Nowadays the park is one of the most popular and famous recreational areas in Isana; besides drawing  locals it is also becoming a tourist attraction. Constant efforts by the city administration to upkeep the park has kept it a highly pleasant public space, as well as an important historical reminder in the country.

===Design===

The park was designed by Sharede Nisau and Ifesin Asav, who were relative unknowns at that time; their proposal for the plan, however, caught the eye of both [[Solanmer Izanosa]] and [[Egeni Tayor]], the Chief Engineer and Chairman respectively of the [[Urban Regeneration and Planning Board]]. 


===Wildlife===

===Significance in the City===

==Buildings in the Park==

[[category:Parks of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Rewriteof</title>
    <id>2958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-02T16:08:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;messagebox&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CCFFCC;&quot;
|-
| &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;''This page is an ongoing rewrite of  [[{{{1}}}]] &lt;/div&gt;
|}

&lt;noinclude&gt;
   Cf. [[Template:Sectionrewrite]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Solanmer Izanosa</title>
    <id>2959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:29:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Solanmer Agante Izanosa''' (15 Naraus, 1912 - 26 Minasa, 1988) was a [[Risevne|Risevani]] architect, and one of the most famous architects of the 20th century. Besides individual buildings, he is most famous for being the chief planner of the committee responsible for the re-construction of west [[Isana]] during the 1950s and 1960s, according to a plan now known as the [[Izanosan Plan]] which is still evident in the city today.

[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isana Royal Outer Garden</title>
    <id>2960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-03T08:44:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Royal Outer Garden of Isana''', often known simply as the '''Royal Garden''', is a large park in the north of the city of [[Isana]], near the [[Risevan Royal Palace]]. It occupies an area of around 2.1 square kilometres, which is around three quarters of the total area of the Royal Gardens.

The Royal Outer Garden was previously undifferentiated from the Inner Garden until 1843, when by decree of [[Queen Niseina III]] this area was opened to the public. From 1843 to 1924 a fee was charged for admission, the proceeds going to the maintenance of the park itself; after that, however, the park was placed along with most other city parks under the governance of the [[Isana Parks and Public Spaces Department]], and admission became free. It is also well known for being the site of the [[Risevan Botanical Studies Institute]], one of the foremost botanical research institutes in the world.

==History==

===Origin===

===Opening===

===War and Post-War Years===

===New Roles in the new century===

==The Park Today==

===Wildlife===

===Events===

[[category:Parks of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Areas and Districts of Isana</title>
    <id>2961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T14:40:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* West Isana */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The city of [[Isana]] is divided into a total of 10 Areas, or Remis, which are in turn divided into  Districts, or ''dego'' (commonly abbreviated to -de). This forms the basic framework of the city's local administration, and was devised in 1926 in the aftermath of the [[Third Global War]], partly as a measure to allow greater autonomy in reacting to crises within each area of the city.

The division into remis is unique to the three [[subdivisions of Risevne|province-level cities]] of [[Risevne]], and represents a greater autonomy of government for all the different remis; unlike some other cities, however, the division does not confer municipal powers upon the subdivisions, neither does it define them as separate cities: the City of Isana remains a single unit of administration. 

==Areas==

===East Isana===

E1. [[Awenhine remis|Bay East]]

E2. [[Hirsa remis|Port]]

E3. [[Hinegaes remis|Eastern Boundary]]

E4. [[Garnoye remis|White Fort]]

E5. [[Waranyebara remis|Waranye and North]]

===West Isana===

W1. [[Awenkara remis|West Bay]]

W2. [[Nimegose remis|South Coast]] 

W3. [[Karagose remis|West Coast]]

W4. [[Zaumir remis|Palace]]

W5. [[Basetimena remis|Baseti Plain]]

[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Rivers of Risevne</title>
    <id>2962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:33:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category lists the rivers to be found in [[Risevne]].

[[category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five Great Scenes of Risevne</title>
    <id>2963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15156</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T14:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Five Great Scenes of Risevne''' (Mirselec ''Bo te Matgaroge''), also known as the five classic scenes, refer to five natural scenes on the islands which are famous for their natural beauty, as well as their representation in classical Risevan art. 

The five places are:

* [[Varulsekaya]], or Hunter's Gorge, formed by the [[Rushalya river]] in [[Ofalna Province]]

* [[Lake Onetre]], in [[Besurgana Province]]

* [[Mantebara Waterfall]], formed by the [[Adterge river]] in [[Besurgana Province]]

* [[Sasabachorma]] (Mount Sasabac) and [[Gaikretahorma]] (Mount Gaikreta), in [[Atastarne Province]] 

* [[Agero ta Kasuren]] (Cliffs of Agero), on [[Nema Island]] in [[Bifeno Province]]

The five great scenes each have their own specialties, which are seen as embodiments of certain skills in painting; for example the Varulsekaya represents &quot;Strong Flows and Deep Silences&quot;, in terms of the flow of the river through the narrow gorge as well as the silence of the gorge and of the river below the gorge, while the two mountains represent &quot;Implication of the Form&quot;; since they are nearly identical, their relative placement in paintings is seen as a matter of depicting what surrounds them, an expression of the attention to detail in Risevan art.

[[category:Famous Places in Risevne]]
[[category:Risevan culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Besrian catfish</title>
    <id>2964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Besrian catfish''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Bissora''''' {{IPA|['bissəra]}}) is a freshwater siluriform catfish native to the [[Theph river]] in the [[Arophania]]n [[Eastern Seaboard]]. Black-bodied with a white tail, the fish grows up to 1.8m and exceed 90kg in weight, but is usually caught while not fully adult, when it is little over a metre long and weighs just under 60kg, and believed to be when its flesh is at its tenderest and sweetest.

The largest Besrian ever caught, approximately a [[keth]] upstream from the industrial city of [[Regea]], measured 1.94m and weighed in at 106.6kg. Its skeleton is housed in the [[Oskana Museum]] in [[Rasoup]].

==See also==

*[[Fishes of the Theph river]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Flora and Fauna of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Everodes</title>
    <id>2965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:12:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Everodes''' {{IPA|[ɛ'vɛrədi:z]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Ebrudus Tor''''' {{IPA|['ebrɯdʉs 'tœ:]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Everodes Assis''''' {{IPA|[e'vɛrəde:s 'asis]}}) is one of the famous [[Barrier Lakes]] in the [[Alerryagi]] that divides the [[Arophania]]n continent east-west. 

It is the most popular of the lakes due to a combination of its (relative) accessibility and the proximity of tourist amenities, and is consequently the most in danger of pollution and environmental damage. It is also an important freshwater wetlands area; its eastern shore is relatively shallow for much of its length, and extensive beds of reeds and other semi-aquatic plants have taken up residence there, making the area an attractive breeding ground both for birds and fish; the small yellow fish known as [[Russau]] is a local delicacy. The reed beds, as well as the formerly extensive long grass and shrublands along the lake, have been under ever increasing pressure from development efforts.

In 1997 [[CIE]] the environmentalist non-governmental organisation [[Semanos]] successfully campaigned for the imposition of restrictions on ecotourism, leisure fishing, camping and other activities in a roughly 5km² nature reserve surrounding the lake.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barrier Lakes</title>
    <id>2966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T16:00:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Barrier Lakes''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Alim Torēs''''' {{IPA|['alim 'tœre:s]}}) are a famously scenic group of lakes along the southern [[Alerryagi]], from whose name they derive theirs; the English name is a literal translation from the Arithide.

==See also==

*[[Lake Charia]]
*[[Lake Rist]]
*[[Lake Everodes]]
*[[Lake Augars]]
*[[Lake Dumache]]

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Charia</title>
    <id>2967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:14:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Charia''' {{IPA|['ʃæriə]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Serein Tor''''' {{IPA|[se'ri:n 'tœ:]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Charia Assis''''' {{IPA|[ʃa'ria 'asis]}}) is the highest and consequently most remote, pristine and scenic of the [[Barrier Lakes]]. Thanks to its remoteness and inaccessibility, the lake, despite its beauty and ideal weather conditions, is not a popular tourist spot, unlike [[Lake Everodes]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Rist</title>
    <id>2968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:30:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Rist''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Rist Tor''''' {{IPA|['rist 'tœ:]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Rist Assis''''' {{IPA|['rist 'asis]}}) is one of the famous [[Barrier Lakes]] of [[Arithia]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Augars</title>
    <id>2969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Augars''' {{IPA|[əʊ'gɑ:z]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Augaros Tor''''' {{IPA|['o:gərɔs 'tœ:]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Augars Assis''''' {{IPA|['oga:s 'asis]}}) is one of the famous [[Barrier Lakes]] of [[Arithia]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Dumache</title>
    <id>2970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:32:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Dumache''' {{IPA|[du'mɑ:ʃ]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Domasia Tor''''' {{IPA|[do'maʃa 'tœ:]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Dumache Assis''''' {{IPA|[du'maʃ 'asis]}}) is one of the famous [[Barrier Lakes]] of [[Arithia]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CIE</title>
    <id>2971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-04T16:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common Iletheride Era]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Iletheride Era</title>
    <id>2972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-10T14:24:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Common Iletheride Era''' or '''CIE''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Rīgim Ōrekos''''' {{IPA|['ri:gim 'o:rəkɔs]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Aisso Vedeis''''' {{IPA|['essə və'ði:s]}}) is the system used in modern-day [[Ilethes]] to number successive years, and is analogous to the Earthling Common Era. The CIE takes reference to the [[Great Earthquake]] of more than 2,000 years ago.

The idea of a Common Era, i.e. an international, common system to number years in sequence, as opposed to esoteric and idiosyncratic national systems, was first mooted in what is now known as 1945 CIE, at an [[1945 Vallea Summit|international trade summit]] among whose aims was a vision to standardise international [[systems of measurement]], so as to promote cross-border trade, travel and employment. While other aims, such as a [[Korin|global currency]], failed to gain traction, harmonising [[Calendars of Ilethes|calendars]] appealed favourably to world leaders, and by 1947 CIE the [[Treaty of Louvessier]] was signed, establishing the Common Era and backdating 1 CIE to the year of the Great Earthquake.

==See also==

*[[Great Earthquake]]
*[[Eruption of Mount Eramena]]
*[[1945 Vallea Summit]]
*[[Treaty of Louvessier]]
*[[Calendars of Ilethes]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iryagi</title>
    <id>2973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21924</id>
      <timestamp>2007-05-27T02:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Iryagi''' {{IPA|['irjagi]}} is the second longest mountain range of [[Ilethes]], running for over 5,000km down [[Marcasia]], first southwestwards from [[Misia]] then turning southeast at [[Erdia]], dividing the continent two-thirds northwest and one-third southeast. The range is as narrow as 18km at its northern end, but as wide as 420km towards the continental interior. The range's northern continuation on [[Istheusia]] is known as the [[Taza-a Lami]], and its southern extension on [[Arophania]] the [[Alerryagi]]. The three ranges are collectively known in geology as the [[Western Boundary Mountain System]].

The world's highest, and most notorious peak, [[Mount Eramena]], sits along the southern Iryagi on its southeastern edge, overlooking the modern [[Arithia]]n province of [[Tannaea]].

==Name==

The name ''Iryagi'' derives from the [[Arithide language|Arithide]] word ''ryagi'', &quot;mountain range&quot;, from ''ryāg'', &quot;mountain&quot;, and simply means &quot;the I mountain range&quot;. There is still debate over the origin of the toponym &quot;I&quot;, especially over whether it bears any relation to the identical autonym of the [[Areth]].

==Geology==

The Iryagi were formed through crustal uplifting as the convergent [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] and [[Maellorian plate|Maellorian]] plates collided. The denser oceanic Maellorian slid under the lighter continental Marcasian, but, due to an unusually small difference in density between the two at the plate boundary (the western edge of the Maellorian has its own landmass), the subduction was particularly frictive, leading to much folding of the crust and sedimentation that gave rise to the mainly metamorphic rock of the range today. The great tension generated from the awkward and unwieldy collision was to provide the underlying cause for many disastrous future volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

==Climate==

The range is of a generally uniform climate of the temperate sort, with temperatures averaging 20°C and precipitation around 60mm, and serves as the border between the more temperate south and the warmer northern parts of the continent. Due to this congenial climate, the range is heavily forested, and vegetation is primarily of the deciduous type. Snow lines are typically absent in the north of the range, but may reach as low as 2,400m near [[Erdia]].

==See also==

*[[Mount Eramena]]
**1 [[CIE]]: [[Eruption of Mount Eramena]]
*[[Mount Akannaa]]
*1 [[CIE]]: [[Great Worldwide Earthquake]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Landforms of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alerryagi</title>
    <id>2974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T11:56:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alerryagi''' {{IPA|[a'lɛ:rjagi]}} on [[Arophania]] is the third-longest mountain range of [[Ilethes]], and is the southern component of the [[Western Boundary Mountain System]], continuing the course of the [[Iryagi]] on [[Marcasia]], interposed by the [[Chisthian archipelago]]. The source of three most important rivers in [[Arithia]], the range runs northwest-southeast down the continent, and continues into the [[Thorfu]] as the [[Tumides archipelago]], which represent the submerged peaks of the range's southern tip.

The Alerryagi is just over 2,600km long on land, excluding the submerged peaks of the Chisthian and Tumides archipelagos. Due to the nature of its formation the range is considerably wide, measuring almost 1,800km at its widest point to cover the entire eastern third of Arophania, which entire mountainous region is known as the [[Eastern Seaboard]]. Besides the Tumides, the [[Sissemen archipelago]] is considered by some geologists as part of the Alerryagi (see article).

==Geology==

Like the [[Iryagi]], the orogeny of the Alerryagi involved convergent tectonic plates, the [[Arophanian plate|Arophanian]] and, again, the [[Maellorian plate|Maellorian]], in subduction and folding processes, but with one major difference. While the Iryagi were straightforwardly formed by crumpling and sedimentation of plate-boundary crust with minimal volcanic involvement, the crustal uplifting that made the Alerryagi involved considerably the formation first of oceanic volcanoes along a highly active Wadachi-Benioff zone, due to the basaltic composition of the underlying magma (in contrast, the magma under the Iryagi is largely felsic).

The subduction of the Maellorian, denser than the Arophanian due to its largely oceanic nature, had two simultaneous effects: first, the edge of the Arophanian plate crumpled and folded to rise above sea level as new mountains; second, increased volcanic activity on and under the Maellorian plate gave rise after repeated eruptions to an undersea lava plateau, which eventually surfaced, due to further tectonic lift, and became the modern [[Nimaean plain]]. The inland sea that existed around the Nimaean plain in the early stages of its formation disappeared to evaporation and percolation, remaining today only in the higher reaches of the Alerryagi as the [[Barrier Lakes]].

===Hallaryagi===

{{main|Hallaryagi}}

The Hallaryagi are a southwest-branching sub-range of the Alerryagi, stretching from approximately halfway down the latter towards the southern coast, near which it tapers off. It is believed that the Hallaryagi arose from a fracture in the [[Arophanian plate]] caused by the extreme stress originating from the plate boundary with the [[Maellorian plate]].

==See also==

*[[Plate tectonics (Ilethes)]]
*[[Arophanian plate]]
*[[Maellorian plate]]

*[[Eastern Seaboard]]
*[[Nimaea]] and the [[Nimaean Plain]]
*[[Mount Ammon]]
*[[Hallaryagi]]

*[[Theph river]]
*[[Nes river]]
*[[Varant river]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Landforms of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hallaryagi</title>
    <id>2975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T06:29:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hallaryagi''' {{IPA|[ˌhɔllə'rjagi]}} are a small mountain range in southern [[Arophania]] that arose from a fracture in the crust of the [[Marcasian plate]] originating from the extreme stress of the convergent plate boundary with the [[Maellorian plate]]. Running in a southwesterly direction from approximately the geographic centre of the continent, the Hallaryagi tapers off as it nears the [[Thorfu]].

The range is the source of the [[Sami river]], one of the important rivers of the [[West Arophanian plain]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Landforms of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maellorian plate</title>
    <id>2976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T12:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Maellorian plate''' {{IPA|[mə'lɔ:ɹiən]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Sallos Maellor''''' {{IPA|['sallɔs mail'lœ:]}}) is a tectonic plate lying to the east of [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]], and makes up part of western [[Istheusia]]. The plate is largely oceanic, constituting the [[Pelas Sea]] and most of the northern [[Auzirean Sea]], and hence denser than the continental plates on either side of it, but as large landmasses still sit atop it, such as the Arophanian [[Nimaean plain]] and the [[Sovodiz Range]] on Istheusia.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barhinegel District</title>
    <id>2977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T11:05:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Barhinegel Rego''', a portmanteau of &quot;Bara-Hine-Gelkan&quot; or &quot;North East Bay&quot;, is district one of the city of [[Isana]]. The site of the city's first port, in [[Gardaus Bay]], it is now the financial heart of the city, having undergone many rounds of building and rebuilding in the late 20th century.

[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Marcasian plate</title>
    <id>2978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:14:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Marcasian plate''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Sallos Marcasseini''''' {{IPA|['sallɔs mɔ'kassɪni]}}) is the continental tectonic plate that carries the continent of [[Marcasia]], as well as half the [[Chisthian Sea]] to the south, and most of the [[Artya]] to the north. It is bounded on the east by the oceanic [[Maellorian plate]], with which it shares a destructive convergent boundary, on the west and south by the [[Canthauresian plate|Canthauresian]] and [[Arophanian plate|Arophanian]] plates respectively, with both of which it shares constructive divergent boundaries&amp;mdash;with the latter the result has been the [[Chisthian Sea]] and the [[Ingas archipelago]], while the former the [[Gileican Islands]].

The northern boundaries of the Marcasian plate are unverified.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Geology of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:41:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists pages relating to the geology of the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category:Geology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gileican Islands</title>
    <id>2980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17580</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-22T05:27:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gileican Islands''' {{IPA|[dʒɪ'li:kən]}} (lit. &quot;winter islands&quot;; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Gileicuno Eidis''''' {{IPA|[ʒi'li:kɯnə 'i:ðis]}}) are a chain of volcanic islands east of [[Dethria]] and belonging thereto, at the divergent plate boundary between the [[Canthauresian plate|Canthauresian]] and [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] plates. While geologically young, the islands are already densely settled by wildlife; since discovery in 1946 [[CIE]], the area has been off-limits to human settlement and activity other than scientific research.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Islands of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Dethria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garnoye</title>
    <id>2981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17170</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-06T03:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural Impact */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Garnoye''' (Mirselec for &quot;White Fort&quot;) is a famous castle in [[Risevne]], sited in the northeast of city area E3 of [[Isana]] (which is also called [[Garnoye (district)|Garnoye]]). Situated on top of the hill known as [[Nortekone]], or Swallows' Hill, it was once a crucial node in the defence of the city,  dominating both the [[Rushalya river]] and the eastern land approaches into Isana. 

Despite its present name, which derives from its brilliantly whitewashed walls, the fort was neither whitewashed nor named Garnoye in the past; before the [[1727 Rebellion]] the fort was called Nortenoye, &quot;Swallows' Fort&quot;. The fort was painted white in 1731, and officially renamed in 1732. Now, Garnoye is a global symbol of Isana city, representing its historical side which the eastern &quot;Old City&quot; embodies.

==History==

Archaeological records have shown that the hill of Nortekone has been a site of fortification ever since the advent of large-scale settlement in the [[Feladmena Plain]]; the oldest evidence of fortification in that area is a stretch of brick wall and several other remains tentatively dated to around 500 BDN. 

===Origins of the present fort===

The first mention of the fort of Nortenoye dates to around 475 DN, when the [[Annual Chronicles of the Sovereigns of Masal]] states that ''Admiral Suga broke the fleet of rebellious bandits under the fort of Nortenoye, killed their leaders, and took 900 heads''. As the city of Isana grew and became the royal capital for the [[Kingdom of Masal]], the hill was also recognised as an important checkpoint and over successive reigns the hilltop fort was extended.

Archaeological excavations show that the first Nortenoye was built in the classic pattern of Masalan castles, known as the Keep and Wings style. The centre of the fortification was a keep, situated on the northeast of the hill, and to its west and south walls led to the side fortifications, which are smaller towers armed with shooting platforms. The whole complex was then surrounded with two walls - a stone wall, parts of which still exist and have been incorporated into the inner wall of the present fort; and a wall of timbers.

===Expansion and War===

===Decline under the Kingdom===

===The Symbol of the Council===

===Restoration and Revival===

==Design and Geography==

The present castle is the result of several rounds of expansion, decay, and restoration, of which the most impressive must have been the construction of the new main keep which was completed in 1430 after six years of work. The main keep sits on a foundation of stones and bricks, rising 32 metres above the hill, from which the stone and wood of the keep tower rises five more storeys; at the summit of the tower is a room with bronze bells, gongs and horns, used probably for organising the defence of the keep in case of assaults.

==Present Situation==

The whole complex of Garnoye Castle, as well as the hill itself, now form [[Garnoye Park]], while the main keep of the castle is the site of the [[Garnoye Museum]], focusing on artifacts from the late Royal, [[Committee of Guardians]], and early post-Restoration periods. Despite being named a park, the Garnoye complex in fact is split into several areas and privately managed; admission costs 41 [[Mirin]], and attractions include daily displays of archery, horsemanship, swordsmanship and many other crafts of the age of the Kingdoms. 

==Cultural Impact==

Garnoye is seen as one of the symbols of Isana, as well as of Risevne as a whole, and it is often referred to in fiction as well as popular culture. In a 2044 poll, the castle beat several other prominent areas of Isana such as [[King Sarus I Square]] and even the [[Risevan War Memorial]] and was named the Most Memorable Building of Isana. 

Garnoye is often referred to in literature, especially in modern times; in [[Erai Raldergye]]'s works, for example, the castle is often taken as a sign of the old order that was being challenged continuously in the [[Ibakizaro]]; while the famed war poet Captain [[Niro Basidas]] wrote of the walls in several of his poems, one of which - &quot;What if the Walls should not be White&quot; - is presently engraved in a bronze plaque at the main gate of the castle complex. As for ancient treatments of the Nortenoye as a literary subject, the present castle houses a pavillion where 72 famous poems regarding the castle are all engraved in bronze on the pillars.

In art, too, Garnoye is a popular and recurring image; the engraver and painter [[Surin Edinan]] produced a series of sixteen views of the central keep of Garnoye in 1766 (an act for which he was arrested and imprisoned by the [[Committee of Guardians]]), and since then that has been a popular way to depict the castle as well.

[[category:Castles of Risevne]]
[[category:Famous Castles]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ainzera river</title>
    <id>2982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-19T13:06:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Course */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ainzera river''' (Mirselec ''Ainzera ainos'') is a river in [[Masalne]]. 

==Geography==

===Course===

The Ainzera is one of the east-flowing rivers of Masalne, and its course lies wholly within [[Osagona Province]]. The river rises in the [[Mathormagos]], the central mountain range of [[Masalne]], and wends its way through several steep valleys before it reaches the coastal plain of the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]], where it then meanders before finally reaching the sea. The total length of the river is 227 km.

Due to the course of the river comprising mainly mountainous regions, the Ainzera is known mostly as a fast flowing stream and some of its valleys have spectacular scenery, where the river has cut steep gorges nearly 60 metres deep, flanked by caves and holes caused by wind erosion. Along its course there are several towns, mostly on the lower course along the coastal plain.

==Human History==

==Economic Importance==

===Agriculture and Fishery===

===Industry and Transport===

==Cultural Significance==

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Munirti river</title>
    <id>2983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15304</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-09T15:05:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural Significance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Munirti river''' (Mirselec ''Munerti ainos'') is a river in [[Risevne]], on the island of [[Agalmare]]. At 351 km, it is one of the longest rivers in the country. 

==Geography==

The Munirti is one of the few rivers on Agalmare, and the only major river, which empties into the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]] rather than into the [[Elaspegian Ocean]] on the other side. Its length is due to its highly circuitous course through the mountains, moving from valley to valley; first moving southeast from its source near [[Mount Asona]], it then bends westwards, then follows a long northwards loop that takes it past Mount Asona again before finally turning northwest and then west into the western coastal plain of Agalmare. Its entrance into the ocean is in [[Sonaira Province]], near the town of [[Henabu]].

For much of this course the Munirti is a swift, clear stream, and indeed during the summer stretches of it are well-known and popular white-water rafting spots; it also has several waterfalls, the highest of which is [[Ubagodo Falls]] where it falls around 33 metres over several stages. 

As the river enters the coastal areas, however, it becomes a much tamer and wider river, being nearly 40 metres wide and 2 metres deep at parts. Several towns either form along its banks or straddle it at this stage; from the mouth towards the source the major towns include Henabu, [[Nitile]] and [[Haraigegonama]], the provincial capital of Sonaira Province. Most of these towns are set up along the lower reaches of the river, where it was easily navigable and therefore useful as a transport route.

==Human History==

==Economic Importance==

===Agriculture and Fishery===

===Industry and Transport===

==Cultural Significance==

The Munirti River, as well as Mount Asona which it nearly encircles, is central to the culture of the [[Anabanganka]] people who are mostly concentrated in areas drained by the river, or the adjacent coast. Both these landforms are centres of religion for them, and are also linked by legend. 

The Anabanganka have the custom of cremating their dead, and as according to tradition the resulting ashes are often divided into three: the first portion would be kept at home, the second brought up to be scattered on the slopes of Asona, and the third to be scattered in the river. While the mountain is seen as the place of generation for the race, the river is viewed as its sustenance, and every year several [[Munawagorba|festivals]] are held along different spots of the river to honour it.

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lake Onetre</title>
    <id>2984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:28:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Cultural Significance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lake Onetre''' (Mirselec ''Onetregaide'') is a lake in [[Besurgana Province]], on the island of [[Masalne]]. It is one of the many high-altitude lakes found on both sides of the [[Masehormagos|Central Mountain Range]] on Masalne, but its beauty has made it one of the most famous of these lakes, as well as earning it a place amongst the [[Five Great Scenes of Risevne]].

==Geography==

The lake is a barrier lake, formed by lava dams from ancient eruptions blocking the course of streams and eventually creating a lake; in this case the lake is estimated to be around 370,000 years old, and was formed from a particularly powerful eruption of nearby [[Tatzerik]] volcano.

The lake itself occupies a valley around 330 metres above sea level, oriented east-west before bending north for its western third. In all the lake is around 9.5 kilometres long, and its width varies from around 180 metres to nearly 1200 metres. The water of the lake is around 16 metres deep on average, though in certain areas it reaches up to 68 metres deep. 

Surrounded by the relatively steep slopes of the eastern [[Mathormagos]], the lake nonetheless is flanked by plains, mostly on its north side and especially along the bend of the lake; that plain is the site of the town of [[Sepora]], which straddles the small river also called Sepora that drains into the lake.

==Human Impact and Importance==

The shores of the lake have been inhabited by people ever since around 1,800 BDN; the town of Sepora traces its founding date back to around 200 BDN. The remoteness of the lake did not stop people from visiting the area, both for leisure and to fish; the lake, fed by many small mountain streams and being quite deep, was home to several species of well-known food fish.

==Environment==

One of the prime factors that has allowed Lake Onetre to remain relatively pristine is its relative inaccessibility; even now there are not easy to reach the lake by any means, there being just two main roads that lead up to the area. Furthermore, in 1866 the lake was formally accorded a [[Royal Protected Natural Region]], and under the resultant regulations construction along the shores of the lake is heavily restricted.

==Cultural Significance==

Lake Onetre's extraordinary natural beauty earns it a place amongst the Five Great Scenes of Risevne, and scores of paintings have been done of the area over the centuries. Of the five scenes it is considered the most colourful, while the [[Sages' Pillars|strange rock formations]] on the north side of the lake are also famous as studies in form and shape. 

A famous convention in classical [[Risevan painting]] is to paint four pictures of the lake, each from a different season and a different angle; many famous studies of this type have been done, including one by [[Gelgor Surinban]] over 1834 and 1835, and another by [[Adresil Mude]] in 1954, of which the &quot;[[The Sages' New Pillar|Autumn]]&quot; painting is one of the most renowned Risevan paintings.

[[category:Reservoirs and Lakes in Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chisthian archipelago</title>
    <id>2985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:02:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ingas archipelago]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Islands of Ilethes</title>
    <id>2986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:00:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the islands of the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ingas archipelago</title>
    <id>2987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T11:13:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ingas archipelago''' {{IPA|['ɪŋgəs]}} or the '''Chisthian archipelago''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Ingassim Moeindos''''' {{IPA|[iŋ'gassim 'me.indɔs]}}) are a group of young islands located around the [[Issol A'i]] in the [[Chisthian Sea]] (hence the alternative name), caused by an active mantle plume along the divergent plate boundary between the [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] and [[Arophanian plate|Arophanian]] plates.

The major Ingas islands number fourteen, ranging in size from 2 to 13km², surrounded by more than 60 minor islets and rock outcrops that are mostly unnamed. While a few of the larger islands (e.g. the Amboi, Sortou and Klidhae islands) were once inhabited by fisherpeople, the archipelago is no longer populated, due to a number of factors such as migration to the metropoles following the advent of industrialisation, and the rise to dominance in the fishing industry of large commercial fleets, moored generally on mainland [[Audoria]] or [[Cadaeria]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Islands of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Istheusia</title>
    <id>2988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29430</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-01T10:06:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Istheusia''' {{IPA|[ɪs'θu:ʒə]}} ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Istheussein''''' {{IPA|[is'θu:si:n]}}; [[Dethric language|Dethric]] '''''Isthausan''''' {{IPA|[is'θo:sa:n]}}) is the easternmost continent of [[Ilethes]], as well as the biggest, longest, and most varied in terms of its climate, physical features and cultural landscape. The continent constitutes 35% of the total land area of the planet, but, owing to large areas of desert and advanced demographic trends, is responsible for only 13.4% of world population and falling. The western &quot;[[Head of Istheusia|Head]]&quot; of the continent is the site of one of the three [[Ilethes cradles of civilisation|cradles of civilisation]] of the world, and home to the [[Karyāba]], the oldest extant civilisation known.

==Etymology==

The English name ''Istheusia'' derives originally from the Dethric, but subsequently heavily influenced by the Arithide, owing to the greater wealth of information available about the continent in that language, due to centuries of contact. The Arithide name (which gave rise to the Dethric one) comes ultimately from the [[Carabaean language|an-Kiryeb]] ''Istyusi'' {{IPA|[istjo'si]}}, &quot;homeland&quot;. Hindsight reveals the Areth choice of source name to have been uncannily accurate: mitochondrial DNA traces the origin of every race back to west-central Istheusia.

==Geology==

The continent sits on an eponymous tectonic plate, the largest known plate to date, atop a rather fast-moving convection current that propels it more than 5cm a year against the [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] and [[Maellorian plate|Maellorian]] plates, from which results the crustal upheaval that has eventuated in the [[Taza-a Lami]] in the continental [[Head of Istheusia|Head]], and in the[[Kulyub Dur]] range on its southwestern coast. To the south the [[Arophanian plate]] pulls away from it, while the [[Sadon plate]] and the [[Naria plate]] subduct on its east to form the [[Abayan Trench]].

Istheusian rock, and consequently the magma on which it floats, is predominantly felsic: i.e. of high silica and aluminium content, which renders the lava of its volcanos viscous and quick to solidify. While this geological coincidence has created some of the tallest and most majestic volcanic peaks in the world, the occasional violent eruption is much more devastating (see [[1644 Eruption of Mount Kinaya]]).

==Land and climate==

==Territories and regions==

==Water==

===Oceans, seas &amp; straits===

===Rivers &amp; lakes===

==Ethnography==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Istheusia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arophanian plate</title>
    <id>2989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:13:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Arophanian plate''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Salla Araphenaph''''' {{IPA|['salla a'rafənaf]}}) is a tectonic of southern [[Ilethes]] atop which sits the continent of [[Arophania]], diverging from the [[Marcasian plate]] in the north, the [[Istheusian plate]] in the northeast and the [[Oriconi plate]] in the west, but subducting the [[Maellorian plate]] to the east. The general direction of drift is southeasterly, at a rate of under 2cm p.a.

Mineral content of the plate and its underlying magma is mainly basaltic, being rich in iron and magnesium. For this reason, lava from Arophanian volcanoes is generally fluid, tending to cover wide areas before solidifying; one such area is the [[Nimaean plain]], a lava plateau remnant from the orogeny of the [[Alerryagi]].

==Landforms==

===Alerryagi===

{{main|Alerryagi}}

===Hallaryagi===

{{main|Hallaryagi}}

===Ingas archipelago===

{{main|Ingas archipelago}}

===Hibondassian archipelago===

{{main|Hibondassian archipelago}}

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Dethria</title>
    <id>2990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:22:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the continent-nation of [[Dethria]] on the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Istheusia</title>
    <id>2991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-05T16:23:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles relating to the continent of [[Istheusia]] on the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Continents of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Sages' New Pillar</title>
    <id>2992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T04:59:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Sages' New Pillar''' (Mirselec ''Maiga ta Ori Histamir'') is a famous painting done in 1954 by the modern painter [[Adresil Mude]]; it is the Autumn piece of his series titled &quot;Studies of Lake Onetre, 1954&quot;. 

The angle of the painting is presumably from a boat near the [[Sages' Pillars]], the rock columns standing in the northeast of the lake. In 1945, a reconaissance aircraft crashed into the lake on a mission, killing the pilot; the plane landed sideways and one of its wings protruded above the water, where it stayed. The painting places this protruding wing as the centrepiece, and the titular new pillar amongst the stone pillars.

One of the most famous pieces of modern Risevan painting, this piece was exhibited all around the world over the past decades; the most recent show, from 2036 to 2039, took it to the cities of [[Garangen]], [[Vyrusa]] and [[Ordalon]]. On his death, Mude bequeathed all his unsold and collected works (which included the whole 1954 series save the winter painting, which was bought by the [[Kaim Museum]] in [[Merinmas]]) to the [[Isana Royal Museum of Art]], where it is kept on permanent exhibit when not touring.

[[category:Risevan culture]]
[[category:Famous Risevan paintings]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Victory Road</title>
    <id>2994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-06T02:40:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Victory Road''' (Mirselec ''Nairate Ryon'') refers to a road straddling [[Taibergute-dego]] and [[Taiberseimi-dego]] of [[Awenkara remis]], in [[Isana]], as well as the eponymous area formed by it and the streets branching off it. Flanked by parks, shopping malls and many historical buildings, Victory Road is considered one of the symbols of Isana, and is a famous tourist attraction and shopping spot. 

==History==

==Site and Situation==

The Victory Road itself is a 2.2 kilometre road, starting from [[Victory Square]] in the south, and extending to [[King Sarus I Square]] in the north; two other roads which are considered the boundary of the Victory Road area, namely [[Unification Road]] to the west and [[Bayside Boulevard]] to the east, run roughly parallel to the road, around 100 metres from it in both directions. The squares on either end of the road are internationally famous areas of Isana, and many city memorials are sited along Victory Road as well.

At its northern end the road extends into the [[Unifcation Memorial Park]], and is relatively forested; along the rest of its length the road is highly built up. As one follows the road from south to north the buildings tend to become older, including rows of 19th century shophouses and many large market-malls dating from the early 20th century, though there are also many new developments along the central stretch and farther north. The area is the undisputed shopping heart of Isana, but the wide pavements and many features of urban design - there are neither [[Isana Underground|Underground]] stations, nor many bus stops, on the road itself - mean that the road retains a certain spaciousness. 

The Victory Road is most famous for the long rows of [[Kaigi]] trees which are planted along its length; many of these trees now stand nearly 20 metres tall and are the focus of frequent prunings and management efforts. Besides this, however, the road also has many other unique features that mark it as a special street in the city; its wide pavements are paved with red and grey granite from Risevne, while its streetlamps and lights are ornate bronze pieces which are replicas of the original 19th century lights. Many sculptures, statues and monuments fill the roadside gardens and walkways, and the four major roundabout junctions all house huge fountain gardens on the traffic islands.

==Significance==

Every year on [[Victory Day|October 27]], the anniversary of the signing of the [[Fusalne Accord]], a major military parade takes place on the road. The [[Monarch of Risevne|Monarch]] inspects the parade personally, first in King Sarus I Square, and then in Victory Square where the Monarch then presents a wreath at the [[Risevan War Memorial]] and scatters flowers on the [[Risevan Shrine to the Unknown Soldier|Shrine to the Unknown Soldier]]. This parade is televised every year, as well as being watched live by tens of thousands of Isanani.

Victory Road, along with [[Asargas Boulevard]] in [[Awenhine remis]] and [[Osmanthus Gate Avenue]] in [[Zaumir remis]], is also a favourite general gathering spot of Risevani in general, whether to celebrate or for demonstrations.

[[category:Famous Roads]]
[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]
[[category:Major Roads in Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevan Shrine to the Unknown Soldier</title>
    <id>2995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-06T02:55:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Risevan '''Shrine to the Unknown Soldier''' (Mirselec ''Enobote Saura ta Nergami'') is a monument in [[Victory Square]], [[Isana]], dedicated to Risevan soldiers who fell in war and whose remains were not identified. The tomb in Isana contains not one but three soldiers; while their names and the battles where they fell remains unknown, one of them is known to have perished during the [[Third Global War]], while the other two fell in the [[Fourth Global War]]. 

==Site and Situation==

The Shrine to the Unknown Soldier is part of the [[Risevan War Memorial]] complex, a group of gardens and buildings at the southern end of [[Victory Road]] in [[Awenkara remis]]. Within these gardens that insulate the war memorial from the bustle of the surrounding city, the Shrine is one of the most isolated buildings, accessible only by a path through a grove of [[Tanabina]] trees. Within the complex the Shrine to the Unknown Soldier is one of two shrines, the other being the [[Shrine to the Valorous of Risevne]].

==History==

==Description==

The building is made of white granite quarried in Risevne itself, in a manner resembling a classical [[Risevan shrine]], and facing northwest (the normal direction for a shrine dedicated to the dead) on a 3.5 metre stone platform faced with black granite. Within the main building of the shrine the three soldiers are interred in sarcophagi of the same white granite, also facing northwest; the wall where they are facing holds a bronze sculpture by [[Tarsen Akarzei]], dedicated in 1952, which depicts a broken sword leaning against a flowering [[Musora]] tree (a traditional representation of valorous death in battle and youth, respectively). A marble plaque at the foot of the sarcophagi is inscribed with these words:

&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-style: italic&quot;&gt;
Here lies he of whom little is known:&lt;br /&gt;
Nor name, nor rank, nor the field where he fell;&lt;br /&gt;
But that he fought with valour&lt;br /&gt;
And fell at his post.

Though he is unknown, he is not forgotten:&lt;br /&gt;
This shrine remembers him&lt;br /&gt;
Who gave his utmost unto death&lt;br /&gt;
In the service of his King, his Nation,&lt;br /&gt;
His loved ones, and the cause of the just,&lt;br /&gt;
And all like him, in life and death.

Remember them too, with due honour;&lt;br /&gt;
And commit yourself likewise to peace and freedom,&lt;br /&gt;
As befits the memory of this fine soldier.
&lt;/div&gt;

==The Guard==

==See Also==

*[[Tanabina Park War Memorial]]

*[[Shrine to the Valorous of Risevne]]

*[[Golanbe War Cemetery]]

*[[Risevan War Memorial]]

*[[Victory Square]]

[[category:Memorials in Risevne]]
[[category:Memorials in Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Noma</title>
    <id>2996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T08:32:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Noma''' is a continent in the far north of [[Valmante]], and one of the most desolate and least densely populated areas in the world; it has an area of 3,835,900 square kilometres, but a population of only 6.6 million as of 2040 DN, mostly concentrated along the southern coast. 

[[category:Continents of Valmante]]
[[category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Osonde</title>
    <id>2997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T08:40:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Osonde''' is a continent in the northern hemisphere of Valmante, forming the eastern side of the continent known as [[Osorab]]. 

[[category:Continents of Valmante]]
[[category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rabas</title>
    <id>2998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15197</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T08:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Rabas''' is a continent in Valmante, which straddles the Equator and forms the larger of the two continents known collectively as [[Osorab]]. Forming a downward pointing triangle with three major peninsulas emerging from its western coast, it borders the [[Avinis Ocean]] on its east, the [[Sursinan Ocean]] on its west, and the [[Rabasoin Ocean]] on its north and northwest; to the northeast it is connected to the continent of [[Osonde]].

[[category:Continents of Valmante]]
[[category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Oritelgi reservoir</title>
    <id>2999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-06T14:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Oritelgi reservoir''' (Mirselec ''Oritelgi ferenalmi'') is a large reservoir, formed by [[Samelna Dam|damming]] the [[Oritelgi river]] and the resultant expansion and merging of the [[Oritelgi Ponds]], in southern [[Enimdanai Province]]. This reservoir is one of the central elements in the [[Rushalya Channelling Scheme]], as a store of water which it then releases into the [[Fosoge river|Fosoge]] and [[Raltani river|Raltani]] rivers.

The reservoir's area is around 82 square kilometres; in the normal and dry seasons its depth averages around 16 metres, with the deepest point at around 23 metres; during the wet season this depth can double as the excess flow of the Rushalya and [[Naidan river|Naidan]] rivers flows into the reservoir. During the 2018 storm season, a record number of storms moving over the headwaters of the two feeding rivers pushed the water levels up to nearly 57 metres, though it was still short of the 65 metre maximum allowance that the reservoir was built with.

==History==

==Human and Environmental Impact==

While the building of the reservoir was planned so as to minimise damage to the environment as well as to society around the area, a project of this scale nonetheless has had its effects. Nearly 2,800 people around the ponds had to be resettled, and the flooding of the ponds has meant the destruction of several areas of wetland which were important to migratory birds from [[Noma]], as well as species of flora and fauna along the affected slopes which were flooded.

After construction was finished, the ponds were then used as a stocking pond for many types of fish,    some of which have since followed the shunting canals into the Fosoge and Raltani and become invasive species. Sedimentation from the shunting canals into the rivers is also a problem; while it is relatively minor it has somewhat spoiled the clarity of the two rivers, which was formerly a draw for tourists attracted to the scenery of the eastern coast. 

On the positive side, though, the reservoir now serves as the central source of water for the province, and more importantly for [[Taluste]] and the cities on the eastern side of [[Feladmena Province]] and in [[Horeston Province]]. Besides it has itself become a major tourist attraction, with thousands of locals and foreigners alike coming to enjoy the scenery and fish. There are six companies now providing lake cruises and angling boats, and the lake is periodically restocked with fish. 

[[category:Major building projects in Valmante]]
[[category:Reservoirs and Lakes in Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>References to Earth in the design of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-15T17:54:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the design of the fictional planet [[Ilethes]], many '''references to Earth''', its physical characteristics and human landscape have been made, a list of which is provided below. The list is relevant as the planet is intended to be a critique of the human situation.

==Geography==

*The shifting course of the '''[[Or river]]''' in [[Erdia]], the homeland of the [[Areth]], is parallel to the shifting course of the [[Wikipedia:Yellow River|Yellow River]], the homeland of the Chinese.

*The width of the '''[[Issol A'i]]''', a heavily used strait vital to trade, linking the ports and industrial centres of south [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]], is 16km, equal to that of the [[Wikipedia:Singapore Strait|Singapore Strait]].
**The importance of the strait is parallel to the [[Wikipedia:Panama Canal|Panama Canal]], namely drastically reducing travel time between economic centres.

*The shape of '''[[Istheusia]]''', the origin of humans on Ilethes, is derived from that of Africa, as is the existence there of a large desert preventing north-south contact.
**The '''[[Head of Istheusia]]''' is parallel to the [[Wikipedia:Horn of Africa|Horn of Africa]]

*The land areas of [[Arithia]] and [[Dethria]] are, respectively, the average of the area of the U.S. and China, and the sum of Germany's and France's.

==Anthropography==

*The '''[[Areth]]''' are parallel to the [[Wikipedia:Han Chinese|Chinese]] in their culture, social structure, their developmental timeframe and their simultaneous predilection for commerce and esteem of scholarship.
**'''[[Arithia]]''' is parallel to [[Wikipedia:China|China]] in the sequence of its political structure (i.e. cities to empire to feudal kingdoms to unified republic) and the nature of its influence abroad (mainly through vassals and tributaries rooted in trade; currency, system of measurement, [[Lazeic alphabet|writing system]])

*The '''[[Tannaean language]]''' is a [[Wikipedia:Finnish language|Finnicised]] version of [[Wikipedia:Chinese language|Chinese]].

*The '''[[Karyāba]]''' are parallel to the [[Wikipedia:Arabs|Arabs]] in their culture and language, as well as their architecture.

*'''[[Pheism]]''' is drawn from two of the oldest of all mythological traditions, the Chinese and the Greek.
**The Pheide God of Mercy and Compassion '''[[Cora]]''' was modelled on the Buddhist/Taoist goddess and named after the Latin word for &quot;heart&quot;.
**[[Syracca]], the '''birthplace of Pheism''', was named after the tribe of the [[Wikipedia:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]], the [[Wikipedia:Shakya|Shakya]].
**'''[[Avalacia]]''', the region of [[Marcasia]] in which Syracca was located, was named after the Sanskrit word ''[[Wikipedia:Avalokiteśvara#Etymology|avalok]]''.
**The circumstances surrounding and the graduality of the conversion of the [[Lazeian Empire]] to Pheism parallels that of the [[Wikipedia:Roman Empire|Roman Empire]] to [[Wikipedia:Christianity|Christianity]].

==History &amp; Politics==

*The development of the '''[[Hagean Empire]]''' from the [[Hagean Alliance]] is parallel to the Greek [[Wikipedia:Delian League|Delian League]] of antiquity.

*The '''[[1935 Zesou Crisis]]''' is inspired by the 1935 Italian invasion of Abyssinia, and the 1956 [[Wikipedia:Suez Crisis|Suez Crisis]] (from the latter of which the crisis derives its name).

*The '''[[Cordial Alliance]]''' is a play on the pre-WW1 [[Wikipedia:Entente Cordiale|Entente Cordial]] that eventually became the Triple Entente.

*The '''[[Pisex Alliance]]''' created by the [[Pisex Treaty]] is a whimsical play on the name of the Polish capital, where the [[Wikipedia:Warsaw Pact|1949 defensive alliance]] was formed between the USSR and its satellites.

*The '''[[Tannaean Unionist Party]]''', an extremist right-wing party desirous of &quot;ever-closer union&quot; with [[Arithia]] and cessation of local government in Tannaea, is a caricature of the [[Wikipedia:Unionism (Ireland)|Northern Irish Unionists]].
**The '''riots''' it is suspected to have caused on the 21st of the seventh month in 1969 [[CIE]] parallel the [[Wikipedia:1964 race riots|1964 race riots]] in Singapore.

==People==

==Trivia &amp; Miscellany==

*'''Pänno Street''', where author [[Otäära Kotoka]] was murdered in front of a patisserie, is named for the Italian word for bread (''pano'').

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Issol A'i</title>
    <id>3001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-10T15:06:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Issol A'i''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] {{IPA|['issœl 'a.i]}}) or '''Strait of A'i''' is a narrow strip of water at the eastern edge of the [[Chisthian Sea]] separating the continents of [[Marcasia]] and [[Arophania]]. Measuring approximately 62km in length but only 16km across from [[Cape Beytes]] on its north shores to [[Cape Somorra]] on its south at its narrowest point, the 330m-deep strait is a rich fishing ground and a vital passage on the main trading routes between Marcasia, Arophania and [[Istheusia]]; it was by way of this strait that the [[Areth]] first arrived in [[Calagia]] from [[Erdia]].

Within 50km of the Issol A'i lie three historically very significant cities: on Cape Somorra, directly overlooking the strait, is [[Isphea]], the ancient [[Lazeian Empire|imperial]] capital; some kilometres up the [[Taphae-Nes river]] delta lies [[Lazea]], the Areth political, economic and cultural centre; on the opposite bank, little after the point where the strait opens into the [[Denurean Sea]], is the old city of [[Tannea]], fortress capital of the province of [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaea]].

==Names==

The '''Issol A'i''' is also called the '''Deis Atherris''' {{IPA|['ðe.is 'aθəris]}} in [[Dethric language|Dethric]], or the '''Kunpaana Sieka''' {{IPA|[kum'pa:na si.'eka]}} in [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]], both of which mean &quot;Strait of Constriction&quot; in the respective languages. In most other [[languages of Ilethes]], the name of the strait is simply borrowed or derived from the [[Arithide language|Arithide]]. The Arithide etymology of the name is uncertain.

==Formation==

The geological history of the Issol A'i is closely tied to that of the [[Western Boundary Mountain System]], along whose route it is sited. As the [[Maellorian plate]] pushed up against the [[Marcasian plate|Marcasian]] and [[Arophanian plate]]s to form the [[Iryagi]] and [[Alerryagi]] respectively, the crustal level around the location of the strait today rose significantly. The Marcasian and Arophanian plates subsequently accelerated their divergence, and the mountains at the plate boundary sank to form a narrow isthmus connecting the two continents. When sea levels rose due to the [[Iletheride warming]] 13 million years ago, the isthmus was submerged to form the Issol A'i, as the now submarine mountains sank further due to waterlogging and the weight of the sea on them, deepening the strait, which eventually reached its present depth of 330m. 

==Strategic significance &amp; importance==

Due to its strategic location at the centre of the three [[Old World (Ilethes)|Old World]] continents, [[Marcasia]], [[Arophania]] and [[Istheusia]], and as the only eastern exit from the [[Chisthian Sea]], the Issol A'i has played very significant and important roles throughout history.

===Rise of the Areth===

The [[Areth]], having very early settled on both shores of the Chisthian, by way of the strait, naturally came to dominate the area. The lack of large expanses of arable land pressured the Areth to turn to the sea, and the rich fishing grounds of the Issol A'i provided them with a natural centre of settlement. Subsequently realising the value of their location astride the major transport routes, the Areth capitalised heavily on it through developing, encouraging and stimulating trade, which was to be the mainstay of their economy for many years to come.

===Feudal struggle for control===
{{main|Battles of the Strait}}

In the years after the fall of the [[Lazeian Empire]], the successor feudal states fought frequently, and occasionally with disastrous results, over the Issol A'i and for control of the lucrative trade routes passing through it. Such battles usually involved tussles over the two most proximate and important cities, [[Isphea]] and [[Lazea]], and at the end of the first century after the imperial demise, the two cities had together been besieged 8 times, and attacked 14 times. For a brief period of 38 years, the strait was held by the invading [[Andu]] empire from the north, which had overrun the empire's [[Marcasia]]n holdings in its last days, and captured Isphea and Lazea.

===Modern international relations===

Situated at a shipping lane bottleneck, the strait has at times served as a very useful tool in international diplomacy.

*In the [[Zesou Crisis]] of 1935 [[CIE]], [[Arithia]] successfully averted a potentially catastrophic invasion of its ally, [[Zesou]], by closing the strait to ships, military or otherwise, belonging to, registered in or flying the flags of the states party to the [[Cordial Alliance]], which was orchestrating the aggression. The blockade lasted for almost 11 months, during which the Arithide navy sank more than 100 merchant ships, as well as 4 warships of the Alliance in three separate naval battles. The closure was lifted when hostilities ended and a peace treaty was signed, and modern historians estimate the cost of the blockade to the Alliance members to have been between 4 and 7% of GDP.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golanbe</title>
    <id>3002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15647</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-16T14:36:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Golanbe''' is a city in southwest [[Feladmena Province]], 41 kilometres from the boundary with [[Isana]] City and linked to it via both the [[Ibretal High-Speed Rail Network]] and the [[Ibretal Southern Highway]]. It has a population of 421,335.

==Geography==

Golanbe is one of the many so-called &quot;Plains Cities&quot;, or [[Menasanite]], a term referring to the group of cities within the [[Feladmena Plain]]. Its terrain is mostly flat, and crossed with many streams mostly flowing north towards the [[Rushalya river]]; the major rivers include the [[Bude river]] and the [[Nigil river]]. 

One of the most prominent geographical features of the city is the [[Aduna Mound]], which rises in the north of the city near the Nigil to a height of 88 metres. To this day an aircraft observation post dating from the Fourth Global War, and a museum dedicated to the city's war years, stands at the summit.

==History==

Golanbe is famous for being, by proportion, the Risevan settlement that lost the most of its people during the [[Fourth Global War]]. During the war, the Risevan Army was organised for convenience and morale into units according to the hometowns of recruits, and the regiments of Golanbe repeatedly found themselves in the thick of some of the worst fighting of the war, including the [[Battle of Garmagas Island|Battle]] of [[Garmagas Island]] and the [[Battle of Hamakairanoe]]; because of their proximity to Isana and their being well-known as alternative factory sites, they were also heavily bombed by [[Fourth Grand Coalition|Coalition]] attacks. All in all, out of 81,000 people at the start of the war and discounting children who were evacuated, a shocking 22,000 died and another 29,000 were wounded. Most of the city was also ravaged by bombing attacks. 

==Economy==

==Government==

==Transport==

==Society and Culture==

==Famous Sites and Buildings==

*[[Golanbe War Cemetery]]

*[[Espengai Complex]]

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]
[[category:Feladmena Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Garmagas Island</title>
    <id>3003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-10T14:39:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Garmagas Island (Mirselec ''Garmagasurna ta Kakobe'')
|part of= [[Fourth Global War]]
|date= 20 August 1944 - 22 October 1943
|place= [[Garmagas Island]], [[Baunari Islands]]
|result= Risevan Victory
|1= [[Risevne]]
|2= [[Kavena]], [[Barise]]
|1comd= [[Erimis Asuge]]†, [[Erimis Nerosav]] 
|2comd= [[Ogar Bairethun]], [[Jarn Sormes]], [[Idego Notonre]]
|1str= 49,000, reinforced to 110,000 by end of battle
|2str= 87,000, reinforced to 92,000 by end of battle
|1cas= 22,000 dead, 29,000 wounded
|2cas= {Army)&lt;br /&gt;34,000 dead, 39,000 dead, 19,000 prisoners;&lt;br /&gt;(Navy)&lt;br /&gt;2 cruisers, 4 destroyers sunk
}}

The '''Battle of Garmagas Island''', known in Mirselec as ''Garmagasurna ta Kakobe'', was a battle in the Baunariya Archipelago during the [[Fourth Global War]]. During this battle the Risevan 4th Division under General [[Erimis Nerosav]], and the 11th Division under General [[Erimis Asuge]], successfully repelled a large-scale invasion of the island by the forces of the Kavenain 9th Division, 16th Division, and the Barisem 22nd Division after an extremely bloody two month fight.

This land battle is often combined with two naval battles, the [[Battle of the Four Atolls]] and the [[Battle of Kaizaruka]], and defined as one of the turning points of the Fourth Global War in the [[Elaspegian Ocean]]. The extremely bloody but ultimately successful defence of the islands, as well as the successive blows inflicted by the [[Risevan Royal Navy]] on its opponents at sea, managed to stem the long-range bombing offensives being launched upon the Risevan capital of [[Isana]] throughout the first four years of the war. 

==Background==

==Battle==

==Aftermath==

The three successive victories of Risevne over its two staunchest enemies across the Elaspegian Ocean would go a long way towards breaking their ability to strike at the Main Islands, and eventually towards the ability of its allies to supply it across the sea safely. 

[[category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]
[[category:Elaspegian Theatre, Fourth Global War]]
[[category:History of the Risevan Southern Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of the Four Atolls</title>
    <id>3004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T14:14:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of the Four Atolls (Mirselec ''Kerte Tolone ta Kakobe'')
|part of= [[Fourth Global War]]
|date= 2 September 1944 - 4 September 1944
|place= [[Sea of Aiza]], west of [[Kamurdic Atoll]]
|result= Decisive Risevan Victory
|1= [[Risevne]]
|2= [[Barise]]
|1comd= [[Auseri Sosten]]
|2comd= [[Kende Ansar]]
|1str= 2 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;4 carriers,&lt;br /&gt;6 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;19 destroyers,&lt;br /&gt;6 submarines,&lt;br /&gt;~20 support vessels
|2str= 3 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;5 carriers,&lt;br /&gt;10 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;28 destroyers,&lt;br /&gt;4 submarines,&lt;br /&gt;4 large landing ships,&lt;br /&gt;nearly 30 supply ships
|1cas= 2 destroyers, 2 support ships sunk
|2cas= 3 carriers, 2 cruisers, 11 destroyers, 3 landing ships, 16 supply ships sunk
}}

The '''Battle of the Four Atolls''' was a major naval battle during the [[Fourth Global War]], which took place as the [[Battle of Garmagas Island]] was raging. In this battle the [[Risevan Royal Navy]] under Admiral [[Auseri Sosten]] successfully defeated a larger force of Barisem ships sent to resupply and reinforce the assault on the islands. 

Widely considered one of the major turning points of the war in the [[Elaspegian Ocean]], the battle had major repercussions on the course of the war, foreshadowing the eventual devastation of the Barisem navy four months later in the [[Battle of the East Ninain Sea]] and the turning of the tides in Risevne's favour. More immediately, the battle and victory forced another attempt at resupplying the troops  by the [[Kavena|Kavenain]] navy, which would lead to yet another fierce naval battle and victory for the Risevani in the [[Battle of Kaizaruka]].

==Background==

Sheer weight of numbers, as well as the long distances involved, had limited Risevan strategy during the first phase of the Global War; facing two formidable enemies on her own, with her closest ally [[Iruze]] under great military pressure as well, the government was not ready to risk the already overstretched fleet on many small battles, where they would be overwhelmed. It had been this consideration that led to the withdrawal of the [[Risevan Main Fleet]] to its anchorages south of [[Serteni Province]].

==The Battle==

==Aftermath==

[[category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]
[[category:Elaspegian Theatre, Fourth Global War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auseri Sosten</title>
    <id>3005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T11:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Auseri Sosten, Sosten ta Norya''' (16 April 1891 - 20 August 1968) was a [[Risevne|Risevani]] commander, serving as a ship's captain during the [[Third Global War]] and an admiral during the [[Fourth Global War]]. He is most famous for his command of the [[Risevan Main Fleet]] in the southern [[Elaspegian Ocean]] between 1944 and 1946, during which he commanded his fleet in several great victories.

==Youth and Early Career==

Auseri Sosten was born in [[Kandisel, Inezama Province]], in 1891, to Oris Sosten and Neyu Irlaten. The eldest of 6 siblings, with one brother and four sisters, his family was one with a military background stretching back five generations to the time of the [[Committee of Guardians]]; his own father was a naval officer who had served with distinction during the [[First Global War]]. Later biographies seem to concur that Auseri's childhood, while harsh, was also highly educational; his father was known to be extremely strict, while also being very protective of his eldest son, indeed to the point of neglecting Auseri's brother Arin.

==The Second Global War==

==The Third Global War==

During the [[Third Global War]] Sosten was promoted to command a cruiser, [[KV Santoye|the Santoye]].

==The Fourth Global War==

Though the war had started in 1940, Sosten was only called up to serve by his superior and lifelong friend [[Artase Kirmude]] in 1942, owing to his well-known expertise in carrier warfare due to his work in the years between the war. He was placed in charge of a joint task force with the specific aim of neutralising the navy of [[Beotes]], which was poised to join the war against the League and which possessed a potent force of 5 battleships and 3 carriers moored in the naval base of [[Asvro Island]]. Organising his force of 4 carriers and several submarines, he carried out the [[Asvro Raid]] which turned out to be a brilliant success.

==After the Wars==

==Later Years==

==Legacy==

==See Also==

*[[Battle of the Four Atolls]]

*[[Battle of Kaizaruka]]

*[[Battle of the East Ninain Sea]]

[[category:Admirals of the Risevan Royal Navy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sanle</title>
    <id>3006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:16:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Sanle''' are the oldest civilization in [[South Odirá]].  They have had tremendous influence upon the surrounding cultures.  Their history is one of repeated cycles of unification and disintegration.

[[Category:Sanle|*]]
[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Kaizaruka</title>
    <id>3007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T12:20:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Morning Attacks */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Battle of Kaizaruka (Mirselec ''Kaizaruka ta Kakobe'')
|part of= [[Fourth Global War]]
|date= 29 September 1944 - 1 October 1944
|place= Southern [[Sea of Aiza]], near [[Kaizaruka Rocks]]
|result= Decisive Risevan Victory
|1= [[Risevne]]
|2= [[Barise]], [[Kavena]]
|1comd= [[Auseri Sosten]], [[Berin Agamerk]]
|2comd= [[Jarn Masun]], [[Erian Hars]]
|1str= 3 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;5 fleet carriers,&lt;br /&gt;8 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;25 destroyers,&lt;br /&gt;11 submarines,&lt;br /&gt;38 support vessels
|2str= 4 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;6 fleet carriers,&lt;br /&gt;5 light carriers,&lt;br /&gt;11 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;26 destroyers,&lt;br /&gt;14 submarines,&lt;br /&gt;66 support and landing vessels in convoy
|1cas= 1 destroyer, 1 submarine sunk, 53 planes lost 
|2cas= 1 battleship, 3 fleet carriers, 4 light carriers, 6 cruisers, 13 destroyers, nearly 60 support vessels sunk
}}

The '''Battle of Kaizaruka''', known in Mirselec as ''Kaizaruka ta Matnaira'' or the Great Victory of Kaizaruka, was a major naval battle fought in the [[Sea of Aiza]] between the navies of Risevne, Barise and Kavena. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for the [[Risevan Royal Navy]], whose forces sunk 3 heavy carriers and crippled another two without suffering major damage to their capital units; at the same time a huge convoy of nearly 60 ships, meant to supply and reinforce the invasion forces on [[Garmagas Island]] to the southeast, also came to grief after being viciously attacked from the air and sea. 

==Background==

==The Battle==

===Order of Battle===

''[[Order of Battle of the Battle of Kaizaruka]]''

===29 September===

====First Contact====

The beginning of the battle came unexpectedly to the Risevani, who were for the moment working on two-day-old data and searching the oceans for the expected convoy; at around 1335 in the afternoon, three Coalition destroyers were spotted by Risevan aircraft.

===30 September===

====Morning Attacks====

The two skirmishes of 29 September, though they caught the Risevan force off balance and succeeded in causing severe damage, also had the effect of giving away the position of the coalition's main carrier group from which instructions were being sent out by radio in large amounts. The voluminous transmissions were easily picked up by the second escort group screening the west, which passed on the messages to the Vanguard Group and Sosten's flagship; this, as well as the constant flow of information from his reconaissance planes screening the northwest, allowed him to work out with relative certainty where the enemy was. 

On the other side intelligence was much poorer; after losing Screen Group 1 in its chase, the commander of the light cruiser squadron was ordered instead to return to its station and continue cruising, while the reconaissance seaplanes were sent out to shadow the enemy vessels. Plane cover was patchy, however, and the night of 29/30 September was very cloudy, making the task even more difficult. The relatively inferior signals intelligence of the coalition forces also made it difficult for them to ascertain the Risevan fleet's position.

Nonetheless, after the two engagements, both sides were clearly headed into engagement. Sosten was quick to grasp several facts; firstly the enemy carriers were moving into a course almost parallel to his, and closing as quickly as they were it was best for him to strike early and utilise the longer range of his aircraft to cripple the enemy before risking a reply strike from a heavier force. Secondly, both admirals agreed on the speculation that with combat drawing close, but without certain information, the enemy's carriers would probably choose to launch heavy air patrols while keeping a large proportion of their strike force on the deck to be armed, fuelled and scrambled at the first opportunity. Given this Sosten's plan was to launch two decoy attacks from the southeast, where the Barisem and Kavenain most expected the Risevani to come; the main blow, however, would come circuitously from the northeast, where most of the forces would be directed into the carrier group.

In accordance to this plan, at 0410 nine reconaissance aircraft were launched to ascertain the coalition fleet's course and posision, and an hour and a half later the first decoy wave of fighters was launched. Soon after them all the carriers of the Vanguard Group launched the first attack wave at around 0600, and the Wing Group launched at 0635; at the end of their briefing Admiral Agamerk is said to have told the pilots: ''Now is the time to do your utmost; your king, your nation and your people expect nothing less of you.'' The pilots replied him with cheers.

The first Risevan aircraft to attack the group, as planned, came from the southeast and arrived at around 0745; the squadron of fighters, accompanying 12 torpedo bombers, managed to evade the screen of destroyers in the low cloud cover, but ran straight into the air patrol envelope. While the fighters engaged, the torpedo bombers quickly dived below the clouds only to find that they had been  above the battleships [[Luzeno]] and [[Mardatein]], and attacked at very close range. The entire group was annihilated by anti-aircraft fire, but a torpedo struck the ''Mardatein'' aft which did detonate, severely damaging its propellers and engine spaces and reducing it to about 12 knots. Meanwhile, the squadrons of fighters took similarly heavy losses, but succeeded in throwing the coalition fleet off balance and caused heavy losses amongst the combat patrol fighter that would need quick reinforcement. 

The torpedo attacks, as well as the fierce fighter combat which had broken out in the north, immediately drew the attention of the coalition fleet, and as fighters were directed to the area the northeast of the group was left relatively open, being screened by just 6 destroyers and several submarines. 

At around 0853, after making the circuitous route and flying above the clouds to minimise the risk of detection, the first wave descended and to their surprise found that they were very near to their ultimate targets, the four carriers of the coalition Main Carrier Group. Surprise was complete; after the fierce aerial combat, and the torpedoing of the [[Barisem light cruiser ''Nivalis'']] at around 0810 by Risevan submarine G-36 (which left the cruiser dead in the water and again led to Masun to order more ships south and ready his aircraft for counterattack), the decks of the carriers were jammed with all sorts of planes, all in different stages of refuelling and arming, as the carrier crews scrambled to prepare fighters, bombers and torpedo bombers alike. 

The order to arm as many aircraft as possible had been given by [[Mirges Ronsand]], commander of the carrier group; unsure whether to replenish the air patrols first or launch a counterattack, and taken by surprise at the initial decoy strike, he decided to partially arm his aircraft and await orders, not knowing that his superior was equally surprised by the sudden developments, and equally ignorant of the enemy's exact position. While the coalition commanders dithered the first wave of 62 dive bombers, 20 torpedo bombers and 56 fighters exploited the unique chance. ''[[Magon]]'' was struck by six bombs, ''[[Sholdau]]'' by three; shortly afterwards a torpedo scored a direct hit on ''[[Malexem]]'', followed by a single armour-piercing bomb which plunged through the flight deck and detonated in the hangar deck where a whole squadron of aircraft were being refuelled and armed, causing a explosion which shattered the flight deck, set the whole ship aflame and was followed by several secondary explosions. Finally ''[[Kenairom]]'' was also hit, by two torpedoes and five bombs which also set off explosions both above and below flight deck. The last two carriers of the group, ''[[Nikeron]]'' and ''[[Argenau]]'', miraculously escaped damage despite being attacked as well.

===1 October===

==Aftermath==

Just 40 minutes after the last sortie from KV Ainzera had landed and the battle was considered over, Admiral Sosten debriefed his staff officers onboard his flagship; during this brief he made a rejoinder to his colleague's exhortation at the critical stage of the battle the day before, saying &quot;Our battle has ended in victory, and you have done well. Shame be upon anyone who belittles in any way the worthy men who joined this battle.&quot; This message was later broadcast to the pilots in the respective carriers.

The immediate results of this defeat, in any case, were at once clear; with both the Kavenain and Barisem fleets so badly damaged, the armies of the two countries fighting against Risevan forces on Garmagos Island would be trapped and cut off from either resupply or reinforcement, while the Risevan navy could finally move in to play the role of supporting the defenders with devastating effect. The very next day after the battle carriers began flying attacks on enemy positions all along the landing beaches, and two days after the battleships moved in to bombard the attackers in the same way they had bombarded the beach before their own assault. The victory at Kaizaruka made victory on the island much more certain.

In the long term the numerical superiority of the two navies, which had kept the Risevan forces at bay for so long trying to find a decisive encounter, was badly dented if not destroyed. Against 11 Risevan fleet carriers the navies of Barise and Kavena used to muster 25; now they could put together 19, of which 5 were crippled. Most grievous though was the loss of hundreds of experienced aircrew on board the lost carriers as well as the surviving ones - 412 planes were lost, many with the loss of their well-trained pilots.
 
[[category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]
[[category:Elaspegian Theatre, Fourth Global War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asvro Raid</title>
    <id>3008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-07T08:57:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox
|conflict= Asvro Raid (Mirselec ''Asfero ke Sorinkar'') 
|part of= [[Fourth Global War]]
|date= 9 June 1942
|place= [[Asvro Island]], [[Kemdes Sea]]
|result= Decisive [[Third Asela League|League]] Victory
|1= [[Risevne]], [[Iruze]], [[Kainomis]]
|2= [[Beotes]]
|1comd= [[Auseri Sosten]], [[Hau Selarge]]
|2comd= [[Osin Hattra]]
|1str= 3 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;6 carriers,&lt;br /&gt;8 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;13 destroyers,&lt;br /&gt;21 submarines,&lt;br /&gt;~430 planes
|2str= 5 battleships,&lt;br /&gt;3 carriers,&lt;br /&gt;8 cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;6 destroyers
|1cas= 19 planes destroyed
|2cas= 4 battleships, 2 carriers, 4 cruisers, 2 destroyers, extensive damage to Asvro Naval Base; nearly 3,153 killed
}}

The '''Asvro Raid''' was an important action in the [[Koreno Theatre]] of the [[Fourth Global War]], when units from three member nations of the Third Asela League launched an attack on the country of Beotes, which had joined the war on the side of the Coalition.

==Background==

==The Attack==

==Aftermath==

[[category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]
[[category:Koreno Theatre, Fourth Global War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Kaona</title>
    <id>3009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T08:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Kaona''' (Mirselec ''Kaonahorma'') is a mountain in central [[Masalne]]. Its summit is 1529 metres in height. An active atratovolcano, it lies at the boundary between [[Hadamfe Province]] and [[Besurgana Province]], and it is sometimes known as the Mountain of Fire and Water since, despite its volcanicity, it is surrounded by lakes and rivers which form the boundary of the two provinces. The name Kaona is derived from the Old Mirselec ''Kaun'', meaning border; the name therefore means &quot;Border Mountain&quot;.

==Geography==

==Geology==

==History==

==Significance==

Mount Kaona plays a significant role in the [[Risevan religion]]. 

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Ihere</title>
    <id>3010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T12:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Ihere''' (Mirselec ''Iherehorma'') is the highest mountain on [[Masalne]], and the second highest in [[Risevne]] at 3615 metres (behind only [[Mount Sasabac]] at 3877 metres). Situated in southern [[Tineye Province]], its seclusion means it is not as famous as many other mountains in Risevne; nonetheless there are several settlements around it, the largest being the town of [[Ihegarsa]]. 

==Geography==

Mount Ihere is situated in the far north of Masalne, along the great spine of mountains known simply as the [[Matharmagos]] or Great Mountain Range that extends all the way down the island. This northerly position was formerly one of great seclusion until the opening of the [[West Coast Road]] and the [[Northern Inland Sea Highway]] in the 1960s.

==Geology==

==History==

==Significance==

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Mountains of Risevne</title>
    <id>3011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:04:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This list categorises the various mountains in the nation of [[Risevne]].

[[category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sasabachorma</title>
    <id>3012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T11:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mount Sasabac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Sasabac</title>
    <id>3013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T12:04:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Sasabac''' (Mirselec ''Sasabachorma'') is the highest mountain in [[Risevne]], situated in [[Atastarne Province]] on [[Agalmare]]. A dormant stratovolcano, its last recorded eruption was in 1239 DN. 

The mountain is a famous symbol of Risevne, and is renowned for its strikingly symmetrical and regular cone, which slopes gently up until the top one-third when it becomes steeper. In Risevan culture it is often mentioned in conjunction with the nearby [[Mount Gaikreta]], which has an astonishingly similar shape to it. Together the two mountains, from various angles, form one of the [[Five Great Scenes of Risevne]].

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karyaba</title>
    <id>3014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T12:24:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karyāba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karyāba</title>
    <id>3015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T14:38:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Karyāba''' {{IPA|['karjɑ:ba]}} (sing. ''Kiryeb'' {{IPA|['kirjɛb]}}) are one of the three [[great civilisations of Ilethes]], originating from the eastern continent of [[Istheusia]]. It is not known where exactly the Karyāba came from; folk oral tradition narrates the continued inhabitation of the [[Head of Istheusia]] (approximately the current extent of [[Carabaea]]), and the earliest historical records found appear to corroborate the story, but the genetic analysis of a considerably-sized sample of the Karyāba reveal non-local genetic patterns and seem to suggest an origin further to the southeast, at least for certain segments of the population. For this reason the Karyāba are theorised by some to be the result of an amalgamation of an earlier population to the newcomers approximately 130,000 years ago.

==Names==

==History==

{{main|History of Carabaea}}

==Culture, customs and religion==

===Language===

===Names===

===Dress===

===Rites and rituals===

===Regional variation===

==Karyāba-descended peoples==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Istheusia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carabaea</title>
    <id>3016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T13:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carabaea''', situated in the western [[Head of Istheusia|Head]] of [[Istheusia]], is an ancient nation, and one of the few remaining monarchies on [[Ilethes]] today. It is the nation of the Carabaeans or [[Karyāba]], one of the three [[great civilisations of Ilethes]]. Its capital, [[Basserea]], situated at the confluence of the [[Phorian river|Phorian]], [[Tiya river|Tiya]], [[Nape river|Nape]] and [[Ossorean river|Ossorean]] rivers, is the Carabaean political and cultural centre, as well as the holiest city of [[Safism]]. 

==Geography==

==History==

==Early history==

===Civilisation===

===Empire===

==Politics==

===Military===

==Economy==

==Demography==

Carabaea is largely a racially (and culturally) homogeneous society.

==Culture==

===Religion===

===Cuisine===

===Art, literature &amp; music===

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Political territories of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Istheusia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carabaeans</title>
    <id>3017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T13:23:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karyāba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Varunim class destroyer</title>
    <id>3018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-08T14:37:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Varunim'' class''' of guided missile destroyers (Mirselec ''Faltzer Harwe Stairovos'') is one of two classes of destroyers presently in service with the [[Risevan Royal Navy]], replacing the previous ''[[Tarsen Hayari]]'' class, the last of which was decommissioned in 2040. Twenty-six ships of this class presently serve with the navy. 

The Varunim class ships represent a major advance over the design of their predecessors; improvements in shipboard computer systems as well as major overhauls in the radar and sonar suites, as well as vast advances in propulsion technology, made the ship amongst the most advanced when it first emerged; certainly its computer tracking and air-defence system, known as the [[Sorvane command system]], was and still is the most advanced of its kind in the world. At 8455 tons displacement, the class was also far larger than its predecessor.

Continuing a long-standing tradition within the RKN, these ships are named after ancient provinces and district names of Risevne; in this they have taken over the designations for many cruisers of previous ages. Varunim for example shares its name with the [[Risevan light cruiser Varunim (1935)|cruiser Varunim]], which served with distinction during the [[Fourth Global War]] and gained a reputation as being a very charmed ship.

Presently the Varunim class are being reinforced by the newer [[Vasoseye class]] destroyers, which have a lengthened and expanded hull but retain the configuration of the Varunim class; the latter are not meant to be a replacement, however. The Risevan government has no plans yet to replace the ships.

[[category:Risevan destroyer classes]]
[[category:Ships of the Risevan Royal Navy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anabanganka</title>
    <id>3019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-09T14:27:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anabanganka''' are an ethnic group in [[Risevne]], inhabiting [[Agalmare]] along the northeastern coast of the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]]; the provinces of this area are sometimes known as ''Sordene'', or &quot;Land of the Sorde&quot;, after the ethnonym most commonly used for them in [[Mirselec]]. The term Anabanganka is recently gaining more widespread use as the accepted name for the race; it derives from the [[Anabanganka language]] term ''Ana-ba-nganka'', which means &quot;Men of the Hill&quot; and was originally used to differentiate themselves from the Mirsel, who in their language are called ''Ana-ba-onama'', &quot;Men of the Plain&quot;.

The main Anabanganka homeland is in the northwest of Agalmare, in [[Sonaira]] and [[Mongar]] provinces; within these provinces the Anabanganka, who make up a significant proportion of the population, are granted equal language education and tribal rights, and local culture is highly distinct from the culture elsewhere in the nation. All in all the Anabanganka are the largest minority ethnicity in Risevne, but this still amounts to just 4.7% of the population or around 3.7 million people.

[[category:Ethnicities of Valmante]]
[[category:Ethnicities of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Hegamari</title>
    <id>3020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-09T15:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Hegamari''' (Mirselec ''Hegamarihorma'') is an active volcano in the west of [[Masalne]] in eastern [[Naguse Province]]. Its summit is 1,613 metres in height.

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Nodorin</title>
    <id>3021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T05:07:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Nodorin''' (Mirselec ''Nodorinhorma'') is a mountain in central [[Hyomeniga Province]], standing at 1,891 metres. It is sometimes called ''Sainahorma'', or &quot;Central Mountain&quot;, by Hyomenigani, due to its central position within their province.

Nodorin is widely considered an dormant volcano; the last major eruption was estimated to have been around 7,000 years ago, and even now it does eject ash into the air every few years. It is the site of an unusually high number of hot springs, and three towns renowned for their hot spring inns stand around the foothills of the mountain, namely [[Furasa]], [[Itnev]] and [[Bano]]. The valleys around the mountain also have very rich farmland, and on the foothills of Mount Nodorin is the famous city-fortress of [[Shezinas]], an ancient capital of the region.

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyomeniga Province</title>
    <id>3022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T03:41:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hyomeniga Province''' (Mirselec ''Hyomeniga denai'') is [[Subdivisions of Risevne|Province]] 21 of [[Risevne]], and one of the so-called Mountain Provinces. Facing the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]] on its eastern coast, it borders [[Besurgana Province]] on its south, [[Tasenir Province]] on its north, and [[Lorudac]], [[Neiberin]] and [[Tineye]] provinces on its west. Its capital is the coastal city of [[Nitaro]].

By area Hyomeniga is the largest province on [[Masalne]], though its population is comparatively  small, as is the case with all the mountain provinces. Encompassing the [[Mathormagos]] mountains within most of its area, the province is known as a rugged land with beautiful scenery.

==Geography==

Hyomeniga is mostly dominated by the [[Mathormagos]] mountain range, most importantly the [[Hyomene Plateau]] which rises in the centre of the province and takes up around one-third of the area. A plain at an altitude of about 600 metres and surrounded by mountains reaching up to 2200 metres, this plateau is much enriched by volcanic soils and is a highly productive area for agriculture, especially the ranching of cattle.

==History==

Owing to its isolated position, which also rendered it difficult to attack and conquer, Hyomeniga has historically been one of the more independent regions of Risevne. Between the 3rd and 10th centuries the area was the site of several successive kingdoms, based upon agriculture in the mountainous plains and which at their most powerful could match anything of the small southern kingdoms in strength. 

==Economy and Demography==

As one of the mountain provinces, the economy of Hyomeniga is based mostly around agriculture and light industry; this province differs from those farther north, however, in that it also has significant inland development due to the relatively mild climate of the Hyomene Plateau. Most cities and other urban developments, however, remain concentrated around the Inland Sea coast.

The Hyomene Plateau is the centre of Risevan ranching; mostly cows are bred here, though sheep and horses are also common. Most of this farming is concentrated around groups of villages scattered along long roads, some of which date from the 18th and 19th centuries, and which still preserve many of the old features of Risevan architecture. This, as well as the strong preservation of folk culture in the region, has in turn contributed to the growing tourism industry in this province. 

In terms of population structure the province has one of the older populations of Masalne, though recently certain towns have grown due to wealthy and relatively young businessmen buying houses in the region as vacation homes. 

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Nitaro]]

*[[Ovonge]]

*[[Sorilgana]]

==Famous Locations==

*[[Mount Nodorin]]

*[[Shezinas]]

*[[Ruins of Kelkar City]]

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Western Boundary Mountain System</title>
    <id>3023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17597</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-22T09:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Western Boundary Mountain System''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Iraphim Onoris Ryagia''''' {{IPA|['irəvim 'ɔnəris 'rja:gi.a]}}) is a chain of continuous crustal uplift from the [[Nikidi Islands]] north of [[Carabaea]] to the [[Tumides archipelago]] in the [[Thorfu]], formed from the longest continuous destructive convergent plate boundary on [[Ilethes]]. The system includes, from north to south, the [[Taza-a Lami]], the [[Iryagi]], the [[Alerryagi]], as well as several other subordinate mountain ranges such as the [[Hallaryagi]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geology of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Landforms of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Istheusia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevne</title>
    <id>3024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19546</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-23T16:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Risevne''', officially known as the '''Kingdom of Risevne''', is a country situated in the northern [[Elaspegian Ocean]], south of the continent of [[Noma]] and west of the large continent of [[Osonde]]. A wholly insular country, its territory comprises nearly 2,300 islands, including the two islands of [[Masalne]] and [[Agalmare]] (collectively known as the Main or [[Home Islands]]); its total area is 315,200 square kilometres, and its national population is estimated at 93,665,200.

The islands which comprise the country are estimated to have been inhabited for nearly 32,000 years, and the south of the island of [[Masalne]] was home to settlements akin to towns from as early as 6,000 BDN. In the immediate aftermath of the [[DN Event]] the people of the islands, known variously as Marsil or [[Mirsel]], became one of the great seafaring powers, raiding coasts as far afield as [[Osonde]] in the west. Risevne is home to the oldest extant constitutional monarchy, this governmental system being established in 1477 at the [[Matafengar]]. 

At present Risevne is one of the richest and most influential countries in the world, often cited as being one of the &quot;Five Powers&quot;: Risevne, [[Iruze]], [[Henimara]], [[Kaidun]] and [[Erinedis]]. Economically it is one of the most advanced countries in the world, while it also wields considerable military and political weight, especially in its [[Risevan Royal Navy|navy]] which is by tonnage the largest in the world.

==Geography and Climate==

{{main|Geography of Risevne}}

==History==

{{main|History of Risevne}}

==Economy==

{{main|Economy of Risevne}}

Risevne's economy pres

==Government==

{{main|Government of Risevne}}

===The Monarch===

===Prime Minister===

===Afengar===

The '''Afengar''', literally meaning &quot;Assembly&quot; in Mirselec, is the term used for the parliament of Risevne.

===Judiciary===

==Administrative Subdivisions==

{{main|Subdivisions of Risevne}}

==Demographics==

==Culture and Society==

{{main|Subdivisions of Risevne}}


[[category:Risevne]]
[[category:Nations of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shezinas</title>
    <id>3025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T03:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Design and Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Shezinas''', often known as ''Shezinasnoye'' or Shezinas Fort, is a fort at the foothills of [[Mount Nodorin]] in [[Hyomeniga Province]], situated to the east of the mountain. It is ranked alongside [[Garnoye]], [[Mozavalnoye]] and [[Orosantenoye]] as one of the [[Four Famous Castles of Risevne]]; of these four, it has the oldest extant and complete buildings, with certain old towers in the fort dating from around 920 DN or more than 1000 years.

==History==

The history of Shezinas castle is tightly bound up with the history of the regimes that based themselves in the [[Hyomene Plateau]] or extended over all of what is nowadays considered Hyomeniga Province. 

===A Citadel of a Kingdom===

===Union and Expansion===

==Design and Geography==

Of the many old castles and forts of Risevne Shezinasnoye contains some of the most extensive defences, reflecting its role in the changing political scenes of the plateau which matched those of the southern kingdoms a lot of the time. It is situated south of the volcano, on a ridge known as the ''Onoboganse'' or &quot;Elbow Ridge&quot;, and centred around two water features: a large hot spring which serves an important defensive purpose, and a smaller cold spring which is the main source of water during sieges. 

While previous designs of the fort reflected more the distinct culture of the mountain kingdoms as opposed to the coastal and southern plains kingdoms, the present fort and main keep are more typical of the latter style, being built after the union of the kingdom.

==Present Situation==

==Cultural Impact==

[[category:Castles of Risevne]]
[[category:Hyomeniga Province]]
[[category:Famous Castles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyomene Plateau</title>
    <id>3026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T07:26:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The ''Hyomene Plateau'' (Mirselec ''Hyomene igaryo'') is a plateau that occupies much of the inland area of [[Hyomeniga Province]], which in turn is named after it. A plain with thick, fertile volcanic soil at about 600 metres altitude, it is economically a highly important agricultural region of [[Masalne]]; famous products include beef and dairy products.

==Geography==

==Geology==

==History==

==Society==

Despite recent changes which have opened it considerably to the world, the plateau retains much of its rural character, though many farmers have also opened part of their farms to the profitable business of tourism. The area is frequented for its scenery of the surrounding mountains, as well as for its beautiful forests and quaint culture; as such it is visited by thousands of tourists every year. 

[[category:Risevne]]
[[category:Plains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taluste</title>
    <id>3027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16449</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T12:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Taluste''' is a major city in [[Risevne]], situated in the south on the east side of the [[Feladmena Plain]]. One of the three designated cities of Risevne, it forms the eastern end of the conurbation known as [[Ibretal]] and has a distinct culture from the other two major cities of [[Isana]] and [[Bresnga]]. It is the second largest city of Risevne, with an urban-area population of 7,276,550.

==Geography==

Taluste's location on the eastern end of the Feladmena Plain, where the last of the [[Marhormagos]] mountain ranges meet the coast, means its terrain is much more rugged than the plain-dominated terrain of Isana and Bresnga; for this reason it is sometimes known as the Hill City, or ''Konesanite''. The city's residential areas stretch along the eastern coast, while the industrial regions tend to be farther within the hills. The entire city has an area of 831 square kilometres.

==History==

==Economy==

Taluste's modern economy is centred around high-end products and research and development, especially in computers, robotics, life sciences and precision engineering. 

==Government==

==Transport==

==Education==

==Culture and Society==

==Famous Sites and Buildings==

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]
[[category:Cities of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anesa river</title>
    <id>3028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T07:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Human History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anesa river''' (Mirselec ''Anesa ainos'') is a river in the south of [[Masalne]], and a tributary of the [[Rushalya]]. Sometimes it is also known as the &quot;Border River&quot; (Mirslec ''Gaeste ainos''), for two reasons: firstly it is analogous to the [[Gaestebirne|Border Ridge]], with which it forms the dividing line of the [[Feladmena Plain]] which it flows through; and secondly, for a significant part of its course, it forms the border between [[Eonis]] and Inezama Province.

==Geography==

===Course===

The Anesa river's source is in [[Lake Inomi]], one of the few lowland lakes of Masalne, situated in [[Inezama Province]]. From there it first veers north, and the northwest; this is when it is known as Gaeste ainos. At the intersection of the two provinces with [[Feladmena Province]], the river continues flowing northwest and then bends west until it meets the [[Rushalya river]]; the confluence is the site of the city of [[Ainemorne]]. In total its length is about 166 km.

==Human History==

The Anesa is one of the first rivers on the island to have had humans reside along its banks. As early as 5,000 BDN the riverbanks are dotted with villages, and by the time of the first kingdoms in Masalne the valley of the Anesa river was the heart of the [[Anesa Kingdom]], which commanded all the territory analogous to modern day [[Ostema]], Eonis and Inezama provinces. This was one of the most powerful of all the kingdoms, and was a direct rival and enemy of the [[Sanose Kingdom]] farther north, based in the Feladmena Plain. The third and fourth centuries BDN, known in Risevne as the [[Era of the Kingdoms]], was dominated by the struggle between these and other early kingdoms in the south of Masalne, and the river was the site of many forts and naval battles in wartime, while becoming a large highway of people and goods during times of temporary peace.

==Economic Importance==

===Agriculture and Fishery===

===Industry and Transport===

==Cultural Significance==

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Western Islands Department</title>
    <id>3029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T06:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Western Islands Department''' (Mirselec ''Karasurna Alzer'') is one of the [[Subdivisions of Risevne|three island departments]] of [[Risevne]], covering all islands under Risevan control west of the [[Risevan Home Islands]]. This unit comprises several components:

*The [[Suimar Archipelago]], with more than 600 islands

*The [[Natin Islands]], with 63 islands and

*The [[Bormese Islands]], with 88 small islands.

The capital of the department is in the town of [[Nizo]], which is on the main Suimar island of [[Bininumo]]. 

[[category:Subdivisions of Risevne]]
[[category:Islands of the West Elaspegian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>North Elaspegian Blue Crab</title>
    <id>3030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32779</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-13T06:08:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''North Elaspegian Blue Crab''' is a large crab species, distributed widely along the north of the [[Elaspegian Ocean]]. It is one of the largest species of crab still extant; the abdomen of the crab can reach up to 45 cm across, while its legspan can reach up to 3.5 metres. 

[[category:Animals]]
[[category:Risevan Cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Subdivisions of risevne</title>
    <id>3031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T09:33:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Subdivisions of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nema Island</title>
    <id>3032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T09:39:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nema Island''' (Mirselec ''Nemasurna'') is a small island off the west coast of [[Bifeno Province]]. It holds the small town of [[Nema]], as well as the famous [[Agero ta Kasuren]], the white cliffs of Agero which form one of the [[Five Great Scenes of Risevne]].

[[category:Islands of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horesen Bridge</title>
    <id>3033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T13:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Design and Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Horesen Bridge''' (Mirselec ''Horesen taiber'') is a large suspension bridge in [[Isana]] spanning [[Gardaus Bay]] near its mouth, at the point now known as Horesen Point. Named after [[Arin Horesen]], the Minister of Development from 1950 to 1962 who was famously known as the &quot;Commissioner of New Isana&quot;, it connects the east and west coasts of the bay as part of the [[Bayside Expressway]]. It was completed in 1972, making it the newest of the three bridges spanning the Bay.

==History==

Before this bridge, Gardaus Bay was spanned by two bridges: the [[Nikemi Bridge]] in the north, nearest the mouth of the [[Rushalya river]], and the [[Soruta Bridge]] which formed part of the [[Urban Central Highway]] that was a primary transport route for the city. The two links, as well as several links over the river, were widely seen as inadequate for a city that was expected to grow swiftly in population as rebuilding commenced; therefore, even in the Isana portion of the [[1948 City Plan]], plans for a bridge built farther south and supporting a larger coastal highway were already underway. 

==Design and Geography==

The bridge was designed by [[Hanis Bremigo]], an [[Iruze|Iruzeni]] who had designed several suspension bridges in his native Iruze.

==Significance==

The bridge is sometimes called the &quot;Waterborne Gate of Isana&quot;; after the reconstruction of the [[Belegras Dockyards]] and the relocation of the main passenger terminus to inside Gardaus Bay, this  appellation has only become more significant. In terms of city transport, too, the Horesen Bridge is crucial as the cross-bay component of the highway that now carries nearly the same volume of traffic as the Central Highway itself.

[[category:Bridges of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]
[[category:Famous Buildings of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Execution by bludgeon</title>
    <id>3034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T13:23:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Execution by bludgeon''' was one of the several severe executions formulated in the [[Book of Laws of Loran]], and used throughout the [[Lein Dynasty]]. Variations aside, records show that the punishment was mostly used as punishment for violent crimes, as well as corruption or treason. 

==Emperor Loran==

Emperor Loran formulated several severe executions in the aftermath of his accession as Emperor, in order to quell and punish the potentially rebellious, and in any case rapacious, local militias which had formed to enforce the will of [[Lein Jungi berKasan|Emperor Jungi]]. The first recorded instance of this punishment came just several days after it was formulated, in the seventh month of the first year of Loran; thirty criminals had been sentenced to death by bludgeon in the market square of [[Meiron]] for terrorising the citizens, murders, and formulating of false judgements against people to confiscate their property.

According to records:

''The men were tied first to a frame which enveloped their arms and legs, exposing only the elbows and knees; the executioners then bludgeoned the joints until they were shattered, whereupon the frames were removed and the arms and legs broken. Then they were hauled by rope to a great height, and dropped therefrom, right onto the heavy and blunt metal tips of the bludgeons; then endless strokes were given until their ribs and back were all smashed, and finally the head itself was smashed. The bodies were then hung on the South Gate for ten days.''

[[category:Punishments of the Lein Dynasty]]
[[category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arin Horesen</title>
    <id>3035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T11:47:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arin Horesen''' (12 October 1893 - 15 July 1968) was a [[Risevne|Risevani]] statesman and politician, most well known for his terms as Minister for Development in the Risevan Cabinet from 1950 to 1962. 

[[category:Risevani Statesmen]]
[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroye-dego</title>
    <id>3036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T10:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baroye''' is a district, or ''dego'' in [[Mirselec]], in [[Isana]]; given the numerical designation of E1-2, it is located in the north of [[Awenhine remis]], along the east coast of [[Gardaus Bay]].

The name ''Baroye'' is derived from the word ''Baro yenger'', which in the [[Kavenagiru|Kavenain language]] means &quot;high house&quot;, a reference to the houses of several wealthy Kavenain traders who had been granted royal favour by the [[Kingdom of Masal]] as monopoly traders of certain goods, in the 10th to 13th century.

==Site and Situation==

Baroye borders [[Iselniragan-dego]] to the north, and [[Bastenal-dego]] to the south, while facing Gardaus Bay to its west. The built up areas of Baroye are mostly on the inland side, while the areas nearer the sea are given over to shops catering to the working crowd, as well as many small gardens often known as ''Basademiles'' or &quot;Pavillion Fields&quot;, many of which were built from donations of land by private individuals in the 19th century.

==History==

==Bastenal Today==

==Neighbourhoods==

==Famous Buildings==

==Notes==

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asugai Seterno</title>
    <id>3037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:36:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Legacy and Impact */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Asugai Seterno''' (13 June 1861 - 12 December 1932) was a famous [[Risevne|Risevan]] poet, dramatist and essayist, often said to be the &quot;first modern poet of the country&quot;. Born to a scholarly family and proficient in eight major languages, Seterno's wide knowledge of forms of poetry both within and outside of his country gave his work a highly varied voice, and it was through his writings that many styles and ideas of poetry were transmitted in Risevne, inspiring poets long after him. 

In 1910 he was awarded the [[Risevan Royal Award for Excellence]], citing his &quot;mastery of poetry, and his use of the art in stirring the spirit of Risevne&quot;; 9 years later he was awarded the [[Agenir Literary Award]], one of the most prestigious prizes for a man of letters. Throughout his career he did not just write in [[Mirselec]], though it was his native language; instead he published works in four languages, and often did translations of his own works.

==Childhood and Youth==

Seterno was born '''Asugai Biran Seterno''' on June 13, 1861, in the city of [[Bisdauni]] in [[Ostema Province]]. His father was Biran Seterno, a well-known professor of Mirselec in the local university; his mother, Soruya Banandor, was a student of the elder Seterno and 13 years his junior, and by the time of his birth a well-known writer of short stories.

==Early Career==

==Travels and Hardship==

==Poet Laureate==

==Later Life==

==Legacy and Impact==

The artistic legacy that Seterno left behind was immense, and made even more immense when after his death his colleagues in the University entered his rooms on campus, as well as his apartment - both of which had seen no visitors for around two decades. They found huge volumes of hitherto unpublished manuscripts, including notes for plays and several long poems written entirely in the archaic [[Sasuriona]] style. 

[[category:Risevani poets and writers]]
[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:Iruzansero literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>South Odirá</title>
    <id>3038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T16:16:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect for the time being</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Odirá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>North Odirá</title>
    <id>3039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-11T16:18:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Odirá#North Odirá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Odirá</title>
    <id>3040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31012</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-04T19:39:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Odirá''' is one of the two major continents of [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]].  It was the first continent to be settled by humanity.  The continent is divided into two parts, known as East Odirá and West Odirá, divided by the presence of a large mountain system.  The two halves were separate continents until about 40 million years ago.  A large inland ocean basin, the [[Kalpanian Sea]], is trapped between the two subcontinents, and has historically played a significant role in the history of the two subcontinents.

== West Odirá ==
South Odirá has traditionally been dominated by the [[Sanle]] civilization, and most of the cultures of the area have been significantly influenced by them.  One notable characteristic of South Odirán civilizations is their matriarchal structure.
== Dividing Mountains ==
The Dividing Mountains are subdivided into three chains, the Northern Barrier Mountains, the Fire Mountains (also called the [[Fantasta Mountains]]) and the Southern Barrier Mountains.  The Northern and Southern Barrier Mountains are both high mountainous chains, with the world's largest mountains included in them.  The Fire Mountains are a set of volcanoes along the southern shore of the [[Kalpanian Sea]].
== East Odirá ==

[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kalpanian Sea</title>
    <id>3041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T20:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Kalpanian Sea''', earlier called the '''Fantasta Sea''', is a large inland sea in the southern part of [[North Odirá]], bordering the [[Fantasta Mountains]].  It is actually a trapped ocean basin, having once been a large gulf until North and [[South Odirá]] collided about 40 million years ago.  The ocean crust under it is being gradually subducted under South Odirá, forming the Fantasta Mountains.

The name ''Fantasta'' was derived from the [[Classical Sanle]] ''Fant Shta'', meaning North Sea.  The name ''Kalpanian Sea'' was derived from [[Kalpan]], the name of an ancient kingdom that once controlled the entire sea.  Though the name Fantasta has fallen out of use for the sea, it has continued life as the name of the volcanic range along its southern shore.

[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasta Mountains</title>
    <id>3042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:27:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fantasta Mountains''' are a volcanic range along the southern shore of the [[Kalpanian Sea]] (formerly known as Fantasta Sea, the source of the range's name).  The Fantasta Mountains are being formed by the subduction of ocean crust underlying the Kalpanian Sea.  The mountains have traditionally formed an important connection between [[North Odirá|North]] and [[South Odirá]], as they are lower than the Eastern and Western Barrier Ranges, and have passes that are usually crossable.  However, during cold periods of [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]]'s history, the passes were snowed over, and the overland route was wiped out.

The re-opening of the mountain passes after a minor ice age played a crucial role in the establishment of the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]].

[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevani poets and writers</title>
    <id>3044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This list contains pages to do with writers in [[Risevne]], disregarding whichever language they wrote in (though most of them write in Mirselec, the primary language of the country).

[[Category:Risevan culture]]
[[Category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Education system of Risevne</title>
    <id>3045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-12T02:57:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page describes the educational system of [[Risevne]].

Amongst the countries in the world Risevne is one of the highest spenders on education; around 7.1% of the national GDP goes into education, while private schools (many of them funded by foundations set up by one of the [[Gorebasa]] families) are also common. The [[Risevan Ministry of Education]] is the governmental agency in charge of the whole educational system, which is partially devolved to the provincial authorities for each province.

==Primary Education==

==Secondary Education==

==Tertiary Education==

[[category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sayenfurasa</title>
    <id>3046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16989</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T12:57:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Menata */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sayenfurasa''' is an ancient compilation of poems in [[Mirselec]]; its meaning in Mirselec is &quot;Ode-Compilation&quot;, the word ''sayen'' literally referring to a type of poetry during the earliest days of the kingdoms sung at festivities and religious sacrifices. It is the oldest known compilation of Mirselec poetry, and contains a total of 417 poems, divided into several parts by their form:

*''Sayen'', the religious odes, of which there are 92

*''Karsayen'', the royal odes sung during major festivities, of which there are 35

*''Menata'', folk songs, of which there are 212

*''Honameri'', individual prayers and invocations to gods, of which there are 62

*''Wasantosa'', longer poems meant to celebrate legendary figures, of which there are 15.

While this categorisation adds a formal air to the collection, the works collected within the Sayenfurasa are often striking in their deeply personal tone, vivid use of images and symbols, and utilisation of implication to state their feelings. 

The Sayenfurasa is the oldest known compilation of Mirselec poetry, and is one of the most revered works of classical literature in the language; in the words of [[Hirdan Gersenga]], &quot;what was written therein (within the Sayenfurasa) was the wood, and all poets after that are merely carvers.&quot; Having been dated back to around 420-450 DN, the last datable poem within this collection was from about 395 DN, and the oldest ones have been estimated to date from as far back as 100 BDN. As a text, it forms one of the several core texts for secondary students learning ancient and classical Mirselec.

==History and Texts==

The work of compiling the text in its entirety is often attributed to [[Oristeonme]], a poet and attendant at a temple who was called to the court of the [[Kingdom of Masal]]; he is, however, widely seen to be the last in a series of compilers, especially of several well known poets (often known in Risevan art and literature as the [[Songwriters of Kormanoi]], after the city of [[Kormanoi]] which was then an important city in the Masal kingdom) who had travelled widely and then, in around 580 DN, compiled the bulk of the work in the Menata and Sayen.

Unlike many other classical Mirselec texts which, due to royal whims or rivalries between nations, have survived only in fragmentary form, the Saeynfurasa has survived in highly intact form; the oldest known manuscript of the compilation, as part of the [[Omesa Tomb Manuscripts]], dates from around 865 DN and is presently preserved in the [[Risevan National Museum]]. Several other nearly complete texts, dating from as far back as the late 10th century, also survive in university libraries.

The text is notorious amongst linguists of ancient Mirselec for its large number of hapices - words which only appear once in the text, and which in many cases do not appear in other texts at all. While contextual speculation, as well as the extremely valuable edtiion dating from 1297 which was massively annotated by the poet [[Moso Tailda]], have shed light on many of these rare words, several words' exact meanings remain unknown.

==Works and Study==

The Sayenfurasa is very notable amongst Mirselec texts for the immense influence of mainland cultures. The works of the Sayenfurasa are studied widely, not only by Mirselec scholars but also by historians interested in the early history of east [[Osonde]]; the devastation of much of the area following the chaos of the [[DN Event]], as well as the fact that some of the most stable areas on the continent were in fact the [[Hesgarigani]] kingdoms of the third century, meant that reconstruction from these poems provided a way to understand the society of Osondain cultures.

==Organisation==

The Sayenfurasa is firstly organised by form into the five categories; within these categories the poems are then further organised in different ways:

*Within the Sayen, Karsayen and Menata, the songs are grouped by the number of syllables in each line; each such categorisation is given a regional title, even if the poems contained therein do not necessarily come from that region. Therefore the Songs of [[Bidan]] are all of the form ''5-7-6-7-7-7-6-6'', while the Songs of [[Rutimuna]] are all of the form ''5-5-6-5-8-5'' in each stanza.

*Within the Honameri and Wasantosa the poems are simply grouped by their subjects; namely the major gods in the former, and the respective heroes and great men in the latter.

==Contents==

===Sayen===

===Karsayen===

===Menata===

*Songs of Bidan: 1-17 (Bidan is situated in modern day [[Ofalna Province]]; rhythm 5-7-6-7-7-7-6-6

*Songs of Rarena: 18-25 (Rarena is situated in modern day [[Ostema]] and [[Inezama]] provinces; rhythm 9-7-7-4-4-5

*Long Songs of Rarena: 26-33; rhythm 9-7-7-4-4-5-7-7-4-4-7

*Songs of Keise: 34-45 (Keise is in modern day [[Enimdanai Province]]; rhythm 5-5-7-6-5-5-7-9

*Songs of Hinemasal: 46-61 (Hinemasal is in modern day east [[Feladmena Province]] and [[Taluste]]; rhythm 6-6-7-7-6-6-5-5

*Songs of Barkararena: 62-76 (Barkararena is in modern day [[Eonis Province]]; rhythm 5-5-5-6-6-6-5-5

*Songs of Karamasal: 77-98 (Karamasal is in modern day west Feladmena Province and [[Bresnga]], as well as southern [[Ngaba Province]]); rhythm 7-7-7-6-7-7-6

*Songs of Isana: 99-116 (Isana is in modern day [[Isana]]); rhythm 7-5-7-5-7-7-7-5

*Long songs of Isana: 117-120; rhythm 7-5-7-5-7-7-7-5-6-6-5-5

*Songs of Urigal: 121-128 (Urigal is in modern day [[Osagona Province]]; rhythm 4-4-7-4-4-6-7-7

*Songs of Endaba: 129-136 (Endaba is in modern day northern Ngaba Province); rhythm 6-6-5-5-7-9

*Songs of Ersinar: 137-145 (Ersinar is in modern day southwestern [[Abanamide Province]]); rhythm 7-6-6-6-5-6-7-6

*Songs of Karinsa: 146-153 (Karinsa straddles modern day north Abanamide, and southern [[Osbane Province]]); rhythm 7-7-7-6-7-7-3-3-9

*Songs of Naigardi: 154-162 (Naigardi is in modern day southwestern [[Osagona Province]]); rhythm 6-6-7-6-4-4-9

*Songs of Pernelin: 163-174 (Pernelin is in modern day eastern [[Baseniga Province]], and western [[Serteni Province]]); rhythm 6-5-6-5-7-7-7-5

*Songs of Tanogema: 175-181 (Tanogema is in modern day southeastern Osagona and northwestern Serteni provinces); rhythm 9-9-7-5-3-3-6

*Songs of Sugito: 181-187 (Sugito is in modern day northeastern Osagona Province); rhythm 7-7-3-3-9-5-5

*Songs of Nagema: 188-201 (Nagema is in modern day eastern [[Naguse Province]]); rhythm 5-6-5-6-3-3-7-7

*Songs of Uriwana: 202-212 (Uriwana is in modern day western Naguse and [[Lyonaske]] provinces); rhythm 9-9-9-6-3-3-6-3-3-5

===Honameri===

===Wasantosa===

[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:Important Mirselec texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Mirselec literature</title>
    <id>3047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{main|Mirselec Literature}}

This list contains pages to do with the literature of the [[Mirselec]] language.

[[category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artakhshandan Empire</title>
    <id>3048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T19:28:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Artakhshandan Empire was an empire that ruled over much of western [[Aghantia]] between the years 120 BI and 346 AI.

[[Image:Big map artakhshandan empire at peak.jpg|thumb|right|A map showing the Artakhshandan Empire at its peak in 47 AI]]

==Origins==
The Artakhshandans were a subgroup of the [[Parthavans]], who lived in [[Parthava]], a province in the north-eastern extent of the [[Artamashti Empire]]. The Artamashti Empire was at war with the Avustrean conqueror [[Daryamenes]], who was on the verge of completely destroying the Artamashtians.

Having destroyed the Artamashtian Empire in 122 BI, Daryamenes set about consolidating his power in the north-east of the empire. However, his army was ambushed by [[Parthavans]], and Daryamenes suffered his first military defeat. He was shot by a Parthavan arrow, and died several hours later. He left his empire to his 8 sons.

The [[Parthavans]] at this time were under the leadership of [[Aryane]], the daughter of the Satrap of [[Parthava]] who had been killed fighting [[Daryamenes]]. She had a personal vendetta with the Daryameneans, and in 121 BI, managed to unite the 12 Parthavan clans into one nation, and invaded the [[Daryamenean empire]].

==Conquest of the Daryamenean Empire==
Daryamenes had left his entire empire to his 8 sons, who were constantly bickering for control of land. After only a year's wait (during which time Aryane was mobilising her army) Daryamenes's successor states had grown tired with fighting. Their armies had been worn thin and their treasuries were running low. The Daryamenean kings increased taxation to pay for the war, however, this was not met kindly with the citizens. In late 120 BI, a mutiny in [[Ektabaktra]] (an eastern province) provided the conditions [[Aryane]] needed for attacking the Daryameneans. She moved into the empire, and conquered the entire land that Daryamenes had promised his oldest son, [[Melamenes]] in only 1 year 8 months. The rest of the [[Daryamenean Empire]] quickly fell in just over 12 years. This had taken Aryane to the gates of [[Istepuli]], the last remaining Daryamenean city in [[Aghantia]].

===Battle of Istakhran===
[[The Battle of Istakhran]] took place late 122 BI between Daryamenes and Aryane (when he was ambushed). 

===Battle of Geldimaris===
[[The Battle of Geldimaris]] was the one pivotal battle in Aryane's campaign that determined the Daryameneans' future. It was fought on 22nd Khordad 119 BI, 40 miles north of [[Geldimaris bridge]].

===Battle of Istepuli===</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Big map artakhshandan empire at peak.jpg</title>
    <id>3049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-12T22:00:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A map showing the [[Artakhshandan Empire]] at its peak in 47 AI, shortly after the [[Parizhian war]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A map showing the [[Artakhshandan Empire]] at its peak in 47 AI, shortly after the [[Parizhian war]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daryamenes</title>
    <id>3050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Daryamenes was an Avustrean conqueror who was responsible for destroying the dying Artamashti and founding the [[Daryamenean Empire]].

[[Image:Daryamenes jpeg.JPG|thumb|A map showing the empire on Daryamenes's death]]

==Early life==
Daryamenes was born in

[[Category:Rulers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Daryamenes jpeg.JPG</title>
    <id>3051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-12T22:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A map showing the borders of the [[Daryamenean Empire]] on Daryamenes's death in 121 BI.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A map showing the borders of the [[Daryamenean Empire]] on Daryamenes's death in 121 BI.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pulesian</title>
    <id>3052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T00:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarnawa</username>
        <id>196</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Docau</title>
    <id>3053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T01:10:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Docau''' is a member of the [[Arithidic languages|Arithidic]] branch of the [[Arophanic language family]], directly descended from [[Koine Arithide]] and closely related to the [[Modern Arithide|modern standard]]. Spoken by fewer than 70,000 people in southeastern [[Arophania]], the most notable difference of Docau from its relatives is the fact that it has uniquely lost the grammatical plural, due to historical sound changes.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:History of Risevne</title>
    <id>3054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T04:31:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Is Risevne on Earth or another planet? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 19:38, 12 November 2006 (PST)

Yes, Risevne is on another planet. The planet is called [[Valmante]], but so long as this link stays red it means I'm still sorting out the cartography and geography haha... [[User:Sirica|Sirica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Prehistory of Humanity on Galhaf</title>
    <id>3055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-21T04:19:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Prehistory of Humanity in the Chihazh System]] moved to [[Prehistory of Humanity on Galhaf]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Humans (Galhaf)|Humanity]] settled [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]] approximately 14,000 [[Galhafan year]]s (c. 10,000 Earth years) before the present time.  Little is known of the early settlers.  At one time, it was believed that humanity had originated on [[Khanda]] or [[Ospendakh]], but it is now known that humanity originated from beyond the Galhafan stellar system.

Whatever their origin, they divided themselves into five colonies on Galhaf, four located on [[Odirá]] and one located on [[Kraya]].  For reasons unknown, they soon lost all technology, and these five colonies became the origin of the [[Ethnicities of Galhaf|five main racial groups]].  Being small in number, they were subject to the [[Wikipedia:founder effect|founder effect]] and quickly distinguished themselves as distinct races, though later interbreeding complicated racial divisions.

Over a period of a few millennia, humanity spread out, adopting a paleolithic stone-age lifestyle, and adapting to the local ecology.  After about 4000 years (3000 Earth years), agriculture was developed in [[Kalpan]], with southern [[Sanle]] following shortly thereafter.

Over time, humanity developed increasingly complex civilizations, until today humanity has begun once more to [[Space Exploration in the Chihazh System|explore and colonize]] their local [[Planets of Chihazh|stellar system]].

[[Category:Galhaf]]
[[Category:Prehistory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lescealh</title>
    <id>3056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23695</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-22T18:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lescealh''' is a hilly region in the northwestern corner of [[Lheinead]]. It is dominated by the Faraneih, an ethnic group who comprise over 99% of its 10 million inhabitants.

==Geography==
It is bordered on the northwest by the Kupeimeiceah, a barren desert. To the northeast is a stretch of savanna, while the southeast is mainly higher and higher mountians of which Lescealh is merely the foothills. That mountain range extends south, further than the Faraneih know, who refer to it as the &quot;backbone of the world&quot;. To the southwest lies the chapparell which eventually gives way to the Measceineafh and Teimeareitah (Trovog in [[Etimri]]). 

Due to this unique geography, Lescealh has adequate annual rainfall (around 30 to 40 inches in many regions), although the areas bordering it have very little rainfall, giving it a more productive economy and agriculture, in part inspiring its dominance over other regions and promotion of its langauge ([[Faraneit]]) to lingua franca status.

==Ecology==
Lescealh is commonly described as having a &quot;cfzb&quot; or &quot;cfb&quot; climate under Koeppen's system. It profits from winter rainfall (from the west), which allows it to avoid the harsh winters of the east, as well as the monsoon from the southeast, which boosts its amaranth production, Lescealh's main crop.

Lescealh is famous for its multi-colored forests, where a mixture of various tree species grow and thrive. Because of its colorful appearance, it was named Lescealh, which derives from the same root as leizealh, gem, in [[Faraneit]]. 

==Agriculture==
Agriculture is highly productive in Lescealh. Its leading crops are puzil, a tree which produces harvestable sweet roots, amaranth, lirodeaz, a sweet and sour flavored melon, nopav, a lettece like green, and voanabeap, a fiber crop.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hirdan Gersenga</title>
    <id>3057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T14:18:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hirdan Gersenga''' (15 May 1542 - 22 September 1601), more well-known under his pen name '''Erivinkisa''' meaning &quot;Aged Quill&quot;, was a [[Risevan]] writer who is often regarded by Risevani as being one of their greatest writers. Working mostly in poetry while also being an expert essayist, Gersenga produced a total of about 430 poems and nearly 700 essays which have survived to this day; his essays, which are termed by him to be ''Kisa ta Omadeye'' or &quot;The will of the pen&quot;, are considered pioneers of the form. 

Some of his most famous works include his long poems, which he titled ''Navno te Wasantosa'' (meaning The New Wasantosas, the term referring to a specific sort of ode within the ancient poetic text [[Sayenfurasa]]), the longest of which - the [[Erunmitir ta Wasantosa]] or ode of [[Erunmitir]] - contains nearly 5,200 lines and has had a profound effect on literature even up to the modern era. His essays, on the other hand, portray a very different side of him; mostly composed during his years in the wilderness of modern-day [[Ofalna Province]], they possess a tone very different from that of his poetry, concerning themselves with nature while holding deep philosophical musings as well.

The impact that Gersenga has had on modern Risevani culture cannot be overstated; he is often considered the national poet of the whole nation, so much so that he is often referred to as ''Risevne ta kisa'' or &quot;The Pen of Risevne&quot;. His works have been translated into most major living languages and are read across the world.

==Childhood and Youth==

==Officialdom==

==Royal Poet==

==Tragedies and Retirement==

==Later Life==

Given these numerous tragedies that befell his family, Gersenga soon fell into a deep depression; it was somewhere in this period that he finally decided to leave Isana. In a letter to [[Queen Sesorna]], who under the First Constitution had the power to approve of resignations from the [[Afengar]], he made an impassioned plea to be allowed to return to his hometown, and his request was granted; a month later he returned to Kairsan with his only surviving daughter Eduna.

While living in Kairsan, he retired from most politics, and twice rejected calls from the local leaders to serve within the provincial government; he did, however, push for the marriage of his daughter with the son of the provincial governor, who belonged to one of the most influential clans in the area. This marriage arrangement, as well as the fact that the Queen had personally arranged for him to receive half his official stipend even after he had retired, meant he was financially quite comfortable; certainly he had the luxury to make several tours to the east, the longest of which in 1592 took him all the way to modern-day eastern [[Hyomeniga]] province.

==Works==

Hirdan Gersenga's poetry is mostly admired for its wide variety of forms and themes; critics over the ages have called him as ''Sabarus ta enigai, Aina ta munai, Nidui ta gebarse, Suninas ta iyane, shai ge onevano'' (&quot;Possessing the spirit of [[Dengai ke Sabarus|Sabarus]], the sorrow of [[Nonezari Aina|Aina]], the ambition of [[Tebegas ke Nidui|Nidui]], and the lightness of [[Suninas]]&quot;).

==Legacy and Impact==

The birthtown of Gersenga, which is the present day town of [[Kairsan]] in [[Ofalna Province]], contains several memorials to the poet.

[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[category:Risevani poets and writers]]
[[category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hormutac</title>
    <id>3058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T06:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hormutac''' is a city in [[Serteni Province]], situated on the eastern tip of the Serteni peninsula. One of the largest and most prosperous cities along the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]], it is often known as the Pearl of the Inland Sea. As of 2046 its population stood at 833,522.

[[category:Towns in Serteni Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kairsan</title>
    <id>3059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T14:21:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Kairsan''' is a town in western [[Ofalna Province]], most famous for being the birthplace and later residence of the famed Risevani poet [[Hirdan Gersenga]]. As of 2045 it has a population of 27,951.

==Geography==

Kairsan occupies a small, forested mountain valley near the coast of [[Enibase Bay]], and follows the shape of the valley northeast to southwest; the older districts of the city are more inland, while the lands to the southwest which used to be for agricultural purposes have been expanded into since the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

==History==

==Fame==

The town is most famed as having housed Gersenga at many points during his life; born and raised there, he left the town for the city of [[Isana]] at age 20; 24 years later, at the age of 44 and after his retirement from the [[Risevan Assembly]], he returned to the town where he would live out the rest of his years in a house a short distance away. The poet wrote most of his poetic works in Isana, but turned instead to essays upon returning to Kairsan; for this the scenery around Kairsan is sometimes called &quot;the most described land of Risevne&quot;, given the content of the essays which largely focused on the natural beauty of the region. 

Many memorials to the writer exist, including the three houses he had lived in as well as his grave in a nearby temple; Gersenga's residence on the outskirts of the city, where he spent the last three decades of his life, is presently home to the [[Gersenga Museum]]. At the same time, the [[Gersenga Institute]] is a research institute meant to promote knowledge of, and research into, the works of Gersenga as well as his contemporaries. The international fame of the writer means that the town is not just a local but an international attraction, though strict laws controlling new construction and land use has managed to keep the town much as it was in the early 19th century when the last round of major constructions occurred.

[[category:Towns in Enimdanai Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sazh</title>
    <id>3060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T06:29:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>infobox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Phonology==
{{Infobox|name=Sazh
|pronounce=/sɑʒ/
|tu=unknown
|species=Human?
|in=unknown
|no=unknown
|script=Romanized Equivalent
|tree=language isolate
|morph=isolating
|ms=ergative
|wo=OSV
|creator=Humancadaver101 aka Schwhatever aka Buckfush530
|date=November 2006}}

*Consonants: /p t k f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ç ʝ h l r m n/
**Romanized As: &lt;p t k f v th dh s z sh zh c j h l r m n&gt;
*Vowels: /ɑ i u/
**Romanized As: &lt;a i u&gt;
*Phonotactics: (F)(S)(A)V(C)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Serteni Province</title>
    <id>3061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-19T13:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Serteni Province''' (Mirselec ''Sertenis denai'') is one of the [[subdivisions of Risevne|provinces]] of [[Risevne]]; it is province 12 in the standard governmental numbering order. The province comprises the [[Serteni Peninsula]], one of the peninsulae which bound the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]], and borders the provinces of [[Bawodaga]], [[Osagona]] and [[Besurgana]]. The provincial capital is the city of [[Niyanoza]].

The Serteni Peninsula stretches eastward from the Masalan mainland, and its tip is the closest point between the two [[Risevan Home Islands|Home Islands]]; the Hotetangaba Strait, at its narrowest point, is just 21 km across. While debate has been going on for decades over building a bridge to span this body of water, at present this seems unlikely. The rest of Serteni is dominated by an eastern branch of the [[Mathormagos]], known locally as the [[Sinarhormagos]], which are relatively gentler in slope compared to the main mountains themselves.

==Geography==

==History==

==Constituent Counties==

==Main Towns and Cities==

==Famous Locations==

*[[Hotetangaba Strait]]

*[[Susirmoyan]]: a famous temple near [[Elgamo, Serteni Province|Elgamo]] city

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Battle of Istakhran</title>
    <id>3062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-13T19:47:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;width: 315px; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; background: #efefef&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-bottom: none; text-align: center; font-size: large;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Battle of Istakhran'''
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; border-top: none; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| ''part of the [[Parthavan-Daryamenean Wars]]''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 8px&quot;| '''Date'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%; padding-top: 8px&quot;| Late 122 BI (exact date unknown)
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px&quot;| '''Location'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%&quot;| 20 miles south-east of [[Istakhra]], north-east [[Parsa]]
|-
|style=&quot;width: 25%; text-align: right; padding-right: 4px; padding-bottom: 8px&quot;| '''Result'''
|style=&quot;width: 75%; padding-bottom: 8px&quot;| Decisive Parthavan victory
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Combatants'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| 
Parthavans
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| 
Daryameneans
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Commanders'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| [[Sepahpetish]] [[Aryane]]
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| [[Strateghos]] [[Daryamenes]]
Murdesenes Achalyon
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Strength'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| 1,000 Parthavan cavalry backed up with camel supply chains to cities
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| 30,000 Daryamenean phalanxes,
10,000 cavalry,
10,000 archers,
5,000 Companion cavalry
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; padding: 2px 0 2px 0; text-align: center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Casualties'''
|-
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0; border-right: 1pt dashed #c0c0c0&quot;| Negligable
|style=&quot;width: 50%; padding: 4px 0 4px 0&quot;| Entire army killed or routed
|-
|style=&quot;background: #dfdfdf; font-size: smaller;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Notes:'''&lt;br /&gt;This battle was later responsible for Daryamenes's death by an arrow wound. It created a huge power vacuum in the eastern reaches of Daryamenes's empire, allowing the Parthavans to conquer.
|}

The Battle of Istakhran was a pivotal battle in the Parthavan-Daryamenean wars that allowed the [[Parthavans]] to enter and conquer the eastern parts of Daryamenes's empire.

==Build up==
The Parthavans had met once before with [[Daryamenes]] as mercenaries in the Artamashti Empire. They had fought alongside the Artamashti soldiers and had caused grave casualties to the Daryamenean line, being able to shoot down thousands with their strong bows. However due to the inadequacy of the Artamashti generals, these Parthavan horse archers were foolishly sent in to a charge once their ammunition had been used up, and here they were killed easily.

Daryamenes had also had problems with sending any supplies up to the north-east. In 123 BI, he had tried to send a caravan full of gifts to the [[Metaksour]] leaders for aiding him in his campaign against the Artamashtis. However, the Parthavans had plundered the train and had taken everything.

In 122 BI, Daryamenes went up north to try consolidate his power in the north-east of his empire by wiping out the Parthavans who had been causing him trouble. However, an efficient messenger chain informed the Parthavan leader, [[Aryane]], that Daryamenes was coming, and what route he was taking. Quickly, she amassed an army consisting almost entirely of horse archers and lay in wait for the Daryameneans to come.

==The battle==</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alvesod</title>
    <id>3063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T04:23:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alvesod''' is a town in northeastern [[Neiberin Province]]. One of the few major towns in the province that is not near the sea, Alvesod is situated along the [[Murori river]], a small tributary of the [[Kanmose river]] that flows in the north of the province. Once famous for being a quarrying town, it is situated between several quarries, but its economy has since taken other directions. The population of the town as of 2045 is 81,312.

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Society==

[[category:Towns in Neiberin Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tasenir Province</title>
    <id>3064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15500</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T04:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tasenir Province''' (Mirselec ''Tasenir denai''), known in the numbering order as Province 23, is one of the [[Subdivisions of Risevne|provinces]] of [[Risevne]], and traditionally considered the northernmost of the four Mountain Provinces of [[Masalne]]. Its capital is the city of [[Inoburan]].

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Inoburan]]

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tineye Province</title>
    <id>3065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15501</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T04:42:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tineye Province''' (Mirselec ''Tineye denai''), also known as Province 22, is one of the [[Subdivisions of Risevne|provinces]] of [[Risevne]], situated on the west coast of the main island of [[Masalne]]. It borders [[Tasenir Province]] on its east, and [[Neiberin Province]] on its south. Its capital is the city of [[Lisnai]].

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darnevgana Province</title>
    <id>3066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T15:09:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Darnevgana Province''' (Mirselec ''Darnevgana denai''), also known as Province 25, is a [[Subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]]. It is the northernmost province of the country, occupying the northern tip of the island of [[Masalne]] including the [[Usefyesuri Peninsula]], and is often grouped with neighbouring [[Imerte Province]] and [[Tasenir Province]] as the ''Masbaradenai'' or Northern Provinces. 

For most of its history a relatively remote and independent region of the kingdom, it was for centuries known as ''Kesubai ta denai'', the Province of Exiles. It did, however, serve as an important bastion in the north against the maritime incursions from [[Noma]] in the past; as well as  being the main economic gateway to the northern continent. In recent years trade has increased greatly with the northern nations, and with the discovery of oil in Noma the province is growing into a centre for oil transportation, storage and refining, as it offers some of the nearest ice-free ports.

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Southern Islands Department</title>
    <id>3067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T13:34:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Southern Islands Department''' (Mirselec ''Nimesurna Alzer'') is one of the [[Subdivisions of Risevne|three island departments]] of [[Risevne]]. The capital of the department is the town of [[Fanedun]], on [[Garmagas Island]].

==Geography and Climate==

Geographically the southern department covers the largest area of the three island departments, and also has the most islands - a total of nearly 1,750 across the [[Elaspegian Ocean]] south of the [[Risevan Home Islands]], of which around 520 are permanently inhabited.

This department comprises several large island groups, as well as many small and mostly uninhabited atolls scattered across the southwestern Elaspegian. Some of the prominent groups include:

*[[Tigase Islands]], a group of about 70 islands the largest of which is [[Tigase Island]]

*[[Onu Islands]], a vast arc of nearly 400 islands centred around the 3 main isles of [[Meseso]], [[Linisurna]] and [[Kadisurna]].

*[[Higeric Islands]], a group of around 330 islands and the southernmost Risevan island group, which contains [[Anorsobalye Island]] (literally meaning Naval Base of Anorso), a major southern naval base for the [[Risevan Royal Navy]].

Many of the islands experience a tropical or subtropical climate, with a yearly storm season especially prevalent in the islands to the west of the department; the same storms that strike the area as minor storms tend to strike the Home Islands or other northerly areas as major hurricanes, thus making it of special interest to Risevan meteorlogists. Several met stations have been set up in the region.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

The Southern Islands are ethnically the most diverse region of Risevne, owing to the native populations: the Risevan Government classifies the island's ethnicities into 6 main groups according to the regions of inhabitation: [[Tigasani]], [[Onuyani]], [[Hemsarani]], [[Sekunbani]], [[Higerizani]] and [[Maksani]]. All six of these have similar but distinct cultures.

[[category:Subdivisions of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mount Asona</title>
    <id>3068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T06:24:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mount Asona''' (Mirselec ''Asonahorma'') is a mountain in [[Risevne]], situated along the border between [[Atastarne Province]] and  [[Bifeno Province]] on the island of [[Agalmare]]. It is 1,434 metres in height.

==Geography==

==Human history==

==Cultural Significance==

The mountain plays a crucial role in the culture and religion of the [[Anabanganka people]] of Bifeno and [[Sonaira]] provinces; in their mythology Asona is one of the goddesses who guard the world, and who is always linked with the god Munirti as his lover and eventually wife.

[[category:Mountains of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Provinces of the Lein Empire</title>
    <id>3069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15507</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T07:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page discusses and lists the many '''Provinces of the Lein Empire'''.

Throughout its history the [[Lein Dynasty]] has received several territorial appellations. In its original form as founded by [[Tairazun Durun berHikas ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Durun]], the massive reshuffling of territories in order to better centralise administrative power ended up with the division known as the Twelve Provinces, and this definition of provincial borders would remain relatively constant throughout the first part of the Lein Dynasty. 

The reign of [[Tairazun Sora berAthain ne-i-Lein|Tairazun Sora]], however, would bring about huge changes. As the Imperial armies marched northeast and northwest, bringing the group of powerful kingdoms that had threatened the Tranon for so long under the sway of the Empire, the Imperial Court accordingly made adjustments and imposed laws designed to increase its control over these potentially dangerous entities. Borders were placed disruptively, while travel was restricted, and in this way an additional nine provinces were formed, such that by the end of his reign in [[Tranon Calendars|Lein 177]] the Empire was known as the '''Twenty-one Provinces'''.

[[category:Lein Dynasty]]
[[category:Territories of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Territories of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T07:54:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This list includes articles about the vast territories of the [[Lein Dynasty]].

[[category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Continents of Valmante</title>
    <id>3071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16146</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category includes all major landmasses on the planet of [[Valmante]].

[[category:Valmante]]
[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iruze</title>
    <id>3072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:53:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Republic of Iruze''' is a country situated in the northwest of the continent of [[Kaireda]], on the eastern coast of the [[Elaspegian Ocean]] and the northern coast of the [[Esrilmian Ocean]]. As of 2045 its population is estimated at 143,289,707.

[[category:Iruze|*]]
[[category:Countries of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DN Event</title>
    <id>3073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T14:25:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Denoxen-Nazcekamo Event''' was a series of gigantic volcanic eruptions that are widely considered as a historical watershed for the civilisations of [[Valmante]], so much so that at the first meetings of the [[First Asela League]] the constituent states, for want of a common way to represent their respective years and dates, chose to date the year as 1880 DN, from an estimate of how long ago the event actually happened (See controversy below).

==Background==

==Impacts==

==Dating Convention==

==Controversy==

The main controversy regarding the use of the DN system to count years has been the fact that the 1880 estimate, which first established the year and subsequently gave an order for historians to establish all dates retrospectively, has been proven to be off by at least 10 years, and possibly up to 25 years. While the main historical sources of many worldwide civilisations which existed at the time do point to major upheavals in climate which fit the pattern of a huge volcanic eruption, several of the more reliable samples used for dating reveal that the eruption's effects were in fact felt in many areas, including [[Soreno]], [[Akezurnam]] and [[Koreta]], from around 10 BDN onwards.

[[category:Catastrophic Events]]
[[category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Arithide grammar</title>
    <id>3074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44223</id>
      <timestamp>2009-03-18T22:05:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Nouns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''grammar of Classical Arithide''' is characterised by a degree of inflection unseen in most modern tongues, and notably absent from its own [[Modern Arithide|modern descendant]]. Due to this inflectionary tendency, [[Classical Arithide]] possesses considerably free word order, especially in poetry, but syntax commonly and usually retains the traditional order of Subject Object Verb. Classical Arithide is a topic-prominent language, left-branching, prepositional (on the rare occasions where prepositions are employed), verb-framed, pro-drop and lexically-classed; it does not use articles. While some of these characteristics, such as its pro-drop and genderless character, simplify the learning process, the task is invariably complicated by the complexity of the language's inflection.

The [[Classical Arithide]] inflection system involves 8 declension classes of nouns, each inflected for 11 cases and two numbers; two classes of verbs, each conjugated in four voices, three aspects, four sub-aspects and seven moods, and which each produce an assortment of various derivative forms; two classes of adjectives, the nominal behaving like regular nouns, and the verbal behaving like regular verbs; adverbs, the most common of which are generally indeclinable but most of which are derivations of adjectives and hence declined as per their class. Such ambivalence in the language's adjectives and adverbs led classical scholars and grammarians to overlay a dichotomous Nominal-Verbal differentiation on the language; in modern times, however, this [[traditional Arithide grammar]] has been replaced by a semantically-based part-of-speech grammar system not unlike the European.

==Nouns==

{{main|Classical Arithide declension}}

The use in [[Classical Arithide]] of lexical classing in nouns means that each declension class represents a broad group of nouns that share a certain characteristic. Traditional grammatical analysis takes the number of declension classes in Classical Arithide to be six, but the sub-classes that are sometimes sufficiently distinct from their ostensible parent class render the number about double. Factoring in overlapping and coincident declensions, modern grammarians generally accept the existence of 8 discrete groups, numbered declension classes I to VIII respectively. Only 7 classes were lexical: classes I to IV were productive classes due to their nature&amp;mdash;they are still productive in [[Modern Arithide]]&amp;mdash;and the separate but largely coincident declensions of the nouns thence derived were categorised under an eighth class.

Nouns of the '''first declension''' end in ''-os'', and are associated lexically with abstractions: actions (''vagos'', &quot;act of going&quot;), states (''stantos'', &quot;weight&quot;), qualities (''fygynnos'', &quot;dangerousness&quot;), among others (''sonos'', &quot;daily life&quot;). The '''second declension''' ends in ''-as'' and is associated with places: ''kitaras'' &quot;hall&quot;. The '''third''' (''-ir'') and '''fourth''' (''-rir'') both indicate a negative denotation or connotation associated with the noun, and were treated traditionally as variants of one declension, but separately nowadays because of the differences in their declension; they are also the only declensions where disyllabic nouns are stressed on the last syllable; ''vokir'' &quot;evil&quot;, ''kirir'' &quot;faux pas&quot;. The '''fifth declension''' consists of nouns ending in either ''-er'' or ''-a'', and the association here is with people, society and culture: ''ither'' &quot;person&quot;, ''medier'' &quot;wife&quot;, ''steima'' &quot;measurement&quot;; nouns without an ending decline the same way but have no particular lexical association (''stant'' &quot;weight&quot;). The '''sixth declension''' consists solely of the agentive derivatives of verbs, and hence all end in ''-on''. The '''seventh''' is made up of nouns ending in ''-i'' or ''-e'', as well as certain nouns ending in ''-is'' or ''-es'', but no apparent lexical connection has been found that sufficiently encompasses the nouns in the category. The '''eighth''', and last, declension class comprises the derived nouns, ending in any of ''-os'', ''-as'' or ''-ir'', and is the most regular declension class due to its character: it is the only class in which no irregularity is observed in any individual noun.

The 11 noun cases of Classical Arithide are:
*'''Nominative''', which marks the subject of a verb
*'''Topical''', which marks the topic of a sentence
*'''Accusative''', which marks the object of a verb
*'''Genitive''', which marks possession by
*'''Dative''', which marks motion towards, and by extension benefaction to etc.
*'''Locative''', which marks location (with places) or indicates shift of grammatical focus (with objects and people)
*'''Ablative''', which marks motion away or existence apart, and by extension is used with prepositions such as ''parō'' &quot;about, regarding&quot; or ''etel'' &quot;by (agentive)&quot;
*'''Instrumental''', which marks instruments, and by extension accompaniment, using the preposition ''syn'' &quot;with&quot;
*'''Vocative''', which marks direct address
*'''Connective''', which is an open-ended stem form to which certain affixes or other nouns are appended, e.g. ''salumos'' &quot;heaven&quot; + ''innos'' &quot;top&quot; &gt; ''saluminnum'' &quot;in heaven&quot; (lit. &quot;on heaven&quot;; ''innos'' is in the locative) and ''allas'' &quot;city&quot; + ''dolō'' &quot;around&quot; (from ''dolos'' &quot;surroundings&quot;) &gt; ''alladolō'' &quot;around the city&quot; {{footnote|1}}
*'''Essive''', which marks existence as

{{footnote|1}} ''Alladolō'' (connective + appendent [[Classical Arithide adpositions|adposition]]) must be distinguished from the similar ''dolō allior'' (prep. + ablative); while both might be translated as &quot;around the city&quot;, the former refers to the areas outside and surrounding a certain city, while the latter refers to places all around within the city: ''alladolō siethē sena'' &quot;there are flowers around the city&quot; vs. ''dolō allior siethē sena'' &quot;there are flowers all about the city&quot;.

Of these cases, the connective and essive in all nouns are identical, resulting in 10 effective cases.

==Adpositions==

{{main|Classical Arithide adpositions}}

Due to the extensive inflectionary marking in [[Classical Arithide]], the number of adpositions in common use is very few, although for purposes of scansion, some archaic ones can still be seen in poetry, sometimes in redundancy; the adpositions were revived, however, in [[Modern Arithide]], as postpositions. Most adpositions govern a designated case or several designated cases; the latter situation indicates multiple, usually related, meanings canvassed under the adposition concerned.

Besides the standalone adpositions, more common are the appendent adpositions (or postpositions), so called because they are appended to the connective case of nouns, most of the time forming a separate noun on their own, carrying a specific positional or lative meaning.

==Verbs==

{{main|Classical Arithide conjugation}}

Classical Arithide verbs are divided into five conjugation patterns based on whether their stems end in ''-a'', ''-e'', ''-i'' or a consonant; a small group of consonant-stem verbs that take the vowel-stem verb endings make up the last, mixed conjugation.

Verbs in each class are conjugated for four voices, three basic aspects, five derivative aspects, seven moods and three tenses:

*'''Voices:''' active, passive, causative, potentive
*'''Aspects:''' imperfective, perfective, perfect, habitual/generic, perfective habitual, inceptive, frequentative, protractive
*'''Moods:''' indicative, subjunctive, optative, jussive, imperative, cohortative, [[Classical Arithide conjugation#Negation|negative]] (also the interrogative)
*'''Tenses:''' present, past, future

Notes:
#There is no progressive/continuous tense as the tense overlaps semantically with the imperfective aspect, which is used instead.
#The interrogative mood is marked with the auxiliary particle ''da''.
#Verbs are conjugated on a cascading hierarchy as above, i.e. to the root form of the verb would first be appended affixes indicating voice, followed by aspect, then mood and subsequently tense.

Verbs can also form a large array of other derivatives, which can turn the verb into practically any part of speech: adjective and adverb, via the aspectual participles; noun, via various suffixes indicating agency, instrument or the supine, etc.; another verb, via the processes of compounding, modification etc.

==Adjectives==

{{main|Classical Arithide adjectives}}

[[Classical Arithide]] had two classes of word, of roughly equal ubiquity, that qualified as adjectives: the '''nominal adjectives''' and the '''verbal adjectives''', which, as their names indicate, either decline as do nouns, or conjugate as do verbs.

===Nominal class===

The nominal class of adjectives, as befits its name, behaves like nouns. Each adjective has a fixed declension class according to which it is declined for case and number; certain are of a variable declension class, i.e. they adopt the declension class of the particular noun they are modifying at the time, and decline accordingly. The nominal class adjectives are listed in dictionaries by their nominative singular, the variable-declension adjectives in the first declension nominative singular.

Many adjectives in the nominal class tend to be concerned with appearance, e.g. ''oluros'' &quot;ugly, out-of-shape&quot;, ''vobulos'' &quot;pitch-dark&quot;, ''nassos'' &quot;deepest, ulterior, core&quot;. Exceptions include all the adjectives of colour, which are morphologically derived from the names of the individual colours by affixing the general-purpose adjectivaliser ''-nēn'', and are hence verbal in nature.

Nominal-class adjectives, when used predicatively, usually take the copula ''hē''; in certain not-very-common cases, the adjective suffixes ''-nēn''.

===Verbal class===

The predicative use of such verbs as adjectives is expected, but the attributive use grew out of a grammatical device, now largely disused, of making verbs into modifiers by displacing them to the front of nouns rather than behind them, as is the usual SOV order.

Verbal-class or verbal adjectives, owing to their nature as stative verbs, behave like verbs, and may thus conjugate in two tenses, present and past, denoting the present and past states of the noun modified:

*''Viringa nista.'' vs. ''Viringa niste.''&lt;br&gt;The car (sedan) is fast. ''vs.'' The car was fast.
*''Nistī viringa'' vs. ''Nistēm viringa''&lt;br&gt;The fast car ''vs.'' The car that was fast (i.e. used to be but no longer)

The future tense is not used with adjectives. Rather, to describe &quot;a car that will be black&quot;, the adjective is compounded with the verb ''hallān'' &quot;to become&quot;, which semi-cliticises to give ''-allān'', giving ''egnallī viringa'', for example.

When attributively used, all adjectives are, like nouns, declined, in order to avoid ambiguity arising from the liberal word order of the language; adjectives take the declension of the noun they modify.

==Adverbs==

===Invariable adverbs===

As with every language, there are certain adverbs that are always invariable, e.g. ''lum'' &quot;now&quot;.

==Determiners &amp; pro-forms==

{{main|Classical Arithide determiners}}
{{main|Classical Arithide pro-forms}}

Classical Arithide determiners and pro-forms can be separated into two distinct types: the declined and the indeclinable. To the former group belong words with declinable antecedents: personal pronouns (''des'' &quot;I&quot;), demonstrative pronouns (''sitetis'' &quot;with that&quot;), relative pronouns (''zōos'' &quot;that which&quot;), pro-adjectives, pro-sentences, as well as interrogative words (''andae'' &quot;to whom&quot;). To the latter group belong words with indeclinable antecedents: pro-verbs (which are verbs and hence conjugated instead), pro-adverbs (''sē'' &quot;like that&quot;) and demonstrative adjectives (''ok ither'' &quot;this person&quot;). Of these, demonstrative adjectives are always placed directly before their referents.

===Numerals &amp; measure words===

{{main|Classical Arithide numerals}}

==See also==

*[[Classical Arithide]]
*[[Classical Arithide declension]]
*[[Classical Arithide conjugation]]
*[[Classical Arithide adjectives]]
*[[Classical Arithide adverbs]]
*[[Classical Arithide pro-forms]]
*[[Classical Arithide determiners]]
*[[Classical Arithide adpositions]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arithide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Paramtest</title>
    <id>3076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T15:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>More experiments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table class=&quot;gridtable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
{{ #ifeq: {{{caption|}}} | 0 | | &lt;caption&gt;Coronal stops&lt;/caption&gt; }}
&lt;tr style=&quot;font-size: xx-small; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Dental&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Alveolar&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Postalveolar&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
{{ #if: {{{t_d|}}} 
| &lt;!-- t_d is defined --&gt;
  {{ #if: {{{t_-|}}}
  | &lt;!-- t_- is defined --&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;{{{t_d|}}}&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;{{{t|}}}&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;{{{t_-|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
  | &lt;!-- t_- is not defined --&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;{{{t_d|}}}&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;{{{t|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
  }}
| &lt;!-- t_d is not defined --&gt;
  {{ #if: {{{t_-|}}}
  | &lt;!-- t_- is defined --&gt;
    &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;{{{t|}}}&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;{{{t_-|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
  | &lt;!-- t_- is not defined --&gt;
    &lt;td colspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;{{{t|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
  }}
}}
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Koreno</title>
    <id>3077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-14T14:54:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Koreno''' is one of the continents in the world of [[Valmante]], stretching from east to west so it is bounded by several oceans: the [[Elaspegian Ocean]] in the west, the [[Esrilmian Ocean]] on the southwest, the [[Userilmian Ocean]] on the southeast and east, and the [[Karvan Ocean]] to the north.

[[category:Continents of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eastern Islands Department</title>
    <id>3078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T14:20:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eastern Island Department''' (Mirselec ''Hinesurna Alzer'') is one of the [[Subdivisions of Risevne|three island departments]] of [[Risevne]]; as its name suggests, its scope lies in the islands to the east of the [[Risevan Home Islands]]. The capital of the department is in the town of [[Luzar]], on [[Amagote Island]].

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

The Eastern Islands used to constitute one of the economic backwaters of Risevne, being one of the more undeveloped regions due to its sparse population and apparent lack of resources. All this changed, however, with the first discovery of oil offshore of [[Abemar Island]] in 1976.

==Society and Culture==

[[category:Subdivisions of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Template:Voweltable</title>
    <id>3080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15620</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T20:38:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Typo -- wordordero?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;{{Templatehelpnote}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;[[{{PAGENAME}}]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;
== What is it for? ==

This template helps you make a table showing the vowels of your language.

In order the template uses [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Template#Parameters named parameters]; this means more typing, but with 38 parameters which all should be optional it is the only way to make the template manageable &amp;mdash; and easier than coding the whole table yourself each time.

== How does it work? ==

In order to get this:

{{Voweltable| caption = Swedish dialect vowel spellings | i = i | y = y | I = î ''or'' ê | e = e | 2 = ö | 8\ =  &amp;mdash; u | u\ = (u) | 8 = û | E = ä | &amp; = (â) | a = â | &amp;\ = (ô) | 3\ = ô | u = o | o = å | Q = a | A = (a) | @ = (e)}}

you enter this:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Voweltable| caption = Swedish dialect vowel spellings | i = i | y = y | I = î ''or'' ê | e = e | 2 = ö | 8\ =  &amp;mdash; u | u\ = (u) | 8 = û | E = ä | &amp; = (â) | a = â | &amp;\ = (ô) | 3\ = ô | u = o | o = å | Q = a | A = (a) | @ = (e)}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Where each &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; marks the beginning of a parameter definition of the form &lt;code&gt;''parameter name'' = ''parameter value''&lt;/code&gt;.

In order to make the template call clearer you can format it for example like this:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Voweltable| caption = Swedish dialect vowel spellings |= 
 | i = i | y = y   | I = î ''or'' ê | e = e |= 
 | 2 = ö | 8\ =  &amp;mdash; u | u\ = (u) | 8 = û |= 
 | E = ä | &amp; = (â) | a = â | &amp;\ = (ô) | 3\ = ô |=
 | u = o |  o = å  | Q = a | A = (a)  | @ = (e)}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Everything from a &lt;code&gt;|=&lt;/code&gt; up to the next &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; is 'invisible' to the wiki engine{{ref|invisible}}, so you can put newlines, comments etc. there.

You may also put any amount of optional whitespace on either side of a &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt;.

A parameter value may not contain any &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; (use {{code|&amp;amp;#124;}} in the value instead! {{-)}}){{ref|equalsign}}

All parameters are optional &lt;!-- in the sense that --&gt;

== Parameter names key ==
{{Voweltable|=
 | width = 100%  |=
 | caption = 
   '''&lt;tt&gt;Template:Voweltable&lt;/tt&gt; Parameter names '''
   '''and their corresponding IPA values''' &lt;br&gt;
   (NB: Parameter names are CXS values! {{-)}})  |=
 | i    = &lt;tt&gt;i&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|i}}  |=
 | y    = &lt;tt&gt;y&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|y}}  |=
 | i\   = &lt;tt&gt;i\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɨ}}  |=
 | u\   = &lt;tt&gt;u\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʉ}}  |=
 | M    = &lt;tt&gt;M&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɯ}}  |=
 | u    = &lt;tt&gt;u&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|u}}  |=
 | I    = &lt;tt&gt;I&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɪ}}  |=
 | Y    = &lt;tt&gt;Y&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʏ}}  |=
 | I\   = &lt;tt&gt;I\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɪ̵}} |=
 | U\   = &lt;tt&gt;U\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʊ̶}} |=
 | M_o  = &lt;tt&gt;M_o&lt;/tt&gt;  &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɯ̞}} |=
 | U    = &lt;tt&gt;U&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʊ}}  |=
 | e    = &lt;tt&gt;e&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|e}}  |=
 | 2    = &lt;tt&gt;2&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ø}}  |=
 | 8\   = &amp;nbsp; &lt;tt&gt;8\&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɵ̟ʷ}}|=
 | @\   = &lt;tt&gt;@\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɘ}}  |=
 | @    = &lt;tt&gt;@&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ə}}  |=
 | 8    = &lt;tt&gt;8&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɵ}}  |=
 | 7    = &lt;tt&gt;7&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɤ}}  |=
 | o    = &lt;tt&gt;o&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|o}}  |=
 | E    = &lt;tt&gt;E&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɛ}}  |=
 | 9    = &lt;tt&gt;9&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|œ}}  |=
 | 3    = &lt;tt&gt;3&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɜ}}  |=
 | 3\   = &lt;tt&gt;3\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɞ}}  |=
 | V    = &lt;tt&gt;V&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʌ}}  |=
 | O    = &lt;tt&gt;O&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɔ}}  |=
 | &amp;    = &lt;tt&gt;&amp;&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|æ}}  |=
 | &amp;\   = &lt;tt&gt;&amp;\&lt;/tt&gt;   &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɶ}}  |=
 | 6    = &lt;tt&gt;6&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɐ}}  |=
 | 3\_o = &lt;tt&gt;3\_o&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɞ̞}} |=
 | V_o  = &lt;tt&gt;V_o&lt;/tt&gt;  &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ʌ̞}} |=
 | O_o  = &lt;tt&gt;O_o&lt;/tt&gt;  &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɔ̞}} |=
 | a    = &lt;tt&gt;a&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|a}}  |=
 | &amp;\_o = &lt;tt&gt;&amp;\_o&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɶ̞}} |=
 | a_x  = &lt;tt&gt;a_x&lt;/tt&gt;  &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|a̽}} |=
 | Q_x  = &lt;tt&gt;Q_x&lt;/tt&gt;  &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɒ̽}} |=
 | A    = &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɑ}}  |=
 | Q    = &lt;tt&gt;Q&lt;/tt&gt;    &amp;#61; {{BIGIPA|ɒ}}  |=
}}

== Notes ==
# {{Note|invisible}} Actually a definition a 'nameless named variable' which doesn't get used in the template.
# {{Note|equalsign}} And a parameter name may not contain any &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt;. Not a problem to us as long as we use a [[CXS]] syllabic consonant  transcription as a parameter name! {{-)}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tigase Island</title>
    <id>3081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T14:09:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tigase Island''' (Mirselec ''Tigasesurna'') is the largest of the [[Tigase Islands]], which forms part of the [[Southern Islands Department]] of [[Risevne]]. It is the main island of Tigase Island Division, and the population of the island presently stands at 56,255, of which around 70% are ethnic [[Tigasani]]. 

==Geography==

Tigase lies to the south of the island group. A long and narrow island, it is about 62 km from north to south at its longest, and occupies an area of 986 square kilometres.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society==

[[category:Islands of Risevne]]
[[category:Islands of the Elaspegian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Templatehelp</title>
    <id>3082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T17:04:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>Typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;includeonly&gt;{{:Help:{{FULLPAGENAME}}}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;
== Usage ==

If you put

  &lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;noinclude&amp;gt;{{Templatehelp}}&amp;lt;/noinclude&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

at the end of your template text the text of a like-named page in the &lt;code&gt;Help:&lt;/code&gt; namespace.

For example the page &lt;code&gt;[[Help:Template:Voweltable]]&lt;/code&gt; will be included when you ''view'' the page &lt;code&gt;[[Template:Voweltable]]&lt;/code&gt; but not when you actually ''use''
 &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Voweltable|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''parameters''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;

in the body of another page.

If the help page has not yet been created there will appear a link to it instead of its not-yet-existing content, just as with not-yet-created templates.

=== Why? ===

The idea of (no)including a help page in a template page is that users can see usage instructions for a template when viewing the template page, but at the same time they won't get the whole of the usage instructions included when they use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;''templatename''}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, but only the single line

 &lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;noinclude&amp;gt;{{Templatehelp}}&amp;lt;/noinclude&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

which can then easily be removed.

The idea behind &lt;code&gt;[[Template:Templatehelp]]&lt;/code&gt; itself
is of course to avoid inconsitency in the naming of templates and their related help pages.

=== A snag ===

I wish you shouldn't have to put &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Templatehelp}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; inside &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;noinclude&amp;gt;...&amp;lt;/noinclude&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tags, but there seems to be no way to avoid that. As things are those tags are of course very important!


Make sure to put

 &lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;noinclude&amp;gt;{{Templatehelpnote}}&amp;lt;/noinclude&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

at the top of your help page! (Cf. &lt;code&gt;[[Template:Templatehelpnote]]&lt;/code&gt;)

&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abemar Island</title>
    <id>3083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T15:01:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abemar Island''' (Mirselec ''Abemarsurna'') is an island in the [[Eastern Islands Department]] of [[Risevne]], situated about 660 kilometres from the eastern coast of [[Agalmare]]. Once a remote island with a population of 760, it is now in the centre of Risevan oil extraction operations in the eastern sea and has a population of nearly 22,000.

==Geography==

===Environment===

==History==

The island has been inhabited for an estimated 4,000 years by people from [[Noma]]; it was first discovered by the Risevani explorer and naval commander [[Arin Namusar]] in 1544, who saw little economic potential for the island; nonetheless he proceeded to claim it, and the claim was confirmed the following year by the Crown.

==Economy and Demography==

Over the late 1970s extensive infrastructural development has taken place in the area in order to provide for the activities of the oil workers, many of which reside there, and as a result the island's economy now centres around the oil workers, who live in two main towns, as well as the large docks and oil refinery complex located near the town of [[Besudi (Abemarsurna)|Besudi]].

==Culture==

[[category:Islands of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Besudi (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T15:15:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are several towns with the name of Besudi in [[Risevne]]:

*[[Besudi (Abemarsurna)]], an oil production centre

[[category:Disambiguation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Help:Voweltable</title>
    <id>3085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15598</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T17:05:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Help:Voweltable]] moved to [[Help:Template:Voweltable]]: This naming is clearer.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Help:Template:Voweltable]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Templatehelpnote</title>
    <id>3086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T20:36:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;messagebox&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #CCFFCC;&quot;
|-
| &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;The following is '''not''' part of [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}]]! &lt;br&gt;
(See [[Template:Templatehelp]] for the how and why!)&lt;br&gt;
If you [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Help:Substitution substitute] the contents of [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] &lt;br&gt;
in a page you edit make sure to remove the &lt;br&gt;
&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;noinclude&amp;gt;{{Templatehelp}}&amp;lt;/noinclude&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; &lt;br&gt;
below the included/substituted template text! &lt;/div&gt; 
|}
__NOEDITSECTION__
&lt;includeonly&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;editsection plainlinks&quot; style=&quot;float:right;margin-left:5px;&quot;&gt;
[ [http://wiki.frath.net/index.php?title=Help:{{FULLPAGENAMEE}}&amp;action=edit Edit Help:{{FULLPAGENAME}}] ]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/includeonly&gt;
= [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}]] usage =
&lt;noinclude&gt;
Put &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;includeonly&amp;gt;{{Template:Templatehelpnote}}&amp;lt;/includeonly&amp;gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; at the top of help pages describing template usage.
(See [[Template:Templatehelp]] for the how and why and e.g. [[Help:Template:Voweltable]] and [[Template:Voweltable]] &amp;mdash; The second includes the first &amp;mdash; for an example of actual use!)&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Code</title>
    <id>3087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-15T20:09:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created -- wiki markup in wiki text, please! :-)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;code&gt;{{{1}}}&lt;/code&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aryan</title>
    <id>3088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40766</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-13T17:47:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing all content from page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Council of Governments</title>
    <id>3089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48647</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-28T04:57:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Structure */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Council of Governments''' is a supernational organization, formed in 764, primarily dominated by the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]], and consisting mostly of the Empire and its allies.  It is one of the three successor organizations to the extinct [[Global Federation of States]], the other organizations being the [[League of Democratic Nations]] and the small [[Union of Neutral States]].

== Membership ==
Membership in the ICG is (theoretically) open to any sovereign state that meets certain requirements.  First, the nation must be &quot;fully civilized&quot; (which is not clearly defined in the ICG Charter).  It must have democratic representation in its government, and follow the Rule of Law.  The nation must &quot;respect the sovereignty of other nations&quot;, and renounce conquest and aggressive war.  In practice, those two requirements are easily ignored.

== Structure ==
The ICG consists of several bodies.  There is an Executive Council which is made up of representatives from the heads of state of the largest nations (changes in the composition require unanimous consent of the current members).  Then there is a General Council of Governments, which consists of representatives chosen by the governments of all of the member-states.  Finally, there are a number of bureaucratic bodies, including the powerful [[Council for the Interpretation of Treaties]], often referred to as simply the Treaty Council.

== Powers ==
Although the General Council and Executive Council have a number of important powers, increasingly, the most important power of the ICG is the Treaty Council.  The Treaty Council is responsible for arbitrating disputes over the interpretation of international treaties, and for mediating treaty negotiations.  Most of the &quot;laws&quot; of the ICG consist of multilateral treaties.  In theory, any nation can exempt itself from a treaty, but in practice, most treaties that have been ratified by a significant proportion of member-states spread to the remaining holdouts (and even if they don't ratify it, a general principle has arisen that a widely-ratified treaty can be extended to *all* members of the ICG)

[[Category:Galhaf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global Federation of States</title>
    <id>3090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48645</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-28T04:27:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Structure */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Global Federation of States''' was an attempt at establishing an international government.  It was similar to Earth's [[Wikipedia:League of Nations|League of Nations]].  It was formed in the year 705 after the [[War of Kalpanian Reunification]].  Membership was open to all sovereign nations.  The Federation was weak, depending on member-states to enforce its resolutions.

== Structure ==
The Federation consisted of a Grand Council of States, in which every member-state had one vote.  The Council elected a President of the Federation.

== End ==
Although the Federation had some minor successes, by the mid-8th century it had become increasingly irrelevant.  Its utter failure to prevent the [[Global War]] sealed its fate.  Following the peace treaties ending that war, debates on reformation began.  The various nations quickly settled into two camps, largely the same as the two sides in the War.  In 763, the [[League of Democratic Nations]] was established, and the following year, the [[International Council of Governments]] was formed, both claiming to be the legitimate successor of the GFS.  A few nations remained in the GFS, vainly hoping to reunite the two sides in a reformed GFS.  Several reforms were proposed, but none gained the interest of the rival supranational organization.  In 773, the remnants of the GFS voted to dissolve itself, and formed a new [[Union of Neutral States]].

[[Category:Galhafan History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fifth Kasshi Empire</title>
    <id>3091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42529</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-01T04:04:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* List of Empresses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;background:#e9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Kasshi Empire'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Capitals''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Imperial ||{{inforight}}|[[Ivets]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Administrative ||{{inforight}}|[[Dzesa's City]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''[[Kasshi Empress|Empress]]''' ||{{inforight}}|[[Dzesa Charakh]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''[[First Advisor]]''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Languages''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Official ||{{inforight}}|[[Ivetsian]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Others ||{{inforight}}|Various
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Established''' ||{{inforight}}|721 [[Galhafan Chronology|OE]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Currency''' ||{{inforight}}|[[Imperial Chan|Chan]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Supranational Organizations''' ||{{inforight}}|[[International Council of Governments]]
|}

The '''Fifth Kasshi Empire''' was founded as a restoration of the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]] by [[Dzesa]], who reunited the various Kasshi states and led the Empire to Great Power status during the [[Global War]].

The Fifth Kasshi Empire is the leading power in the [[International Council of Governments]].

== Organization ==
The Empire is divided into several ''member-states'', which possess a modest degree of independence and, in some cases, hereditary rulers, and ''provinces'', which are ruled directly by the Imperial Government.  Most of the member-states are, in turn, divided into provinces.  The provinces are divided into districts and cities.  Each district is subdivided further into ''zones'', each one consisting of a town or major village and surrounding countryside.  The cities are divided in various ways depending on their size.

There are several city-states with member-state status, most notably [[Ivets]] and, formerly, [[Shivrashan]].

== Government ==
The Fifth Kasshi Empire is led, at least in name, by the [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]], who is advised by the [[Imperial Family Council]], the [[Council of Elected Advisors]], and the tricameral [[Kasshi Parliament|Parliament]].

== List of Empresses ==
The Fifth Empire has had three Empresses so far
#[[Chara Taranakh]] (r. 721 - 798)
#[[Chara Charakh]] (r. 798 - 838)
#[[Dzesa Charakh]] (r. 838 - )

== List of First Advisors to the Empress ==
#[[Dzesa]] (r. 721 - 760)
#???
#[[Dzesa]] (second term; r. 781 - 795)

[[Category:Kasshi]]
[[Category:Kasshi History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rushalya Elegies</title>
    <id>3092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T14:21:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Rushalya Elegies''', known in Mirselec as the ''Rushalya ta Nesarni'' (the [[Saserdo ta Aunafurasa|Nesarni]] being a form of grand dirge and lament for royal figures in ancient Mirselec literature), is a series of 5 novels by the famous [[Risevan]] writer [[Erai Raldergye]]; they are, in order of publication date:

*[[Kagorbe tari ta Rushalya]] (Rushalya from the Mountains), 1910

*Nortebusunmi ta Gager (Walks in the Valley Bottom), 1915

*Hinoru ta Dongan (Grandfather's Clock), 1917

*Haiste ta Kirban (The Dawn Watch), 1921

*Wantanor gari ta Rushalya (Rushalya to the Sea), 1924

To simplify, the Elegies tell the story of two families, the aristocratic Anesker house and the newly wealthy industrialist family of the Masera, over four generations and around 85 years from 1820 to 1905, the period of time defined by several crucial events in modern Risevan history like the [[1827 Restoration]] and [[Second Constitution]], the [[Ibakisaro]], as well as the [[First Global War]] of 1883-1887. 

The Rushalya Elegies cycle of novels continued the 19th century trend in [[Mirselec literature]] of the &quot;Great Novel&quot;, being vast in both scope and depth; long discussions of philosophy and social issues, as well as extensive quoting and composition of poetry in both ancient and modern form, are woven into the text, and the social norms and ceremonies of 19th century Risevan royalty are painstakingly reproduced. A detailed count has concluded that nearly 520 named characters populate the series, which contains nearly 2.2 million words in Mirselec. 

[[category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibakizaro</title>
    <id>3093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-16T13:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ibakizaro''', meaning &quot;advancement&quot; in Mirselec, is often used by [[Risevan]] historians to denote a period between the 1830s to the 1870s during which Risevne underwent massive social and cultural change as it opened up to the modern world and began a campaign of industrialisation and national strengthening. Other terms for the period include ''Larmi Nisor ta Kortagan'' (literally &quot;The reign of the three kings Nisor&quot;), since the period is covered by the reign of [[King Nisor III]] (1827 - 1844), [[King Nisor IV]] (1844 - 1866), and [[King Nisor V]] (1866 - 1892]].

==Background==

==The Advancement Movement==

==The New Laws==

==Industrialisation and Diplomacy==

==The First Global War==

==Impacts and Effects==

The impacts of the Ibakizaro on Risevan society are both immense in depth and very widespread. Rapid industrialisation turned the country into an industrial power on par with some of the most powerful nations in the world at the time, but also put immense strain on society and its structures. 

[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Cities of Risevne</title>
    <id>3094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:12:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This list includes the cities and major towns in the nation of [[Risevne]].

[[category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bresnga</title>
    <id>3095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-05T04:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subdivisions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bresnga''' is the third largest city in [[Risevne]], and one of its three [[Subdivisions of Risevne|designated cities]]; situated to the north of the capital [[Isana]], from which it is separated by the [[Rushalya river]] and the [[Bresana National Park]], it occupies one apex of the highly urbanised area stretching across [[Feladmena Province]] and widely known as [[Ibretal]]. It has an urban-area population of 6,693,310.

==Name==

==Geography and Climate==

===Subdivisions===

''See [[Areas and Districts of Bresnga]]''

Like the other designated cities, Bresnga is divided into Areas, or remis, and Districts, or dego.

===City Planning===

==History==

==Economy==

Bresnga, created at least partly from the movement of industrial development out of Isana and northwards, has several main focuses in its economy, including precision engineering, research and development, as well as manufacturing industries and perhaps most importantly the massive [[Port of Bresnga]].

==Government==

==Transport==

==Education==

==Culture and Society==

==Famous Areas and Buildings==

==Notes==

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]
[[category:Cities of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ostema Province</title>
    <id>3096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ostema Province''' (Mirselec ''Ostema denai''), also known as Province 1, is the southernmost [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]]. It is located on [[Masalne]], at the southern tip of the [[Raretoya Peninsula]]. The capital of the province is the ancient city of [[Nesnoma]].

A famous historic region of the country, the province was home to the powerful [[Kingdom of Rarena]], which extended up the entire peninsula and lasted nearly 600 years before its personal union with the [[Kingdom of Masal]] in 1249. Despite the union, however, the area is known for its being a rather independent region of the old kingdom, and even now there is a clear cultural and dialectal divide between provinces like Ostema and provinces farther north in the [[Feladmena Plain]]. 

==Geography==

Ostema province occupies the tip of a peninsula, and therefore faces the sea on three sides; to its west a hilly &quot;neck&quot; connects it with the provinces of Eonis and Inezama. It is mostly relatively flat, with the notable exception of the western hills and the high cliffs to the far east; [[Gelargulma]], a series of wind-eroded cliffs and a famous tourist spot, is commonly taken as the southeastern end of Masalne. At the same time, natural harbours on both the north and south of the island have given rise to some of the most important commercial cities in ancient Risevne, which even in modern days are prosperous ports.

The Ostema Province, situated at the end of the Raretoya Peninsula, has a long coastline which, coupled with its relatively narrow link with the rest of Masalne, makes it a highly strategic position on the island; while easy to invest from the sea, it was very hard to attack from land. This distinctive geography has manifested itself in the similarly distinct culture of the province, a culture that has in turn influenced areas farther west and north.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

The province is divided into four prefectures, or Kine, and 11 counties, or Wasa. 

*[[Hinerare Prefecture]]:
**[[Nitada County]]
**[[Biside County]]
**[[Lyoza County]]

*[[Erisaromac Prefecture]]:
**[[Erisaromac City]]
**[[Nesnoma City]]
**[[Nimegouna County]]
**[[Hekidunen County]]

*[[Asomyure Prefecture]]:
**[[Inokau County]]
**[[Diredini County]]

*[[Ligul Prefecture]]:
**[[Hanose City]]
**[[Sherostona County]]

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Nesnoma]], the provincial capital

*[[Erisaromac]], the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Rarena and now a major port

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ledorin Kinides</title>
    <id>3097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-16T15:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ledorin Kinides, Borsan ta Temoni''' (12 October, 1741 - 9 Nov, 1823) was a [[Risevan]] writer, widely viewed by Risevani as one of the most influential Mirselec prose writers. Working exclusively in prose unlike many of his contemporaries, most of whom also wrote poetry, he instead devoted himself to the creation of works he later called ''Mato te Sansarme'', or &quot;Great Stories&quot; - prose works, making use of mostly vernacular and even colloquial Mirselec, which captured the society of the day while containing extensive philosophical and moral musings.

==Major Works==

*[[Sanaiza]] (Sanaiza), 1783

*[[Hotoriya ta Maya]] (The women of Hotoriya), 1790

[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:Risevani poets and writers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eonis Province</title>
    <id>3098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15755</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-19T06:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eonis Province''' (Mirselec ''Eonis denai'') is one of the [[subdivisions of Risevne|provinces]] of [[Risevne]], designated as Province 2 under the numbering system. It is situated on the west of the [[Raretoya Peninsula]], bordering [[Ostema Province]] on its south, [[Inezama Province]] on its southwest, and [[Feladmena Province]] on its west. Its capital is the city of [[Tanersain]].

An important and prosperous province since centuries past by virtue of its deep natural harbours and well-known ports, Eonis Province in modern days remains an important area for trading, as well as an area steeped in history and culture. During the time of the [[Committee of Guardians]], the port of Tanersain was one of the few which remained open to foreigners, and the city remains one of the most cosmopolitan cities in Risevne, though its old districts remain those of a typical Risevan city.

==Geography==

==History==

During the warring ages of the first millenia DN, Eonis Province was to change hands many times. First occupied by several city states, it was eventually mostly conquered by the [[Kingdom of Rarena]], based in Ostema province to the south; the Rarenani gave the area the name ''Sorisai denai'', meaning &quot;pleasant province&quot;, an appellation that is still often used within the province.

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Famous Castles of Risevne</title>
    <id>3099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T06:07:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Four Famous Castles of Risevne''' (Mirselec ''Risevne se kerte Hinainoye'') refer to four major castles in Risevne; the first, and most often referenced list, includes:

*[[Garnoye]] in [[Isana]]

*[[Shezinas|Shezinasnoye]] in [[Hyomeniga Province]]

*[[Mozavalnoye]] in [[Inezama Province]]

*[[Orosantenoye]] in [[Hisani Province]].

This initial list is popularly said to have first appeared in a poem by the great writer [[Hirdan Gersenga]]; however there have been references to these fortresses as a group since several decades before Gersenga. Since the list contains mainly fortresses in the south of Risevne, some other new lists of castles, for example the [[Six Famous Castles of North Masalne]], were made in more recent years.

[[category:Risevan culture]]
[[category:Risevne]]
[[category:Castles of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mozavalnoye</title>
    <id>3100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15699</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T06:29:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mozavalnoye''', literally Mozaval Fortress in [[Mirselec]], is a fortress near the city of [[Mozaval]] in [[Inezama Province]]. It is one of the [[Four Famous Castles of Risevne]], and of the four it is the one most fought over in the history of the kingdom.

Situated as it is on the frontline of the three-century conflict between the kingdoms of [[Masal]] and [[Rarena]], just around 31 kilometres south of the border, it was besieged five times without ever being taken between 1072 and 1203 DN. for this the castle was known in the southern provinces, as it still is today, as ''Naino su Izakarte Noye'', or the &quot;First City in the World&quot; (First here denoting it as the strongest). 

==History==

===Origins and First Construction===

===Prince Betire's Fort===

===The Sieges===

===Union and Post-Union===

===The Era of the Guardians===

===Restoration and the 1829 Siege===

===War Years===

==Geography and Design==

==Present Situation==

==Cultural Impact==

The Mozavalnoye is often said to be the spiritual symbol of the southern provinces, which even today are culturally distinct from the more populated areas in the north; for its historical role during the time of the Committee of the Guardians, also, it has gained a lasting place in the Risevan psyche. 

A famous Mirselec saying, &quot;To Stand like the East Wall&quot; (meaning to hold out against overwhelming odds), refers to this fort. During the [[Fourth Siege of Mozavalnoye]] in 1186-1188, the Masal general [[Barin ke Bisore]] successfully undermined the east wall of the fortress in three places during the winter of 1187, and positioned 20,000 of his troops ready to strike there; the defenders of the castle, however, quickly rallied, and their general [[Nemus ke Duvansiye]] refused a surrender offer saying that &quot;If the stones should fall, then my flesh will make the wall&quot;. The 7,500 defenders mounted a desperate defence against the attacking Masalan forces that lasted 19 days until, deterred by a blizzard, Barin ke Bisore withdrew his troops, allowing precious time for the damage to be repaired. This statement was in turn used extensively during the [[Third Global War|Third]] and [[Fourth Global War]]s to reflect the determination of the Risevani to defend their nation.

[[category:Castles of Risevne]]
[[category:Inezama Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Orosantenoye</title>
    <id>3101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:09:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Orosantenoye''', literally meaning &quot;High-placed Fortress&quot; in Mirselec, is a fortress in [[Risevne]], situated in [[Hisani Province]] on the island of [[Agalmare]]. It is one of the [[Four Famous Castles of Risevne]], and owing to the highly different cultural and political situation of the region from the kingdoms of [[Masalne]] it is easily one of the most distinctive. 

Besides its own construction the fortress is also famous for the large groves of [[Soriseta]] trees which grow to its west and north, covering the cliffs on which the fortress is set; during mid summer the blooming of the flowers, and the subsequent shedding which leaves the cliffs a deep violet through early autumn, gives it the moniker of ''Brelkasurenoye'', or &quot;Violet Hill Fortress&quot;.

[[category:Castles of Risevne]]
[[category:Hisani Province]]
[[category:Famous Castles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adterge river</title>
    <id>3102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T06:50:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Adterge river''' (Mirselec ''Adterge ainos'') is a river in [[Besurgana Province]], most famous for the [[Mantebara Waterfalls]] along its course near the town of [[Manteibase]]. 

==Geography==

==History==

==Economic Importance==

==Cultural Significance==

The Mantebara Waterfalls have given this river great fame in Risevne, as does its highly seasonal flow; during the drier months of late winter it can try to a trickle, only to become a roaring flow in June and July as the rains come in from the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]]. The river is therefore frequently visited by photographers and artists all year round; in recent years, as tourism and growth turns Manteibase into a bustling settlement, the artists have in turn moved out to other smaller villages for greater seclusion.

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevan Outer Islands</title>
    <id>3103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T07:06:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Risevan Outer Islands''' (Mirselec ''Koisatesurna'', literally just &quot;Outer Islands&quot;) is an umbrella term used to describe all islands under the rule of [[Risevne]], which are not part of the [[Risevan Home Islands]]. It denotes all islands under the three Outer Island [[Subdivisions of Risevne|Departments]], as well as certain other territories which are considered under the ownership of the Risevan Crown, but are not within any territorial division of the government (for example, the island of [[Parandasurna]]).

[[category:Subdivisions of Risevne]]
[[category:Islands of Risevne]]
[[category:Islands of the Elaspegian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mirselec Literature</title>
    <id>3104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T08:02:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">

==Poetry==

Mirselec has had a poetic tradition of nearly two and a half millennia, with a wide range of poetic forms ranging from folk songs through religious, social and personal odes to epic works like the [[Suten ta Tengas]], attributed to [[Sirinde ke Gars]] and split into twelve books.

===Ancient and Classical Works===

The bulk of surviving poetry from ancient and classical times in the Mirselec language can be traced to several compilations, or ''furasa'', often works undertaken by court officials commissioned by the royal court of respective kingdoms. Some such compilations included the [[Harnur ta Furasa]], which is estimated to have been compiled around 430 DN by commission of the King of [[Kingdom of Durosmao|Durosmao]] and is the oldest intact poetic compilation in Mirselec. Many of these works were in turn incorporated into the [[Sayenfurasa]], a grand compilation of poems commissioned by the king of [[Kingdom of Masal|Masal]].

==Prose==

==Drama==

[[category:Risevan culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ngaba Province</title>
    <id>3105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T08:30:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ngaba Province''' (Mirselec ''Ngaba denai''), also known as Province 5, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated to the northwest of [[Feladmena Province]]. Its capital is the city of [[Koronai]].

==Geography==

Ngaba Province occupies a highly strategic position where the spur of mountains stretching westwards across the [[Feladmena Plain]] nearly meets the coast; since ancient history the area has been a primary point of contention for many regimes seeking to dominate the entire plain by holding this valuable chokepoint. 

Many towns along the north-south routes grew rich during times of peace and trade between the northern kingdoms and the south; with this wealth these towns tended to fortify themselves, so as to prepare against attacks from either quarter, and as a result many of the cities even now retain their city walls and gatehouses.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Koronai]]

*[[Heinaskure]]

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inezama Province</title>
    <id>3106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T11:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Towns and Cities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inezama Province''' (Mirselec ''Inezama denai''), also known as Province 3, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of Risevne, situated in the south of [[Masalne]] along the northern coast of the [[Raretoya Peninsula]]. It borders [[Ostema Province]] on its east, [[Eonis Province]] on its south, and [[Feladmena Province]] on its north and northwest. Its capital is the city of [[Hesurimon]].

Well-watered, with a mild climate, Inezama was historically known as a pleasant spot for vacations and relaxation, and a centre of culture and the arts; it acquired the poetic title of ''Nultenizodenai'', or &quot;Many-Gardened Province&quot;, during those days. Nowadays many cities within the province retain their ancient, literary air, and the province retains its reputation as a centre of traditional culture, though recently high tech research industries, attracted by the proximity to [[Taluste]], are also making a considerable economic and social impact.

==Geography==

==History==

During the early centuries DN, Inezama Province once formed the base for an ancient state which was then conquered, in 455 DN, by the neighbouring [[Kingdom of Rarena]] based in nearby Ostema province. According to the [[Rarena ta Keinoser]], or Chronicles of Rarena, the lord of the local state surrendered his estate untouched, and without fighting, going so far as to constrain two thousand troops of his within the city to prevent them from going out to fight; when the king asked him why, he said he had wished to protect the people from war. Admiringly the King decided simply to exert nominal power over the province, retaining the lord at his post; more importantly he declared that that land was under Rarenan protection, but not subject to the direct law of the King of Rarena. It was this law that would later allow many poets and writers, convicted for trumped up charges or fleeing from persecution, to seek refuge in the area.

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Hesurimon]]

*[[Zataeba]]

*[[Kandisel, Inezama Province|Kandisel]]

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Semanos</title>
    <id>3107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19480</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-21T14:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Semanos''' ({{IPA|['semanɔs]}}; lit. &quot;greenness&quot; in [[Classical Arithide]]) is the name of an environmentalist pressure group that originated in [[Dethria]] but which is now operational and active in most areas on the globe. The organisation is best known for successfully pushing for tighter restrictions and regulations on the pristine [[Lake Everodes]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Dethria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Oceans, Seas &amp; Lakes of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T15:57:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links all the articles relating to the oceans, seas and lakes of the planet [[Ilethes]] on the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Arithia</title>
    <id>3109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T04:03:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taphae-Nes river system</title>
    <id>3110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T16:03:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Taphae-Nes river system''' is the entire river system, including tributaries, bounded within the watershed of the rivers [[Theph river|Theph]] and [[Nes river|Nes]]. The name comes from the [[Arithide language|Arithide]]. The Taphae-Nes originates in the [[Alerryagi]] separately as the Theph and the Nes, its drainage basin covering much of the northern and western [[Eastern Seaboard]] of [[Arophania]], the two rivers merging only mere kilometres away from the rivermouth, at the [[Calagian Pass]] in the [[Ordaryagi]]. The sheer size, length and volume of this river system makes it one of the [[Great Rivers of Arithia]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Rivers of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taphae-Nes river</title>
    <id>3111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T16:03:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Taphae-Nes river system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T16:03:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links all the articles relating to the oceans, seas and lakes of the planet [[Ilethes]] on the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vushtism</title>
    <id>3113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Vushtism is a religion and set of philosophies that is followed by the majority of western and central Aghantians. 

==Origins==
Vushtism was founded by the prophet [[Meryem Helyeni]] in the early [[Artakhshandan Empire]] in [[Parthava]]. The life of the prophet have not been documented at all, and the few things we know about her have been passed down through verbal tradition.

It is claimed by Vushtis that Meryem recieved an arrow wound in a battle between the Padhavana clan and the Terthinatos clan on the steppe at the age of 14. When she was later taken to a hospital, she fell into a trance. On awakening, her friends noticed that her entire personality had changed - she had become much more peaceful, honest, and calm.

Vushtin recorded her philosophies in a book called the [[Madayahura]]. The first copy of this book was carved into the side of [[Takh-e-Kasran]], in modern day [[Parthava city]]. This is the master copy with which all other copies are compared with, and is preserved now by the Parizhian government. 

===Further philosophers of Vushtism===
Pure Vushtism is that which was laid down by Meryem herself. A majority of Vushtis identify themselves as pure Vushtis. However, between the 1st and 19th Centuries AI, several other philosophers added to the philosophies laid down by Meryem.

There were 3 main ones:

==Philosophies of Vushtism==
Vushtism is interesting and different from other religions in that it contains absolutely no mention or philosophies about god, prophecies, or any forms of mythology or stories. The Madayahura is simply a book of philosophy and instructions.

Among these are the ''Mehre fiil'' or, the Important Principles. These are:
* Speaking good words, thinking good thoughts, and doing good deeds.
* Equality of gender, race, religion, and age.
* Protection for the environment
* Kindness to animals and other people
* Encouragement for keeping the body clean
* Encouragement for science and learning
* Open-mindedness and tolerance
* Pacifism and calmness (in state of mind as well as physically)

Key to Vushtism (and probably its unique concept) is its system of prayer. Here, prayer does not necessarily involve worshipping a deity - other forms, such as meditation and calming, are generally considered much more important than connecting with deities.

To acquire a trance, one must keep their mind focused on nothing. They should have nothing in their thoughts. At first, it helps to listen to one's own breathing or concentrate on peaceful sounds. Several Vushtis engage in throat-singing chants whilst doing this, as the vibrations in the back of the throat create a calming sensation.

It is partly because of this that Vushtism is compatible with many other religions.

[[Category:Religions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tarnawa</title>
    <id>3114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-17T21:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarnawa</username>
        <id>196</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">tarnawa</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denurean Sea</title>
    <id>3115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19522</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-22T06:05:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Denurean Sea''' is a sea lying between the [[Old World (Ilethes)|Old World]] continents of [[Marcasia]], [[Arophania]] and [[Istheusia]]. To its north lies the [[Pelas Sea]] and to its south the [[Auzirean Sea]]. It leads into the [[Issol A'i]] on its west, which links it with the [[Chisthian Sea]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Geography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Oceans, Seas and Lakes of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Istheusia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zesou Crisis</title>
    <id>3116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-11T02:19:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Arithian intervention */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Zesou Crisis of 1935''' was a key flashpoint in the hostile relations between the [[Pisex Alliance]], dominated by [[Arithia]], and the [[Cordial Alliance]].

==Background==

==Catalyst==

==Declaration of War on Zesou==

==Arithian intervention==

Three days after the [[Cordial Alliance]] officially declared war on [[Zesou]], Arithia, in fulfilment of its obligations under the [[Pisex Treaty]], announced the beginning of a series of retaliatory actions, but stopped short of declaring war. The Arithian parliament passed a motion to impose a trade embargo on the members of the Cordial Alliance, and in the subsequent weeks rallied a considerable number of other countries to join in the effort. At the same time, while, by law, the army could not be fully mobilised without an express declaration of war and the consent of parliament, the Arithian army sent part of its rotational always-on forces to the Zesovian capital, [[Andirs]], as an overt warning to potential belligerents.

===Blockade of the Issol A'i===

The most major of the actions was the closure of the [[Issol A'i]] to ships, military or otherwise, belonging to, registered in or flying the flags of the states party to the Alliance, beginning on [[Athebian calendar|Dynisis]] 9. This blockade lasted for almost 11 months, during which the Arithide navy sank more than 100 merchant ships, as well as 4 warships of the Alliance in three separate naval battles, although the politicians of neither side made any move to formalise or suppress hostilities throughout the entirety of the blockade. 

The first of these battles took place in [[Athebian calendar|Helakis]] 16, more than a month after the beginning of the blockade. The battle, known by some as the '''First Battle of the Strait''', stemmed from the sinking by the Arithian navy over the previous month of various Alliance civilian vessels that had attempted to pass the Strait from the [[Denurean Sea]] using forged [[Ecyria]]n passports and documents, and that had further attempted to force their way past the Coast Guard when their trick was exposed. A total of 8 cargo ships had been sunk, and a passenger cruiser (the ''[[Okurant]]'') detained, which caused much consternation in Alliance political circles, and the ''Okurant'' became the subject of much media debate for more than a week, before she was eventually released, &quot;out of goodwill&quot; (Arithian Prime Minister [[Jedes Mithakoris]]), on condition that she turn back to [[Sarbassy]] through the Denurean. The passengers had previously been deported to Sarbassy under military detention. On the day of the battle, a Sarbassian destroyer, flanked by two cruisers, tried to pass off as friendly [[Ritavia]]n vessels on the way to [[Zesou]], and, upon being discovered, promptly fired two torpedoes at passing cargo vessels, sinking one genuinely Ritavian ship and severely damaging the other, Arithian one. The ensuing gun battle killed 36 sailors on both sides, damaging an Arithian frigate and prompting the navy to deploy a submarine to the effort, which ultimately sank the offending destroyer through, according to official sources, a misaimed torpedo which missed the main body of the destroyer but ripped the hull lengthwise before exploding. Eyewitness accounts confirm that the two flanking cruisers fled from the scene after the destroyer was sunk.

The ''Second Battle of the Strait'' took place again on the [[Denurean Sea]], this time involving a spyboat from the [[Aphyschelles]], which was discovered 61km off the east [[Calagia]]n coast at [[Time on Ilethes|35:30]] (approx. 2:10pm Earth-equivalent), and ordered to halt. Arithian military reports filed indicate that the spyboat had refused to stop and surrender when ordered to, but instead turned to flee, and sporadically fired at the pursuing Arithian Coast Guard, which retaliated and sunk the intruding boat. Arithia broke off diplomatic relations --

The ''Third Battle of the Strait'' --

The blockade, like the rest of the punitive motions, was lifted with the conclusion of the [[Meroclean Treaty]] on [[Athebian calendar|Meroklis]] 23, and modern historians estimate the cost to the Alliance members to have been between 4 and 7% of GDP.

==Cessation of hostilities &amp; the Meroclean Treaty==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Kasshi Empire</title>
    <id>3117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:59:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The so-called '''First Kasshi Empire''' was an early bronze-age group of city-states, mostly of the [[Kasshi]] ethnicity, though including some non-Kasshi tributaries.  The name is a modern invention, part of [[Dzesa]]'s historiography, and is often referred to as simply the Pre-[[Sanle]] Kasshi Civilization by many historians in the [[League of Democratic Nations]].

This &quot;Empire&quot; was very loosely organized, consisting primarily of a core group of rival city-states and various peripheral tributaries.  Some elements of Sanle culture had already entered Kasshi civilization, via the [[Oppai]], including the [[Kasshi syllabry]], derived from the [[Oppai syllabry]], itself a derivative of the [[Sanle logographs]].

This period was followed by the [[Sanle Domination]].

[[Category:Kasshi History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sanle Domination</title>
    <id>3118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16624</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Sanle Domination''' is a term given by [[Dzesa]] to the period in time after the fall of the [[First Kasshi Empire]], when the Kasshi city-states were tributaries to the [[Sanle Empire]].  During this period, Kasshi culture underwent considerable change, adopting elements of Sanle civilization, including the [[Sanle logographs]] and the matriarchy.  This period was followed by the [[Era of Invasions]].

[[Category:Kasshi History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Era of Invasions</title>
    <id>3119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Era of Invasions''' is a term given to an era of [[Kasshi history]] between the [[Sanle Domination]] and the [[Anarchic Era]].  The term refers to the fighting between the [[Sanle Empire]] and the [[Karel Union]] over an area of land which included [[Kassa]].  Kassa traded hands several times.

[[Category:Kasshi History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kassa</title>
    <id>3120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:27:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Kassa''' is an island off the west coast of [[Odirá]], which provided, in ancient times, a link between the Northern and Southern halves of Odirá.  It is the original homeland of the [[Kasshi]] people, and the source of their name.

[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]
[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anarchic Era</title>
    <id>3121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40098</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-24T03:36:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anarchic Era''' is a period of [[Kasshi history]] between the [[Era of Invasions]] and [[Chinrasta's Theocracy]].

It was part of an era of general disintegration of empires worldwide, caused by the [[Great Freeze]], one of several minor ice ages in recorded [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]]an history.  The Great Freeze was the most dramatic ice age in ''recorded'' history.  It resulted in drastic declines in agricultural yields, and the near-total collapse of east-west trade in [[Odirá]], due to the freezing over of the [[Shivrashan Pass]] in the [[Fantasta Mountains]].

In terms of Kasshi history, it was characterized by the withdrawal of both the [[Sanle Empire]] and the [[Karel Union]] from [[Kassa]] and surrounding areas.  Internecine fighting, surpressed by both the Sanle and the Karel, reappeared, and cities rose and fell in prominence.

Eventually, [[Chinrasta]] would unite the Kasshi cities, and, taking advantage of the power vacuum in the region, establish her Theocracy, which would later give way to the [[Second Kasshi Empire]].

[[Category:Kasshi History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Freeze</title>
    <id>3122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T08:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Freeze''' was a period of severe global cooling in [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]]an history.  It caused widespread famines around the world, and forced the depopulation of areas near the polar regions.

The famines caused by the Freeze lead to the decline, and in some cases, outright collapse, of civilizations around the world, including the [[Blafu Empire]] and the [[Old Kalpanian Kingdom]].

Ocean levels fell considerably, cutting off a number of sea-ports from the ocean, and causing a migration to newly-revealed lands, lands which were later inundated by the [[Great Thaw]].

At its peak, the island of [[Kassa]] was connected to the mainland.

[[Category:Galhafan History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feladmena Province</title>
    <id>3123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T03:39:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous Locations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feladmena Province''' (Mirselec ''Feladmena denai''), also known as Province 4, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], occupying most of the [[Feladmena Plain]] south of the [[Ismade river]] and east of the [[Rushalya river]]. It borders [[Eonis Province]] to its east, [[Inezama Province]] to its south and southwest, [[Isana]], [[Bresnga]] and [[Ngaba Province]] to its west, [[Horeston Province]] and [[Enimdanai Province]] to its north, and [[Taluste]] to its northeast. Its capital is the city of [[Bisuniya]], which is also the fifth largest city in the country.

Owing to its central position, Feladmena Province is one of the most economically vibrant and most populated provinces in all Risevne. Crisscrossed by highways and high-speed railways, it is a major transportation node for the whole nation, and especially for the [[Ibretal]] built up area; most of the smaller cities which link up the three great cities of Isana, Bresnga and Taluste lie within Feladmena. 

==Geography==

The topography of Feladmena is mostly flat; indeed the term ''felad'' means &quot;level&quot;, and so ''Feladmena'' literally means &quot;flat plain&quot;. Hilly areas, most of which have been the focus of efforts at reforestation, do exist, mostly in the east and northeast near the city of Taluste; from this region several small rivers feed out into the Rushalya.

The Rushalya river is the dominant waterway in the region, but owing to the flat terrain most of the rivers in the region are navigable. Major rivers include the Ismade and the [[Edanyo river|Edanyo]]. Most of these rivers are also heavily used for irrigation in the past, leaving long canals which these days often serve as tourist attractions, for example the famous [[Erbatakuruya]], or Erba's Canal, which stretches 61 kilometres from the Ismade and feeds several large reservoirs around which towns have grown.

Of all the provinces of Risevne Feladmena is perhaps one of the most deeply changed by human activity, due to its suitability for human settlement; in modern days, though a large part of the land remains under cultivation, the province plays the role of a huge transport conduit for the three largest cities of the country. Several great highways begin here, including the [[Masalne West Coast Highway]], as well as the [[Inland Sea Highway]] and the [[Southern Highway]], and most of the islands's major railways also intersect here.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Bisuniya]]

*[[Golanbe]]

*[[Keduro]]

==Famous Locations==

*[[Erbakuruya]]

*[[Lake Salmesi]], a lake nearly doubled in area by irrigation projects

*[[Omesa Tombs]], a splendid series of tombs of the Kings of Masal and other important nobles

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ismade river</title>
    <id>3124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15760</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-19T13:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural Significance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ismade river''' (Mirselec ''Ismade ainos'') is a large river in southern [[Masalne]] that forms the broder between [[Feladmena Province]] and [[Horeston Province]]. A tributary of the [[Rushalya river]] as the later turns to head south along the border of Horeston and [[Ngaba Province]], it is a major river in its own right, with considerable economic and historical importance for Risevne.

==Geography==

==Human History==

==Importance==

===Industry and Transport===

===Agriculture and Fishery===

==Cultural Significance==

This river is sometimes known, due to its position, as the Border River; since ancient times it was the demarcation of provinces, separating the richer and more developed south from the more rural northern [[Feladmena Plain]]. As such, the saying &quot;To cross a bridge of the Ismade&quot; means to make a major change in one's life, analogous to leaving the cities and farming, or giving up one's land to come to the city for a job. 

The position of the Ismade between two economically distinct areas has also made it a symbol of an old cultural and to some extent linguistic divide; while in modern days the economies have become much more similar, the dialectic differences still exist to some extent.

[[category:Rivers of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hesgarigani</title>
    <id>3125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19208</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-13T03:02:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origins */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Hesgarigani''' denotes shipborne pirates, raiders, invaders and eventually settlers from what is modern day [[Masalne]], operating between the 1st and 5th centuries DN, who operated mostly on the coastal regions of [[Osonde]], but in many cases also reached far inland via rivers. 

The Hesgarigani were mostly [[Mirsel|Mirselani]] by ethnicity and in origin, though their ranks would eventually swell to include peoples from over ancient [[Kavena]], [[Birasleti]] and [[Ruguzma]] such that the term would become merely a catch-all description for any pirate and raider by the 3rd century. Their travels and impact upon mainland cultures, as well as the devastation caused by the [[DN Event]], precipitated the [[Hesgarigani Era]] in both Risevan and Kavenain history, albeit with dramatically different interpretations.

==Name and Etymology==

The term Hesgarigani is quite unambiguous in [[Mirselec]]; it means &quot;Raider&quot; (Hesgara &quot;raid&quot; + -gani), and was originally used to denote merely the first phase of what is now called the Hesgarigani Era, when the Mirselani visited Osonde mainly for the simple motivation of loot. This term, however, was coined by 19th century historians, based ironically on Kavenain sources about their tormentors in that period, and does not occur as an autonym in any writings that have survived from the Mirselani, which were not yet discovered in the 19th century. 

Rather, the Hesgarigani mostly addressed themselves as simply being a member of a certain clan, tribe and eventually kingdom, as their own social structures evolved partly through direct contact with the advanced civilisations on Osonde. The closest things to a term that applies to the profession of raiding include ''Numarkhain'' (Modern ''Nimargani'', &quot;Navigator&quot; or &quot;Seafarer&quot;) and ''Ganudekhain'' (Modern ''Kanidegani'', roughly meaning &quot;Warrior&quot;). 

In [[Unna Kavena|the Kavenain language]] even in modern days, the term ''Ezkar'', which is based off the Mirselec verb ''Hesgara'', is used to refer to a bandit or a particularly rapacious foe; up to the 20th century, and even after, it was often used as a derogatory term for the Risevani by the Kavenain.

==Origins==

The Hesgarigani, despite their seemingly monolithic image as raiders, warriors and invaders, were in fact a highly heterogenous group; for much of their history internecine warfare was just as common as warfare against other peoples. What can be ascertained is that the technology and techniques for which these people were famed came mostly from the Mirselani who inhabited the western coast of Masalne, and that these people were the driving force behind the first raids.

The technologies used by the Hesgarigani to great effect in this era were not new; rather they had evolved over hundreds of years, hinting at an unusually high level of technological attainment even before the DN Event. Skilled at shipbuilding and navigation, the Hesgarigani made use of compasses, knowledge of which is postulated to have been gained around the early first century BDN; another intriguing fact is that, while the raids were received with great shock, the records from the period do not betray much curiosity about these people, and in some cases even calls them &quot;Once-traders&quot;.

Seen in this light of relatively highly social and technological achievement, the reasons for the spread of the Hesgarigani seem inextricably tied to the DN Event. It is postulated that the fallout from the event had negative impacts on the way of life in Masal, based around small-scale agriculture in the coastal plains regions; as productivity fell due to lack of sunlight and colder climates, the people looked to their former trading partners on mainland Osonde (who had, by this time, developed extensive irrigation technologies, which partially softened the impact of the Event), and trading soon turned to raiding. At the same time the perennial lack of a strong central force amongst the Mirselani would also have precluded a stop to the raiding by any authorities.

==Characteristics==

===Organisation===

==The Hesgarigani Era==

===1st Century DN: Localised raids===

===Late 1st - 2nd Century DN: The Great Raids===

===3rd - 4th Century: Assimilation and Consolidation===

===Decline and Fall===

==Impacts==</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karelne ta Hyerisa</title>
    <id>3126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T15:40:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Karelne ta Hyerisa''', literally meaning &quot;Era of [the] Kingdoms&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is a period in [[Risevne|Risevan history]] commonly cited to have lasted from around the fifth century, when the large kingdoms of [[Masal]] and [[Rarena]] were founded within a decade of each other, up to the 13th century DN when the two kingdoms merged (to be exact, in 1249 DN). While this period takes the two best-known kingdoms in the south as a centre, the era can arguably be said to have lasted all the way until the fifteenth century when the term ''Masalne'', land of Masal, was extended to the entire island for the first time.

The age was one of endemic warfare and economic struggle, as the climatic changes brought about by the [[DN Event]] began to fade and civilisation began colonising the northern areas of Masalne again. As the last of the [[Hesgarigani]] kingdoms faded and were absorbed by their hinterland cultures around this period, the competition for resources and power turned inwards, towards the sparsely settled areas in the north, as well as neighbouring [[Agalmare]], which soon became embroiled in the struggles as well. 

==Background==

[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseniga Province</title>
    <id>3335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16053</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-20T03:50:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baseniga Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Baseniga denai''), also known as province 11, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], and the southernmost of the provinces popularly known as the Mountain Provinces. Lying to the north of the [[Feladmena Plain]], where the main range of the [[Mathormagos]] veers to move along the coast, it borders [[Osagona Province]] to its north, [[Serteni Province]] to its northeast, [[Osbane Province]] to its west, [[Abanamide Province]] to its southwest, and [[Horeston]] and [[Enimdanai]] provinces to its south. The provincial capital is the city of [[Argosna, Baseniga|Argosna]].

Being the area of the mountains closest to the main centres of Risevan civilisation, and lying between the kingdoms in the south and the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]] to the northeast, Baseniga has since ancient times been an important transportation node. The extensive network of ''Saosunkemo'', or &quot;Slope Paths&quot;, which were painstakingly built over centuries into the foothills of the mountains, are still in heavy use these days, albeit modernised and paved; and the [[Inland Sea Highway]], as well as several other cross-mountain highways and railroads, also run through the mountain ranges. The mountainous terrain of the coast, which makes it unsuitable for ports, has in turn made the province heavily reliant on these rail and road links.

==Geography==

Baseniga's terrain is dominated by its mountains; the Mathormagos covers most of its area, with mountains stretching right up to coastal cliffs, and most of its cities are located in relatively high altitudes within the many river valleys. Famous peaks include [[Mount Belhinar]], just north of the city of [[Tomiyaru]], and [[Mount Kaona]], which lies on the border between Baseniga and Serteni provinces. The few areas of lowland are concentrated mostly near Mount Kaona, to its west where a large area of wetlands and plains form a highly strategic power centre within the province. The provincial capital of Argosna is set in this region.

The mountains of Baseniga, as with the rest of the provinces on the west of the Inland Sea, receive large amounts of rain every year; as a result the area has a large number of rivers, most of which drain westwards into three major rivers: the [[Kezarte river|Kezarte]], the [[Imon river|Imon]], and the [[Mosoyana river|Mosoyana]]. The profusion of small streams within the borders of the province have earned it the ancient poetic title of ''Zunainosdenai'', literally &quot;Thousand-River-Province&quot;. Several rivers also drain eastwards, most notably into the wetlands that surround the foothills of Mount Kaona.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Argosna, Baseniga|Argosna]]

*[[Hedanose]]

*[[Ayegaven]]

==Famous Locations==

*[[Mount Belhinar]]

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imerte Province</title>
    <id>3336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T15:05:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Imerte Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Imerte denai''), also known as Province 24, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated in northern [[Masalne]] and often grouped as one of the three [[Masbaradenai|Northern Provinces]]. It borders [[Darnevgana Province]] on its west and northwest, and [[Tasenir Province]] on its south, while its east is a long coast facing the [[Elaspegian Ocean]]. The province also includes [[Ugatasurna]], a large offshore island to the west. Its capital is the coastal city of [[Begarni]].

With a harsh climate and mountainous terrain, Imerte Province is one of the most sparsely populated regions in Risevne; yet it is famed throughout the country, and to some extent throughout the world, as one of the major centres of the Risevan fishing industry. The many harbours of the coast, especially in [[Estagi Bay]], are relatively sheltered from storms by Ugatasurna, and it is from these ports that the fishing vessels venture into the waters of the [[Dinezin Sea]], as well as the northern Elaspegian, for their catch.

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Begarni]]

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Matafengar</title>
    <id>3337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19547</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-23T16:01:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cleaning the House; Rebuilding from the Foundations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
==Background==

==Preparations==

==The Gathering==

==Legacy and Impact==

==See Also==

*[[Nise ke Tasanuri]]

[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nise ke Tasanuri</title>
    <id>3338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-06T02:21:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nise ke Tasanuri, Alinan ta Harusa''' (June 8, 1429 - November 15, 1493) is a [[Risevan]] politician who served as the [[Naruganize]] of the kingdom of [[Masal]] from 1471 to 1477, and as the Naruganize of the unified Kingdom of Risevne from 1477 to his death. Widely regarded as one of the greatest statesmen and administrators in Risevan history, his efforts helped secure the unity of the Kingdom, and to a large extent kept it unified against the later pressures from disaffected former rulers; at the same time he advocated unification with the neighbouring island of [[Agalmare]], his efforts setting the foundation for the eventual union to be signed just nine years after his death in 1502.

As the prime advisor of [[Sarus I of Risevne|King Sarus I]] for 22 years, Nise ke Tasanuri remains the longest serving Naruganize of Risevne; as modern laws only allot a maximum of three 5-year terms for the Naruganize, it is unlikely that this record will be equalled or surpassed. Known as a shrewd judge of character, as well as a great admirer of talent, he is best known for forming the first [[Royal Council]] to serve as advisors to the King and a counterbalance to the power of the Afengar. At the same time he was also a great advocate of education, and made several donations to important universities within the nation. 

==Childhood and Youth==

==Start of Political Career==

In 1448, at the young age of 19, Nise ke Tasanuri was first recommended to the royal court of Masal by a friend of his father's; [[King Nimodas II]] commented that &quot;he was of slow but deep thought; needing time for contemplation more than his peers, he invariably could give better answers than them.&quot;

==&quot;The King's Right Hand&quot;==

==Ascension to Chancellorship==

==The Matafengar==

==Later Career and the Agalmare Problem==

==Personal and Family Life==

Tasanuri is known to have married twice; the first marriage was in 1451, to a woman of the Imigul family, while the second was to [[Tilun ke Noman uli Tasanuri]], daughter of famed Masalan general [[Hedete ke Noman]], in 1465. By all accounts the first marriage was a relatively happy one, and Tasanuri is reputed to have requested resignation twice upon the death of his wife in 1462, only to be rejected both times. The second marriage was more of political convenience than love, and Tasanuri was 14 years older than his wife.

Of the first marriage Tasanuri had five children, three sons: Alnis, Kenero and Estani, and two daughters: Naisa and Suya. Of the second two more sons were born, Avgoma and Nigasar.

==Legacy and Impact==

Presently there are many memorials to Tasanuri's name; many cities across Risevne have a &quot;Tasanuri Road&quot; or a &quot;Nise Road&quot;, the most famous ones being the [[Tasanuri Boulevard, Bresnga]], which stretches through the commercial centre of [[Bresnga]] and is one of its busiest and best known roads, as well as [[Tasanuri Boulevard, Isana]], which runs from the East Bay southwards to the [[Belegras Dockyards]] and has undergone extensive renovation with the renovation of the Docks. In Isana the [[Unification Memorial Park]], situated around [[King Sarus I Square]] also has two statues of him, one along the memorial avenue where he stands on the right of [[King Sarus I]], and another on the field of the gathering itself, where he is shown leaning towards the King as if to advise him.

[[Tasanuri College, University of Isana]], as well as Tasanuri House of the [[University of Hesurimon]], are named after him as well.

[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Risevani Statesmen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delnisurna</title>
    <id>3339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16064</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-20T07:59:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Delnisurna''', literally Delni Island in [[Mirselec]], is an island in the [[Lavgor Inland Sea]] that is under the jurisdiction of [[Serteni Province]], lying about 82 km off the northern coast of the [[Serteni Peninsula]]. It has an area of 13.6 square kilometres, and a single village on the island houses a population of 330.

==Notes==

The island is most well known as the beginning and end of an important pilgrimage trail of the [[Risevan religion]], as well as the profusion of shrines that stand in its thick forest. Much of the island is covered by forest, and within the forest paths more than two hundred shrines stand, some of which have been in existence since the ninth century DN. Even these days it is a very holy site for many Risevani; the fact that it has no temple in fact makes it more popular for worship (see article on Risevan religion for explanation). The forest itself, containing many trees more than 300 years old, is a famous tourist attraction, and recently a new jetty has been erected to accommodate larger boats visiting the island.

[[category:Islands of Risevne]]
[[category:Serteni Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rarena ta Keinoser</title>
    <id>3340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-20T14:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Rarena ta Keinoser''', literally meaning Chronicles of [[Rarena]] in [[Mirselec]], is a historical chronicle focusing mainly on the events in the kingdom of Rarena in southern [[Masalne]]. 

While the term is often taken as referring to a single compilation, there are in fact two chronicles of Rarena; the first, or the Old Chronicle (''Erivikeino''), spans from the time of the kingdom's alleged founders, in the 3rd century BDN, to around the late 4th century DN, and is widely believed to have been compiled in 442 DN; the New Chronicle (''Navnokeino''), compiled in 1131 DN, chronicles events from the founding of the [[Hesgarigani]] kingdom of [[Obidir]] all the way to around the late 11th century DN.

The Rarena ta Keinoser is just one of the many Keinoser or chronicles which are the main direct historical sources for the period of the [[Karelne ta Hyerisa]]; modelled much after the same format, their style can in the end be traced back to the seminal historical work of the Mirsel, the [[Senomordas ta Keinoser]], edited by a historical scholar named [[Senomordas]].

==Description and Organisation==

Like all of the Keinoser, even up to the 17th century [[Risevne ta Matkeinoser]], the Rarena ta Keinoser is mainly divided two ways; the first, known as the Keinoser or chronicles, is a year-by-year account of major events that happened within that year, often in highly summarised form, while the second, known as the Dinansai or biographies, contains biographies of important opersonages, arranged either by geographical origin or by era. In the case of both the Rarena chronicles the former is used.

In its summarised form the yearly chronicles sometimes take up no more than three or four paragraphs, devoted mainly to happenings within the kingdom and with those kingdoms with which they have direct contact. Nonetheless, the width of the works' scopes means that the work is quite massive; while the Erivikeino is split into 9 volumes, 6 for the Keinoser and 3 for the Donansai, the Navnokeino has 5 volumes of each.

==History of the Text==

While the ultimate compilers of both the Keinoser are lost to history, the dates of their compilation can be dated with some certainty; the Erivikeino was compiled in either 442 or 446 DN, while the insertion of several corresponding [[reign years]] identifies the Navnokeino as being from 1131 DN. Ironically, of the two, the one which survives more intact today is in fact the Erivikeino; kept as a treasured book within Rarena, and copied profusely during the centuries when the kingdom was at the peak of its power, it presently survives in at least 5 complete manuscripts and another 9 near-complete ones.

The Navnokeino was not so lucky; not long after the [[Rarena-Masal Union]] of 1247, during the riots  and fights both for and against the unions that raged in the streets of many Rarenan cities, the great library of the city of [[Erisaromac]] - which was located ''outside'' the Royal Palace - was set aflame, and the only two copies of the Navnokeino did not survive unscathed - one was almost completely destroyed, while the other one survived with only 7 volumes out of 10. 

==Notes==

[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Important Risevan texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Senomordas ta Keinoser</title>
    <id>3341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T15:40:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Senomordas ta Keinoser''', literally meaning &quot;Chronicles of Senomordas&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is the oldest extant historical work in the Mirselec language. Estimated to have been written in the late 2nd century DN by [[Senomordas]], during the period in [[Risevan history]] known as the age of the [[Hesgarigani]] states, the work is a seminal one that has had immense influence on Mirselec historiography as well as its culture and religion.

==Organisation==

The Senokei, as the work's title is often shortened to, is a massive work that is divided into several categories:

*''Keinoser'', or Chronicles; year-by-year records of happenings around the world, including such things  as wars, diplomatic changes, changes in rulers and even in appointments to the courts of rulers. This is the bulk of the work and takes up 16 volumes, spanning from semilegendary times to around 166 DN.

*''Karon ta Dinansai'', or Biographies of Kings; a 9 volume compilation of biographies of ruling figures and their families.

*''Dinansai'', or Biographies; a 12 volume compilation of biographies of important figures, including generals, writers, officials, advisors, and in some cases even famous performers or infamous criminals.

*''Ichomurtane'', or Origins; a 6-volume work on the legendary origins of the Mirsel people; this is by far the most intriguing part of the history, as well as the one with the greatest literary value.

==History of the Text==

==Impact and Legacy==

The impact of the Senomodras ta Keinoser is profound on many levels, extending down to the script in which it was written - the compiler, coming from one of the foreign kingdoms just founded and exposed to the culture of mainland [[Osonde]], was quick to adapt their script to writing the Mirselec language. The resulting script, which was then adapted farther and used in most literary works up to the 9th century DN, was known simply as [[Senotakisarimi]], literally the &quot;Pen Traces of Seno(mordas)&quot;.  In highly modified form this script is the one used to write Mirselec in modern days; ironically the modern script in fact bears more resemblance to the oldest script found within these chronicles than to the later scripts of the 10th century onwards, primarily due to other outside influences complicating the latter orthographic system.

[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Important Risevan texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dumoskaba</title>
    <id>3342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T04:53:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parthavan language</title>
    <id>3343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T17:34:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daryush</username>
        <id>226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pronouns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Parthavun erciğ|pronounce=/parθaβ ɛrtʃɪɣ|tu=Alamanti|species=Human|in=Parthava, Parizhia, Seleyizhe, Dorcindi|no=40 million|script=[[Armavi script|Parthavan script]]|tree=Ayartaic&lt;br&gt;
Central Aghantian&lt;br&gt;
Parthavan&lt;br&gt;
'''Parthavan'''|morph=Agglutinative|ms=Nominative-Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=Nadeem Ahmad|date=September 2006}}

Parthavan is a language that is spoken throughout much of central Aghantia. It is very closely related to [[Armavi]]

==Distribution==
Parthavan is spoken mainly in the central Aghantian countries. There is also an area in Parizhia where it is spoken.

Its largest concentration of speakers is in [[Parthava (country)|Parthava]].

==Phonology==
===Vowels===
Parthavan has 7 vowels, which are arranged into three classes for vowel harmony:


{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em&quot;
|-
! Front
| e (IPA: ɛ)|| ö (IPA: œ)|| ü (IPA: ʏ)
|-
! Back
| a (IPA: a)|| o (IPA: o)|| u (IPA: u)
|-
! Neutral
| i (IPA: ɪ)
|-
|}

A word can only contain either front vowels or back vowels (and the neutral vowel '''i'''). For words with only '''i''', the word is regarded as front.

If a word contains both back and front vowels (in some foreign words), vowel harmony acts on with the last vowel, that is to say that when adding suffixes, if the word is mixed, look at the last vowel as an indicator.

===Consonants===
Parthavan also has the following consonants:

&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Alveolar ||colspan=2| Post-alv. ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || {{IPA|m}} (m) || || || || {{IPA|n}} (n) || || || || || || || || {{IPA|ŋ}} (n)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Plosive || {{IPA|p}} (p) || {{IPA|b}} (b) || || || {{IPA|t}} (t) || {{IPA|d}} (d) || || || || || || || {{IPA|k}} (k) || {{IPA|g}} (g) || {{IPA|q}} (q)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || || || {{IPA|θ}} (ť) || || {{IPA|s}} (s) || {{IPA|z}} (z) || {{IPA|ʃ}} (ş) || {{IPA|ʒ}} (ž) || || || {{IPA|x}} (x) || {{IPA|ɣ}} (ğ) ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Affricate || || || || || {{IPA|ts}} (ts) ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || {{IPA|β̞}} (v) || || || || || || || || || || {{IPA|j}} (y)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Trill || || || || || || || || {{IPA|r}} (r)
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Fricative|| || || || || || || || {{IPA|ɬ}} (l)
|}


&lt;/div&gt;

As well as this, most consonants have labialised and palatised forms. These are shown, where appropriate, by '''y''' and '''w''' following the consonant.

==Counting==
Parthavan has a base-10 number system. Each number from 0 to 9 has initial, medial, final, isolated, and multiplier forms, which are used to make bigger numbers.

==Pronouns==
Unlike Armavi, pronouns in Parthavan are not completely regular - i.e, to change their case, it is not a case of simple agglutination.

Personal pronouns in Parthavan are explained in the following table. It should be noted that only the 1st and 2nd persons are irregular (there is not 3rd person plural - instead demonsratives are used):

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|+'''Parthavan pronouns'''
|-
! Person !! Abs !! Acc !! Gen !! Dat !! Abl !! Loc !! Com !! Inst !! Cause
|-
! 1st sing
| Bi || Biği || Binii || Bitsüüd || Bicii || Beter || Bele || Beyele ||   Betöl 
|-
! 2nd sing
| Tsi || Ciği || Cinii || Citsid || Tseyci || Tsetir || Tsele || Tseyele || Tsöyöl
|-
! 1st plur
| Bivir || Biviri || Biviin || Bivitsüüd || Bivitsii || Bivder || Beverle || Beverle || Bever-tölöö
|-
! 2nd plur
| Cingver   || Cingveri   || Cingviriin   || Civirtsüüd   || Civirtsii   || Ceveder || Ceverle   || Ceverle   || Cever-tölöö  
|}

==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Case in Parthavan is marked by attaching suffixes to the end of words. These suffixes must harmonise in accordance with the vowel harmony rules stated above.

'''Plural''' suffixes go directly after the noun. They cannot be added to indefinite nouns, only definite ones. They can change depending on the noun itself:
: '''berc / barc''' in most cases
: '''bey / bay''' for nouns ending in ''c, r, t, s, z, ş, l, i'' or any front vowel 
: '''ibiğ''' for nouns ending in ''t, d, k, g, q''

The '''absolutive''' case carries no suffix - it is the plain noun as found in the lexicon.

The absolutive is most commonly used as a nominative. However, it also serves as an indefinite accusative (of any type):

'''Examples:'''
: Bi adağ xevera ui
: ''I like horses''

The '''definitive accusative''' is used for definite direct objects. The suffix is '''i''' or '''yi''' after vowels.

'''Examples:'''
: Bi adağbarci xevera ui
: ''I like the horses''

The '''genetive''' is used to indicate the possessor. It has a variable suffix:
: '''ying''' for words ending in vowels
: '''un / ün''' in most cases
: '''an / en''' for words whose last vowel is either ''a'' or ''e''
: '''u / ü''' for words ending in ''n''

The '''dative''' case indicates ''to where'' something was going. The suffix for the dative case is as follows:
: '''uud / üüd''' after consonants
: '''tsuud / tsüüd''' after vowels, l, and n

This also gives a sense of ''&quot;for,&quot;'' as in:

Note: any final ''c''s change to ''ts'' when attaching this suffix

The suffix for the '''ablative''' case is '''aca / ece'''.

The primary function for this case is indicating ''from where'' - i.e, the place away from which something is going. However, it is also used in comparisons, and so here it indicates ''than''; to indicate what something is made of; and as the agent in passive sentences. Another use of the ablative is ''&quot;about&quot;''

The '''locative''' indicates where something is. Its suffixes are:
: '''tur / tür''' after all unvoiced consonants
: '''dur / dür''' after all voiced consonants

The '''comitative''' is simply translated as ''with''. It is marked by '''eli / ali'''.

The '''instrumental''' indicates the instrument used to perform an action. Its suffix is '''le / la'''.

The '''cause''' for something is also indicated by a suffix. Its suffix is '''toloo / tölöö'''.

===Verb morphology===
Verbs in Parthavan operate via a slightly different system from Armavi. The main difference is the lack of any personal indication (i.e: of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons). Verbs in Parthavan are also not as agglutinating as those in Armavi.

====Verb tenses====
Parthavan has 3 tenses. These are ''present tense'' ('''-(n)a / -(n)e'''), ''past tense'' ('''-(n)arağ / -(n)ereğ''') and ''future'' ('''-(n)arixt / -(n)erixt'''). However, in casual speech, the past tense suffix changes to '''-(n)ar / -(n)er''' and the future tense suffix changes to '''-(n)et / -(n)at'''.

In all cases, the letters in the brackets indicate buffer consonants.

====Verb moods====
Parthavan has several forms of the passive, each with their own infix.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshi</title>
    <id>3344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:28:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshi History</title>
    <id>3345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T08:06:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Kasshi|History]]
[[Category:Galhafan History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kasshi history</title>
    <id>3346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-19T00:02:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The history of the [[Kasshi]], according to [[Dzesa]]'s historiography

*[[First Kasshi Empire]] &lt;!--c. 5200 - 4000 BOE--&gt;
*[[Sanle Domination]] &lt;!--c. 4000 - 3550 BOE--&gt;
*[[Era of Invasions]] &lt;!--c. 3550 - 3400 BOE--&gt;
*[[Anarchic Era]] &lt;!--c. 3400 BOE - 2969 BOE--&gt;
*[[Chinrasta's Theocracy]] &lt;!--2969 - 2778 BOE--&gt;
*[[Second Kasshi Empire]] &lt;!--2778 - 2015 BOE--&gt;
*[[Wars of the Collapse]] &lt;!--2015 - 1960 BOE--&gt;
*[[Great Interregnum]] &lt;!--1960 - 426 BOE--&gt;
*[[Third Kasshi Empire]] &lt;!--426 BOE - 12 OE--&gt;
*[[Fourth Kasshi Empire]] &lt;!--23 - 484 OE--&gt;
*[[Lesser Interregnum]] &lt;!--484 - 720 OE--&gt;
*[[Fifth Kasshi Empire]] &lt;!--721 OE--&gt;

[[Category:Kasshi History|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshi Empresses</title>
    <id>3347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23299</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-14T18:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Rulers]]
[[Category:Kasshi|Empresses]]
[[Category:Kasshi Government|Empresses]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nrastaism</title>
    <id>3348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:47:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhafan Religions]]
[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Military</title>
    <id>3349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T01:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Admirals of the Risevan Royal Navy</title>
    <id>3350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:29:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[Category:Military of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Armed Forces of Risevne</title>
    <id>3351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:29:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Wars</title>
    <id>3352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:02:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Battles of the Fourth Global War</title>
    <id>3353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:02:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Wars]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Architecture</title>
    <id>3354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:07:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Buildings of Risevne</title>
    <id>3355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:08:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Bridges of Isana</title>
    <id>3356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:12:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Transport in Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Castles of Risevne</title>
    <id>3357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:History</title>
    <id>3358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16138</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:10:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Catastrophic Events</title>
    <id>3359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:10:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Geography</title>
    <id>3360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:12:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Valmante</title>
    <id>3361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Education</title>
    <id>3362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:14:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Colleges of the University of Isana</title>
    <id>3363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:14:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Countries of Valmante</title>
    <id>3364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:16:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevan Cuisine</title>
    <id>3365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:17:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Food]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Food</title>
    <id>3366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Animals</title>
    <id>3368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32778</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-13T06:08:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Biology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Culture of the Tranon People</title>
    <id>3369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:34:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Tranon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Disambiguation</title>
    <id>3370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:20:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Top-level categories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Nik</title>
    <id>3371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46152</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-18T17:48:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cweb255</username>
        <id>1301</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hey Nik, thanks for helping with the categories! [[user:Sirica]]

Thanks for identifying my mistake, Nik. It was meant to be 0% below poverty line.

== [[Catgory:Conlangs]] ==

Hi!

I'm putting all pages listed on [[List of conlangs]] into [[Category:Conlangs]] so that one can generate a list of them with a DPL query for catecory=Conlangs.  It is much more efficient than relying on people updating the list by hand.  I see no harm in pages being listed both in a category and its subcategories -- au contraire!  They ''are'' conlangs after all, even if they are also conlangs of a specific subcategory.
I should have made that clear in the edit summary, but I'm kinda new to AWB... [[User:Melroch|BPJ]] 02:21, 19 February 2008 (PST)

== New Main Page ==
Do you mind if I ask you for your judgement on the [[New Main Page Demo|proposed new main page?]]--[[User:Pisceesumsprecan|Pisceesumsprecan]] 20:23, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
:Looks good to me [[User:Nik|Nik]] 21:40, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

== Deleted Page ==
Is it possible to see the content of a previously deleted page? It retains the first sentence or so if you try to make the page again, but I don't know if that's stored anywhere or permanently gone. If the latter, oh well, but if the former, do you think you could help me recover some information?
:What page are you trying to restore? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 08:48, 11 June 2009 (UTC)
::I believe it was Leirloek. They were under the Koum-Tauf category. [[User:Cweb255|Cweb255]] 06:34, 13 June 2009 (UTC)
::Any luck? [[User:Cweb255|Cweb255]] 23:30, 16 June 2009 (UTC)
:::Just restored [[Leirloek]] [[User:Nik|Nik]] 01:24, 18 June 2009 (UTC)
::::Thanks a million! [[User:Cweb255|Cweb255]] 17:48, 18 June 2009 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Elaspegian Theatre, Fourth Global War</title>
    <id>3372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ethnicities</title>
    <id>3373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:23:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ethnicities of Risevne</title>
    <id>3374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16166</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:23:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Ethnicities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ethnicities of Valmante</title>
    <id>3375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:24:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Ethnicities]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Battles of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:26:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Castles</title>
    <id>3377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16170</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:26:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevan culture</title>
    <id>3379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:28:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Persons of Risevne</title>
    <id>3380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16176</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Places in Risevne</title>
    <id>3381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Art</title>
    <id>3382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:31:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Risevan paintings</title>
    <id>3383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Art]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Famous Roads</title>
    <id>3384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:32:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Feladmena Province</title>
    <id>3387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:38:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Provinces of Risevne</title>
    <id>3388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:36:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Subdivisions of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Flora and Fauna of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-22T09:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists articles concerning the flora and fauna of the planet of [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category:Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Generals of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:41:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military of the Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Geology</title>
    <id>3392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:42:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conworlds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Hisani Province</title>
    <id>3393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Historical Articles</title>
    <id>3394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:43:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:History of Valmante</title>
    <id>3395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:45:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:History]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:History of the Risevan Southern Islands</title>
    <id>3396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Hyomeniga Province</title>
    <id>3397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:47:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Literature</title>
    <id>3398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46425</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-24T09:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tropylium</username>
        <id>756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>description</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This category is intended for articles describing [[Conculture|concultural]] literature. Articles about linguistic literature may be placed in the category &quot;Source material&quot;.

[[Category:Concultures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Important Mirselec texts</title>
    <id>3399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:49:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Mirselec literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Important Risevan texts</title>
    <id>3400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:49:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Inezama Province</title>
    <id>3401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Iruzansero literature</title>
    <id>3402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Iruze</title>
    <id>3403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:53:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Countries of Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Islands of Risevne</title>
    <id>3404</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Geography of Risevne</title>
    <id>3405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:55:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Islands of the Elaspegian Ocean</title>
    <id>3406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:55:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Islands of the West Elaspegian Ocean</title>
    <id>3407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:56:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Koreno Theatre, Fourth Global War</title>
    <id>3408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Battles of the Fourth Global War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Lakes of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19518</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-22T05:50:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Landforms of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T02:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Major Roads in Isana</title>
    <id>3411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:11:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Transport in Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Major building projects in Valmante</title>
    <id>3412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:02:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Architecture]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Memorials in Isana</title>
    <id>3413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:02:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Isana]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Memorials in Risevne</title>
    <id>3414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:03:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]
[[Category:Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nations of Valmante</title>
    <id>3415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:05:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Navies of Valmante</title>
    <id>3416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:05:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Parks of Isana</title>
    <id>3418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16246</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nesnoma</title>
    <id>3419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nesnoma''' is a city in [[Risevne]], and the capital of [[Ostema Province]], situated along its southern coast. It has a population of 2,813,290, which makes it the third largest city in Risevne, and it forms a political and economic centre for the historical region known as Rarena.

==Geography==

The city is sited in a broad, mostly flat plain that slopes gently north-south; to the west of the city are hills, known locally as the ''Hinekone'' or Eastern Hills, where the ancient stone and brick walls of Nesnoma can still be seen, including a large gatehouse at a gap in the hills where an old road once led to the even older city of [[Erisaromac City|Erisaromac]]. 

Along the coast Nesnoma possesses one of the best natural harbours of the [[Raretoya Peninsula]], and recent reclamation works to deepen the harbour while bolstering its defences against storms from the south are still ongoing. The port, along with the industrial districts on the southwest coast around the port, form the economic centre of modern Nesnoma.

==History==

Nesnoma is an old city with a long history; its excellent natural harbour, and the availability of trees from the Hinekone forests and beyond, meant it was one of the main centres of Risevan civilisation during the years of the [[Hesgarigani]]. Indeed, several of the kingdoms founded on [[Osonde]] during that period explicitly trace their ancestry to rulers and warriors in Nesnoma, which was then called ''Salgehadun'' or &quot;Docks of the [[Salge]] plant&quot;, and the city was greatly enriched by the loot, and later the trade, of its inhabitants with the kingdoms from far afield.

In later years, as overseas trade declined and warring powers consolidated inland, the city allied with its eastern neighbour, and became the core port of the state that would later become the [[Kingdom of Rarena]], expanding its territory over much of modern day Ostema. The city was also named Nesnoma around this time.

Nesnoma retained some of its trading glory, but also developed its agriculture during this period; in 931 two irrigation canals and a reservoir, meant for the fields north of the city, were completed. In this era, the city was ruled for nearly 370 years by the Oudugan family, and then for another five centuries by the powerful family of the Nuyetona, many of whom also held high posts in the Rarena government; their wealth, and that of the city, was well-recorded in the [[Rarena ta Keinoser]]: ''The Hayani'' (a feudal rank equivalent to Duke) ''of Nesnoma, in response to the war to the north, offered to send 60,000 Usak'' (an [[Risevan measurements and units|old unit]] of mass corresponding to around 18 kg) ''of grain, as well as to buy 2,000 horses and 10,000 bows to contribute to the armies.''

==Economy==

Modern day Nesnoma is a major port, as well as a centre of industry; major products include chemicals, electronics, and avionics. At the same time it is a centre of services, and has a thriving cottage industry for local handicrafts. 

The port, as in historical times, remains the linchpin of the economy; even as the port of [[Bresnga]] farther north is the main international port, Nesnoma remains an important terminal especially southwards; at the same time many huge merchandise and wholesale markets are still based in Nesnoma, mostly used as a node for goods to be shipped either around the region or northwards towards [[Agalmare]]. 

==Transport==

==Culture and Society==

==Famous Buildings and Sites==

[[category:Cities of Risevne]]
[[category:Ostema Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ostema Province</title>
    <id>3420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:14:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Persons of Valmante</title>
    <id>3421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:People]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Rulers of Risevne</title>
    <id>3422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:15:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Rulers]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Royal Family of Risevne</title>
    <id>3423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16254</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:16:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Plains of Risevne</title>
    <id>3424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:18:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Politics of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16257</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:18:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Prehistory</title>
    <id>3427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:19:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Prehistoric Cultures of Valmante</title>
    <id>3428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16260</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Prehistory]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Prehistory of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:23:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Ilethes]]
[[Category:Prehistory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Punishments of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:24:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Regions of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:25:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Reservoirs and Lakes in Risevne</title>
    <id>3432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:26:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevan destroyer classes</title>
    <id>3433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16270</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:29:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Military of Risevne</title>
    <id>3434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:29:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevani performers</title>
    <id>3435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevani culture</title>
    <id>3436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:32:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Sample Texts</title>
    <id>3437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Serteni Province</title>
    <id>3438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:34:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Ships of the Risevan Royal Navy</title>
    <id>3439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:35:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Military of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Stations of the Isana Underground</title>
    <id>3440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:11:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Transport in Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Subdivisions of Risevne</title>
    <id>3441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Towns in Enimdanai Province</title>
    <id>3442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:38:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Towns]]
[[Category:Enimdanai Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Enimdanai Province</title>
    <id>3443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16287</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Towns</title>
    <id>3444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:38:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Towns in Neiberin Province</title>
    <id>3445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16289</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Towns]]
[[Category:Neiberin Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Neiberin Province</title>
    <id>3446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:39:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Towns in Serteni Province</title>
    <id>3447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16291</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:39:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Towns]]
[[Category:Serteni Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Transliteration systems</title>
    <id>3448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:40:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Universities of Risevne</title>
    <id>3449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Wars of the Lein Dynasty</title>
    <id>3450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T03:41:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Wars]]
[[Category:Lein Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Water bodies of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-10T12:59:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mirsel</title>
    <id>3452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T04:04:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Mirsel people''', known in [[Mirselec]] as ''Mirselani'' or, in more ancient times, simply ''Dinaime'' for &quot;human&quot;, are an ethnic group of [[Valmante]], most of whom are identified with the country of [[Risevne]]. Presently there are around 84 million Mirsel worldwide, of whom around 74 million reside in Risevne.

==Language==

The language of the Mirsel is known as [[Mirselec]]; formerly thought to be a language isolate, it has recently become the focus of several controversial theories which seek to prove that it was descended from the [[Noma language family]], sharing a common ancestry with several languages spoken in modern day [[Noma]], 550 km north of the [[Risevan Home Islands]]. 

==Culture==

==Origins and History==

==Modern day Mirsel==

[[category:Ethnicities of Valmante]]
[[category:Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isana Underground</title>
    <id>3453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T14:10:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Isana Underground''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Isana Domogute Nasgai'', literally Isana Underground Rail) is one of the largest, most extensive, and most used underground train stations in the world. Covering most of the [[Risevan]] capital of [[Isana]], it is also connected at several stations to the [[Bresnga Underground]], as well as the national high-speed rail systems. 

The Underground in its modern form comprises a total of 15 lines, of which 13 are &quot;Trunk Lines&quot; stretching from one end of the city to another, while 2 - the [[Gardaus Ring Line, Isana Underground|Gardaus Ring Line]] and the [[Outer Ring Line, Isana Underground|Outer Ring Line]] - are ring lines that connect with most of the other lines and encircle the city. The Underground is a key part of transport within the city, and is correspondingly important within city culture and society.

==Description of the Underground==

Despite being called the Underground, the IDN in fact runs both on, above, and below the surface; whereas surface rails and the occasional raised rails on pylons are used for the outer districts, the busiest stations in the city centre and along the border with Bresnga are underground, in order to conserve surface space and to merge in better with the Bresnga system (which is indeed completely underground). 

==History==

==Management==

==Lines of the Underground==

==Notes==

===Station Art===

While the post-war lines of the Underground were built in a highly utilitarian, and sometimes even minimalist style, the lines in the east of the city, which are the oldest lines in the city, were richly built and decorated. 

[[category:Transport in Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dzesa</title>
    <id>3454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40142</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-24T22:48:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dzesa''' (673 [[Galhafan Chronology|OE]] - 795)  was the leader and founder of the [[Yatta Party]], and ''de facto'' supreme ruler of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]] in its early days.

== Early Life ==
Dzesa was born to an old, declining, noble family.  Her mother named her heir to one of her lesser titles, a meaningless title in those days.  Captivated by her grandmother's stories of the family's glorious past, Dzesa became fascinated by the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire#Golden Age|old regime]], and [[Kasshi history]] in general.  She strongly distrusted democracy, believing it to be the &quot;incompetent usurping the capable&quot;.

== Rise to Power ==
In her late 20's, Dzesa published ''[[A Concise History of the Kasshi People]]'' and ''[[A Brief History of Human Civilizations]]'', two books which set out her views on history.  She remained marginal until what Dzesa called the Fourth Empire was dismantled following the [[War of Kalpanian Reunification]].  Outraged, Dzesa entered politics, founding the [[Yatta Party]], aiming at the reunification of the Kasshi Empire and the establishment of the same as a Great Power.  Her party gradually rose to prominence in her home state of the [[Republic West of the Fantasta]], and established chapters in other Kasshi states.

The various chapters of the Yatta Party arranged simultaneous referenda in the various Kasshi states for reunification.  They passed in the majority of the states, and the Fifth Kasshi Empire was born.

&lt;!--== War of Unification ==
The new Empire was convoluted in form, and even broken up in some places.  Strong pressure was placed on the other Kasshi states to join the new union.  Fearing a revival of the Kasshi Empire, several foreign powers, led by the [[Blafu Union]], intervened, warning the Empire not to add any new territory.  When, under questionable circumstances, the [[City-State of Ngamar]] voted to join the Empire, the Blafu Union declared war upon the Kasshi Empire for the purposes of &quot;liberating&quot; Ngamar, setting off the [[War of Unification]].  The Fifth Kasshi Empire won the war, forcing the remaining Kasshi states (and a few non-Kasshi states) to join the Empire.

== Global War ==
The Empire quickly began flexing its muscles, seeking overseas territories and markets, and building up a military alliance against its enemies.  Tensions built up, until the [[Global War]] at last broke out.  The war ended in something of a stalemate.  Kasshi forces were crumbling, and foreign troops had landed in peripheral territories, but their enemies were also stretched quite thin.  Then Dzesa unveiled her great surprise - [[Galhaf (planet)|the world]]'s first atomic bomb.  A plane, transported by a [[Wikipedia:submarine aircraft carrier|submarine aircraft carrier]], dropped the bomb over an enemy city, forcing a peace treaty.  No territory was exchanged, although the Kasshi Empire did receive reparations.  The unsatisfactory end left both sides hungry for vengeance, once they had recovered from the devestation of war, eventually leading to the War of Self-Defense. --&gt;

[[Category:Rulers]]
[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Byensori</title>
    <id>3455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16458</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T14:25:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Site and Situation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Byensori''', literally meaning &quot;General Store&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is a neighbourhood in [[Isana]], situated on the west of [[Gardaus Bay]] near its mouth. This neighbourhood is a well-known centre of malls in Isana, and one of its famous shopping zones; its goods are mostly oriented towards the youth in recent years.

==History==

==Site and Situation==

Byensori is just one of the several large &quot;neighbourhoods&quot; along the West Bay, along with other neighbourhoods like [[Taiberduya]], [[Degurunalmi]], [[Hazatole]] and [[Dasnimoya]]. While certain areas are widely considered to lie within Byensori, the fact that it is more an informal neighbourhood than an actual district, make it hard to define where exactly the bounds of Byensori are, and where it mixes into the other shopping districts along the West Bay.

The main road of the area is [[Independence Road, Isana|Independence Road]], along or near which most of the larger malls are situated; yet the most distinctive feature of Byensori is not the large malls but the wild maze of narrow streets that branch out from the main roads, the remnants of the old markets for which the whole area was named. Along these narrow streets, many of which are closed to traffic and therefore only accessible by foot, small stores abound, offering merchandise from household tools to replica and sometimes authentic antique weaponry, though in Byensori the streets are most famous as snack stalls and restaurants.

==Significance==

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dumosurna</title>
    <id>3456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:07:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dumosurna''' is a small, rocky island in the [[Elaspegian Ocean]], under the jurisdiction of [[Risevne]] (where it is placed with the [[Eastern Islands Department]]). Situated 231 kilometres from the southeast coast of [[Agalmare]], it is best known as an important waypoint for supply ships making the hazardous trip from [[Iruze]] to Risevne during the [[Third Global War|Third]] and [[Fourth Global War]]s.

==Geography==

===Wildlife===

==History==

The island was an important waypoint for both the Iruzeni supply ships making their way to Agalmare, as well as for the submarines used by the Coalition to hunt them, during the Fourth Global War. 

The island, as well as its lighthouse, had been placed under military control upon the reactivation of the [[Third Asela League]] in mid 1939; as the tensions that would lead to war rose, the island's strategic position and role in preserving Risevne's lifeline became abundantly obvious, and steps were taken to fortify the area. The harbour to the northeast of the island was enlarged by sinking blockships in the relatively shallow waters to create a protected area, and for much of the war a squadron of 4 destroyers and a light cruiser were stationed between Dumosurna and nearby [[Meltonosurna]]. 

In response to fears that a Coalition fleet may sail out directly to challenge this crucial area of sea, the capture of which would have placed Risevne under siege, extensive land defences were also placed on the island, including 28 large concrete bunkers, nearly 80 pillboxes for machine guns along the coast, and nearly 40 land-based guns meant to fight off a naval invasion.

==Notes==

[[category:Islands of Risevne]]
[[category:Islands of the Elaspegian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Transportation</title>
    <id>3457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16304</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Transport in Isana</title>
    <id>3458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:10:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Transportation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>League of Democratic Nations</title>
    <id>3459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40625</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-07T21:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''League of Democratic Nations''' is a supernational organization opposed to the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi]]-led [[International Council of Governments]].  Its members are, at least nominally, democratic, most of them republics, but some constitutional monarchies.

[[Category:Galhaf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivets</title>
    <id>3460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:12:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial City-State of Ivets''' is the Imperial capital of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire]].  It possesses a unique position within the Empire, being the home of the Empress, who rules it absolutely, with considerable independence from Imperial law (which, in turn, is nominally subject to herself, but in practice, she has little control over).  In practice, it is often considered a sovereign state within the Empire, with actual political power being wielded from [[Dzesa's City]], the administrative capital.

It has been the formal capital of the Kasshi Empires ever since [[Chinrasta's Theocracy]], when it was known as ''Ibettu''

[[Category:Kasshi Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshi Cities</title>
    <id>3461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:49:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Cities]]
[[Category:Kasshi|Cities]]
[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhafan Geography</title>
    <id>3462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:48:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf|Geography]]
[[Category:Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shivrashan</title>
    <id>3463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40624</id>
      <timestamp>2008-12-07T21:19:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|style=&quot;background:#e9f9f9; float: right; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0; width:30%; font-size:95%&quot; cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|+&lt;big&gt;'''The Free City-State of Shivrashan'''&lt;/big&gt;
|- 
|{{infoleft}}|'''Capital''' || {{inforight}}|District of the [[Old City (Shivrashan)|Old City]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''[[Chief Trader of Shivrashan|Chief Trader]]''' || {{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Languages''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Official ||{{inforight}}|[[Shivrashanian]], [[Ivetsian]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|Others ||{{inforight}}|Various
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Area''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Population''' ||{{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Independence''' || {{inforight}}|
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Currency''' ||{{inforight}}|[[Shivrashanian Chan|Chan]]
|-
|{{infoleft}}|'''Supranational Organizations''' ||{{inforight}}|[[International Council of Governments]]
|}

The '''Free City-State of Shivrashan''' is a member-state of the [[International Council of Governments]], and formerly a part of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]].  It is an ancient city, located on the west shore of the [[Kalpanian Sea]].  Its importance stems from its strategic location between low passes in the [[Fantasta Mountains]] and good harbors on the Kalpanian Sea, giving it a crucial role in trade between West and East [[Odirá]].  There have been several times in its history when the city decline to little more than a fishing village, when trade declined, especially when the mountain passes became less passable.  Most notably during the [[Great Freeze]], which nearly destroyed the settlement.

After the [[Great Thaw]], however, [[Navesh]] convinced the Duchess of the East to purchase the small village from its [[Kalpan]]ian overlords, who consented, on the understanding that it would be established as a sovereign, unarmed, city-state.  This is the origin of its current formal status as a distinct member-state of the Empire.  The city was used as a road to the [[Conquest of Kalpan]], and it grew rapidly under the increase in East-West trade, using its wealth and economic power to maintain indepence.  After the [[Shivrashan Crisis]], it came to be the capital of the entire [[Trans-Fantasta]].

It gradually lost control of the Trans-Fantasta, and eventually became subject to the [[Blafu Union]].  It broke away during the latter's decline, and voted to join the Fifth Empire upon its creation.  The city suffered repeated attacks during the [[War of Unification]] and the [[Global War]].  In the last stages of the later war, the City-State broke away from the Empire, signing a separate peace treaty with the [[Eastern Alliance]].

Today, the city-state covers several hundred square kilometers, most of it urban.

== Districts ==
Shivrashan City is divided into a number of semi-autonomous Districts, many of them formerly separate cities (quite a few have retained the title of &quot;city&quot;).  A partial listing is as follows:
*The [[City of Temples]]
*[[Freeport]]
*[[Naval City]]
*[[Old City (Shivrashan)|Old City]]

== Cities of Shivrashan ==
There were formerly several other cities in addition to the City of Shivrashan.  All the remaining cities were merged during the Global War.

== Government ==
The city-state is lead by a [[Chief Trader of Shivrashan|Chief Trader]], elected by the [[Council of Traders and Merchants]].  The title is reckoned as equal in honor to that of [[Kasshi honorifics|Sovereign Queen or King Not of Imperial Relation]].  Each District is governed by a District Chief Trader, except for [[Freeport]], which is ruled by a Portmistress or Portmaster.

[[Category:Shivrashan|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Shivrashan</title>
    <id>3464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T05:40:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Kasshi Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freeport</title>
    <id>3465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28635</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-08T08:36:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Freeport''' is a major district of [[Shivrashan|Shivrashan City]].  It was the last of the central districts to be merged into the city, and retains a small degree of autonomy relative to the other districts.  Uniquely, it retains a Portmistress or Portmaster, a title reckoned equal to that of [[Kasshi honorifics|Lady or Lord Mayor]].

Originally, the former City of Freeport was known as the City of Slaveport.  The reason for this name, which is also the reason for its long independence of the city, stemmed from its place in the slave trade, and the opposition to the same from Chief Trader [[Nakoral Chivanakan]].  Nakoral refused to permit slaves to pass through his city, but was unable (indeed, unwilling) to halt the highly profitable trade in human property.  By way of compromise, slavers were permitted to unload their merchandise just outside of the city limits, conveying them through the Slave Road, now called [[Freedom Avenue]].  The slavers were permitted to establish an indepenent port authority, which later grew into a town, and finally a full city.  The stigma of the slave trade kept Slave Port nominally outside of Shivrashan, even as Shivrashan itself grew to surround it.  Even Slave Road itself remained officially outside of the City.

Some time after the abolition of slavery, Slaveport renamed itself Freeport, in an attempt to get beyond its shameful past.  The city continued to be looked down upon by the administration in Shivrashan City, however, despite its great wealth.  Gradually, however, the stigma of its past wore off, and the city joined Shivrashan.

[[Category:Districts of Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Naval City</title>
    <id>3466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T23:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Naval City''' is a district within the City-State of [[Shivrashan]].  Its name derives from its traditional role as the main port for the [[Kalpanian Fleet]] of the [[Imperial Kasshi Navy]].

It was once a thriving center of piracy on the [[Kalpanian Sea]] before the [[Anti-Piracy War]] effectively shut down piracy.  The district is subdivided into an eastern and a western half, on opposite sides of [[Pirate's Bay]].  The eastern and western halves of the bay are broad expanses of beach between a large expanse of cliffs and the sea, upon which the district is built, while in the middle, the sea comes right up to the cliffs.  Within the cliffs is a great sea-cave, capable of sheltering large fleets.  It was for this reason, along with the defensibility of the bay's mouth, that attracted pirates to it.  It also proved, for the same reason, ideal for the secret construction of a great naval fleet after the purchase of Shivrashan by the [[Duchy of the North]].

Like [[Freeport]], Naval City retained its independence of Shivrashan long after the great city had expanded to its borders, but for a different reason, namely that it remained under direct Imperial Rule.  This changed as the Fourth Empire began to decline, and Shivrashan took over administration of its region, seizing control of the Kalpanian Fleet.  At this time, Naval City was forcefully annexed, leading to the [[Shivrashan Crisis]]

[[Category:Districts of Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shivrashan Crisis</title>
    <id>3468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23259</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-13T08:53:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Shivrashan Crisis''' was an important event in the history of the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]].  It originally involved the autonomous City-State of [[Shivrashan]] and the Kasshi naval base at what is now [[Naval City]], and grew to include the entire [[Trans-Fantasta]].

The crisis began with the weakening of imperial authority outside of the core of the Kasshi Empire.  Shivrashan, long independent, began to exert a greater influence in the Kasshi possessions north of the [[Fantasta Mountains]], and to assert greater independence from [[Ivets]].

Under the administration of Chief Trader [[Kotar Trovakkakan]], the city began to see itself as not simply an autonomous City-State within the Kasshi Empire, but as the capital of the entire north, and began making various demands of the Kasshi naval commanders, including demand for greater compensation for the use of the port, amounting to outright tribute.  The Kasshi Empress, [[Chingara]] was too concerned with threats closer to home to protest, and agreed to the increase.  Tensions were rising, but peace was maintained, until the [[Drunken Sailor Incident]].  Tensions exploded, and the Chief Trader ordered the Municipal Police into the naval enclave, seizing control, and proclaiming Shivrashan control of the navy.

The Empress sent troops to Shivrashan, but Kotar was prepared to meet them, and defeated them in the [[Battle of Shivrashan Pass]].  After several other inconclusive engagements, a treaty was drawn up between Chief Trader Kotar and Empress Chingara granting control of the entire Trans-Fantasta to Shivrashan, which in turn agreed to become subject (nominally) to the Empire.

This was the first time that the authority of Ivets had been seriously challenged, and defeated.  It is commonly considerd to be the beginning of the end of serious imperial rule, leading to a long disintegration of the Fourth Empire, in which various provinces and cities drifted further and further from the rule of the Kasshi empresses.

[[Category:Kasshi History]]
[[Category:Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drunken Sailor Incident</title>
    <id>3469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23256</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-13T08:51:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Drunken Sailor Incident''' was the incident that sparked the [[Shivrashan Crisis]].  Little is known about it, as no detailed records survive.

What we ''do'' know is that it involved a sailor from [[Naval City|the Kasshi naval base]], who was inside [[Shivrashan]], and became drunk and disorderly.  He was apparently arrested by the Shivrashan police force, and alleged excessive force on the part of the police.  The admiral in charge of the naval base demanded the sailor's release, and when he was refused, the admiral in turn refused to turn over harbor fees.  The already-tense situation then boiled over when [[Chief Trader of Shivrashan|Chief Trader]] [[Kotar Trovakkakan]] responded by closing off the city to Kasshi sailors, arresting any sailor found within city limits.  Violence broke out, and the Chief Trader invaded the base, forcefully annexing it to the city.

Some sailors found refuge in [[Freeport|Slaveport]] (modern-day Freeport), further fueling the animosity between the two cities.  [[Portmaster of Freeport|Portmaster]] [[Robakoda Ntsakkan]] refused to extradite any sailors, and at last Kotar agreed to grant amnesty to any who returned to the now-Shivrashan navy.  Some sailors did return, while others remained in Slaveport, becoming citizens of the city.

[[Category:Kasshi History]]
[[Category:Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City of Temples</title>
    <id>3470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28573</id>
      <timestamp>2008-02-06T20:10:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''City of Temples''' is a district of [[Shivrashan]] known for its numerous temples, honoring nearly every religion in the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Empire]] and beyond.  It is located in the southern region of the city, in the foothills of the [[Fantasta Mountains]].  The former city began during Shivrashan's resurrection after the [[Conquest of Kalpan]], when traders from all over [[Odirá]] came through the city.  Many of them practiced foreign religions, which the Shivrashan authorities were reluctant to permit in the city.  Several priests founded monastaries in what would later become the City of Temples, outside of the Shivrashan's city limits.  These monastaries became the nucleus of a growing collection of houses of worship, and eventually the [[Chief Trader of Shivrashan|Chief Trader]] granted them authority to establish a city government.

Despite the name, there are many residences and secular businesses within the City as well.  Never the less, the great temples are a sight to see.  Over the centuries, the various religious orders have competed with each other in magnificence, supported by wealthy traders, seeking their deities' blessing, or thanking them for their assistance.  Today, the district is a must-see for any tourist.

[[Category:Districts of Shivrashan|Temples]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Yatta Party</title>
    <id>3472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T08:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Yatta Party''' is the ruling party of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]].  Its name translates as &quot;Heritage&quot;.  The party was founded by [[Dzesa]], and is a neo-monarchist party.

[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cironean</title>
    <id>3473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-08T16:13:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bodhraneoir</username>
        <id>199</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Appendix I: Numerals */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:Cironean (natively: ''rethró athenam Cirónei'', &quot;language of the men of Cirone&quot;) is a language in the [[Redhrácic]] family of tongues spoken by the [[Homo antiquus]] [[Cironeans]].

==Phonology==

:Roman-alphabet transliteration reveals a principally Indo-European-equivalency in pronunciation, with an equivalency bias toward Latinate and Romance forms with a few deviations.

===Phonemes===

====Consonants====

:Consonantal phonemes, as observed above, are principally Latinate.  The list below is the sum total of native consonants recognized in Cironean.

{|
| C
| CH
| D
| F
| G
| H
| J
| L
|-
| M
| N
| P
| Q
| U
| R
| S
| SH
|-
| T
| TH
| V
| W
| X
| Y
| Z 
|}

A few notes:

*The C phoneme is not orthographically bifurcated as in modern Latin/Latinate languages or in English.  It is universally an aspirated, voiceless velar plosive.  It's voiced brother, G, in similar fashion always expressed a voiced velar plosive.
*CH is never gutteral as the Germanic form.  It never represents x.  It always represents the initial phoneme as expressed in words such as the English '''ch'''erry.
*J is not, as in Latin, a form evolved to express a consonantal I-form.  it invariably expresses the phoneme dʒ.
*SH is always voiceless; also TH, which under no circumstances represents ð.  That phoneme, while present in parallel [[Redhrácic]] family members, dropped out of use in Cironean.
*X universally expresses a &quot;KS&quot; phoneme.
*Z is always a voiced alveolar fricative.

====Vowels====
 
The vowel phonemes in Cironean are analogical with Latinate vowels, with a vanishingly slight degree of variation. They are laid out below.

*a – Latin p'''a'''ter
*o – Latin p'''o'''ssum
*ó – Latin laud'''o'''
*u – Latin p'''u'''to
*e – Latin mon'''e'''o
*i – Latin f'''i'''o
*ai (archaic) – approx. to Latin c'''ae'''lum
*oi – English p'''oi'''nt
*ou – English p'''ou'''t

====Syllabic Structure====

:Cironean organizes its phonemes very flexibly.  There is no general format that morphemes tend to follow; '''however''', there are certain consonantal phonemes that '''do not''' appear together '''under any circumstances'''.  Those are listed below.

*C
*F
*H
*J
*QU
*V
*W
*Y
*Z

:Consonantal phonemes may cluster at the beginning of words or syllables.  These are the permissible initial clusters in Cironean:

#B and C - can form clusters with L and R
#D, G, P, and T - can form clusters with R
#S - can form clusters with C and T

:Stress rules in Cironean are similar to those in Redhrácic.  Words of a single syllable are unaccented, while words of two to five syllables stress the antepenult.  Those words of six syllables or more stress the second syllable as well as the antepenult.

==Grammar==


===Nouns===

: Nouns in Cironean are inflected and organized into four declensions.  While there is some aspect of grammatical gender behind this organization (i.e., the first declension is &quot;feminine,&quot; the second declension is &quot;masculine,&quot; the third is &quot;neuter&quot;) this is not strictly adhered to (e.g., the fourth declension is &quot;mixed&quot; in terms of gender).  Generally speaking, personal nouns such as proper names are declined according to the actual gender of the antecedent.

: As to the mechanics of nouns:
Nouns in Cironean are declined into four cases - nominative, genitive, predicative, and prepositive.  The nominative and genitive cases are so named because they correspond substantially to the Indo-European versions of those cases.  The predicative case is used for any direct object of a verb, inclusive of the copulae (see Appendix II) and the objects of passive verbs.  Thus, a literal translation of a passive Cironean sentence is grammatically incorrect in English: &quot;I am called by you&quot; is literally &quot;Me am called by you.&quot;

====1st Declension: “Feminine” Nouns Ending in –Ó====
	    
Model: Rethró, language

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Rethró
| Rethróth
|-
| Genitive
| Rethroi	
| Rethroith
|-
|Predicative	
|Rethrou	
|Rethrouth
|-
|Prepositive
| Rethroe
| Rethroeth
|}


====2nd Declension: “Masculine” Nouns Ending in –E====

Model: Alve, house

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Alve
| Alven
|-
| Genitive
| Alvei
| Alvein
|-
| Predicative
| Alveu
| Alveun
|-
| Prepositive	
| Alveó	
| Alveón
|}

====3rd Declension: “Neuter” Nouns Ending in –U====

Model: Oithu, mountain

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Oithu
| Oithus
|-
| Genitive
| Oithui
| Oithuis
|-
| Predicative
| Oithue
| Oithues
|-
| Prepositive
| Oithua
| Oithuas
|}

====4th Declension: “Mixed” Nouns Ending in Consonants====

Model: Athen, man

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Athen
| Atheni
|-
| Genitive
| Athena
| Athenam
|-
| Predicative
| Athenu
| Athenum
|-
| Prepositive
| Athene
| Athenem
|}

===Adjectives===


: There are two forms of adjectives.  The first form takes endings from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Declensions, taking these endings according to the gender, number, and case of the substantive that is being modified.  This holds true regardless of the declension of the noun, i.e., a type-1 adjective can modify a 4th Declension masculine noun by taking the 2nd Declension forms of the noun in question, e.g. Athen thane, a tall man.  Similarly, the second type takes the endings of the 4th Declension, modifying a noun with these endings regardless of the form of the noun itself.

Comparison of Adjectives:
:The four degrees of comparison are the positive, comparative, α-superlative (&quot;very&quot;), and β-superlative (&quot;most').  They are indicated by affixing the following particles to the adjective:

Pos: —	     Comp: af(a)-   α-sup: ef(e)-   β-sup: of(o)-

===Pronouns===

: Pronouns are placeholders for nouns in a spoken or written sentence.  They correspond to their antecedents in person, number, case, and (in the case of third-person pronouns) gender.  They are declined below.

====Personal Pronouns====

=====1st Person Pronoun=====

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Shó
| Shol
|-
| Genitive
| Shoe
|Shoel
|-
| Predicative
| Shou
| Shoül
|-
| Prepositive
| Shoi
| Shoïl
|}


=====2nd Person Pronoun=====

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| The
| Thech
|-
| Genitive
| Thea
| Theach
|-
| Predicative
| Theó
| Theóch
|-
| Prepositive
| Theu
| Theuch
|}


=====3rd Person Pronoun=====

{| border=1
| Case
|align=center| Singular
|align=center| Plural
|-
| Nominative
| Eó, Ie, Eu
| Eóth, Ien, Eus
|-
| Genitive
| Eoi, Iei, Eue
| Eoith, Iein, Eues
|-
| Predicative
| Eou, Ieu, Eui
| Eouth, Ieun, Euis
|-
| Prepositive
| Eoe, Ieó, Eua
| Eoeth, Ieón, Euas
|}

====Other Pronouns (Can Also Serve as Adjectives)====

*Proximate (This, These) ruó, rue, raü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

*Distant (That, Those) eruó, erue, eraü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

*Relative Pronouns (Who, Which) tuó, tue, taü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

*Interrogative Pronouns (Who, What, Which [adj]) duó, due, daü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

*Intensive Pronouns (Emphatics) cuó, cue, caü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

*Reflexive Pronouns (-self) suó, sue, saü; declined like 3rd personal pronoun

===Verbs===

Verbs in Cironean are inflected, but less rigidly so than the nouns.  There is generally a tense particle, as well as a particle differentiating the subjunctive from the indicative mood.  A few brief notes before listing the conjugations:
:Verbal nouns fulfill the function of the infinitive in Cironean.
:Sentence structure in Cironean is almost always VSO, although poetic syntax tends to deviate from this in certain settings.
:The final three tenses are considered to be &quot;emphatics,&quot; whereas the first three are &quot;simple.&quot;  This means, e.g., that the future perfect tense is also considered the &quot;promissory&quot; tense, as it suggests a claim or determination to complete an action at some point in the future.

====The 1st Conjugation: Roots Ending in –A, -O/-Ó, or –U + Consonant====

Model/Imperative: Rath, See

Principal Forms: Rath (Imperative); Rathran (Verbal Noun); Rathion (Analytic)

{| border=1
| Tense
|align=center| 1st S
|align=center| 2nd S
|align=center| 3rd S
|align=center| 1st Pl
|align=center| 2nd Pl
|align=center| 3rd Pl
|-
| Present (S)
| Root + ash
| Analytic + the
| Analytic + eó
| Root + oish
| Analytic + thech
|Analytic + eóth
|-
| Past (S)
| Root + il + ash
| Analytic + il + the
| Analytic + il + eó
| Root + il + oish
| Analytic + il + thech
| Analytic + il + eóth
|-
| Future (S)
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
|-
| Perfect (D)
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
|-
| Pluperfect
| Root + ril + ash
| Analytic + ril + the
| Analytic + ril + eó
| Root + ril + oish
| Analytic + ril + thech
| Analytic + ril + eóth
|-
| Future (P)
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
|}

To form Subjunctive: Interpose -dó- after Root and before any other phonemes

====The 2nd Conjugation: Roots Ending in –E, -I, -OI, -OU + Consonant====

Model/Imperative: Urgin, do

Principal Forms: Urigin (Imperative); Urginach (Verbal Noun); Urginait (Analytic)

{| border=1
| Tense
|align=center| 1st S
|align=center| 2nd S
|align=center| 3rd S
|align=center| 1st Pl
|align=center| 2nd Pl
|align=center| 3rd Pl
|-
| Present (S)
| Root + esh
| Analytic + the
| Analytic + eó
| Root + eshol
| Analytic + thech
| Analytic + eóth
|-
| Past (S)
| Root + oi + esh
| Analytic + oi + the
| Analytic + oi + eó
| Root + oi + eshol
| Analytic + oi + thech
| Analytic + oi + eóth
|-
| Future (S)
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
|-
| Perfect (D)
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
|-
| Pluperfect
| Root + coi + esh
| Analytic + coi + the
| Analytic + coi + eó
| Root + coi + eshol
| Analytic + coi + thech
| Analytic + coi + eóth
|-
| Future (P)
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
|}

To form Subjunctive: Interpose -fi- after the Root and before any other phonemes
	
====The 3rd Conjugation: Roots Ending in Any Vowel====

Model: Vevu, go

Principal Forms: Vevu (Imperative); Vevuchou (Verbal Noun); Vevun (Analytic)

{| border=1
| Tense
| 1st S
| 2nd S
| 3rd S
| 1st Pl
| 2nd Pl
| 3rd Pl
|-
| Present (S)
| Root + nosh
| Analytic + the
| Analytic + eó
| Root + noshol
| Analytic + thech
| Analytic + eóth
|-
| Past (S)
| Root + nin + osh
| Analytic + nin + the
| Analytic + nin + eó
| Root + nin + oshol
| Analytic + nin + thech
| Analytic + nin + eóth
|-
| Future (S)
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
| Pres. CTQ + VN
|-
| Perfect (D)
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
| Past CPQ + VN
|-
| Pluperfect
| Root + rin + osh
| Analytic + rin + the
| Analytic + rin + eó
| Root + rin + oshol
| Analytic + rin + thech
| Analytic + rin + eóth
|-
| Future (P)
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
| Future CPQ + VN
|}

To form Subjunctive: Interpose -na- after the Root and before any other phonemes

===Adverbs===

	Adverbs precede and modify verbs in a way similar to that adjectives use to modify substantives.  There is no gender, number, or case to match, and the tense, person, mood, and voice are not mimicked.  Comparison of adverbs utilizes the same prefixes as the comparison of adjectives.


==Appendix I: Numerals==

Cironean mathematics operates within a base-10 framework.  Numbers 1 to 10 are unique; numbers 11 through 99 are formed by compounding and mutation of the first ten.

{| border=1
| Numeral
| Cironean
|-
| 0
| Nachen
|-
| 1
| inó
|-
| 2
| wothó
|-
| 3
| cetó
|-
| 4
| nouró
|-
| 5
| linó
|-
| 6
| thequó
|-
| 7
| síbó
|-
| 8
| foió
|-
| 9
| ató
|-
| 10
| quenó
|-
| 11
| inquenó
|-
| 12
| woquenó
|-
| 13
|cequenó
|-
| 14
| nouquenó
|-
| 15
| linquenó
|-
| 16
| thequenó
|-
| 17
| shiquenó
|-
| 18
| foiquenó
|-
| 19
| atquenó
|-
| 20
| quewodó
|-
| 21
| inquewodó
|-
| 30
| quecetó
|-
| 40
| quenouró
|-
| 50
| quelinó
|-
| 60
| quethequó
|-
| 70
| queshibó
|-
| 80
| quefoió
|-
| 90
| queató
|-
| 100
| quequenó; unejó
|-
| 200
| wodó quequenori; wodunejó
|-
| 1,000
| quenó quequenori; quenó unejori; yorathó
|-
| 2,000
| wodó quenori quequenori; wodó quenori unejori; woyorathó
|}

==Appendix II: The Copulae==


===Nanzun: The Copula of Temporary Qualities===

Principal Parts: Nanzish; Nanzun; Nanzó, -ze, -zu

Passive Particle: N/A	
Mood Markers:
Demonstrative: -z-  Imperative: -za-  Subjunctive: -zó-	

{| border=1
| Tense
| 1st S
| 2nd S
| 3rd S
| 1st Pl
| 2nd Pl
| 3rd Pl
|-
| Present
| -ish
| -ith
| -i
| -ishol
| -itheg
| -in
|-
| Past
| -ash
| -ath
| -a
| -ashol
| -atheg
| -an
|-
| Future
| -esh
| -eth
| -e
| -eshol
| -etheg
| -en
|-
| Present Perfect
| -ishu
| -ithu
| -iu
| -ishul
| -ithug
| -ium
|-
| Past Perfect
| -ashu
| -athu
| -aü
| -ashul
| -athug
| -aüm
|-
| Future Perfect
| -eshu
| -ethu
| -eu
| -eshul
| -ethug
| -eüm
|}

===Nonquon: The Copula of Permanent Qualities===

Principal Parts: Nonquish; Nonquon; Nonquó, -que, -quu

Passive Particle: N/A
Mood Markers:
Demonstrative: -qu-  Imperative: -qua-  Subjunctive: -quo-

{| border 1
! Tense:
|align=center| 1st S
|align=center| 2nd S
|align=center| 3rd S
|align=center| 1st Pl
|align=center| 2nd Pl
|align=center| 3rd Pl
|-
|Present
| -ish
| -ith
| -i
| -ishol
| -itheg
| -in
|-
|Past
| -ash
| -ath
| -a
| -ashol
| -atheg
| -an
|-
|Future
| -esh
| -eth
| -e
| -eshol
| -etheg
| -en
|-
|Present Perfect
| -ishu
| -ithu
| -iu
| -ishul
| -ithug
| -ium
|-
|Past Perfect
| -ashu
| -athu
| -aü
| -ashul
| -athug
| -aüm
|-
|Future Perfect
| -eshu
| -ethu
| -eu
| -eshul
| -ethug
| -eum
|}

[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Old City (Shivrashan)</title>
    <id>3476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T23:29:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Old City''' is the heart of [[Shivrashan]].  The Chief Trader's mansion is located there, as are many of the banks and the [[Shivrashan Stock Exchange]].  It originally included most of the city-state's administration, but the bureaucracy has gradually migrated to other districts leaving the Old City to finance and business, as well as some luxury homes.  Middle- and lower-class residents have long since been driven out by rising real estate values.

[[Category:Districts of Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Districts of Shivrashan</title>
    <id>3477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-21T23:27:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Trans-Fantasta</title>
    <id>3478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33229</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-21T07:54:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Trans-Fantasta''' has been used for two entities.

== The Republic of the Trans-Fantasta ==
The '''Republic of the Trans-Fantasta''' is the modern term for the portion of the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]] north of the [[Fantasta Mountains]] after the [[Shivrashan Crisis]].  It was a ''de facto'' state within the Empire.  At the time, it was generally known simply as the &quot;Trans-Fantasta Provinces&quot; or the &quot;Far East Provinces&quot;, or occassionally as the Viceroyalty of Shivrashan.

In theory, it was an integral portion of the Kasshi Empire, with Shivrashan administering the trans-Fantastan provinces on behalf of the Empress.  In practice, however, it was a fully sovereign state which paid a nominal tribute of 1,728 ''saklachi'' per year to [[Ivets]].

The supreme ruler of the state was the [[Chief Trader of Shivrashan]], elected for life by the Council of Traders and Merchants.  The Chief Trader also held the title of Viceroy of the Trans-Fantasta.  Membership on said Council was, in principle, open to any citizen of Shivrashan with a certain minimum wealth.  Each province was governed by a Governor appointed by the Chief Trader in his or her capacity as Viceroy, and the Governors in turn were advised by a council of local nobles.

== The Empire of the Trans-Fantasta ==
In 98 ShE, following the [[Second Kalpanian War]], Shivrashan broke off all connection with the Kasshi Empire, transforming the provinces under its control into the Empire of the Trans-Fantasta, also known as the Shivrashan Empire.

At its height, the Empire included the entire [[Kalpanian Sea]] and significant territories inland, which brought tremendous wealth to the City-State.  Over time, however, its territories were gradually eroded, some breaking away, and others conquered by the [[Blafu Union]].  Eventually, the City-State was forced to pledge fealty to the Blafu.

This change in status barely impeded its economic position, however.  While Blafu did demand considerable tribute, they did not interfere with the economic affairs of the city.  And by renouncing military interest in its former possessions, the city's once-feared army could be disbanded, at significant savings.

[[Category:Kasshi History]]
[[Category:Shivrashan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freedom Avenue</title>
    <id>3479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23225</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-12T22:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Freedom Avenue''' is a major highway in [[Shivrashan]], connecting the ports of [[Freeport]] with the [[Grand Avenue of Commerce]], which crosses the [[Fantasta Mountains]].  By a quirk of history, the road itself is legally considered part of the District of Freeport all the way up to its joining with the Grand Avenue, despite extending many miles past the District limits.  In addition, homes and businesses built on the road itself are considered under Freeport administration, following Freeport's ordinances.

This quirk stems back to the very founding of Freeport, at the time called Slaveport.  The Avenue was, at this time, referred to as Slave Road.  Slaveport and Slave Road owed their existence to a law forbidding the presence of slaves within Shivrashan itself.  As a result, slavers took their merchandise to nearby ports, and established a road around the city limits.  As the city grew, crossing the road, the road continued to be legally reckoned as being outside the city.

It was eventually renamed Freedom Avenue, along with the renaming of Slaveport to Freeport, sometime after the abolition of slavery.

[[Category:Shivrashan]]
[[Category:Transportation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grand Avenue of Commerce</title>
    <id>3480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T03:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Grand Avenue of Commerce''' in [[Shivrashan]] is a key highway running through the middle of the city, from the [[Shivrashan Pass]] to the main ports in the [[Old City (Shivrashan)|Old City]].  The Avenue has long been a crucial lifeline for the city, and remains significant, along with the [[Grand Shivrashan Railroad]].  The Avenue is even today personified as a living thing in poetry, and there is even a [[Cult of Trade|small cult]] that worships it as a minor deity.

[[Category:Shivrashan]]
[[Category:Transportation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Risevne</title>
    <id>3482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T04:00:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I have a question.  What year is &quot;today&quot; in Risevne?  Also, I'm getting the impression that their chronology is very similar to our own in its years, so that their 1400 is similar to our 1400.  Is this correct? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 20:00, 21 November 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taibergute-dego</title>
    <id>3483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T05:16:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Taibergute''', also known by its numerical designation as W1-3, is one of the districts of [[Isana]], situated in [[Awenkara remis]]. Along with [[Taiberseimi-dego]], it is one of the more established shopping districts in the city, and has also gained worldwide fame in that regard.

The name ''Taibergute'' literally means &quot;below the bridge&quot;, and refers to the area south of [[Soruta Bridge]], which is the oldest bridge across [[Gardaus Bay]]. The name, then, stands in contrast with [[Taiberseimi-dego]], which means &quot;above&quot;, or north of, the bridge.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Iselniragan Today==

==Neighbourhoods==

The area that is Taibergute contains several famous neighbourhoods:

* [[Byensori]], lit. &quot;General Stores&quot;

* [[Taiberduya]], lit. &quot;Left of the Bridge&quot;

* [[Degurunalmi]], lit. &quot;Weapon Store&quot; (Arsenal)

* [[Hazatole]], lit. &quot;Powerplant&quot;

* [[Dasnimoya]], lit. &quot;Clocktower&quot;

==Significance==

==Famous Buildings==

==Notes==

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horeston Province</title>
    <id>3484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-22T15:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Horeston Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Horeston denai''), also known as Province 6, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated in the south of [[Masalne]] on the southern side of [[Enibase Bay]]. It borders [[Ngaba Province]] on the southwest, [[Feladmena Province]] on the southeast, and [[Ofalna]] and [[Enimdanai]] provinces on its northeast; across the bay is [[Abanamide Province]]. Its capital is the city of [[Mitanas]].

Being one of the provinces situated around Enibase Bay with its rich natural resources and relative suitability for agriculture, the area that now forms the province has a long history of settlement and civilisation. During the era of the [[Hesgarigani]], as well as before that, it was a major centre of Mirsel civilisation, and its cities were larger than even the ones within the [[Feladmena Plain]]. A focus of war during the 4th to 7th centuries, the area was eventually absorbed after a series of bloody battles into the [[Kingdom of Masal]], known normally as the [[Ngaba ta bara]], &quot;North of the Pass&quot;. 

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Mitanas]], the provincial capital and a famously historical city

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enimdanoi Province</title>
    <id>3485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T11:15:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Towns and Cities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enimdanoi Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Enimdanoi denai''), also known as Province 7, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated in the southeast of [[Masalne]]; it borders [[Feladmena Province]] to its south, [[Horeston Province]] to its southwest, [[Ofalna Province]] to its west, and [[Baseniga Province]] to its north, while its east faces the [[Datinarmi Sea]]. Its capital is the city of [[Leduga]].

The area now known as Enimdanoi was host to several kingdoms and small states throughout the first millenium DN, resisting invasions both from the north and south, they grew rich on the seaborne trade, both with their occasional enemies as well as with the kingdoms on the island of [[Agalmare]]. In modern days the province remains an important domestic transport node, and it has also undergone a high-tech transition with the growth of [[Taluste]]. 

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Leduga]], the provincial capital

*[[Anosari]], a major highway intersection town

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taiberseimi-dego</title>
    <id>3486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16950</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T04:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Taiberseimi]] moved to [[Taiberseimi-dego]]: In order to better clarify the title of the district, and to bring it in line with naming practices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Taiberseimi''', literally &quot;Above the Bridge&quot; in [[Mirselec]], refers to one subdivision of the [[West Bay District]], which lies to the north (and therefore &quot;above&quot;) of [[Soruta Bridge]]. Like the district of [[Taibergute]], to the south of the bridge, it is a well-known shopping area, though compared to the southern neighbourhoods the area's conscious and more meticulous planning has made a more spacious area, with a reputation as a high-class commercial area.

This area of the city includes the following neighbourhoods:

*[[Victory Road]]

*[[Bezisenoye]]

*[[Aunamoya]]

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benesda Market</title>
    <id>3487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T04:47:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Benesda Market''' is a major wholesale market dealing mostly in fish and seafood, situated in [[Hirsa remis]] not far from the fishing port. It is one of the several wholesale markets of [[Isana]].

In keeping with the culinary culture of [[Risevne]], with its focus on seafood, it is by far the largest seafood wholesale market in the world, and one of the largest wholesale markets of any type. Formerly mainly a tourist attraction for foreigners, it has now also become a popular destination for Isanani after the development of the [[Belegras Dockyards]], especially for fresh breakfast.

[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ofalna Province</title>
    <id>3488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T14:14:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ofalna Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Ofalna denai''), also known as Province 8, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated in the south of [[Masalne]]. It is the smallest province of Masalne by area, and borders [[Enimdanoi Province]] to its east, [[Horeston Province]] to its south, [[Abanamide Province]] to its east and [[Baseniga Province]] to its north, while facing [[Enibase Bay]] to its west as well. Its capital is the city of [[Iburenori]].

Famed for its hilly landscape and extensive forests, Ofalna was historically given the title of ''Iburedenai'', or &quot;Forest Province&quot;; even now its capital's name translates simply to Forest City. While it was once an economic backwater, it attained a reputation as being a vacationing spot for the nobles of [[Masal]], analogous to the coast of [[Eonis Province]] for [[Rarena]]; even now many of these mansions, some of which are several centuries old, still stand in the mountains. Ofalna has also often been called the &quot;Womb of Poetry&quot;, having garnered a reputation as an artistic and literary centre that still stands today.

==Geography==

Ofalna Province lies in the path of the [[Nagenahormagos]], the range of mountains branching southeast from the [[Mathormagos]] and stretching through Ofalna to neighbouring Horeston and Ngaba provinces. As a result it has a highly different terrain from much of the rest of the south; mountainous and forested, it plays host to a large array of wildlife and plants, many of which are endemic to Masalne. At the same time the foothills of these mountains are home to some of the oldest rice terraces in the country, estimated to have dated from around 100 DN, and most of which are still in use today.

Some of the most famous geographical attractions of the country include the so-called &quot;Writer's Hill&quot; of [[Mount Tasodeni]], situated in the centre of the province and whose slopes and forests have seen many famous writers from [[Surove ke Kanisda]] to [[Ageteri Malyer]]; the area of the mountain includes 5 small lakes, several streams, and has often been described as the Garden of the Gods.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Iburenori]], the provincial capital

*[[Kaitetaiber]], the site of the famous [[Unversity of Kaitetaiber]]

==Famous Locations==

*[[Mount Tasodeni]]

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haisna Aunafurasa</title>
    <id>3489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16440</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-23T05:48:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Haisna Aunafurasa''', meaning the Song-Compilation of Haisna in [[Mirselec]], is an important anthology of poetry from the [[Karelne ta Hyerisa]] in [[Risevan history]]; compiled by [[Haisna ke Odomunda]] in around the late 10th century DN, it compiled the poems known as ''Auna'', or songs, a form of Mirselec poetry derived from the older Menata. 

Though the Haisna Aunafurasa is one of the most famous and renowned poetry anthologies in the modern view, it was most striking during its period for the fact that it was not ordered or commissioned by any royal family amongst the kingdoms of the time; within the preface, written also by Haisna, only a few local lords were mentioned as having &quot;aided with the work&quot;. This lack of official support had the curious effect of freeing the compiler from censorship, and as a result the poems within include many love poems that are not present within most other anthologies and provide considerable social insights.

==History of the Text==

Study of the text is hindered by a lack of exact knowledge of how many pieces exactly there were within the Aunafurasa; this problem is exacerbated by the fact that there were at least three editions, four if one counts an official and highly censored version; all of these editions have different numbers of poems.

==Works and Study==

==Influence and Impact==

[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:Important Risevan texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuisine of Risevne</title>
    <id>3490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T03:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cuisine of Risevne''' has a long history parallel to that of the development of civilisation within the country, since early in the DN period, with the rise of feudal and royal states across the islands of [[Masalne]] and [[Agalmare]] and the influx of cultural influences from mainland [[Osonde]].

[[category:Risevan Cuisine]]
[[category:Risevani culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abanamide Province</title>
    <id>3491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T05:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abanamide Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Abanamide denai''), also known as province 9, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]]; situated on the northern side of [[Enibase Bay]], it borders [[Osbane Province]] to its north, [[Baseniga Province]] to its northeast, and [[Ofalna Province]] to its east. Its capital is the city of [[Durimaye, Abanamide|Durimaye]].

Abanamide was arguably the first major site of Mirsel civilisation, before changing climatic conditions prompted the southward move into the [[Feladmena Plain]] and eventually the [[Raretoya Peninsula]]; some earliest sites of the [[Narusgerya Culture]], as well as another indigenous culture endemic to Abanamide and Osbane, date back to around 5,000 DN (in comparison the type site of the Narusgerya Culture in [[Isana]] is in fact a mid-Narusgerya site, dating from around 3,100 DN). In later years, Abanamide was a major base of the [[Hesgarigani]] kingdoms and an important political centre even into the 11th and 12th centuries; the city of Negusai was, and still is, sometimes known as ''Sideisana'' or &quot;Little Capital&quot;. 

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Durimaye, Abanamide|Durimaye]], the provincial capital

*[[Negusai]], the former capital of several kingdoms

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Awenhine remis</title>
    <id>3492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T10:10:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''''Awenhine remis''', literally &quot;Bay East District&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|Area]] in [[Isana]]; as its name suggests, it lies along the east coast of [[Gardaus Bay]], almost along its whole length from the mouth of the [[Rushalya river]] to the bay's opening into the sea. 

The area was formerly on the outskirts of old Isana, outside the walls and home to the burgeoning merchant class of the city; as the city expanded to include the Bay in the early 19th century, and more importantly as the [[Ibakizaro]] began, the entire centre of gravity of the city was shifted south and the bay district became the heart of the city, where the government was relatively sheltered from the industry to the west of the bay. 

Presently Awenhine is the financial and commercial heart of the city, as well as the entire country. It is the site of the [[Risevan Stock Exchange]], as well as the headquarters of more than 200 major financial companies and banks, situated in such famous neighbourhoods as [[Baroye]], [[Ekusinada]] and [[Bastenal]]; at the same time, even as many of these companies are gradually moving south into the [[Hirsa remis|Henoris]] area, Awenhine is rapidly taking on a role as a cultural centre as well.

==Site and Situation==

Modern day Awenhine stretches along the length of the east shore of Gardaus Bay, from the mouth of the [[Rushalya river]] in the north to [[Henoris Extension]] in the south. While the highly developed areas are farther north, near the old economic centres that have been operating as such since the mid 18th century, the entire area is highly built up and contains the headquarters of most institutions based within the city.

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

Awenhine remis is divided into 6 districts, all lying adjacent to each other along Gardaus Bay. From north to south, they are:

*[[Iselniragan-dego]]

*[[Baroye-dego]]

*[[Bastenal-dego]]

*[[Ekusinada-dego]]

*[[Nengofar-dego]]

*[[Sulindai-dego]]

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Areas of Isana</title>
    <id>3493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T03:30:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dzesa's City</title>
    <id>3494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dzesa's City''' has been the administrative capital of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]] since the city's founding shortly after the [[War of Unification]].  At the time, the capital was [[Ivets]], which remains the Imperial capital.

The capital was built to satisfy [[Dzesa]]'s desire for a majestic city and scorn for the traditional culture of Ivets, as well as to avoid the Empress' influence.  At the time of its construction, several small towns existed in the area designated for the city.  Those towns were demolished, with the people relocated, at Imperial cost, to other cities.  Dzesa then set out to build a city of massive monumental buildings.  Many of the buildings were damaged or destroyed during the [[Global War]], but were rebuilt at tremendous cost.

[[Category:Kasshi Cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Chan</title>
    <id>3495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46721</id>
      <timestamp>2009-06-30T06:24:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Some figures */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Imperial [[Chan]]''' is the currency of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]] and several of its allies.  The name is ultimately derived from that of [[Chalanya]], the founder of the [[Second Kasshi Empire]].  It is divided into 15 ''vezh'', each of which are divided into 12 ''zash'', in turn, historically, divided into 16 ''vi'', though inflation has since eliminated the ''vi'' as a unit.  Thus, the complete system was 1 chan = 15 vezh = 180 zash = 2,880 vi.  It was inherited from the [[Fourth Kasshi Empire]], with its value restored at the time of the founding of the Fifth Empire.  Inflation has reduced the value to some degree, but it remains a fairly significant amount of money.

When writing out monetary figures, special characters are used for each unit.  Prices are given in chan, vezh, and zash, though it is common to use fractions for multiples of 3 zash.  E.g., it is common to say &quot;2¾ vezh&quot;  rather than &quot;2 vezh 9 zash&quot;, and one would never say &quot;33 zash&quot;

Prices are usually round numbers.  Thus, a price of 3 vezh is more likely than one of 2 vezh 11 zash.

As with all terms referring to units of measurement in [[Ivetsian]], there is no distinction between singular and plural with monetary terms.

== Coins ==
*''Vi'' (discontinued)
*''{{frac|1|8}} Zash'' (discontinued)
*¼ Zash
*½ Zash (''onzash'')
*Zash
*3 Zash (''zassash'')
*6 Zash
*Vezh
*3 Vezh
*5 Vezh
*''½ Chan'' (discontinued)
*Chan (rare)

The quarter- and half-zash coins are made of aluminum.  The zash is copper, while the 3-zash, 6-zash, and vezh are copper-nickel, historically silver.  In 756, during the Global War, they were first replaced with copper-nickel.  In 765, silver mintage was resumed.  They were reduced to 50% silver in 780, and then to copper-nickel in 803.  Originally, the 3 vezh, ½-chan, and chan were made of gold, but during the [[Global War]], the gold coins were replaced with banknotes, with silver coins introduced to replace them in 768.  Today, those remain the only silver coins in circulation.  The ½-chan coin and bill were recently replaced with the silver 5-vezh coin.

The vi and {{frac|1|8}} zash coins were discontinued in 803.

== Banknotes ==
*''¼ Vezh'' (Produced during Global War, still legal tender, but rarely seen)
*''½ Vezh'' (Produced during Global War, still legal tender, but rarely seen)
*''Vezh'' (Produced during Global War, still legal tender, but rarely seen)
*''3 Vezh'' (Produced during Global War, still legal tender, but rarely seen)
*''½ Chan'' (Recently discontinued)
*Chan
*3 Chan
*5 Chan
*''6 Chan''
*10 Chan
*''12 Chan''
*25 Chan

Historically, banknotes came in the denominations of 3, 6, and 12 chan.  Recently, however, the 6- and 12-chan notes were replaced by 5- and 10-chan notes.  The old ones remain legal tender, although they're rarely seen now.

==Some figures==
*Newspaper: 3 zash
*Minimum Wage (in the Empire): 2 vezh per [[Odiran Standard Units#Time|daymin]] (4 vezh 7½ zash per Earth hour; 2 chan 10 vezh per typical work day)
*Lunch for one, fast food: ~3-4 vezh
*Dinner for one, mid-range restaurant: ~8-10 vezh
*Airplane ticket, [[Ivets]] to [[Shivrashan]], non-peak season: c. 8 chan
*Double-weekly rent on a one-bedroom apartment, low-end: c. 9 chan
*Double-weekly rent on a nice one-bedroom apartment, [[Dzesa's City]]: 35-40 chan
*Two-bedroom home, suburban: 3,500-5,000 chan

== The Chan Zone ==
In addition to the Empire, several other nations use Chan of equal value to the Imperial Chan.  All currencies of the Chan Zone are legal tender in all members.  A number of other currencies are pegged to the Imperial Chan, such as the [[Shivrashanian Chan]].

== See Also ==
*[[Chan]]

[[Category:Kasshi]]
[[Category:Galhafan Currencies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhafan Religions</title>
    <id>3496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16489</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T04:48:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf|Religions]]
[[Category:Religions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Durosirase</title>
    <id>3497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16507</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T15:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* See Also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Durosirase''', literally meaning &quot;Rebuilding&quot; in [[Mirselec]], refers to the period of [[Risevan history]] between the late 1940s and the mid 1980s, marking the period of [[Risevne]]'s emergence as a major world economic power after its costly victory in the [[Fourth Global War]]. During this period, some of the most distinctive features of the modern Risevan economy, including the government-linked [[Kuborisna]] conglomerates, first came into being.

The Durosirase is often called the Second or Great [[Ibakizaro]], in a reference to the earlier period of rapid economic growth and industrialisation between the Restoration and the [[First Global War]]; its success was widely viewed as one of the economic miracles of the world during the period, but it has also provoked much controversy for the Risevan government's use of its postwar position to gain economic leverage for the growth.

==Background==

==Governmental Role==

===The Ministry of Trade, Development and Industry===

First formed in 1948, just after the end of the War, as a coordinating office with the orignial mandate of managing the transition to a peacetime economy as well as stimulating industrial and economic recovery, the [[Risevan Ministry of Trade, Development and Industry]] would prove an instrumental agency in the success of the Risevan economy.

===The Kuborisna===

==External Influences==

==Social Impact==

==International Impact and Controversy==

==Notes==

==See Also==

*[[Irnenoye Accord]]

*[[Sebaya Treaty]]

[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Risevan</title>
    <id>3498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-24T06:48:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Risevne]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Nrastaist Supreme Matriarchs</title>
    <id>3499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Nrastaism|Supreme Matriarchs]]
[[Category:Rulers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galhafan Chronology</title>
    <id>3500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41472</id>
      <timestamp>2009-01-03T03:39:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The most common chronology on [[Galhaf (planet)|Galhaf]] today is the Odiran Era.  1 OE is the year that [[Navesh]] captured [[Shivrashan]], beginning the [[Era of East-West Contact]].

== Kasshi Year Counts ==
*[[Chinrasta's Theocracy]]
**YP = Year of Paradise - the era preceding the Ignorance, according to [[Nrastaism|Nrastaist]] theology, an era of bliss destroyed when the Rebels entered the world and corrupted it; said to have lasted 1,728 (12&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) years
**YW = Year of the World - Dated from the supposed creation of the world; 1 YW = 1 YP
**YI = Year of Ignorance - the era preceding the Revelation; said to have lasted 20,736 (12&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;) years.  1 YI = 1729 YP
**YF = Year of Faith - Years beginning with the Revelation.  1 YF = 20,737 YI = 22,465 YW
*[[Second Kasshi Empire]]
**BE = Before the Empire - years preceding [[Chalanya]]'s enthronement; this was rarely used at the time.  Instead, it was more common to date years according to the era they were in, thus YP for mythological events, YI for historical events preceding the Revelation, YF for events between the Revelation and the founding of  the Empire
**IE = Imperial Era - began with the crowning of Chalanya as Empress (1 IE = 192 YF = 22,656 YW)

1 IE = 2778 BOE&lt;br&gt;
1 YF = 2969 BOE

Others
*Calendrical Era - used to calculate the [[Nrastaist Calendar|traditional calendar]].  1 CE = 12 YF = 180 BE = 3138 BOE; 1 IE = 181 CE = 2958 BOE
*Day Count - A continuous count of days that started on the first day of the year 1 CE in the Nrastaist calendar.

== [[Shivrashan]] Year Counts ==
For most of Shivrashan's history, they used neighboring cultures' calendars.  Following the [[Shivrashan Crisis]], a chronology was adopted dating from the [[Battle of Shivrashan Pass]].
*BShE = Before the Shivrashanian Era
*ShE = Shivrashanian Era; 1 ShE = year of the Battle of Shivrashan Pass = 236 OE

== [[Sanle]] Year Counts ==
The [[Sanle]] generally counted years according to the current Empress.  Sanle historians also counted from the mythical founding of the Empire.

[[Category:Galhafan History|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chalanya</title>
    <id>3501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40265</id>
      <timestamp>2008-11-28T08:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chalanya''' (25 [[Galhafan Chronology|BE]]-123 IE) was the founder of the [[Second Kasshi Empire]].

== Early Life ==
Chalanya was born in a small village outside of what was then known as [[Ivets|Ibettu]], which was, at that time, an important member of [[Chinrasta's Theocracy|the Nrastaist theocracy]], a declining confederation.  The [[Nrastaism|Nrastaist]] states were asserting greater independence from the [[Nrastaist Supreme Matriarch|Supreme Matriarch]], and the religion itself was in decline.

In the year 5 BE (according to tradition), a young 20-year-old girl (note: 20 [[Galhafan year]]s = 14 Earth years) had a vision of a Divinity claiming that she was the reincarnation of [[Chinrasta]] herself.  The Divinity commanded her to revive the Faith.  She began proclaiming her visions, and convinced the local priestess of her legitimacy.  Soon, her message spread throughout the neighborhood of Ibettu, and, in 3 BE, she entered Ibettu itself, and announced her message to the [[Council of Twelve]], who had already been informed of her work.

The Council had decided that she would be useful in reviving the Faith among the people, and they proclaimed her the Supreme Matriarch.  Later that same year, the people of Ibettu overthrew their queen, and proclaimed her Queen of Ibettu.  Two years later, the leaders of several Nrastaist states proclaimed their fealty to Chalana as their Queen, and the Second Kasshi Empire was officially founded.

== Reign ==
Initially, Chalana was little more than a puppet of the Council, but gradually she asserted greater independence, and eventually dismissed the entire Council and hand-picked a new one.  She centralized her empire, using the threat posed by the [[Sanle Empire]] to justify her actions.  She also came into conflict with the religious leadership, particularly when she placed several of her daughters and granddaughters on the Council of Twelve.  She laid the foundation for the Empire, and, after 96 years of rule, she formally resigned, allowing the [[Imperial Family Council]], an institution which she had established in the year 43 IE and to which she had gradually delegated authority, to select her successor, as both [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]] and Supreme Matriarch, though she also made her preference for [[Chila]] well-known.

== Retirement ==
During her formal retirement, she retained considerable authority, and, in response to renewed conflict between the Council of Twelve and the Empress, was able to negotiate a new relationship between the Empress and the Supreme Matriarch, persuading Chila to step down as Supreme Matriarch.  An agreement was made that no Imperial Princess could sit on the Council of Twelve.  In the year 123 IE, at the age of 148 [105 Earth years], she passed away.


{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=3 class=bordertable style=&quot;background:#eeeeee&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|width=&quot;30%&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''None'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot;|'''[[Kasshi Empress|Empress]]'''&lt;br&gt;1-96 IE
|width=&quot;30%&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Chila]]'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|width=&quot;30%&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''?'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot;|'''[[Nrastaist Supreme Matriarch|Supreme Matriarch]]'''&lt;br&gt;3 BE-96 IE
|}

[[Category:Empresses of the Second Kasshi Empire]]
[[Category:Nrastaist Supreme Matriarchs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tannaean Sample Text Corpus</title>
    <id>3502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16519</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T03:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page lists available [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]] texts, alongside their translations and in some cases their pronunciations in IPA.

===Excerpt from ''Tännaa Leimy'', [[Otäära Kotoka]]===

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | Tannaean
! bgcolor=#dfdfdf | English
|-
| width=50% valign=top | Tännaa leimy su, tyvettä legä simäät ännu ha hunáaki keimö mennekööny kikeenö. Kyyvö takaaki tännaa fusaasu tehanta, kihytta keeny pennu su tökäät, kunu tekäät, hiarutta kuittu tagaat. Hunvo aat kasse hioro piiaat ännu su, kutta simy suu äily ka etytta sainufaat sängu timät, kuuto hiiaa tokonaa kuoku keeiöt, kuuto sanaa kiihyki suumu kuokat. Kihö kunnu ha lagaat, kookaa hunu su pemää aatu tekät kasse, sobu hunu to paattata köönpö saku sekkenöt, toku tsatot, kihytta tööny to kakkat. Nissy ka, kyyve ännutta konoku kionot tekkaiiräät. Änno kyyvytta hottu pikkät, tyvyttä kakugutöö takaat, kuittu to pennesät, huba töö maku tekkaiirää, tasu töö, pehy töö.
| width=50% valign=top |
|}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dephelis</title>
    <id>3503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T18:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dephelis''' {{IPA|['dɛfəlɪs]}} is the star orbited by, among other planets, the dual-planet system of [[Ilethes]] and [[Valmante]]. The name of the star is simply [[Dethric language|Dethric]] for &quot;sun&quot; (which is albeit pronounced {{IPA|['ðefəlis]}}).

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Personalities of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links to articles of and about the prominent personalities, including historical, political, literary and academic figures, of the constructed universe of [[Ilethes]].

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category:People]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Otäära Kotoka</title>
    <id>3505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32109</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-01T17:52:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Otäära Kotoka''' ({{IPA|[o'tæ:ra 'kotoka]}}; 1961-2009) is a modern [[Arithia]]n novelist of [[Eleena|Tannaean]] birth, whose works have achieved wide critical acclaim for their social realism and boldness in confronting the hypocrisies of political correctness and its humiliating impact on the minority groups ostensibly so protected. While outspoken in his books, Kotoka is well-known to be laconic in real life, preferring to keep a low public profile even while he wrote numerous impassioned articles, letters and essays in support of making [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]], his native tongue, an official language of [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaea]] province. With the sole exception of his first book, ''[[Viodh (book)|Viodh]]'', which was written in the [[Arithide language|Arithide]], he wrote exclusively in Tannaean, and in 1990 [[CIE]] published ''Tonoko'', the Tannaean translation of ''Viodh'', and withdrew all remaining unsold copies of ''Viodh''  from circulation.

In a bitter irony that paralleled the end of [[Sukura Mekoona]], a character from ''[[So (book)|So]]'', the absurdist novel for which he is most famous and which departs the most from his usual style and subject matter, Kotoka was murdered the evening of his 48th birthday on the busy Pänno Street in [[Tannea]], walking past a patisserie, as his usual evening stroll took him, when his assailant hit the back of his head with a large rock and tied his hands around a lamppost in a hugging position. According to eyewitness accounts, bystanders &quot;simply were bystanders&amp;mdash;they just stood gaping, and when I finally rushed over his attacker was already gone&quot;{{footnote|1}}. His death sparked outrage and condemnation, and a vigil held two days later degenerated into violent demonstrations at the provocation of unidentified persons, apparently of [[Tannaean Unionist Party|Unionist]] affiliation, who threw a small petrol bomb into the crowd in the middle of the minute-long silence, yelling out &quot;Retribution for devolution&quot;, before taking off and leaving an [[Flag of Arithia|Arithian flag]] behind.

Before his death, he was working on a seventh novel, which he had neither finished nor titled, but which was published posthumously as ''I'', or loosely &quot;Suspicion&quot;.

==Works==

*1986 [[CIE]], ''Tännaa Leimy'' &quot;Old Forest&quot;
*1989 [[CIE]], ''E Na Änyry'' &quot;With a Smile&quot;
*1990 [[CIE]], ''Tonoko'' &quot;Winter&quot;, originally written and published in the [[Modern Arithide|Arithide]] in 1984 as ''[[Viodh (book)|Viodh]]'' 
*1993 [[CIE]], ''[[So (book)|So]]'' variously translated as &quot;Words&quot;, &quot;Sayings&quot;, &quot;Proverbs&quot;, Stories&quot; or &quot;The Prediction&quot;
*1997 [[CIE]], ''Taata'' &quot;Expert&quot; (note that the title is the adjective, not the noun)
*2006 [[CIE]], ''Käälää Sö'' &quot;The Outsider&quot; or &quot;The Stranger&quot;
*2010 [[CIE]], ''I'' &quot;Suspicion&quot; (unfinished, posthumous)

==References==

{{footnote|1}} ''Tannea Evening Post'', 19.7.2009

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Personalities of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tannaean language</title>
    <id>3506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23757</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-25T03:55:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Nouns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox|name=Tannaean (Tannaīde, Eleenää kuuvo)|pronounce=tə'neɪən (&lt;span style=&quot;font: 11px GentiumAlt, Gentium&quot;&gt;tannə'i:de, e'le:næ: 'ku:vo&lt;/span&gt;)|tu=[[Ilethes]]|species=Human&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Tann]]|in=[[Tannaea]]|no=''(tba)''|script=Lazeic alphabet|tree=[[Maric languages|Maric]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Maric languages#East Maric|East Maric]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''Tannaean'''|morph=Inflecting|ms=Accusative|wo=SOV|creator=[[User:Denihilonihil|Eugene Oh]]|date=September 2006}}

The '''Tannaean language''' is an [[Maric languages#East Maric|East Maric]] language spoken in the [[Arithia|Arithide]] province of [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaea]] in southeast [[Marcasia]]. While long relegated to the privacy of homes and unofficial correspondence in favour of the more widely-spoken and economically viable [[Arithide language]], especially during the [[Lazeian Empire#Neira dynasty|Neira dynasty]], modern [[Regionalism in Arithia|regionalism]] and devolution by the central government have led to its reestablishment as [[Official languages of Arithia|official language]] of the province, and [[Tannaean revivalism|revivalist movements]] have undertaken the colossal task of translating numerous terms of politics, administration, science, philosophy etc. into Tannaean where once was used the Arithide.

==History==

The history and development of the Tannaean language has been extensively affected by the many sound-shifts it has undergone. The most important of them include, in reverse order, the devoicing of many consonants especially in word-initial and word-final position, the simplification of consonant clusters and the harmonisation of word stress, all of which served to dramatically reduce the phonotactic repertoire of the language, and contributed to widespread lexical shift.

It is unknown when Tannaean split from the rest of the [[Maric languages#East Maric|East Maric languages]], as distinctively Tannaean written records survive only from less than 2,000 years ago, after the [[Areth]] expanded into the region, bringing with them the [[Lazeic alphabet]], which was subsequently adapted for the language. Despite the added facility of writing, however, Tannaean constantly lost ground to [[Arithide language|Arithide]], which was more prestigious and which was the lingua franca throughout the [[Lazeian Empire]], and practically the only language used for government, commerce and academia.

When the empire collapsed, however, instead of bringing about a Tannaean renaissance, the locally spoken Arithide variant gained ascendancy, particularly so under the [[Unified Arithia|reunified Arithian kingdom]] established in 1336 [[CIE]], and eventually eclipsed Tannaean until the modern era, when devolution gained traction in the Arithian political scene, and education, among other governmental functions, was largely devolved to the provinces in 1982 [[CIE]]. [[Tannaean revivalism|Tannaean revivalists]] campaigned successfully for the reinstatement of a standardised, [[Nativisation (Ilethes)|nativised]] form of the language, based on the [[Tannea]]n dialect, as an official language of the province in 1984 [[CIE]], by which time a [[Dictionary of the Modern Tannaean Language|dictionary]] of terms and such needed for modern use was nearing completion. Official documents were subsequently translated, and the first cohort of students who received their education in Tannaean graduated from high school in 2002 [[CIE]].

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

Voiceless consonants dominate voiced ones in Tannaean, partially due to the devoicing process that began more than six hundred years ago. That sound-change affected all consonants word-initially and word-finally, and later all consonants not surrounded by vowels or the sonorants. Certain southern dialects have taken the process further, devoicing all consonants except the sonorants, while in the north voiced consonants are still widely heard where they have been lost in the standard.

Tannaean consonants may occur singly, geminately, or as a member of two. No consonant cluster consists of more than two non-geminate consonants; also, geminate consonants never occur in a cluster.

{| style=&quot;background: #efefef; border: 1pt #afafaf solid&quot;
!
!bilabial
!labiodental
!dental
!alveolar
!palatal
!velar
!glottal
|-
!nasal
|{{IPA|m}}
|
|{{IPA|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA|ŋ}} 
|
|-
!plosive
|{{IPA|p}}, {{IPA|b}}
|
|{{IPA|t}}, {{IPA|d}}
|
|
|{{IPA|k}}, {{IPA|g}}
| 
|-
!fricative
|
|{{IPA|f}}, {{IPA|v}}
|
|{{IPA|s}}
|
|
|{{IPA|h}}
|-
!trill
|
|
|
|{{IPA|r}}
|
|
|-
!lateral
|
|
|
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|
|-
!approximant
|
|{{IPA|w}}
|
|
|{{IPA|j}}
|
|}

===Vowels===

The Tannaean phonemic vowels number 16: the short ''a, ä, e, i, o, ö, u, y'' {{IPA|[a, æ, e, i, o, ø, u, y]}} and their respective long counterparts; among these [e] and [o] occasionally allomorph to [ɛ] and [ɔ]. Tannaean no longer has any phonemic diphthongs, and while the orthography does not use the relatively modern [[Arithide language|Arithide]] inventions, the letters &amp;lt;[[Jā (letter)|j]]&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;[[Wā (letter)|w]]&amp;gt;, instead preferring to retain &amp;lt;[[Iopha (letter)|i]]&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;[[Utos (letter)|u]]&amp;gt;, historic diphthongs have been reanalysed with the respective semivowels.

====Vowel harmony====

Some degree of vowel harmony by frontness is seen in Tannaean. Grammatical endings are the most obvious example for this, each ending having two alternative forms, one &quot;front&quot; and the other &quot;back&quot;, although their application is obstructed by the interposition of a geminate consonant or of more than one consonant. At the same time, while words do not necessarily harmonise stem-internally, the majority does.

===Orthography===

Tannaean follows a purely phonetic spelling system, with one letter to each sound, and one sound to each letter, using the letters of the [[Lazeic alphabet]] as in standard [[Modern Arithide]], with one exception&amp;mdash;that of the semivowels as mentioned above&amp;mdash; and one difference: Tannaean, instead of repesenting long vowels with diacritics as in Arithide, doubles the vowel letter.

In Romanisation, the same practice has been adopted, with one exception, that of the (rare) letter &amp;lt;[[Ang (letter)|ŋ]]&amp;gt;, which is, as with most other languages, represented by the digraph &amp;lt;ng&amp;gt;, and by the trigraph &amp;lt;nng&amp;gt; when geminate or doubled, for clarity.

==Prosody==

Tannaean is a stress-accented language, and with the exception of certain bisyllabic words, stress in each word falls according to a hierarchy outlined as follows. Stress never falls on the ultimate syllable, which is exceptionlessly the grammatical ending; it also always falls on the penult or the antepenult&amp;mdash;another feature distinguishing it from other [[Maric languages]] and ascribed to Arithide influence. Where two similarly ranked syllables occur in a word, the syllable closer to the end of the word receives stress.

::#Syllables with both a long vowel and a coda
::#Syllables with long vowels or codas
::#Vowels in the following, descending order: ''a, ä, e, ö, o, i, y, u'' (i.e. by openness, frontness and roundness)

==Grammar==

Due mostly to the standardisation campaign, which sought to iron out regional dialectal differences in favour of a standard tongue, much of the irregularity of Tannaean grammar has been eliminated, although they still persist in everyday speech and some literature. Newspapers and the rest of the mass media have generally adopted the new rules, as have most public figures, but idiosyncrasy still makes its mark occasionally in public life, and is not usually remarked upon.

Unlike most other members of the [[Maric languages|Maric family]], Tannaean is an SOV language, and inflects for case, albeit to a limited degree, features which most linguists acsribe to areal influence from the long-dominant [[Arithide language]]. Words take either of two endings (in most cases) depending on the frontness of the next-to-last vowel: if it is a back vowel, or a front vowel separated from the ending by more than one consonant or a geminate consonant, it takes the &quot;back ending&quot;; if it is a front vowel, separated from the ending either not at all or only by a single non-geminate vowel, it takes the &quot;front ending&quot;. 

===Nouns===

Excepting the few most common irregularly declined ones, as well as pronouns, nouns, previously declined in a multitude of irregularly governed ways, have collapsed into a single declension class, declined for three cases&amp;mdash;the nominative, the genitive and the oblique, which also doubles as the accusative case&amp;mdash;and two numbers, singular and plural.

{| style=&quot;background: #efefef; border: 1pt #afafaf solid&quot;
!width=40|  ||colspan=2 width=120| Back vowel&lt;br&gt;''mano'' &quot;person&quot; ||colspan=2 width=120| Front vowel&lt;br&gt;''tyvö'' &quot;tree&quot; ||colspan=2 width=120| Multiple consonants&lt;br&gt;''sängo'' &quot;voice, sound&quot;
|-
| || sg. || pl. || sg. || pl. || sg. || pl.
|-
| '''nom.''' || ''man'''o''''' || ''man'''a''''' || ''tyv'''ö''''' || ''tyv'''ä''''' || ''säng'''o''''' || ''säng'''a'''''
|-
| '''gen.''' || ''man'''utta''''' || ''man'''että''''' || ''tyv'''yttä''''' || ''tyv'''että''''' || ''säng'''utta''''' || ''säng'''että'''
|-
| '''obl.''' || ''man'''u''''' || ''man'''e''''' || ''tyv'''y''''' || ''tyv'''e''''' || ''säng'''u''''' || ''säng'''e'''''
|}

==See also==

*[[Tannaean Sample Text Corpus]]

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pisex Treaty</title>
    <id>3507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T06:52:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Pisex Treaty''' was a treaty of friendship signed in the town of [[Pisex]] in [[Dethria]] in 1910 [[CIE]] that formed a [[Pisex Alliance|military alliance]] between Dethria, [[Arithia]], [[Zesou]], [[Orantia]] and [[Taber]], and opened up large portions of each signatory's national markets to one another. The treaty was to become the basis of the [[International Trade Community]] that would be founded 65 years later.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Osbane Province</title>
    <id>3508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Osbane Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Osbane denai''), also known as Province 10, is one of the [[subdivisions of Risevne|provinces]] of [[Risevne]], situated on the south of [[Uniwa Bay]] in [[Masalne]]. It borders [[Osagona Province]] to its north, [[Baseniga Province]] to its northeast and east, and [[Abanamide Province]] to its south. Its capital is the city of [[Neti]].

Osbane's history is tied intimately to the sea, as well as to its wealth of metals; the area was known to contain deposits of silver since the 5th century DN, a discovery that led to its being a major focal point in regional conflicts. Politically dominated by kingdoms from Abanamide for a long period, the area then became a major fief of [[Masal]] as it united the entire island, due both to its silver and lucrative salt fish trade. 

Osbane's major cities suffered very serious bombing during the [[Fourth Global War]], and were later an important focus of the [[Durosirase]], when efforts were made to diversify the economy of the province. In the present day Osbane is one of the more affluent provinces of the country, and a major attraction for foreign investment and tourism.

==Geography==

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Neti]], the provincial capital

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Suninas</title>
    <id>3509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:19:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Suninas''' (713-787) was a famous [[Risevan]] poet and religious figure of the 8th century DN, famous for his poems critiquing society of the time and concerning religious matters; his fame was such that he was deified as a [[Mirsel religion|Great Spirit]] of poetry, since the 13th and 14th centuries. Even now he is famous as a deity of poetry, and many temples are dedicated to him especially in his native [[Ofalna Province]].

==Life and Times==

Not much is known of Suninas' life, nor even his real name; ''Suninas'' is a type of flower that grows from shrubs, high in the mountains of the southern [[Mathormagos]], and it is said that the man gave himself this name in his late 20s when he became a monk and ascetic.

==Works==

==Impact and Legacy==

==Notes==

[[category:Mirselec literature]]
[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Council of Elected Advisors</title>
    <id>3510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Council of Elected Advisors''' is a sort of combination parliament and cabinet in the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]].  It consists of a number of Elected Advisors, each assigned to a particular specialty, and elected by the professionals in said specialty.  For example, the Agricultural Advisors are elected by the farmers of the Empire, divided into Agricultural Voting Districts.  Likewise, the Health Advisors are elected by the doctors of the Empire, divided into Medical Voting Districts.  Each group of Advisors elects one of their members as a Minister for their specialty, as a cabinet.  It is lead by a [[First Advisor]], of which [[Dzesa]] was the first.  The First Advisor is the ''de facto'' ruler of the Empire.

The Council of Elected Advisors is a reflection of Dzesa's belief that the ideal system of government is that of an absolute leader advised by experts, not a system where the common people are expected to make decisions about areas they know nothing of.

[[Category:Kasshi Government]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshi Government</title>
    <id>3511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>43230</id>
      <timestamp>2009-02-18T06:24:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhafan Governments]]
[[Category:Kasshi|Government]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Advisor</title>
    <id>3514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16565</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:43:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''First Advisor''' is the ''de facto'' ruler of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]], theoretically as an advisor to the [[Kasshi Empress|Empress]].  The first First Advisor was [[Dzesa]].  The First Advisor is theoretically appointed by the Empress from the [[Council of Elected Advisors]], who in turn presents the Empress with three nominees, which she can choose from or reject.  In practice, the First Advisor is chosen by the [[Yatta Party]], and is typically the leader of the Party.  The First Advisor has no term of office, and generally rules until death or resignation.  He or she ''may'' be removed from office, but this is a rare and difficult process.

[[Category:Kasshi Government]]
[[Category:Rulers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhafan languages</title>
    <id>3517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T07:59:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf|Languages]]
[[Category:A priori conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivetsian</title>
    <id>3518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31757</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-26T21:03:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ivetsian''' is the official language of the [[Fifth Kasshi Empire|Kasshi Empire]].  It is descended from [[Classical Kasshian]] and is largely an inflectional language.

== Genders ==
Ivetsian has six or eight genders, depending on how you count.  Ivetsian's genders are descended from those of Classical Kasshian, and are numbered according to the common system in [[Kasshian languages]] of using the numbers of the classical tongue.  In Modern Ivetsian, gender agreement is found in verbs, demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and pronouns.  Unlike the classical language, there is no correlation between initial consonants and gender.
*I.  Animals with cultural significance, except males of sex-differentiable animals
*IIa. Male humans
*IIb. Males of culturally-significant sex-differentiable animals, some animals seen as &quot;masculine&quot;
*IV. Most other higher animals
*V. Insects, invertebrates, some plants, microscopic organisms
*VIa. Female humans, epicine human
*VIb. Most inanimates
*VII. A few inanimate objects

IIa and IIb, as well as VIa and VIb are commonly considered subdivisions of the same gender, and are less distinguished then other genders.  In addition, gender I has been gradually absorbing gender IIb, and a few animals can be found in both.  Urban dialects often blur the distinction between I and IV as well, and frequently retain gender IIb only for a few pet animals, if that.  Plants are currently in the process of moving to gender V.

=== History of Ivetsian Gender ===
It will be noted from a comparison with the [[Classical Kasshian#Meanings of Genders|Classical gender system]] that significant changes have occured.  These changes had their initial origin as far back as the [[Anarchic Era]], when gender III began to weaken, with gender I taking over the epicine function.  Gender III was already dead in many dialects in [[Chinrasta]]'s time, though it remained strong in her dialect, which provided the dialect of the learned classes.  The distinction between genders IV and V was also growing weak, and a few animals migrated between the two.

This relatively minor change was dwarfed during the middle [[Second Kasshi Empire|Second Empire]] when some animals (mostly those in gender IV, but also some in gender V), frequently personified in folk tales, came to take gender I or II agreement even in ordinary speech, though they retained their original prefixes.  At the same time, a practice existed in diplomatic writings of referring to heads of states by the name of their state, rather than by their own name, thus by gender VI nouns.  Gender VI agreements came to be used even when using their actual names (helped by the fact that the gender-prefixes were no longer obligatory with foreign borrowings and foreign names).  Gradually, the custom arose of referring to noblewomen within the Empire by the names of their territories and gender VI agreements.  Gender VI came, therefore, to be seen as a mark of respect, and gradually came to extend to further groups of women.  At the same time, an increasing number of animals were migrating into genders I and II.  Gender I came to be dominated by animal nouns, accelerating the movement of humans out of it.  Gender II remained more mixed.

Sound-changes had made the singular prefixes for gender 6 null in many cases, and, as a result, it became the favored gender for borrowings, eventually weakening the distinction between genders VI adn VII, to the point where many gender VI nouns moved to gender VII.

Some lower animals migrated from gender VI to gender V.  In addition, carnivorous and other &quot;active&quot; plants moved from VI to V, and gradually other plants have begun to follow.  Gender V is currently in the process of absorbing the remaining animats of gender VIb, while VIb in turn is in the process of absorbing VII.

The IIa/IIb and VIa/VIb distinctions are a result of the [[Classical Kasshian#Personal Suffixes|rational/non-rational]] distinction in verbal inflections.  Gender VI nouns which referred to humans (or supernatural beings) took the rational suffixes, while those not referring to humans or supernatural beings took the non-rational suffixes.  This difference in verbal suffixes is the sole distinction between VIa and VIb.  While some humans remained in genders I, a similar distinction between Ia and Ib existed, but Ia has since died out.

[[Category:Kasshian languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhafan History</title>
    <id>3519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T08:05:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf|History]]
[[Category:History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shivrashan Pass</title>
    <id>3520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16592</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T08:47:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Shivrashan Pass''' is an important pass through the [[Fantasta Mountains]] leading to the City-State of [[Shivrashan]].  It has long played a key role in trade between the Northern and Southern halves of [[Odirá]].

[[Category:Galhafan Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Main Page/Satirocitan</title>
    <id>3521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>44843</id>
      <timestamp>2009-04-22T12:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Talk:Main Page in Satirocitan]] moved to [[Talk:Main Page/Satirocitan]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Is there a reason that underscore is used between every word? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 00:56, 25 November 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tannaean Unionist Party</title>
    <id>3522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19484</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-21T15:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Tannaean Unionist Party''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Tannaein Iralleiim Indallos''''' {{IPA|['tannai:n 'irəljim 'indəlɔs]}}) is a regional extremist right-wing political party of [[Arithia]], in the province of [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaea]]. Created in 1971 [[CIE]] following the tabulation of a draft bill in the [[Parliament of Arithia|Arithian parliament]] to devolve much power and administrative functions to the regions in the face of growing [[Regionalism in Arithia|regionalism]], and in opposition to widespread local nationalism, especially to factions intent on an independent [[Eleena]] state, it seeks stronger political, economic and cultural ties to the [[Areth]]-majority mainstream of the country.

The party is implicated in or has claimed responsibility for several violent incidents, the most recent of which being the 2009 [[CIE]] murder of nationalist author [[Otäära Kotoka]], where its covert involvement is suspected, and almost certain in triggering the violent riots following it. In separate incidents, the party's militant [[Leenö]] faction orchestrated attacks, bombing [[Komporaris Syrr|Parliament House]] in 1973, which killed three and pushed back passage of the [[Devolution Act]] to 1979 [[CIE]]; [[Asena Square]] of [[Tannea]] in 1990 [[CIE]] at the launch of Kotoka's Tannaean translation of ''[[Viodh (book)|Viodh]]'', which killed 133; six separate locations on polling day of the 1996 [[CIE]] [[Tannaean Plebiscite]], killing 27; releasing bromine on the [[Lazean metro]] in 1999 [[CIE]], killing 45.

==See also==

*[[Tannaea]]
*[[Leenö]], the militant wing of the TII

*[[Bombing of Parliament House]]
*[[Bombing of Asena Square]]
*[[Tannaean Plebiscite]]
*[[Bombing of the Lazean metro]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arithia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Leenö</title>
    <id>3523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-10T15:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Leenö''' ([[Tannaean language|Tannaean]]: &quot;unity&quot;) is the militant faction of the extremist right-wing [[Tannaean Unionist Party]] (TII), a regional political party of [[Arithia]] fiercely supporting increased and deeper political, cultural and economic ties with the [[Areth]]-majority mainstream Arithian society, as opposed to autonomy, self-government or even independence. It was founded in 1973 as a splinter group from the TII, apparently over divisions in opinion over how best to respond to the [[Parliament of Arithia|Arithian parliament]]'s express intent to pass the [[Devolution Act]].

While the Leenö has been banned due to its violent and terrorist nature, it is still operational underground, and most recently has been suspected to have been involved in the murder of well-known nationalist author [[Otäära Kotoka]] and the riots following it, adding to its considerable list of atrocities, including the 1973 [[bombing of Parliament House]], and the 1990 [[Bombing of Asena Square|attack]] on [[Asena Square]], where Kotoka was launching his politically-sensitive [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]] translation of one of his own earlier works, ''[[Viodh (book)|Viodh]]''.

Police operations in recent years have hobbled the organisation somewhat, after arresting six of its top operatives and sending its leader, [[Halema Leeiva]] into hiding. The group has not committed any further crime since 1999 [[CIE]], when they hijacked a subway train in the [[Lazean metro]] and released bromine gas into the air-conditioning system, fatally poisoning 45 and injuring many more people. Military snipers took out the three hijackers in the driver's compartment before evacuating the survivors.

==See also==

*[[Tannaea]]
*[[Tannaean Unionist Party]]

*[[Bombing of Parliament House]]
*[[Bombing of Asena Square]]
*[[Tannaean Plebiscite]]
*[[Bombing of the Lazean metro]]

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tannaean revivalism</title>
    <id>3524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32110</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-01T17:54:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* Origins */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tannaean revivalism''' ([[Tannaean language|Tannaean]] '''''Kuuvutta Hiisanigö''''' {{IPA|['ku:vutta hi:'sanigø]}}, lit. &quot;Revival of the Language&quot;) is a movement to promote the use and revival of the Tannaean language. It is usually considered part of the general wave of [[Regionalism in Arithia|regionalism]] that swept [[Arithia]] beginning the late 1960s [[CIE]], and on a smaller scale was part of a resuscitated nationalist drive to promote a [[Tannaea]]n national identity.

==Origins==

The [[Second Wave of nationalism]] that began in [[Carabaea]] reached the [[minorities of Arithia]], whom the [[First Wave of nationalism|First Wave]] had largely missed. Beginning as a human rights movement to demand recognition from the Carabaean government of the minority [[Eshureya]] culture, the controversy it ignited sparked a renewed wave of agitation for self-determination, which in Arithia was termed the [[Regionalism in Arithia|regionalist]] movement. Recognising their distinct cultural and ethnic identity from that of the [[Areth]], Tannaean nationalists began demanding self-government and promotion of the [[Tannaean language]], which they saw as a means to an eventual end of Tannaean, or [[Eleena]], sovereignty, and which gave rise to the revivalist effort.

==Proponents==

One of the most famous revivalists was the renowned author [[Otäära Kotoka]], who grew up in an atmosphere of [[Eleena]] nationalism, and went on to write extensively in support of the revivalist movement, although he stopped short of advocating independence. Along with other writers and academics such as the journalist [[Kiira Jaallii]], the physicist [[Mekes Pulanka]], and the linguist [[Eiko Vassaley]], he collaborated on the first modern dictionary of [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]], which appeared in print in 1993 [[CIE]].

==Resistance==

The [[Tannaean Unionist Party]] (TII) was and is the most visible and vocal opponent to Tannaean nationalism, of which they see revivalism of the language as the first step onto the slippery slope. Besides the extremist TII, however, most conservative and some liberal mainstream political parties also condemned regionalism as betraying the integrity of the Arithian state, which they argued was now different from the ethnocentric Arithia of pre-revolutionary and imperial times. Eventually having given way to federalism, the same factors are now strongly against further weakening of the Arithian centre, a view which is in line with contemporary opinion.

==See also==

*[[Regionalism in Arithia]]
*[[Tannaea (region)]], [[Tannaea (province)]]
*[[Tannaean Unionist Party]] (TII)
*[[Devolution Act]] of 1979

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parliament of Arithia</title>
    <id>3525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-13T15:30:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:: ''This article is about [[Arithia]]'s unitary national parliament before the [[Devolution Act]] of 1979. For the federal parliament since, see [[Federal Parliament of Arithia|this article]] instead.''

The unicameral '''Parliament of Arithia''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Komporas Syrroris''''' {{IPA|['kɔmpəras 'sʏ:rəris]}} lit. ''National Forum'') was established with the triumph of the [[Republican Revolution]] in [[Arithia]] in 1886 [[CIE]] by constitutional requirement (see [[Constitution of Arithia]]). As the ultimate political authority in the Arithide parliamentary system of government, the Komporas wielded considerable power in legislation, and, until the 1905 [[CIE]] [[Amendments of the Constitution of Arithia#Fifth Amendment (1905)|constitutional amendment]] mandating the independence of the [[Judicial system of Arithia|judiciary]], was empowered to elect the judges of the [[Supreme Court of Arithia|Supreme Court]].

The [[31st Parliament of Arithia|31st Parliament]] effectively ended its own existence with its passage of the [[Devolution Act]] in 1979 [[CIE]], recognising the &quot;multinational character&quot; of the Arithian state and creating autonomous national republics under a federal Arithian centre. With the Act, the ''Komporas Syrroris'' was dismantled and in its place was formed the ''[[Federal Parliament of Arithia|Komporas Lyndirraris]]'', or &quot;Federal Forum&quot;.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eleena</title>
    <id>3526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23756</id>
      <timestamp>2007-07-25T03:45:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Names */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eleena''' {{IPA|[e'le:na]}} are the native people of the [[Tannaea (province)|Tannaean province]] of [[Arithia]], and have been ruled by the [[Areth]] for almost two thousand years, broken only by the fall of the [[Lazeian Empire]], in the aftermath of which it was conquered by the [[Andu Empire]], and by the [[Devolution Act]] of 1979 [[CIE]], which federalised Arithia and effectively accorded the Eleena self-government for the first time in their recorded history.

The Eleena speak [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]], which they call ''Eleena kuuvo'' or &quot;Eleena language&quot;.

==Names==

The appellation ''Eleena'' (spelt in Arithide as &quot;Elēna&quot;) is the Eleena autonym, and was adopted only in recent years as part of a general trend towards political correctness, which deemed the traditional Arithide name for the race, ''Tann'' or ''Tanno'', too tainted by racist and other prejudicial overtones. While the ethnonym was successfully changed to ''Eleena'', attempts to remask ''Tannaīde'', the name of the language, as ''Elēnīde'' have been underwhelming, and the toponyms ''[[Tannaea]]'' and ''[[Tannea]]'' have also proved surprisingly resistant to change.

The etymology of the name is unclear, although theories have been floated that the name is related variously to ''ileenäätä'' &quot;to long for home&quot;, ''löynö'' northern dialectal for &quot;people, folk&quot;, and ''Alailä'' the [[Tannaean language|Tannaean]] name for [[Mount Rorchit]], among others.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Peoples of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hirsa remis</title>
    <id>3527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T11:08:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Site and Situation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hirsa remis''', literally meaning &quot;Port Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is one of the ten [[areas of Isana]]; situated along the southeastern coast, it is mostly commercial in character, and in the present day is dominated by the [[Port of Isana]] as well as the newer districts of [[Belegras Dockyards]], [[Henoris Wharf]] and [[Henoris Extension]], to which many of the major financial firms of the country have moved.

==Site and Situation==

Practically the entire south coast of Isana east of [[Gardaus Bay]] is part of Hirsa remis, forming an area that came into its own first as an anchorage for ships too large to enter Gardaus Bay Harbour, and then as a port for offloading items such as food, destined for the large wholesale markets like [[Benesda Market]]; the district stretches inland to include the [[South Coast Expressway, Isana|South Coast Expressway]], and the surrounding areas.

Formerly centred around the port, Hirsa remis underwent a massive change with the vacating of nearly two-thirds of the port area as most port functions were moved out to [[Bresnga]], with its new port on [[Orimasurna]]. The redevelopment of the area took nearly two decades, during which it was often derided as a failed scheme to turn around a dying neighbourhood; in the 2010s, however, the area now known as the [[Belegras Dockyards]] opened, and since then the turnaround has indeed occurred. Modern-day Hirsa remis, while still retaining much of its industry especially in the eastern areas, is also a much more diversified residential and commercial area.

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

Hirsa remis is divided into 6 main districts, numbered from west to east except for Henoris Extension, which being the newest reclaimed area is District E2-6 even though it is the westernmost. These districts are:

*[[Henorisharel-dego]]

*[[Belegrasharel-dego]]

*[[Nirateharel-dego]]

*[[Migeteonagen-dego]]

*[[Onagen-dego]]

*[[Henoriskinire-dego]]

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Areas of Isana</title>
    <id>3528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-25T18:28:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Areas and Districts of Isana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Areas and Districts of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sateni Irone</title>
    <id>3529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T03:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sateni Irone''' (11 December 1956 - 13 May 2003) is a famed [[Risevan]] thinker, novelist, essayist and playwright, most well-known as being one of the members of the so-called [[Kaladani]]. His writing, often focusing on social issues and personal estrangement as well as the history of the war years and the subsequent [[Durosirase]], are well known for their stark, darkly humorous and often highly cynical tone; [[Nika Asirosna]] once said that ''there are perhaps only three words to describe his writing: cold, cold, cold''.

[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]
[[category:Risevani poets and writers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibran verbs</title>
    <id>3530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T02:05:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muke</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stubby for now</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==First conjugation (''ămar'')==
{| 
!colspan=2| ''Ibran (Paysan) conjugation in -ar''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;
| 
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;
!colspan=3 bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;|Indicative mood
|-
!colspan=3| Present
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! !! sing. !! plur.
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
| '''am'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[æ̃]}} 
| '''ămaũs'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[əˈmoː(s)]}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
| '''amăs'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[ˈæ.mə(s)]}} 
| '''ămaus'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[əˈmoː(s)]}} 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
| '''amă'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[ˈæ.mə]}} 
| '''amăn'''&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[ˈæ.mə̃]}} &lt;!--
|-
!colspan=3| Imperfectum 
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abría]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abríamos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrías]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abríais]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abría]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrían]]
|-
!colspan=3| Indefinitum
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrí]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrimos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriste]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abristeis]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrió]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrieron]]
|-
!colspan=3| Futurum 
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriré]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriremos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrirás]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriréis]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrirá]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrirán]]
|-
!colspan=3 bgcolor=lightgrey| Modus imperativus
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
| — 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abramos]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abre]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrid]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abra]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abran]] --&gt;
|} &lt;!--
|
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;
!colspan=3 bgcolor=lightgrey| Modus subiunctivus
|-
!colspan=3| Praesens 
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
!  !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abra]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abramos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abras]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abráis]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abra]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abran]]
|-
!colspan=3| Imperfectum
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
!  !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriera]]&lt;br&gt;[[abriese]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriéramos]]&lt;br&gt;[[abriésemos]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrieras]]&lt;br&gt;[[abrieses]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrierais]]&lt;br&gt;[[abrieseis]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriera]]&lt;br&gt;[[abriese]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrieran]]&lt;br&gt;[[abriesan]]
|-
!colspan=3| Futurum 
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! !! {{int:wikt-sing}} !! {{int:wikt-plur}}
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriere]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriéremos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrieres]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriereis]]
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriere]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrieren]]
|-
!colspan=3 bgcolor=lightgrey| Modus condicionalis
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| I.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriría]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriríamos]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| II.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrirías]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriríais]] 
|-
!bgcolor=lightgrey| III.
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abriría]] 
|lang=&quot;es&quot;| [[abrirían]]
|} --&gt;
|} &lt;!--
* Participium activum: {{cito|es|abriendo}}
* Participium passivum: {{cito|es|abierto}} ''m,'' {{cito|es|abierto}} ''f''
* Modus infinitivus: {{cito|es|abrir}}
--&gt;

{{stub}}
[[Category:Ibran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Galhafan Scripts</title>
    <id>3531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38241</id>
      <timestamp>2008-09-26T12:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qang</username>
        <id>1187</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Scripts]]
[[Category:Galhaf|Scripts]]
[[Category:Conscripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Sanle</title>
    <id>3532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:15:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhaf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sanle logographs</title>
    <id>3533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T20:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Sanle Logographs''' are used to write [[Sanle (language)|Sanle]], and are the ancestor of many of the other writing systems of [[South Odirá]].

== Proto-Sanle ==
The oldest form of the logographs is known as ''Proto-Sanle'', and are preserved in only a few ancient collums.  It was highly pictographic, and what little has been found suggests considerable local variation.

== Picture Script ==
The so-called ''picture script'' was a standardized descendant of Proto-Sanle.  It remained highly pictographic.  The [[Oppai syllabry]] was derived from this stage.  The script gradually became more stylized, and multi-part characters began to replace some simple characters

== Classical Script ==
By around the time of the [[Isokhkik Dynasty]], the script began to assume the classical, highly-stylized, complex form.  This is the script that later spread throughout South Odirá.

== New Script ==
The New Script was a short-lived attempt to simplify the script.  Although it has not survived to the present day intact, it has given rise to the [[Sanle Sound-Letters]], a phonetic script used in dictionaries to indicate pronunciation.

[[Category:Galhafan Scripts]]
[[Category:Sanle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Oppai syllabry</title>
    <id>3534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:38:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Oppai Syllabry''' was a script used in [[Oppai]] derived from the Picture Script form of the [[Sanle logographs]].  A small subset of the characters were adopted, and written in a more flowing style, to indicate sound rather than meaning, along the principle of using characters to indicate similar syllables.  Though the early forms retained a small number of two-syllable glyphs, later stages reduced all characters to just one syllable-type.  Vowels were ignored in determining what counted as similar sound, and, initially, some liberties were taken in consonants as well, though later reforms created a strict correspondance between character and consonants, in some cases through the addition of extra marks to distinguish near-homophones.

It was this stage that led to the [[Kasshi syllabry]].  At all stages, the logographs existed side-by-side with the syllabics.  The acquisition of the Classical script eliminated the Picture Script-style logographs, but did not directly affect the syllabics in their form.  It did, however, help increase the distinction between the two.

Later developments eliminated the syllabic basis, giving rise to the [[Oppai alphabet]].

[[Category:Galhafan Scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Oppai alphabet</title>
    <id>3535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T05:41:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Oppai alphabet''' is a writing system derived from the [[Oppai syllabry]].  It is written in syllabic blocks, each of which consist of three characters, one indicating the ''start'' of the syllable (including null), one indicating the ''body'' (vowel) of the syllable, and the third indicating the ''end'' of the syllable (again, including null).  There are no shared characters between the start and end characters.

[[Category:Scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Sateni Irone</title>
    <id>3536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T07:28:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">さて二色ね！ Or so his name would be in Japanese. Heehee. --[[User:Denihilonihil|Denihilonihil]] 23:28, 25 November 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flego</title>
    <id>3537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-18T22:32:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wagg</username>
        <id>277</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Flego''' is a personal concountry, whose inhabitants are a human-like species (with fantasy elements) called the Keź. Flego's language and adjective are both ''Flegan''. 

Work is in progress, and this page will be updated shortly. ~wagg

= Flego Ethnographical Questionnaire =

'''[[Dr. Zahar’s Ethnographical Questionnaire]]''' was compiled by David Zahir to help in the description of [[conculture]]s, and can be found in the files section of the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/conculture/ Conculture group at Yahoo].

__TOC__

== Questions of Place ==

=== Describe the geography of where your society calls home. ===


=== Describe the climate your society deals with. How severe are their seasons? ===


=== What kinds of natural disasters has this society gotten used to? ===


=== What are the most commonly-grown foods? ===


=== What are the most commonly-eaten meats? ===


=== What foods are considered exotic or expensive? ===


=== What forms of alcohol are common? Rare? ===


=== Is there usually enough food and water for the population? ===


=== What is this place's most abundant resource? ===


=== What is its most valuable resource? ===


=== What resource is it most lacking? ===


=== How do people travel from one place to another? ===


=== Are the borders secure? In what way? ===


=== How many people live here? ===


=== Where in this place do they congregate? ===


=== What part of this place do they avoid? Why? ===


=== What are the most common domesticated animals here? And what are they domesticated for? ===


=== What are the most common wild animals? ===


=== Which animals are likely to be pets? Which ones won't be? ===


== Questions of Time ==

=== How far back does this society's written history go? ===


=== How far back do its people believe it goes? ===


=== What is the worst disaster they believe they've faced? ===


=== What was the best thing that every happened to them? ===


=== What in their past makes them feel ashamed? ===


=== What in their past makes them proud? ===


=== What are they afraid of happening again? ===


=== What are they hoping will happen? Do they think it likely? ===


=== What do they assume the future will hold? ===


=== How has this society changed? Do its current members realize this? ===


=== What are the most popular stories about the past? ===


=== Who in the past is the greatest hero? The worst villain? ===


=== Do people think the present better or worse than the past? ===


=== Do people believe the future will be better or worse than the present or past? ===


== Questions of Sex and Family ==

=== How many spouses may a man or woman have? ===


=== Who decides on a marriage? ===


=== Can a marriage end in divorce? How? ===


=== Who usually takes custody of children if a marriage ends for some reason? ===


=== How is adultery defined? What (if any) is the punishment? Who decides? ===


=== How are families named?(g) What happens to orphans? ===


=== How are boy and girl children treated differently? ===


=== Are premarital relations allowed? ===


=== How does your society define incest? Rape? How do people react to these? ===


=== What, if anything, is considered a good marriage gift? ===


=== What secret vice is believed to be widely practiced? ===


=== What secret vice actually is practiced? ===


=== What sexual habits are widely believed common among foriegners? ===


=== How do people react to homosexuality? ===


=== How do the genders dress? ===


=== Is prostitution legal? How are prostitutes viewed? Is this accurate? ===


=== What professions or activities are considered masculine? ===


=== What professions or activities are viewed as feminine? ===


=== What inanimate or sexless things are considered male or female? ===


=== What is the biggest sexual taboo? ===


=== Does this society connect the ideas of marriage with love? ===


=== What does this society mean by the word &quot;virgin&quot; and how important it it? ===


== Questions of Manners ==

=== Who speaks first at a formal gathering? ===


=== What kinds of gifts are considered in extremely bad taste? ===


=== How do younger adults address their elders? ===


=== What colors are associated with power? With virtue? With death? ===


=== If two men get into a fight, how is this supposed to be resolved? ===


=== If two women get into a fight, how should that be resolved? ===


=== When is it rude to laugh at something funny? ===


=== What kinds of questions cannot be asked in public? In private? At all? ===


=== How do people demonstrate grief? ===


=== What does this society do with their corpses? ===


=== What kinds of jewelry do people where? And when? ===


=== Who inheirits property? Titles? Position? ===


=== What happens to those suffering from extreme mental illness? ===


=== What are the most popular games? How important are they? ===


=== What parts of the body are routinely covered? ===


=== How private are bodily functions like bathing or defecating? ===


=== How do people react to physical deformity? ===


=== When and how does someone go from child to adult? ===


== Questions of Faith ==

=== Is there a formal clergy? How are they organized? ===


=== What do people believe happens to them after death? How, if at all, can they influence this? ===


=== What happens to those who disagree with the majority on questions of religion? ===


=== Are there any particular places considered special or holy? What are they like? ===


=== What are the most popular rituals or festivals? ===


=== What do people want from the god or gods? How do they try and get it? ===


=== How do their religious practices differ from their neighbours? ===


=== What is the most commonly broken religious rule?(i) What is the least-violated religious rule? ===


=== What factions exist within the dominant religious institutions? How do they compete? ===


=== Are there monastic groups? What do they do and how are they organized? How do you join one? ===


=== How are those who follow different faiths treated? ===


=== What relationship do religious and political leaders have? ===


=== What superstitions are common? What kinds of supernatural ===


events/beings do people fear?

== Questions of Government ==

=== Who decides whether someone has broken a law? How? ===


=== What kinds of punishments are meted out? By whom? Why? ===


=== How are new laws created or old ones changed? ===


=== Is there some form of clemency or pardon? What is involved? ===


=== Who has the right to give orders, and why? ===


=== What titles do various officials have? ===


=== How are the rules different for officials as opposed to the common person? ===


=== How do government officials dress? ===


=== Is the law written down? Who interprets it? ===


=== Once accused, what recourse does someone have? ===


=== Is torture allowed? What kinds? ===


=== How are people executed? ===


=== Who cannot rise to positions of leadership? ===


=== Is bribery allowed? Under what circumstances? ===


=== What makes someone a bad ruler in this society? What can be done about it? ===


=== What are the most common or dangerous forms of criminal? ===


== Questions of War ==

=== Who declares war? ===


=== Who has the power to declare conditions of peace? ===


=== What happens to prisoners taken in battle? ===


=== What form of warfare does this society use? ===


=== Who are the Elite warriors? What distinguishes them? ===


=== How does someone get command of troops? ===


=== Where do the loyalties of military units lie? ===


=== Are there professional soldiers? Do they make up the bulk of the military? ===


=== Has this society ever attacked another? Do they want to? What would make them do so? ===


=== Who are their enemies? Who's winning? ===


=== What do soldiers do when there's no war? ===


== Questions of Education ==

=== Does this society have its own language? Its own writing? ===


=== How common is literacy? How is literacy viewed? ===


=== What form and value are books? ===


=== Who teaches others? How do they teach? ===


=== Who decides who learns to read or write?(f) Who teaches professions, like carpenter or scribe? ===


=== Are foreigners ever brought in to teach new skills? Who does that? ===


=== How do this society's doctors try to treat wounds and sickness? ===


=== Which medical assumtions of this society are wrong? ===


== Questions of Art ==

=== What are the favorite artforms? ===


=== What are the least-favorite? ===


=== How respected are artists? ===


=== Do artists require official or unofficial protection? ===


=== What kinds of trouble are artists in particular likely to find themselves in? ===


=== How might a very successful artist live? ===


=== What forms of theatre does your society have? ===


=== How naturalistic or stylized is your society's art? ===


=== What shapes are most common in your society's arts, like embroidery or architecture? ===


=== Which artforms get the most and least respect? ===


=== What form does censorship take? ===


=== Who may not be an artist? ===


=== What qualities equal &quot;beauty&quot; in this society? ===


=== What makes a man or woman especially beautiful? ===


=== How do people react to tattoos? Piercings? Facial hair? Make-up? ===


== Questions of sex and marriage ==

=== Is sex confined to marriage? ===


=== Or, is it supposed to be?  What constitutes aberrant behavior? ===


=== Is there anything about this culture or religion in that culture that specifically addresses sexual conduct? ===


=== Are there laws about it?  What about prostitution? ===


=== How old should someone be in your culture to be having sex? ===


=== What is considered too great a difference in age for a couple? ===


=== Do relationships allow multiple partners? ===


=== Should sex be a one-to-one experience? Or are groups allowed? ===


=== And, of course, what about homosexuality?  Is  it frowned on? Encouraged? ===


== Questions of death and burial ==

=== What is their understanding of death and dying? ===


=== Do they cremate their dead? Or, how are dead bodies disposed of? ===


=== Is the family  responsible for the body? ===


=== What part do the priests play? ===


=== Are there cemeteries at all? ===


=== Or, does everyone have a crypt in back  with all the relatives in it? ===


=== Do people visit the dead?  If so, how often and why? ===


== Questions of suicide ==

=== What do people in this culture think about suicide? ===


=== Is it the greatest sin one can commit?  Or is it a sin at all? ===


=== Is it the great and last comfort of a tormented soul? ===


=== Is it worse than murder? ===


== Questions of Law, Justice and Police ==

=== Is there a civilian police force, or is law enforcement the province of the military? ===


=== Is the police force a nationalised one, or are there multiple regional forces? ===


=== How &quot;military&quot; are they?  Are they usually/ever armed? ===


=== What is the extent of their authority?  Can they shoot you? Can they use magic? Can they torture or otherwise force a confession? Can they use telepathy? ===


=== Are there individuals or groups who are above the law? ===


=== Is there a secret police? ===


=== What is the role of police informants, if any? ===</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Classical Arithide</title>
    <id>3538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19376</id>
      <timestamp>2007-02-18T06:44:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Classical Arithide]]''' is the ancient language of the [[Areth]], spoken natively by the original inhabitants of the [[kingdom of Lazeia]], which went on to unite the Areth under the [[Lazeian Empire]]. Due to its extensive political influence through trade, and hence also its cultural diffusiveness, Classical Arithide gained widespread currency throughout much of the [[Western civilisation (Ilethes)|western world]] in [[Ilethes in the Classical Age|antiquity]], serving as the choice tongue for education, trade, diplomacy and the arts. While the decline and eventual demise of the empire and the coinciding rise of rival powers such as the [[Andu Empire]] and [[Dethria]] led consequently to a considerable period of decreased use of the classical tongue, more than a millenium of tradition had anchored its place, and in the [[Renaissance (Ilethes)|renaissance of the Areth]] Classical Arithide made a comeback to rival then-dominant [[Dethric language|Dethric]] for its former place as the West's ''lingua franca''.

==Ancient Artihide==

{{main|Ancient Arithide}}


==The Classical Arithide of Bnatios Loi==

===Stylism===

==The Classical Arithide of Daldaian the Younger==

===Semantic broadening===

===Literary inventions===

==Influence on foreign languages==

====Dethric====

====Lazeic languages====

==Mediaeval obscurity==

==Arithide Renaissance==

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Languages of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Arophania]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Dethria]]
[[Category: Canthres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corapheism</title>
    <id>3539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T09:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Pheism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pheism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Pheism</title>
    <id>3540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T10:28:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Pheism''' or '''Corapheism''' ([[Arithide language|Arithide]] '''''Korafeoros''''' {{IPA|[kɔrə'feərɔs]}}) is a major polytheistic religion of [[Ilethes]], originating the historical kingdom of [[Syracca]] in the [[Avalacia]] region of west-central [[Marcasia]]. The exact date of its founding is unconfirmed, but is held by adherents to be five thousand years before the present; academia consider 1300 B[[CIE]] to be a more credible timeframe.

==Names &amp; terminology==

The English name ''Pheism'' derives from the [[Dethric language|Dethric]] word ''phea'', a common invocation that in turn derives from the [[Arithide language|Arithide]] ''feos'', &quot;god&quot;. The alternative, ''Corapheism'', is simply &quot;Pheism&quot; prefixed with the name of [[Cora]], the central divine figure of Pheist lore.

==Beliefs==

Pheists believe in the duality of spirituality: that of divine beings such as gods, deities, devils and other immortals; and that of lesser spirits, demons and other demigods. Both are essentially amorphous, but the former, with their stronger powers, may take on a human form if and when they appear; the latter are manifest in objects of nature, such as trees, animals, or even the wind, due to their lesser powers. Another Pheist tenet is the centrality of compassion to the attainment of enlightenment, spirituality and transcendancy, which explains the prominence of [[Cora]], the God of Mercy and Compassion.

The nature of Pheism's divinity closely mirror that of humanity: the gods and demigods belong in a hierarchy akin to human society, and observe social protocols such as respect for elders and superiors. Much as character weaknesses and politicking afflict humans, so exhibit many divinities human-like foibles of vanity, violence, greed and laziness, among others. The class of gods is an exception, who are morally infallible and serve as the upholders of justice and probity, while devils are the incarnations of the evils of human society.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Culture of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Religions of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Marcasia]]
[[Category: Arophania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Culture of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T10:30:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating to the cultures of the various peoples of the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Religions of Ilethes</title>
    <id>3542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-27T02:01:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating to the religions of the planet [[Ilethes]] in the eponymous constructed universe.

[[Category: Culture of Ilethes]]
[[Category:Religions|Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global Wars</title>
    <id>3543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16658</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-26T14:56:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Global Wars''' is used in [[Valmante]] mostly to refer to five major, multinational wars that took place during the late 19th and early 20th centuries:

*[[First Global War]], February 1883 - July 1887

*[[Second Global War]], April 1903 - May 1906

*[[Third Global War]], May 1919 - December 1924

*[[Fourth Global War]], March 1940 - October 1947

*[[Fifth Global War]], June 1954 - January 1957

The period of the wars is often taken as the watershed of modern, &quot;multipolar&quot; Valmante; the political upheavals of the war, as well as the massive economic growth it fuelled amongst many of the belligerent countries, led to a situation at the end of the wars when economic supremacy no longer rested with any single country.

[[category:Valmante]]
[[category:History of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Osagona Province</title>
    <id>3544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-27T15:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economy and Demography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Osagona Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Osagona denai''), also known as Province 13, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], located in the southern reaches of the [[Mathormagos]]. It borders [[Besurgana Province]] to its north, [[Serteni Province]] to its east, [[Naguse Province]] to its west, and [[Osbane]] and [[Baseniga]] provinces to its south. Its capital is the city of [[Atelas]].

Osagona Province was one of the nearer outlying areas to the power centres in the south of [[Masalne]], and was therefore one of the more developed of the mountain provinces; during the [[Fourth Global War]], the movement of much of Risevne's industry across the mountains focused mostly on the provinces of Osagona and [[Besurgana]], leaving a legacy of both economic growth and considerable pollution. Now, the mountains of Osagona are mostly within the bounds of [[Mathormagos National Park]], though the area remains an important industrial centre in Risevne. 

==Geography==

Osagona province has a terrain dominated by mountains and forests, except for its eastern and western ends where the land becomes relatively flat as it nears the coast. The deep, deciduous forests of the mountains are some of the most extensively protected forest areas within Risevne, and are a famous tourist attraction during the autumn months when they shed their leaves. 

Another important aspect of the geography of the area is the multitude of streams, gorges, as well as rain-fuelled underground reservoirs and springs. 

==History==

During the time of the [[Committee of Guardians]], Osagona province became one of the main areas to which the old nobility who had opposed the new government were exiled; kept with the remnants of their wealth, the rest being mostly confiscated, they nonetheless formed several settlements in the mountains where they were in relative safety. With the [[1827 Restoration]], after their property was mostly returned to them, most of the families used the money to build houses in those mountains; many such houses still stand, and some have been converted to museums, as well as other purposes.

==Economy and Demography==

An important economic link for the province, as well as the whole nation, is the [[Second Cross-Mountain Highway]], completed in 1971. Running from one coast of the country to the other and skirting the southern edge of the national park area, it opened up much of the mountains to economic growth, and many large towns have grown up along the road and railway since.

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Atelas]], the provincial capital

*[[Sogarinaste]], a major port of the Inland Sea

==Famous Locations==

*[[Dekana Residence]] - One of the bases of the Risevan code intelligence effort during the [[Fourth Global War]]

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hinegaes remis</title>
    <id>3545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16851</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T14:00:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Site and Situation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hinegaes remis''', literally meaning &quot;Eastern Boundary&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] in the Risevan capital of [[Isana]], situated along the border of the city with [[Feladmena Province]]. It is the newest district of the city, having been split from parts of [[Garnoye remis]] and [[Waranyebara remis]] in 1968.

The area that is now Hinegaes was not part of the city until around 1924, when the eastward movement of industries spread into this area; as the new port at [[Hirsa remis]] was completed the area underwent farther transformation into a large industrial centre. Modern day Hinegaes still retains this legacy, as its southern half is mostly industrial areas comprising the bulk of manufacturing in Isana; however extensive efforts to make the area cleaner and greener have also paid off, and most people even in Isana do not know the area is an industrial district.

==Site and Situation==

The shape of Hinegaes remis follows the [[West Coast Highway]] that stretches down the coast of [[Masalne]] island, and development centres around the four large expressway junctions where the city highways of Isana meet the trunk highway. Stretching in a belt to encompass the entire boundary between Isana and [[Feladmena Province]], its developments are mostly centred around the four major intersections where the city expressways meet the trunk highway. Hinegaes is more industrial in character than any other district in Isana, with the manufacturing plants concentrated around the south and southeast while the north is more residential. 

The Green Belt is the best-known feature of city planning in Hinegaes remis; several large parkland areas are linked by long park connectors built around former sections of irrigation canals and ponds, roughly following the course of the West Coast Highway and stretching for nearly the entire length of the remis. This forms the largest parkland area in the entire city, and its relative quiet makes it a favourite weekend outing spot for Isanani.

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant Buildings and Sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Naguse Province</title>
    <id>3546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16674</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-27T16:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Towns and Cities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Naguse Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Naguse denai''), also known as province 14, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated on [[Masalne]] along the northern coast of [[Uniwa Bay]]. It borders [[Lyonaske]] and [[Besurgana]] provinces on its north, and [[Osagona Province]] to its east. Its provincial capital is the city of [[Uniwaseimi]]. 

==Geography==

The southwestern half of Naguse province is dominated by rolling plains along the coast, making excellent terrain for ports; Uniwaseimi is situated near the eastern end of this plain, and several other major harbours also exist. Eastwards the plains fade into hilly forests and some extinct volcanoes, and farther east are the foothills and ranges of the [[Mathormagos]]. 

The variation of altitude also implies a large variation in climate and vegetation, from the mountain forests of the far east to the plains fed mostly by rain from May to July borne on the  mild west wind; while the climate on the plains is mostly mild, from August to September the seawinds can reach considerable strength, while in January the whole area is often very foggy. Snow is uncommon and mostly confined to the east.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Uniwaseimi]], the provincial capital

*[[Kaimu, Naguse|Kaimu]], a major highway town near the northern border

*[[Igonima]], a small city sometimes known as the Gateway to the Mountains, situated in the east

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garnoye remis</title>
    <id>3547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-05T03:31:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Site and Situation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Garnoye remis''', literally &quot;White Fort Area&quot;, is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of the city of [[Isana]], named after the iconic [[Garnoye]], or White Fort, which stands in the north of the area. To its north is the [[Waranye river]]. This remis is an important residential area, mostly for the more affluent of the city, and is mainly into seven residential districts, mostly occupied by high-rise apartments. At the same time it contains several of the city's major gardens, parks and public areas, as well as museums, especially in its western areas adjacent to [[Awenhine remis]].

During the early days of Isana, the area that is now Garnoye was an agricultural district, but also contained many military installations and public buildings, including the old building of the [[Afengar]], and [[Old Isana Train Station]]. Many of these buildings have been preserved, mostly in the vicinity of the Waranye river. 

==Site and Situation==

Garnoye is the largest district in the east of Isana, roughly occupying the areas formerly known as ''Konenime'', &quot;south of the hill&quot; (as opposed to [[Konebara-dego|''Konebara'']] &quot;above the hill&quot; which is now the eastern portion of [[Waranyebara remis]]) and ''Adunitaboga'', &quot;Aduni's Tower&quot;. The eponymous fort is in fact sited near the boundary between this remis and Waranyebara in the north, which is set along the [[Waranye river]]. 

The remis is presently mostly residential and commercial in nature, though pockets of land devoted to manufacturing and other industries still exist mostly in the southeast and east, where the remis adjoins [[Hinegaes remis|Hinegaes]] and [[Hirsa remis|Hirsa]]. While in the past it was touted as a suburban region in contrast to the densely populated western half of the city, in the 1970s to 2000s extensive development and movement of population from the west has brought it to a level of density approaching, and in some areas surpassing, that of [[Basetimena remis]] or [[Nimegose remis]].

From the 1950s on the idea of generally decentralised, mostly self-sufficient planned towns passed eastwards after its highly successful application in Basetimena; in 1966 the remis administration was redrawn, and 7 such new towns were set up, with most of the infrastructure being complete by the early 1970s. Keeping lessons learned from the west in mind, the Garnoye new towns are generally known to be more spacious and set farther apart from each other, separated by parklands and internal green belts.

==History==

The area now known as Garnoye remis was in fact not part of historical Isana, but Garnoye's history is nonetheless closely tied to that of the capital which once lay to its north, and it has served many roles in regard to the city, being variously its breadbasket, its prison, and in some cases its municipal government. In the early days of Isana's growth the rich lands of Garnoye proved an important breadbasket, and valuable land; in the [[Saumos ta Gauserin]] compiled in 878 DN Konenime, as well as Awenkara and Basetimena, were some of the richest and most populated rural lands across the [[Feladmena Plain]]. That most of the land this close to the capital was owned by wealthy families, as well as the proximity of the area to the capital itself, meant that extensive irrigation engineering and other works were far more advanced in this area; even now part of the extensive network of canals remains in the remis. 

With Garnoye fortress situated in its north, the area also took on a significant political and military role for the city; while foreign invasion was ostensibly a threat, given that the major rival of Masal was the [[Kingdom of Rarena]] to its south, an even closer fear was that of peasant rebellion. During the [[Committee of Guardians]], the threat was reversed with great resentment amongst the Isanani for the generals; the new government built its headquarters just south of Garnoye fortress itself, and even built a 730 metre tunnel linking the building to a side keep of Garnoye; at the same time the White Fort (which was painted white for the first time in 1736) was heavily fortified and served as prison and arsenal. Making use of the labour of convicts, the Committee originally planned to build a completely new city in this area, but disorganisation and generally poor planning hampered this task greatly; nonetheless considerable progress had been made in urbanising Garnoye, such that by the time of the 1827 Restoration the groundwork had been laid for the eastward expansion of the city, as the residence of the middle-class families.

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Waranyebara remis</title>
    <id>3548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T08:30:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Waranyebara remis''', literally meaning &quot;Area north of the Waranye&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of [[Isana]], in its northeast and bounded by the [[Old Walls]], forming its northern boundary, and the [[Waranye river]] to the south. 

The area of Waranyebara was one of the first areas to be considered part of Isana, forming the former merchants' quarter of the city; even now, two and a half centuries on, that economic legacy is easily seen in the buildings of the area. Famous for being a religious centre of modern-day Isana, it has scores of shrines and temples, as well as many other old districts, and is often touted as being representative of Isana as it was before the changes of the [[Ibakizaro]]. During the [[Fourth Global War]] the area was heavily bombed, but after the war efforts were made to restore the area rather than redevelop it.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant Buildings and Sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/about</title>
    <id>3549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21417</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:37:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>/* What is the Defining vocabulary anyway? */ Listed subpages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
__TOC__

== What is the Defining vocabulary anyway? ==

'''The Longman Defining Vocabulary''', from ''Longman Dictionary'' (1988){{ref|ldoce}}. 2197 words, 10 prefixes, 39 suffixes.

This is the set of words which the Longman English Dictionary uses to express all its definitions. As such, it may be a useful source of basic vocabulary for the designer of a conlang.

This version of the list is based on the one that used to be found on Jeffrey Kennaway's conlang page.  Since that page has now disappeared (I can't even find it on the [http://www.archive.org/ Internet Archive]!) I thought it may be a good idea to make it available to conlangers again.{{ref|Jeffrey}}

Note that the American spellings of the original have been replaced with British spellings by Jeffrey.

If you (as I expect! {{-)}}) want to copy the list in order to use it in your own vocabulary building you may want to look at the, which contain less extraneous text, especially [[Longman Defining Vocabulary/alphabetically]]:

&lt;dpl&gt;
  category=Longman Defining Vocabulary 
  nottitlematch=Longman Defining Vocabulary/index|Longman Defining Vocabulary
&lt;/dpl&gt;

If you want a more 'primitive' vocabulary you may want to have a look at Roger Mill's [[Basic Vocabulary]]

----
# {{note|ldoce}} The current incarnation of the ''Longman English dictionary'' is ''[http://www.longman.com/ldoce/ the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]''.  I don't know whether it still contains the Defining Vocabulary.  There are several v ersions: ISBN 978-1405811262, ISBN 978-1405811279, ISBN 978-0582506640.
# {{note|Jeffrey}} [http://www2.cmp.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang Jeffrey's conlang page] (which he himself regards as obsolete) was apparently only temporary unavailable.  The Defining vocabulary is [http://www2.cmp.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.dir/LongmanVocab.html here] but I hope this page may be a useful resource nevertheless.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== Word Class Labels	  ==

If a word has a specific word class label it is used in definitions only in the word class shown. Otherwise the word may be used in any of its usual word classes.

A = Adjective&lt;br&gt;
Av = Adverb&lt;br&gt;
C = Conjunction&lt;br&gt;
D = Determiner&lt;br&gt;
P = Preposition&lt;br&gt;
Pd = Predeterminer&lt;br&gt;
Pn = Pronoun&lt;br&gt;
N = Noun&lt;br&gt;
V = Verb&lt;br&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency (2)</title>
    <id>3551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21411</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:29:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;corn
&lt;li&gt;pan
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;limit
&lt;li&gt;who
&lt;li&gt;remark
&lt;li&gt;other
&lt;li&gt;fond
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;polite
&lt;li&gt;pole
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;basket
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;question
&lt;li&gt;packet
&lt;li&gt;until
&lt;li&gt;offer
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;fashionable
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;forward
&lt;li&gt;tent
&lt;li&gt;depend
&lt;li&gt;coin
&lt;li&gt;thank
&lt;li&gt;borrow
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;width
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;build
&lt;li&gt;repeat
&lt;li&gt;pencil
&lt;li&gt;timetable
&lt;li&gt;cheerful
&lt;li&gt;charm
&lt;li&gt;daily
&lt;li&gt;deal
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;argue
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;clear
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;handle
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;representative
&lt;li&gt;but
&lt;li&gt;thorough
&lt;li&gt;hunger
&lt;li&gt;tender
&lt;li&gt;patience
&lt;li&gt;employment
&lt;li&gt;own
&lt;li&gt;climb
&lt;li&gt;lamp
&lt;li&gt;advertisement
&lt;li&gt;tend
&lt;li&gt;gray
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;devil
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;mist
&lt;li&gt;doctor
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;ashamed
&lt;li&gt;arrive
&lt;li&gt;apparatus
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;wicked
&lt;li&gt;elbow
&lt;li&gt;behave
&lt;li&gt;alike
&lt;li&gt;signature
&lt;li&gt;lid
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;duck
&lt;li&gt;female
&lt;li&gt;attack
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;lead
&lt;li&gt;fill
&lt;li&gt;view
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;politician
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;stop
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;shoe
&lt;li&gt;visit
&lt;li&gt;gradual
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;notice
&lt;li&gt;beyond
&lt;li&gt;log
&lt;li&gt;diamond
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;thumb
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;outdoor
&lt;li&gt;temper
&lt;li&gt;field
&lt;li&gt;hatred
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;wrist
&lt;li&gt;pig
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;including
&lt;li&gt;stand
&lt;li&gt;awake
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;flour
&lt;li&gt;invention
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;theirs
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;church
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;foolish
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;bear
&lt;li&gt;reply
&lt;li&gt;lump
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;enjoyment
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;photography
&lt;li&gt;lamb
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;control
&lt;li&gt;cause
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;jump
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;patient
&lt;li&gt;employ
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;painting
&lt;li&gt;purple
&lt;li&gt;secretary
&lt;li&gt;organization
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;miss
&lt;li&gt;guess
&lt;li&gt;aloud
&lt;li&gt;bucket
&lt;li&gt;train
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;magic
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;rude
&lt;li&gt;permit
&lt;li&gt;owe
&lt;li&gt;exercise
&lt;li&gt;dark
&lt;li&gt;time
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;evil
&lt;li&gt;wheat
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;slow
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;leave
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;charge
&lt;li&gt;worse
&lt;li&gt;admiration
&lt;li&gt;notice
&lt;li&gt;magic
&lt;li&gt;vegetable
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;red
&lt;li&gt;ninth
&lt;li&gt;cliff
&lt;li&gt;break
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;world
&lt;li&gt;southern
&lt;li&gt;lion
&lt;li&gt;sink
&lt;li&gt;drawer
&lt;li&gt;jaw
&lt;li&gt;amusement
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;faithful
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;search
&lt;li&gt;excuse
&lt;li&gt;demand
&lt;li&gt;dance
&lt;li&gt;uniform
&lt;li&gt;gold
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;report
&lt;li&gt;shoot
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;belong
&lt;li&gt;fun
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;name
&lt;li&gt;flow
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;complain
&lt;li&gt;pepper
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;hook
&lt;li&gt;dirt
&lt;li&gt;service
&lt;li&gt;blade
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;east
&lt;li&gt;direct
&lt;li&gt;cheap
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;lung
&lt;li&gt;check
&lt;li&gt;decoration
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;hammer
&lt;li&gt;visit
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;train
&lt;li&gt;jealous
&lt;li&gt;combine
&lt;li&gt;cause
&lt;li&gt;try
&lt;li&gt;experience
&lt;li&gt;burial
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;public
&lt;li&gt;influence
&lt;li&gt;lend
&lt;li&gt;liquid
&lt;li&gt;still
&lt;li&gt;stone
&lt;li&gt;compound
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;chalk
&lt;li&gt;shield
&lt;li&gt;rule
&lt;li&gt;please
&lt;li&gt;regard
&lt;li&gt;university
&lt;li&gt;slip
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;lie
&lt;li&gt;indoor
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;fix
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;worry
&lt;li&gt;outside
&lt;li&gt;pretend
&lt;li&gt;verb
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;deer
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;fox
&lt;li&gt;ruler
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;fox
&lt;li&gt;whichever
&lt;li&gt;watch
&lt;li&gt;potato
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;dry
&lt;li&gt;big
&lt;li&gt;stay
&lt;li&gt;slave
&lt;li&gt;hurry
&lt;li&gt;approve
&lt;li&gt;separate
&lt;li&gt;drum
&lt;li&gt;prepare
&lt;li&gt;loud
&lt;li&gt;false
&lt;li&gt;elephant
&lt;li&gt;sharp
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;deserve
&lt;li&gt;youth
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;barrel
&lt;li&gt;football
&lt;li&gt;beard
&lt;li&gt;lately
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;wild
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;besides
&lt;li&gt;cure
&lt;li&gt;manage
&lt;li&gt;way
&lt;li&gt;loud
&lt;li&gt;appoint
&lt;li&gt;hospital
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;slip
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;common
&lt;li&gt;orange
&lt;li&gt;bath
&lt;li&gt;course
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;small
&lt;li&gt;law
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;hold
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;sideways
&lt;li&gt;bicycle
&lt;li&gt;damage
&lt;li&gt;gather
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;sticky
&lt;li&gt;building
&lt;li&gt;ankle
&lt;li&gt;true
&lt;li&gt;stiff
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;invite
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;free
&lt;li&gt;city
&lt;li&gt;honourable
&lt;li&gt;uniform
&lt;li&gt;uniform
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;harmful
&lt;li&gt;dead
&lt;li&gt;doubt
&lt;li&gt;fairy
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;fat
&lt;li&gt;sister
&lt;li&gt;liquid
&lt;li&gt;safe
&lt;li&gt;coast
&lt;li&gt;upstairs
&lt;li&gt;similarity
&lt;li&gt;lazy
&lt;li&gt;garden
&lt;li&gt;candle
&lt;li&gt;sing
&lt;li&gt;possess
&lt;li&gt;burn
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;representative
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;kill
&lt;li&gt;drop
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;rod
&lt;li&gt;poison
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;sore
&lt;li&gt;offensive
&lt;li&gt;catch
&lt;li&gt;ring
&lt;li&gt;owing_to
&lt;li&gt;trade
&lt;li&gt;least
&lt;li&gt;justice
&lt;li&gt;encourage
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;smile
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;forgive
&lt;li&gt;pray
&lt;li&gt;sleep
&lt;li&gt;just
&lt;li&gt;blame
&lt;li&gt;cruelty
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;horn
&lt;li&gt;general
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;art
&lt;li&gt;warn
&lt;li&gt;loud
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;breathe
&lt;li&gt;perform
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;scenery
&lt;li&gt;promise
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;care
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;an
&lt;li&gt;secretary
&lt;li&gt;thread
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;feel
&lt;li&gt;improve
&lt;li&gt;circular
&lt;li&gt;we
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;insect
&lt;li&gt;port
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;circular
&lt;li&gt;pence
&lt;li&gt;grave
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;garden
&lt;li&gt;calculate
&lt;li&gt;belong
&lt;li&gt;tidy
&lt;li&gt;grave
&lt;li&gt;possess
&lt;li&gt;imaginary
&lt;li&gt;wall
&lt;li&gt;pin
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;waiter
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;hopeless
&lt;li&gt;far
&lt;li&gt;tribe
&lt;li&gt;transparent
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;attempt
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;treat
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;jump
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;roll
&lt;li&gt;liquid
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;tower
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;hopeful
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;television
&lt;li&gt;dare
&lt;li&gt;cardboard
&lt;li&gt;oneself
&lt;li&gt;intend
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;procession
&lt;li&gt;party
&lt;li&gt;dance
&lt;li&gt;local
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;free
&lt;li&gt;jealousy
&lt;li&gt;bad
&lt;li&gt;prevent
&lt;li&gt;civilization
&lt;li&gt;rubber
&lt;li&gt;deal
&lt;li&gt;dare
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;handkerchief
&lt;li&gt;decay
&lt;li&gt;flat
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;village
&lt;li&gt;guide
&lt;li&gt;thief
&lt;li&gt;thunder
&lt;li&gt;past
&lt;li&gt;honesty
&lt;li&gt;dress
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;catch
&lt;li&gt;trade
&lt;li&gt;collect
&lt;li&gt;officer
&lt;li&gt;bullet
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;moon
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;correct
&lt;li&gt;stick
&lt;li&gt;search
&lt;li&gt;dismiss
&lt;li&gt;pink
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;cord
&lt;li&gt;wish
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;ring
&lt;li&gt;armour
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;complete
&lt;li&gt;treat
&lt;li&gt;swim
&lt;li&gt;lean
&lt;li&gt;hardship
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;steal
&lt;li&gt;guess
&lt;li&gt;fireplace
&lt;li&gt;yellow
&lt;li&gt;grave
&lt;li&gt;break
&lt;li&gt;balance
&lt;li&gt;descriptive
&lt;li&gt;decrease
&lt;li&gt;dare
&lt;li&gt;consist
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;relative
&lt;li&gt;president
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;say
&lt;li&gt;dead
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;icy
&lt;li&gt;urge
&lt;li&gt;declare
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;draw
&lt;li&gt;garment
&lt;li&gt;explosive
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;sense
&lt;li&gt;roll
&lt;li&gt;harmless
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;travel
&lt;li&gt;separate
&lt;li&gt;zero
&lt;li&gt;trunk
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;voyage
&lt;li&gt;private
&lt;li&gt;computer
&lt;li&gt;shout
&lt;li&gt;onion
&lt;li&gt;mirror
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;knot
&lt;li&gt;tax
&lt;li&gt;doubt
&lt;li&gt;spoon
&lt;li&gt;employ
&lt;li&gt;specialist
&lt;li&gt;bear
&lt;li&gt;sun
&lt;li&gt;secrecy
&lt;li&gt;indoors
&lt;li&gt;great
&lt;li&gt;range
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;the
&lt;li&gt;standard
&lt;li&gt;religion
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;obtain
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;heel
&lt;li&gt;fork
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;upright
&lt;li&gt;palace
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;more
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;nut
&lt;li&gt;lie
&lt;li&gt;chimney
&lt;li&gt;stem
&lt;li&gt;ripe
&lt;li&gt;lightning
&lt;li&gt;feed
&lt;li&gt;copper
&lt;li&gt;main
&lt;li&gt;lower
&lt;li&gt;delay
&lt;li&gt;tooth
&lt;li&gt;prove
&lt;li&gt;bite
&lt;li&gt;refuse
&lt;li&gt;nylon
&lt;li&gt;ink
&lt;li&gt;sour
&lt;li&gt;social
&lt;li&gt;short
&lt;li&gt;record
&lt;li&gt;print
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;bear
&lt;li&gt;oppose
&lt;li&gt;obedience
&lt;li&gt;hotel
&lt;li&gt;above
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;admit
&lt;li&gt;slow
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;combine
&lt;li&gt;amusing
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;field
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;strike
&lt;li&gt;arrange
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;competitor
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;store
&lt;li&gt;list
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;whisper
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;climb
&lt;li&gt;fish
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;attend
&lt;li&gt;stay
&lt;li&gt;musician
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;cement
&lt;li&gt;block
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;amount
&lt;li&gt;evil
&lt;li&gt;establish
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;tower
&lt;li&gt;stretch
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;rubber
&lt;li&gt;respect
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;noun
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;whip
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;minute
&lt;li&gt;breadth
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;tie
&lt;li&gt;obey
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;fire
&lt;li&gt;dot
&lt;li&gt;dot
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;object
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;spot
&lt;li&gt;repair
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;ash
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;drop
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;airport
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;demand
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;threaten
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;roll
&lt;li&gt;quality
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;harm
&lt;li&gt;pray
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;own
&lt;li&gt;gold
&lt;li&gt;fort
&lt;li&gt;answer
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;pence
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;drag
&lt;li&gt;offensive
&lt;li&gt;careless
&lt;li&gt;respect
&lt;li&gt;finish
&lt;li&gt;feed
&lt;li&gt;extreme
&lt;li&gt;state
&lt;li&gt;sink
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;flow
&lt;li&gt;microscope
&lt;li&gt;consist
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;low
&lt;li&gt;answer
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;orange
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;introduce
&lt;li&gt;fox
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;miss
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;tiger
&lt;li&gt;human
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;taste
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;favour
&lt;li&gt;steady
&lt;li&gt;pronunciation
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;examine
&lt;li&gt;doubt
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;object
&lt;li&gt;monkey
&lt;li&gt;tear
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;mineral
&lt;li&gt;ready
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;sorrow
&lt;li&gt;produce
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;love
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;wait
&lt;li&gt;ocean
&lt;li&gt;green
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;toe
&lt;li&gt;today
&lt;li&gt;promise
&lt;li&gt;college
&lt;li&gt;clothing
&lt;li&gt;stiff
&lt;li&gt;gate
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;small
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;electric
&lt;li&gt;tie
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;gather
&lt;li&gt;tyre
&lt;li&gt;wide
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;lamb
&lt;li&gt;jelly
&lt;li&gt;hill
&lt;li&gt;dress
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;live
&lt;li&gt;enclosure
&lt;li&gt;effect
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;mix
&lt;li&gt;prince
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;ash
&lt;li&gt;must
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;copy
&lt;li&gt;push
&lt;li&gt;litre
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;bee
&lt;li&gt;struggle
&lt;li&gt;bad
&lt;li&gt;adjective
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;atom
&lt;li&gt;ditch
&lt;li&gt;spin
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;defeat
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;stick
&lt;li&gt;limb
&lt;li&gt;so
&lt;li&gt;exchange
&lt;li&gt;recognize
&lt;li&gt;pan
&lt;li&gt;frightening
&lt;li&gt;rest
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;likely
&lt;li&gt;teach
&lt;li&gt;merry
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;country
&lt;li&gt;nice
&lt;li&gt;pick
&lt;li&gt;colour
&lt;li&gt;study
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;mat
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;view
&lt;li&gt;protect
&lt;li&gt;pack
&lt;li&gt;please
&lt;li&gt;name
&lt;li&gt;goat
&lt;li&gt;glue
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;national
&lt;li&gt;practice
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;pastry
&lt;li&gt;cough
&lt;li&gt;lower
&lt;li&gt;sweep
&lt;li&gt;pack
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;meter
&lt;li&gt;annoyance
&lt;li&gt;sincere
&lt;li&gt;murder
&lt;li&gt;entertain
&lt;li&gt;seize
&lt;li&gt;forgive
&lt;li&gt;connect
&lt;li&gt;yard
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;private
&lt;li&gt;defeat
&lt;li&gt;slippery
&lt;li&gt;solemn
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;hand
&lt;li&gt;attract
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;settle
&lt;li&gt;infectious
&lt;li&gt;bless
&lt;li&gt;think
&lt;li&gt;hospital
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;greet
&lt;li&gt;anyhow
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;fort
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;bind
&lt;li&gt;wait
&lt;li&gt;translate
&lt;li&gt;result
&lt;li&gt;remind
&lt;li&gt;swim
&lt;li&gt;surprise
&lt;li&gt;feel
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;evening
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;supply
&lt;li&gt;repeat
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;dry
&lt;li&gt;address
&lt;li&gt;sleep
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;try
&lt;li&gt;figure
&lt;li&gt;gain
&lt;li&gt;correct
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;banana
&lt;li&gt;sharp
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;cure
&lt;li&gt;touch
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;mention
&lt;li&gt;matter
&lt;li&gt;miss
&lt;li&gt;limit
&lt;li&gt;influence
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;forest
&lt;li&gt;mix
&lt;li&gt;command
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;lack
&lt;li&gt;cycle
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;touch
&lt;li&gt;tear
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;criminal
&lt;li&gt;bury
&lt;li&gt;bite
&lt;li&gt;bean
&lt;li&gt;poisonous
&lt;li&gt;graceful
&lt;li&gt;feed
&lt;li&gt;admire
&lt;li&gt;hen
&lt;li&gt;but
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;scissors
&lt;li&gt;grand
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;rain
&lt;li&gt;humorous
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;fit
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;say
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;produce
&lt;li&gt;hollow
&lt;li&gt;frightening
&lt;li&gt;lack
&lt;li&gt;hand
&lt;li&gt;deserve
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;temple
&lt;li&gt;messenger
&lt;li&gt;hollow
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;telephone
&lt;li&gt;plant
&lt;li&gt;page
&lt;li&gt;ant
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;swallow
&lt;li&gt;hurry
&lt;li&gt;experience
&lt;li&gt;shout
&lt;li&gt;make
&lt;li&gt;tax
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;spoil
&lt;li&gt;repair
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;service
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;crime
&lt;li&gt;production
&lt;li&gt;winter
&lt;li&gt;want
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;upside_down
&lt;li&gt;exercise
&lt;li&gt;body
&lt;li&gt;account
&lt;li&gt;telephone
&lt;li&gt;swear
&lt;li&gt;salt
&lt;li&gt;question
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;hairy
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;common
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;lift
&lt;li&gt;fire
&lt;li&gt;election
&lt;li&gt;greeting
&lt;li&gt;discourage
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;magazine
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;agreement
&lt;li&gt;worry
&lt;li&gt;wander
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;build
&lt;li&gt;quarrel
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;print
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;li&gt;request
&lt;li&gt;pull
&lt;li&gt;gain
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;flight
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;born
&lt;li&gt;shop
&lt;li&gt;shoot
&lt;li&gt;lift
&lt;li&gt;vowel
&lt;li&gt;test
&lt;li&gt;footpath
&lt;li&gt;devil
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;invite
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;stone
&lt;li&gt;mix
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;host
&lt;li&gt;any
&lt;li&gt;stretch
&lt;li&gt;nurse
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;weigh
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;destroy
&lt;li&gt;command
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;take
&lt;li&gt;jump
&lt;li&gt;confuse
&lt;li&gt;temple
&lt;li&gt;smile
&lt;li&gt;finish
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;navy
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;race
&lt;li&gt;joy
&lt;li&gt;do
&lt;li&gt;bath
&lt;li&gt;rod
&lt;li&gt;heaven
&lt;li&gt;burn
&lt;li&gt;want
&lt;li&gt;request
&lt;li&gt;pretend
&lt;li&gt;solid
&lt;li&gt;contract
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;delay
&lt;li&gt;rich
&lt;li&gt;punish
&lt;li&gt;page
&lt;li&gt;metric
&lt;li&gt;go
&lt;li&gt;escape
&lt;li&gt;dependent
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;drag
&lt;li&gt;laugh
&lt;li&gt;screw
&lt;li&gt;mountain
&lt;li&gt;wood
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;govern
&lt;li&gt;behave
&lt;li&gt;excuse
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;curse
&lt;li&gt;warm
&lt;li&gt;marry
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;wear
&lt;li&gt;track
&lt;li&gt;suit
&lt;li&gt;particular
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;courage
&lt;li&gt;charge
&lt;li&gt;plant
&lt;li&gt;loaf
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;wreck
&lt;li&gt;tennis
&lt;li&gt;might
&lt;li&gt;lower
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;magazine
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;railway
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;military
&lt;li&gt;interruption
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;frighten
&lt;li&gt;cheer
&lt;li&gt;blame
&lt;li&gt;advertise
&lt;li&gt;witness
&lt;li&gt;shell
&lt;li&gt;position
&lt;li&gt;death
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;match
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;bird
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;compete
&lt;li&gt;alike
&lt;li&gt;stair
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;list
&lt;li&gt;jewel
&lt;li&gt;swear
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;berry
&lt;li&gt;ruin
&lt;li&gt;mineral
&lt;li&gt;interrupt
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;easy
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;calculator
&lt;li&gt;snow
&lt;li&gt;cricket
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;unite
&lt;li&gt;ruin
&lt;li&gt;promise
&lt;li&gt;juice
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;jump
&lt;li&gt;morals
&lt;li&gt;contract
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;elect
&lt;li&gt;sweep
&lt;li&gt;hasty
&lt;li&gt;bell
&lt;li&gt;backward
&lt;li&gt;tender
&lt;li&gt;street
&lt;li&gt;succeed
&lt;li&gt;fish
&lt;li&gt;case
&lt;li&gt;boil
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;rub
&lt;li&gt;awake
&lt;li&gt;wear
&lt;li&gt;sign
&lt;li&gt;lodgings
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;ship
&lt;li&gt;winter
&lt;li&gt;profit
&lt;li&gt;circular
&lt;li&gt;threaten
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;captain
&lt;li&gt;slip
&lt;li&gt;race
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;village
&lt;li&gt;complain
&lt;li&gt;chemistry
&lt;li&gt;urge
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;group
&lt;li&gt;advise
&lt;li&gt;sugar
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;pick
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;shop
&lt;li&gt;hurry
&lt;li&gt;building
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;choice
&lt;li&gt;bury
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;pause
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;belong
&lt;li&gt;witness
&lt;li&gt;stem
&lt;li&gt;multiply
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;decrease
&lt;li&gt;short
&lt;li&gt;go
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;broad
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;wind
&lt;li&gt;mass
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;ill
&lt;li&gt;funeral
&lt;li&gt;inwards
&lt;li&gt;argue
&lt;li&gt;signal
&lt;li&gt;load
&lt;li&gt;town
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;without
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;heat
&lt;li&gt;cap
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;fisherman
&lt;li&gt;council
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;upright
&lt;li&gt;real
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;laugh
&lt;li&gt;direct
&lt;li&gt;in
&lt;li&gt;dip
&lt;li&gt;dark
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;invent
&lt;li&gt;so
&lt;li&gt;sale
&lt;li&gt;art
&lt;li&gt;heat
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;road
&lt;li&gt;lean
&lt;li&gt;sweet
&lt;li&gt;regard
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;rubber
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;harm
&lt;li&gt;educate
&lt;li&gt;cliff
&lt;li&gt;worry
&lt;li&gt;stretch
&lt;li&gt;sense
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;desire
&lt;li&gt;study
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;encourage
&lt;li&gt;climb
&lt;li&gt;ball
&lt;li&gt;rule
&lt;li&gt;deliver
&lt;li&gt;cry
&lt;li&gt;bake
&lt;li&gt;warm
&lt;li&gt;breathe
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;borrow
&lt;li&gt;spring
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;pin
&lt;li&gt;network
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;father
&lt;li&gt;exchange
&lt;li&gt;thirsty
&lt;li&gt;sale
&lt;li&gt;drown
&lt;li&gt;trouble
&lt;li&gt;spade
&lt;li&gt;lack
&lt;li&gt;habitual
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;corner
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;elastic
&lt;li&gt;trouble
&lt;li&gt;spring
&lt;li&gt;rain
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;copy
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;tie
&lt;li&gt;name
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;instruct
&lt;li&gt;station
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;reach
&lt;li&gt;favour
&lt;li&gt;explode
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;breakfast
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;not
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;treatment
&lt;li&gt;strike
&lt;li&gt;store
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;owe
&lt;li&gt;foreigner
&lt;li&gt;brush
&lt;li&gt;moon
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;sort
&lt;li&gt;noble
&lt;li&gt;lend
&lt;li&gt;away
&lt;li&gt;witness
&lt;li&gt;urge
&lt;li&gt;of
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;short
&lt;li&gt;insure
&lt;li&gt;alphabet
&lt;li&gt;admire
&lt;li&gt;wear
&lt;li&gt;sick
&lt;li&gt;yearly
&lt;li&gt;purple
&lt;li&gt;mineral
&lt;li&gt;center
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;concerning
&lt;li&gt;warn
&lt;li&gt;upright
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;rest
&lt;li&gt;police
&lt;li&gt;time
&lt;li&gt;thirst
&lt;li&gt;interruption
&lt;li&gt;connect
&lt;li&gt;border
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;sea
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;rid
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;beak
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;record
&lt;li&gt;zero
&lt;li&gt;wise
&lt;li&gt;meaning
&lt;li&gt;descend
&lt;li&gt;handle
&lt;li&gt;enclose
&lt;li&gt;waste
&lt;li&gt;spring
&lt;li&gt;host
&lt;li&gt;load
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;effect
&lt;li&gt;creep
&lt;li&gt;burn
&lt;li&gt;boil
&lt;li&gt;search
&lt;li&gt;beneath
&lt;li&gt;ache
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;burn
&lt;li&gt;make
&lt;li&gt;lean
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;detail
&lt;li&gt;election
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;strange
&lt;li&gt;it
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;refuse
&lt;li&gt;limit
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;catch
&lt;li&gt;wind
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;castle
&lt;li&gt;brush
&lt;li&gt;wave
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;pack
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;sum
&lt;li&gt;practice
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;slip
&lt;li&gt;picture
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;attack
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;flat
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;leaf
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;offend
&lt;li&gt;decimal
&lt;li&gt;tube
&lt;li&gt;son
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;reward
&lt;li&gt;rate
&lt;li&gt;permit
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;but
&lt;li&gt;bitter
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;view
&lt;li&gt;sink
&lt;li&gt;pause
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;cry
&lt;li&gt;singular
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;cheer
&lt;li&gt;boot
&lt;li&gt;worst
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;train
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;silence
&lt;li&gt;related
&lt;li&gt;meet
&lt;li&gt;low
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;treat
&lt;li&gt;moral
&lt;li&gt;hook
&lt;li&gt;comb
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;permit
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;hot
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;favour
&lt;li&gt;dress
&lt;li&gt;behave
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;line
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;magician
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;cotton
&lt;li&gt;brother
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;wrap
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;oppose
&lt;li&gt;damage
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;shoot
&lt;li&gt;off
&lt;li&gt;may
&lt;li&gt;born
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;suck
&lt;li&gt;range
&lt;li&gt;market
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;fix
&lt;li&gt;climb
&lt;li&gt;fix
&lt;li&gt;print
&lt;li&gt;mend
&lt;li&gt;brush
&lt;li&gt;undo
&lt;li&gt;tourist
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;title
&lt;li&gt;strong
&lt;li&gt;rate
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;formerly
&lt;li&gt;shopkeeper
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;find
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;respectful
&lt;li&gt;business
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;reply
&lt;li&gt;quick
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;gram
&lt;li&gt;farmer
&lt;li&gt;wall
&lt;li&gt;threat
&lt;li&gt;smooth
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;ball
&lt;li&gt;an
&lt;li&gt;swim
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;pity
&lt;li&gt;elastic
&lt;li&gt;cliff
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;spite
&lt;li&gt;fish
&lt;li&gt;blue
&lt;li&gt;pronounce
&lt;li&gt;poetry
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;empty
&lt;li&gt;decorate
&lt;li&gt;cultivate
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;growth
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;multiply
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;figure
&lt;li&gt;bowels
&lt;li&gt;sport
&lt;li&gt;preserve
&lt;li&gt;opposite
&lt;li&gt;mother
&lt;li&gt;likely
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;shore
&lt;li&gt;murder
&lt;li&gt;declare
&lt;li&gt;box
&lt;li&gt;son
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;obedient
&lt;li&gt;deceive
&lt;li&gt;calculate
&lt;li&gt;shout
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;clerk
&lt;li&gt;steal
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;live
&lt;li&gt;buy
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;forbid
&lt;li&gt;curl
&lt;li&gt;spin
&lt;li&gt;picture
&lt;li&gt;lion
&lt;li&gt;fool
&lt;li&gt;busy
&lt;li&gt;pull
&lt;li&gt;iron
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;behind
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;battle
&lt;li&gt;public
&lt;li&gt;profit
&lt;li&gt;lamp
&lt;li&gt;hollow
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;western
&lt;li&gt;surround
&lt;li&gt;defense
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;build
&lt;li&gt;annoy
&lt;li&gt;lightning
&lt;li&gt;current
&lt;li&gt;opponent
&lt;li&gt;guide
&lt;li&gt;crush
&lt;li&gt;balance
&lt;li&gt;stomach
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;painting
&lt;li&gt;neighbourhood
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;fair
&lt;li&gt;doctor
&lt;li&gt;be
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;than
&lt;li&gt;prickly
&lt;li&gt;political
&lt;li&gt;youth
&lt;li&gt;truth
&lt;li&gt;stranger
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;handle
&lt;li&gt;coffee
&lt;li&gt;charge
&lt;li&gt;sugar
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;tidy
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;soil
&lt;li&gt;sock
&lt;li&gt;red
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;me
&lt;li&gt;heavy
&lt;li&gt;approve
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;silk
&lt;li&gt;rub
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;crush
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;through
&lt;li&gt;arms
&lt;li&gt;television
&lt;li&gt;skirt
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;find
&lt;li&gt;clear
&lt;li&gt;cheat
&lt;li&gt;cheap
&lt;li&gt;yard
&lt;li&gt;satisfy
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;colour
&lt;li&gt;stem
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;worship
&lt;li&gt;plural
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;scale
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;pupil
&lt;li&gt;detail
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;battle
&lt;li&gt;suit
&lt;li&gt;dance
&lt;li&gt;amuse
&lt;li&gt;think
&lt;li&gt;slow
&lt;li&gt;senseless
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;lady
&lt;li&gt;compound
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;steady
&lt;li&gt;object
&lt;li&gt;to
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;hear
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;ancient
&lt;li&gt;shirt
&lt;li&gt;photograph
&lt;li&gt;outdoors
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;pig
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;white
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;tender
&lt;li&gt;shame
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;hourly
&lt;li&gt;block
&lt;li&gt;slight
&lt;li&gt;furnish
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;drag
&lt;li&gt;defend
&lt;li&gt;copy
&lt;li&gt;rob
&lt;li&gt;judge
&lt;li&gt;branch
&lt;li&gt;refuse
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;book
&lt;li&gt;sign
&lt;li&gt;shoulder
&lt;li&gt;respect
&lt;li&gt;request
&lt;li&gt;kill
&lt;li&gt;joy
&lt;li&gt;guess
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;pole
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;gather
&lt;li&gt;stiff
&lt;li&gt;side
&lt;li&gt;guidance
&lt;li&gt;customer
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;backward
&lt;li&gt;afford
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;then
&lt;li&gt;shout
&lt;li&gt;mistake
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;fashion
&lt;li&gt;chicken
&lt;li&gt;wrap
&lt;li&gt;weigh
&lt;li&gt;serious
&lt;li&gt;rain
&lt;li&gt;permit
&lt;li&gt;escape
&lt;li&gt;charm
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;relative
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;position
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;wander
&lt;li&gt;singular
&lt;li&gt;opinion
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;excite
&lt;li&gt;school
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;mixture
&lt;li&gt;mention
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;but
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;worth
&lt;li&gt;single
&lt;li&gt;shock
&lt;li&gt;outdoors
&lt;li&gt;frame
&lt;li&gt;descend
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;surprise
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;march
&lt;li&gt;inquire
&lt;li&gt;hundredth
&lt;li&gt;buy
&lt;li&gt;value
&lt;li&gt;tail
&lt;li&gt;shield
&lt;li&gt;international
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;admit
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;decay
&lt;li&gt;coward
&lt;li&gt;protection
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;disappoint
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;pleased
&lt;li&gt;pin
&lt;li&gt;lodging
&lt;li&gt;govern
&lt;li&gt;whisper
&lt;li&gt;tiger
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;obey
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;tremble
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;partner
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;radio
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;flow
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;bird
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;me
&lt;li&gt;farmyard
&lt;li&gt;sweet
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;take
&lt;li&gt;pan
&lt;li&gt;decision
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;keep
&lt;li&gt;greeting
&lt;li&gt;dip
&lt;li&gt;brave
&lt;li&gt;violence
&lt;li&gt;sight
&lt;li&gt;repeat
&lt;li&gt;kilo
&lt;li&gt;devil
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;ash
&lt;li&gt;forward
&lt;li&gt;eyelid
&lt;li&gt;center
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;main
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;equality
&lt;li&gt;dust
&lt;li&gt;special
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;evening
&lt;li&gt;basket
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;deceit
&lt;li&gt;tell
&lt;li&gt;tear
&lt;li&gt;some
&lt;li&gt;shoot
&lt;li&gt;punishment
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;hunt
&lt;li&gt;heaven
&lt;li&gt;creep
&lt;li&gt;cowardly
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;wrap
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;swallow
&lt;li&gt;heat
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;citizen
&lt;li&gt;centimetre
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;remark
&lt;li&gt;question
&lt;li&gt;payment
&lt;li&gt;parliament
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;desire
&lt;li&gt;delight
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;fill
&lt;li&gt;boil
&lt;li&gt;taste
&lt;li&gt;backward
&lt;li&gt;willing
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;push
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;lamb
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;mirror
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;empty
&lt;li&gt;drive
&lt;li&gt;amount
&lt;li&gt;spacecraft
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;fool
&lt;li&gt;faint
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;struggle
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;perfect
&lt;li&gt;keep
&lt;li&gt;ink
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;guilt
&lt;li&gt;excuse
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;noise
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;harden
&lt;li&gt;dip
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;screw
&lt;li&gt;scale
&lt;li&gt;coward
&lt;li&gt;company
&lt;li&gt;bury
&lt;li&gt;broadcast
&lt;li&gt;birthday
&lt;li&gt;armour
&lt;li&gt;smile
&lt;li&gt;pray
&lt;li&gt;load
&lt;li&gt;home
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;examine
&lt;li&gt;contents
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;fashion
&lt;li&gt;end
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;command
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;wreck
&lt;li&gt;tight
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;people
&lt;li&gt;interest
&lt;li&gt;explosive
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;chair
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;screw
&lt;li&gt;scatter
&lt;li&gt;list
&lt;li&gt;enclose
&lt;li&gt;sort
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;pause
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;coat
&lt;li&gt;blame
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;agreement
&lt;li&gt;tobacco
&lt;li&gt;shelter
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;hammer
&lt;li&gt;fork
&lt;li&gt;entertainment
&lt;li&gt;decrease
&lt;li&gt;bind
&lt;li&gt;sink
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;neck
&lt;li&gt;iron
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;boot
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;signal
&lt;li&gt;narrow
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;rod
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;photograph
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;decay
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;acid
&lt;li&gt;tune
&lt;li&gt;swallow
&lt;li&gt;cheat
&lt;li&gt;chair
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;appoint
&lt;li&gt;weave
&lt;li&gt;root
&lt;li&gt;phrase
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;reply
&lt;li&gt;preserve
&lt;li&gt;nobleman
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;decimal
&lt;li&gt;way
&lt;li&gt;type
&lt;li&gt;side
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;film
&lt;li&gt;criminal
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;advise
&lt;li&gt;trick
&lt;li&gt;scientific
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;cough
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;reward
&lt;li&gt;persuade
&lt;li&gt;offensive
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;teach
&lt;li&gt;steep
&lt;li&gt;spoon
&lt;li&gt;plural
&lt;li&gt;mile
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;he
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;entertain
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;ankle
&lt;li&gt;wave
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;quick
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;international
&lt;li&gt;dust
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;combine
&lt;li&gt;air
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;surround
&lt;li&gt;representative
&lt;li&gt;quarrel
&lt;li&gt;direct
&lt;li&gt;chase
&lt;li&gt;between
&lt;li&gt;shelf
&lt;li&gt;sense
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;health
&lt;li&gt;group
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;cotton
&lt;li&gt;clockwork
&lt;li&gt;cinema
&lt;li&gt;cheek
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;awkward
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;temper
&lt;li&gt;sweep
&lt;li&gt;lot
&lt;li&gt;lodging
&lt;li&gt;cycle
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;blue
&lt;li&gt;address
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;tidy
&lt;li&gt;spin
&lt;li&gt;shield
&lt;li&gt;poison
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;whip
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;unite
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;terror
&lt;li&gt;sideways
&lt;li&gt;prize
&lt;li&gt;hook
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;dip
&lt;li&gt;courage
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;chairperson
&lt;li&gt;bite
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;stem
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;decorate
&lt;li&gt;committee
&lt;li&gt;advertise
&lt;li&gt;vehicle
&lt;li&gt;frightening
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;foolish
&lt;li&gt;dismiss
&lt;li&gt;determined
&lt;li&gt;curl
&lt;li&gt;cure
&lt;li&gt;clerk
&lt;li&gt;cinema
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;snow
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;hook
&lt;li&gt;duck
&lt;li&gt;desire
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;button
&lt;li&gt;bite
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;rapid
&lt;li&gt;island
&lt;li&gt;harden
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;fix
&lt;li&gt;fancy
&lt;li&gt;dark
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;variety
&lt;li&gt;thread
&lt;li&gt;spot
&lt;li&gt;quality
&lt;li&gt;greet
&lt;li&gt;butter
&lt;li&gt;boy
&lt;li&gt;valley
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;mend
&lt;li&gt;habit
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;cough
&lt;li&gt;cheer
&lt;li&gt;trunk
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;nurse
&lt;li&gt;land
&lt;li&gt;film
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;bleed
&lt;li&gt;animal
&lt;li&gt;track
&lt;li&gt;sweep
&lt;li&gt;suck
&lt;li&gt;spoil
&lt;li&gt;sew
&lt;li&gt;seize
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;iron
&lt;li&gt;government
&lt;li&gt;duck
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;trust
&lt;li&gt;true
&lt;li&gt;remark
&lt;li&gt;limb
&lt;li&gt;faint
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;division
&lt;li&gt;clerk
&lt;li&gt;surround
&lt;li&gt;smooth
&lt;li&gt;silence
&lt;li&gt;shore
&lt;li&gt;shock
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;forward
&lt;li&gt;delight
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;rub
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;court
&lt;li&gt;bless
&lt;li&gt;glue
&lt;li&gt;delay
&lt;li&gt;breakfast
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;whip
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;slow
&lt;li&gt;scatter
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;meet
&lt;li&gt;kill
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;chief
&lt;li&gt;artificial
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;mother
&lt;li&gt;morning
&lt;li&gt;mistake
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;it
&lt;li&gt;guest
&lt;li&gt;fill
&lt;li&gt;edge
&lt;li&gt;bathe
&lt;li&gt;wrap
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;tire
&lt;li&gt;sore
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;recognition
&lt;li&gt;lock
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;interrupt
&lt;li&gt;fire
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;cent
&lt;li&gt;cap
&lt;li&gt;bit
&lt;li&gt;you
&lt;li&gt;tune
&lt;li&gt;shoulder
&lt;li&gt;poem
&lt;li&gt;bridge
&lt;li&gt;bake
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;weave
&lt;li&gt;tiger
&lt;li&gt;stage
&lt;li&gt;spin
&lt;li&gt;row
&lt;li&gt;jaw
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;forbid
&lt;li&gt;excited
&lt;li&gt;courage
&lt;li&gt;club
&lt;li&gt;attendance
&lt;li&gt;wing
&lt;li&gt;swim
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;office
&lt;li&gt;myself
&lt;li&gt;kneel
&lt;li&gt;faith
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;consonant
&lt;li&gt;bake
&lt;li&gt;yet
&lt;li&gt;sympathetic
&lt;li&gt;ship
&lt;li&gt;royal
&lt;li&gt;historical
&lt;li&gt;consonant
&lt;li&gt;computer
&lt;li&gt;struggle
&lt;li&gt;spread
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;representative
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;main
&lt;li&gt;lump
&lt;li&gt;high
&lt;li&gt;fasten
&lt;li&gt;degree
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;sew
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;mirror
&lt;li&gt;material
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;horizon
&lt;li&gt;forgive
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;box
&lt;li&gt;spot
&lt;li&gt;range
&lt;li&gt;meeting
&lt;li&gt;hurry
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;cat
&lt;li&gt;undo
&lt;li&gt;station
&lt;li&gt;rush
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;pool
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;pile
&lt;li&gt;mountain
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;employment
&lt;li&gt;die
&lt;li&gt;bean
&lt;li&gt;anxiety
&lt;li&gt;wealth
&lt;li&gt;value
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;job
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;compound
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency (3)</title>
    <id>3552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21413</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:32:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
&lt;ol start=&quot;4879&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;urge
&lt;li&gt;steady
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;photography
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;journey
&lt;li&gt;fortune
&lt;li&gt;elect
&lt;li&gt;drag
&lt;li&gt;coast
&lt;li&gt;center
&lt;li&gt;yearly
&lt;li&gt;wing
&lt;li&gt;tiger
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;service
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;combine
&lt;li&gt;bright
&lt;li&gt;blade
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;wander
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;thick
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;screw
&lt;li&gt;log
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;chain
&lt;li&gt;calm
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;belong
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;on
&lt;li&gt;military
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;interesting
&lt;li&gt;argue
&lt;li&gt;tobacco
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;stomach
&lt;li&gt;shame
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;laughter
&lt;li&gt;horn
&lt;li&gt;goat
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;small
&lt;li&gt;place
&lt;li&gt;petrol
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;horn
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;fool
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;die
&lt;li&gt;death
&lt;li&gt;brick
&lt;li&gt;worship
&lt;li&gt;thin
&lt;li&gt;swear
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;sideways
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;religious
&lt;li&gt;pool
&lt;li&gt;noble
&lt;li&gt;nest
&lt;li&gt;mouse
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;invent
&lt;li&gt;happy
&lt;li&gt;farmer
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;yearly
&lt;li&gt;spoil
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;salt
&lt;li&gt;room
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;orange
&lt;li&gt;listen
&lt;li&gt;infect
&lt;li&gt;exact
&lt;li&gt;clock
&lt;li&gt;white
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;pin
&lt;li&gt;people
&lt;li&gt;oxygen
&lt;li&gt;instruct
&lt;li&gt;hand
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;wrongdoing
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;frighten
&lt;li&gt;decrease
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;capital
&lt;li&gt;tube
&lt;li&gt;trick
&lt;li&gt;sure
&lt;li&gt;sight
&lt;li&gt;pot
&lt;li&gt;permission
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;harm
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;consonant
&lt;li&gt;complain
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;amusing
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;weigh
&lt;li&gt;strength
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;rule
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;matter
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;kind
&lt;li&gt;frame
&lt;li&gt;example
&lt;li&gt;curtain
&lt;li&gt;book
&lt;li&gt;army
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;rub
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;protect
&lt;li&gt;preserve
&lt;li&gt;number
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;give
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;confuse
&lt;li&gt;swallow
&lt;li&gt;soil
&lt;li&gt;plural
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;gentleman
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;drum
&lt;li&gt;cough
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;charm
&lt;li&gt;birth
&lt;li&gt;thirst
&lt;li&gt;suppose
&lt;li&gt;strike
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;partner
&lt;li&gt;park
&lt;li&gt;ocean
&lt;li&gt;garden
&lt;li&gt;elect
&lt;li&gt;elastic
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;date
&lt;li&gt;cut
&lt;li&gt;cultivate
&lt;li&gt;cricket
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;shelter
&lt;li&gt;shell
&lt;li&gt;right
&lt;li&gt;process
&lt;li&gt;machinery
&lt;li&gt;long
&lt;li&gt;host
&lt;li&gt;heel
&lt;li&gt;guidance
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;except
&lt;li&gt;equal
&lt;li&gt;creep
&lt;li&gt;course
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;battle
&lt;li&gt;tropical
&lt;li&gt;taste
&lt;li&gt;stupid
&lt;li&gt;string
&lt;li&gt;stamp
&lt;li&gt;seat
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;rapid
&lt;li&gt;position
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;low
&lt;li&gt;horn
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;creature
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;wisdom
&lt;li&gt;weave
&lt;li&gt;thin
&lt;li&gt;pile
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;ditch
&lt;li&gt;discouragement
&lt;li&gt;creep
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;block
&lt;li&gt;bind
&lt;li&gt;bind
&lt;li&gt;warn
&lt;li&gt;society
&lt;li&gt;snow
&lt;li&gt;fortune
&lt;li&gt;flash
&lt;li&gt;effect
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;curse
&lt;li&gt;colour
&lt;li&gt;translate
&lt;li&gt;sum
&lt;li&gt;snow
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;rob
&lt;li&gt;rice
&lt;li&gt;pointed
&lt;li&gt;log
&lt;li&gt;kilogram
&lt;li&gt;hammer
&lt;li&gt;duck
&lt;li&gt;curl
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;ache
&lt;li&gt;thousandth
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;lodging
&lt;li&gt;horizon
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;branch
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;tyre
&lt;li&gt;store
&lt;li&gt;scatter
&lt;li&gt;proud
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;nurse
&lt;li&gt;comb
&lt;li&gt;association
&lt;li&gt;temper
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;seat
&lt;li&gt;point
&lt;li&gt;perfect
&lt;li&gt;lion
&lt;li&gt;hourly
&lt;li&gt;heel
&lt;li&gt;grief
&lt;li&gt;grandfather
&lt;li&gt;frequent
&lt;li&gt;each
&lt;li&gt;dangerous
&lt;li&gt;camera
&lt;li&gt;wind
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;ruin
&lt;li&gt;passenger
&lt;li&gt;narrow
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;line
&lt;li&gt;lend
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;honourable
&lt;li&gt;enclosure
&lt;li&gt;curl
&lt;li&gt;beard
&lt;li&gt;adverb
&lt;li&gt;violence
&lt;li&gt;river
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;plant
&lt;li&gt;group
&lt;li&gt;gasoline
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;comb
&lt;li&gt;cheer
&lt;li&gt;cheat
&lt;li&gt;carry
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;bill
&lt;li&gt;berry
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;tube
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;trade
&lt;li&gt;tourist
&lt;li&gt;sword
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;root
&lt;li&gt;possibly
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;cliff
&lt;li&gt;clean
&lt;li&gt;cement
&lt;li&gt;calculate
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;wild
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;punish
&lt;li&gt;mass
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;face
&lt;li&gt;exciting
&lt;li&gt;curtain
&lt;li&gt;count
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;business
&lt;li&gt;amusing
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;toe
&lt;li&gt;sword
&lt;li&gt;surround
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;shoe
&lt;li&gt;sharp
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;seventh
&lt;li&gt;pronounce
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;pity
&lt;li&gt;nylon
&lt;li&gt;join
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;dot
&lt;li&gt;deliver
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;book
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;adult
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;tender
&lt;li&gt;string
&lt;li&gt;patience
&lt;li&gt;double
&lt;li&gt;cigarette
&lt;li&gt;admittance
&lt;li&gt;view
&lt;li&gt;thumb
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;picture
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;journey
&lt;li&gt;dirty
&lt;li&gt;dirt
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;clay
&lt;li&gt;brother
&lt;li&gt;tune
&lt;li&gt;top
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;singular
&lt;li&gt;serve
&lt;li&gt;pink
&lt;li&gt;nest
&lt;li&gt;hourly
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;greeting
&lt;li&gt;fire
&lt;li&gt;encourage
&lt;li&gt;berry
&lt;li&gt;actor
&lt;li&gt;yellow
&lt;li&gt;wonder
&lt;li&gt;whip
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;repair
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;race
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;prisoner
&lt;li&gt;poison
&lt;li&gt;parallel
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;hook
&lt;li&gt;form
&lt;li&gt;famous
&lt;li&gt;fail
&lt;li&gt;declare
&lt;li&gt;complaint
&lt;li&gt;capital
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;us
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;shop
&lt;li&gt;service
&lt;li&gt;rate
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;loaf
&lt;li&gt;judgment
&lt;li&gt;fork
&lt;li&gt;flood
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;fasten
&lt;li&gt;faithful
&lt;li&gt;crowd
&lt;li&gt;common
&lt;li&gt;coat
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;banana
&lt;li&gt;balance
&lt;li&gt;any
&lt;li&gt;yellow
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;help
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;defend
&lt;li&gt;defeat
&lt;li&gt;comfort
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;cat
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;age
&lt;li&gt;admire
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;step
&lt;li&gt;refusal
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;mail
&lt;li&gt;grandmother
&lt;li&gt;glue
&lt;li&gt;gentleman
&lt;li&gt;electricity
&lt;li&gt;diamond
&lt;li&gt;decimal
&lt;li&gt;brick
&lt;li&gt;beyond
&lt;li&gt;three
&lt;li&gt;terrible
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;sight
&lt;li&gt;persuade
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;operation
&lt;li&gt;near
&lt;li&gt;mean
&lt;li&gt;field
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;courage
&lt;li&gt;wave
&lt;li&gt;tongue
&lt;li&gt;tin
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;subtract
&lt;li&gt;ruin
&lt;li&gt;recently
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;official
&lt;li&gt;hope
&lt;li&gt;height
&lt;li&gt;good-bye
&lt;li&gt;fulfill
&lt;li&gt;fool
&lt;li&gt;excite
&lt;li&gt;equal
&lt;li&gt;elephant
&lt;li&gt;die
&lt;li&gt;crowd
&lt;li&gt;crime
&lt;li&gt;bit
&lt;li&gt;bare
&lt;li&gt;arms
&lt;li&gt;actor
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;whisper
&lt;li&gt;voice
&lt;li&gt;tremble
&lt;li&gt;structure
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;serve
&lt;li&gt;reduction
&lt;li&gt;record
&lt;li&gt;quarter
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;gray
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;devil
&lt;li&gt;crush
&lt;li&gt;clothes
&lt;li&gt;camera
&lt;li&gt;brave
&lt;li&gt;boil
&lt;li&gt;according
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;typical
&lt;li&gt;toe
&lt;li&gt;thread
&lt;li&gt;telephone
&lt;li&gt;speed
&lt;li&gt;settle
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;plenty
&lt;li&gt;millionth
&lt;li&gt;father
&lt;li&gt;dish
&lt;li&gt;discourage
&lt;li&gt;contract
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;border
&lt;li&gt;body
&lt;li&gt;bleed
&lt;li&gt;advise
&lt;li&gt;yesterday
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;upright
&lt;li&gt;thin
&lt;li&gt;thief
&lt;li&gt;tear
&lt;li&gt;subtract
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;some
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;rise
&lt;li&gt;pig
&lt;li&gt;pig
&lt;li&gt;no
&lt;li&gt;flight
&lt;li&gt;cure
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;action
&lt;li&gt;young
&lt;li&gt;suck
&lt;li&gt;spoon
&lt;li&gt;sister
&lt;li&gt;silk
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;phrase
&lt;li&gt;or
&lt;li&gt;nose
&lt;li&gt;minister
&lt;li&gt;messenger
&lt;li&gt;manager
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;extreme
&lt;li&gt;deer
&lt;li&gt;comb
&lt;li&gt;board
&lt;li&gt;blade
&lt;li&gt;area
&lt;li&gt;airforce
&lt;li&gt;admit
&lt;li&gt;ache
&lt;li&gt;tennis
&lt;li&gt;suck
&lt;li&gt;steady
&lt;li&gt;pile
&lt;li&gt;origin
&lt;li&gt;offend
&lt;li&gt;insure
&lt;li&gt;house
&lt;li&gt;football
&lt;li&gt;fireplace
&lt;li&gt;false
&lt;li&gt;explode
&lt;li&gt;employ
&lt;li&gt;diamond
&lt;li&gt;clock
&lt;li&gt;carry
&lt;li&gt;whisper
&lt;li&gt;type
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;smoke
&lt;li&gt;mistake
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;join
&lt;li&gt;entertain
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;spring
&lt;li&gt;sound
&lt;li&gt;show
&lt;li&gt;rod
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;ditch
&lt;li&gt;deceit
&lt;li&gt;crush
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;by
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;worship
&lt;li&gt;practice
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;plant
&lt;li&gt;passage
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;jealous
&lt;li&gt;ill
&lt;li&gt;healthy
&lt;li&gt;good-bye
&lt;li&gt;circle
&lt;li&gt;car
&lt;li&gt;bottle
&lt;li&gt;best
&lt;li&gt;appoint
&lt;li&gt;afterwards
&lt;li&gt;upset
&lt;li&gt;tongue
&lt;li&gt;thunder
&lt;li&gt;swallow
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;satisfaction
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;ready
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;lump
&lt;li&gt;govern
&lt;li&gt;exchange
&lt;li&gt;condition
&lt;li&gt;angle
&lt;li&gt;advertisement
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;simple
&lt;li&gt;school
&lt;li&gt;ride
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;peace
&lt;li&gt;map
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;her
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;forwards
&lt;li&gt;engineer
&lt;li&gt;chemical
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;bare
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;upside_down
&lt;li&gt;true
&lt;li&gt;team
&lt;li&gt;stand
&lt;li&gt;sock
&lt;li&gt;rock
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;pity
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;particular
&lt;li&gt;page
&lt;li&gt;national
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;instrument
&lt;li&gt;frequent
&lt;li&gt;familiar
&lt;li&gt;expression
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;drown
&lt;li&gt;dot
&lt;li&gt;dirty
&lt;li&gt;coward
&lt;li&gt;coffee
&lt;li&gt;cheat
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;beat
&lt;li&gt;armour
&lt;li&gt;annoy
&lt;li&gt;absent
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;twist
&lt;li&gt;today
&lt;li&gt;thread
&lt;li&gt;second
&lt;li&gt;science
&lt;li&gt;recent
&lt;li&gt;quantity
&lt;li&gt;picture
&lt;li&gt;noun
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;milk
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;listen
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;game
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;fear
&lt;li&gt;fault
&lt;li&gt;eye
&lt;li&gt;dull
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;decay
&lt;li&gt;cycle
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;curse
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;breathe
&lt;li&gt;brave
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;belief
&lt;li&gt;behave
&lt;li&gt;begin
&lt;li&gt;argument
&lt;li&gt;weave
&lt;li&gt;tremble
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;stream
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;skirt
&lt;li&gt;skirt
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;public
&lt;li&gt;messenger
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;fault
&lt;li&gt;educate
&lt;li&gt;distance
&lt;li&gt;deceive
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;compound
&lt;li&gt;coast
&lt;li&gt;change
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;bread
&lt;li&gt;battle
&lt;li&gt;wedding
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;shore
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;li&gt;police
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;line
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;glory
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;examine
&lt;li&gt;century
&lt;li&gt;airforce
&lt;li&gt;wind
&lt;li&gt;teach
&lt;li&gt;swear
&lt;li&gt;shut
&lt;li&gt;rid
&lt;li&gt;ready
&lt;li&gt;quarrel
&lt;li&gt;punish
&lt;li&gt;per
&lt;li&gt;patience
&lt;li&gt;nerve
&lt;li&gt;infection
&lt;li&gt;enclose
&lt;li&gt;elect
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;dish
&lt;li&gt;destruction
&lt;li&gt;depth
&lt;li&gt;curse
&lt;li&gt;circular
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;atom
&lt;li&gt;word
&lt;li&gt;wide
&lt;li&gt;tongue
&lt;li&gt;table
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;stage
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;regular
&lt;li&gt;pot
&lt;li&gt;network
&lt;li&gt;mineral
&lt;li&gt;merry
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;decorate
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;cook
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;awake
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;adventure
&lt;li&gt;translate
&lt;li&gt;they
&lt;li&gt;surprise
&lt;li&gt;summer
&lt;li&gt;subtract
&lt;li&gt;stream
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;settle
&lt;li&gt;safe
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;remark
&lt;li&gt;reason
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;oil
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;loyalty
&lt;li&gt;loyal
&lt;li&gt;lot
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;hardly
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;especially
&lt;li&gt;education
&lt;li&gt;dirty
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;bleed
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;advertise
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;warmth
&lt;li&gt;value
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;tax
&lt;li&gt;spoil
&lt;li&gt;shine
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;range
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;polish
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;pain
&lt;li&gt;magic
&lt;li&gt;loose
&lt;li&gt;interest
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;hurry
&lt;li&gt;golden
&lt;li&gt;glue
&lt;li&gt;gather
&lt;li&gt;fence
&lt;li&gt;family
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;defeat
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;cure
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;coin
&lt;li&gt;coast
&lt;li&gt;cap
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;breed
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;blade
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;amuse
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;weight
&lt;li&gt;traffic
&lt;li&gt;ticket
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;shell
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;room
&lt;li&gt;result
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;production
&lt;li&gt;pipe
&lt;li&gt;photograph
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;packet
&lt;li&gt;muscle
&lt;li&gt;luck
&lt;li&gt;life
&lt;li&gt;fisherman
&lt;li&gt;fail
&lt;li&gt;express
&lt;li&gt;employer
&lt;li&gt;coin
&lt;li&gt;car
&lt;li&gt;bridge
&lt;li&gt;bottle
&lt;li&gt;book
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;attendance
&lt;li&gt;ache
&lt;li&gt;accordance
&lt;li&gt;wreck
&lt;li&gt;wander
&lt;li&gt;upper
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;space
&lt;li&gt;size
&lt;li&gt;scientist
&lt;li&gt;sand
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;prisoner
&lt;li&gt;paper
&lt;li&gt;mirror
&lt;li&gt;log
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;kiss
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;gate
&lt;li&gt;frame
&lt;li&gt;fork
&lt;li&gt;force
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;drown
&lt;li&gt;dismiss
&lt;li&gt;close
&lt;li&gt;cliff
&lt;li&gt;busy
&lt;li&gt;worst
&lt;li&gt;trunk
&lt;li&gt;thunder
&lt;li&gt;sum
&lt;li&gt;sorrow
&lt;li&gt;signal
&lt;li&gt;round
&lt;li&gt;precious
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;pencil
&lt;li&gt;pause
&lt;li&gt;pan
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;mat
&lt;li&gt;mat
&lt;li&gt;grandfather
&lt;li&gt;glory
&lt;li&gt;gas
&lt;li&gt;furnish
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;fence
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;coat
&lt;li&gt;chicken
&lt;li&gt;cheap
&lt;li&gt;chalk
&lt;li&gt;awkward
&lt;li&gt;amusing
&lt;li&gt;action
&lt;li&gt;tower
&lt;li&gt;tail
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;swell
&lt;li&gt;storm
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;sour
&lt;li&gt;safe
&lt;li&gt;remove
&lt;li&gt;purple
&lt;li&gt;piece
&lt;li&gt;people
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;lake
&lt;li&gt;labour
&lt;li&gt;jump
&lt;li&gt;juice
&lt;li&gt;garden
&lt;li&gt;forest
&lt;li&gt;entrance
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;chance
&lt;li&gt;air
&lt;li&gt;agreement
&lt;li&gt;act
&lt;li&gt;wreck
&lt;li&gt;type
&lt;li&gt;tree
&lt;li&gt;style
&lt;li&gt;stream
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;sky
&lt;li&gt;season
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;real
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;police
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;of
&lt;li&gt;nor
&lt;li&gt;lord
&lt;li&gt;juice
&lt;li&gt;interrupt
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;gold
&lt;li&gt;free
&lt;li&gt;for
&lt;li&gt;explode
&lt;li&gt;drum
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;dog
&lt;li&gt;arm
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;track
&lt;li&gt;tire
&lt;li&gt;that
&lt;li&gt;tender
&lt;li&gt;team
&lt;li&gt;sting
&lt;li&gt;skin
&lt;li&gt;she
&lt;li&gt;process
&lt;li&gt;private
&lt;li&gt;pocket
&lt;li&gt;plenty
&lt;li&gt;of
&lt;li&gt;nature
&lt;li&gt;mouth
&lt;li&gt;milk
&lt;li&gt;lump
&lt;li&gt;glue
&lt;li&gt;footstep
&lt;li&gt;discourage
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;dare
&lt;li&gt;clothing
&lt;li&gt;clerk
&lt;li&gt;children
&lt;li&gt;ceremony
&lt;li&gt;cent
&lt;li&gt;bridge
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;banana
&lt;li&gt;according
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;war
&lt;li&gt;trouble
&lt;li&gt;tendency
&lt;li&gt;still
&lt;li&gt;stiff
&lt;li&gt;sport
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;ring
&lt;li&gt;pupil
&lt;li&gt;provision
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;possession
&lt;li&gt;piece
&lt;li&gt;party
&lt;li&gt;music
&lt;li&gt;multiply
&lt;li&gt;left
&lt;li&gt;invite
&lt;li&gt;ink
&lt;li&gt;honesty
&lt;li&gt;glass
&lt;li&gt;game
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;command
&lt;li&gt;chance
&lt;li&gt;chairperson
&lt;li&gt;boot
&lt;li&gt;bleed
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;bank
&lt;li&gt;band
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;warn
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;tire
&lt;li&gt;sympathy
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;social
&lt;li&gt;sex
&lt;li&gt;probability
&lt;li&gt;other
&lt;li&gt;open
&lt;li&gt;noble
&lt;li&gt;moral
&lt;li&gt;modern
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;mistake
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;machine
&lt;li&gt;local
&lt;li&gt;library
&lt;li&gt;lesson
&lt;li&gt;kneel
&lt;li&gt;jaw
&lt;li&gt;invention
&lt;li&gt;gate
&lt;li&gt;fine
&lt;li&gt;explosive
&lt;li&gt;empty
&lt;li&gt;dull
&lt;li&gt;death
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;cloth
&lt;li&gt;chemical
&lt;li&gt;bit
&lt;li&gt;best
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;willing
&lt;li&gt;will
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;while
&lt;li&gt;western
&lt;li&gt;translate
&lt;li&gt;trade
&lt;li&gt;tail
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;really
&lt;li&gt;purpose
&lt;li&gt;pride
&lt;li&gt;pot
&lt;li&gt;pig
&lt;li&gt;nut
&lt;li&gt;leaf
&lt;li&gt;lazy
&lt;li&gt;kneel
&lt;li&gt;holiday
&lt;li&gt;guilt
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;explosion
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;defend
&lt;li&gt;dance
&lt;li&gt;crash
&lt;li&gt;chicken
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;cement
&lt;li&gt;bowl
&lt;li&gt;big
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;bad
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;with
&lt;li&gt;wisdom
&lt;li&gt;wine
&lt;li&gt;wheel
&lt;li&gt;voice
&lt;li&gt;tomorrow
&lt;li&gt;time
&lt;li&gt;theater
&lt;li&gt;television
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;shoe
&lt;li&gt;shield
&lt;li&gt;radio
&lt;li&gt;quarrel
&lt;li&gt;put
&lt;li&gt;press
&lt;li&gt;pink
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;liquid
&lt;li&gt;husband
&lt;li&gt;hire
&lt;li&gt;hang
&lt;li&gt;growth
&lt;li&gt;good
&lt;li&gt;give
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;eye
&lt;li&gt;every
&lt;li&gt;entertainment
&lt;li&gt;edge
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;desert
&lt;li&gt;delight
&lt;li&gt;confuse
&lt;li&gt;cloud
&lt;li&gt;captain
&lt;li&gt;button
&lt;li&gt;boy
&lt;li&gt;bed
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;absent
&lt;li&gt;weather
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;tower
&lt;li&gt;title
&lt;li&gt;system
&lt;li&gt;stroke
&lt;li&gt;ship
&lt;li&gt;sensible
&lt;li&gt;rice
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;remove
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;pepper
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;pan
&lt;li&gt;oil
&lt;li&gt;limb
&lt;li&gt;lamp
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;horse
&lt;li&gt;goat
&lt;li&gt;faint
&lt;li&gt;disappoint
&lt;li&gt;club
&lt;li&gt;chin
&lt;li&gt;charm
&lt;li&gt;breath
&lt;li&gt;bitter
&lt;li&gt;bar
&lt;li&gt;bad
&lt;li&gt;average
&lt;li&gt;as
&lt;li&gt;worthy
&lt;li&gt;wine
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;well
&lt;li&gt;watch
&lt;li&gt;war
&lt;li&gt;tremble
&lt;li&gt;tour
&lt;li&gt;thunder
&lt;li&gt;temper
&lt;li&gt;slip
&lt;li&gt;slave
&lt;li&gt;shirt
&lt;li&gt;seven
&lt;li&gt;secrecy
&lt;li&gt;report
&lt;li&gt;procession
&lt;li&gt;pair
&lt;li&gt;onion
&lt;li&gt;line
&lt;li&gt;lend
&lt;li&gt;infect
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;front
&lt;li&gt;friendly
&lt;li&gt;fisherman
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;expensive
&lt;li&gt;exchange
&lt;li&gt;equal
&lt;li&gt;encouragement
&lt;li&gt;employ
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;complain
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;blood
&lt;li&gt;bicycle
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;bath
&lt;li&gt;amusing
&lt;li&gt;along
&lt;li&gt;accident
&lt;li&gt;wise
&lt;li&gt;winter
&lt;li&gt;who
&lt;li&gt;treatment
&lt;li&gt;time
&lt;li&gt;than
&lt;li&gt;spend
&lt;li&gt;solid
&lt;li&gt;six
&lt;li&gt;ship
&lt;li&gt;shelter
&lt;li&gt;say
&lt;li&gt;sail
&lt;li&gt;read
&lt;li&gt;quality
&lt;li&gt;proof
&lt;li&gt;pressure
&lt;li&gt;persuade
&lt;li&gt;paper
&lt;li&gt;network
&lt;li&gt;murder
&lt;li&gt;much
&lt;li&gt;magician
&lt;li&gt;knot
&lt;li&gt;his
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;fort
&lt;li&gt;footpath
&lt;li&gt;field
&lt;li&gt;corner
&lt;li&gt;comfortable
&lt;li&gt;collar
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;chin
&lt;li&gt;chain
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;bullet
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;angle
&lt;li&gt;air
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;weekly
&lt;li&gt;threat
&lt;li&gt;tense
&lt;li&gt;tail
&lt;li&gt;scatter
&lt;li&gt;risk
&lt;li&gt;reason
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;nerve
&lt;li&gt;monkey
&lt;li&gt;mine
&lt;li&gt;medicine
&lt;li&gt;master
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;job
&lt;li&gt;insure
&lt;li&gt;inner
&lt;li&gt;hopeless
&lt;li&gt;heavy
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;gray
&lt;li&gt;goat
&lt;li&gt;enclosure
&lt;li&gt;educate
&lt;li&gt;distance
&lt;li&gt;devil
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;chance
&lt;li&gt;catch
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;business
&lt;li&gt;breakfast
&lt;li&gt;border
&lt;li&gt;blame
&lt;li&gt;amusement
&lt;li&gt;according
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;whistle
&lt;li&gt;victory
&lt;li&gt;upper
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;table
&lt;li&gt;sweet
&lt;li&gt;surface
&lt;li&gt;structure
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;spacecraft
&lt;li&gt;soul
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;skillful
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;rid
&lt;li&gt;regular
&lt;li&gt;priest
&lt;li&gt;praise
&lt;li&gt;powder
&lt;li&gt;pass
&lt;li&gt;participle
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;microscope
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;its
&lt;li&gt;information
&lt;li&gt;industry
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;flight
&lt;li&gt;edge
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;distance
&lt;li&gt;deep
&lt;li&gt;collect
&lt;li&gt;butter
&lt;li&gt;bunch
&lt;li&gt;branch
&lt;li&gt;branch
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;beer
&lt;li&gt;bear
&lt;li&gt;base
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;armour
&lt;li&gt;wing
&lt;li&gt;wild
&lt;li&gt;weigh
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;there
&lt;li&gt;theater
&lt;li&gt;stomach
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;reward
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;prize
&lt;li&gt;prize
&lt;li&gt;photograph
&lt;li&gt;pastry
&lt;li&gt;off
&lt;li&gt;occasion
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;neck
&lt;li&gt;morals
&lt;li&gt;mist
&lt;li&gt;liquid
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;level
&lt;li&gt;knot
&lt;li&gt;iron
&lt;li&gt;half
&lt;li&gt;get
&lt;li&gt;furnish
&lt;li&gt;card
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;bathe
&lt;li&gt;barrel
&lt;li&gt;arch
&lt;li&gt;apparatus
&lt;li&gt;ankle
&lt;li&gt;year
&lt;li&gt;while
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;vote
&lt;li&gt;vegetable
&lt;li&gt;temper
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;single
&lt;li&gt;seed
&lt;li&gt;rod
&lt;li&gt;rid
&lt;li&gt;remind
&lt;li&gt;protection
&lt;li&gt;protect
&lt;li&gt;practical
&lt;li&gt;pound
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;peaceful
&lt;li&gt;obedience
&lt;li&gt;nail
&lt;li&gt;musician
&lt;li&gt;memory
&lt;li&gt;may
&lt;li&gt;lower
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;leaf
&lt;li&gt;key
&lt;li&gt;it
&lt;li&gt;invent
&lt;li&gt;instrument
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;honour
&lt;li&gt;hide
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;great
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;funeral
&lt;li&gt;friend
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;flag
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;faithful
&lt;li&gt;dog
&lt;li&gt;department
&lt;li&gt;dare
&lt;li&gt;customer
&lt;li&gt;chimney
&lt;li&gt;chair
&lt;li&gt;cause
&lt;li&gt;butter
&lt;li&gt;burn
&lt;li&gt;box
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;body
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;armour
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;what
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;unit
&lt;li&gt;under
&lt;li&gt;uncle
&lt;li&gt;try
&lt;li&gt;trap
&lt;li&gt;tourist
&lt;li&gt;tennis
&lt;li&gt;tea
&lt;li&gt;substance
&lt;li&gt;stupid
&lt;li&gt;story
&lt;li&gt;stitch
&lt;li&gt;steep
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;slight
&lt;li&gt;slave
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;sentence
&lt;li&gt;rank
&lt;li&gt;pump
&lt;li&gt;pronounce
&lt;li&gt;pool
&lt;li&gt;photography
&lt;li&gt;other
&lt;li&gt;ordinary
&lt;li&gt;nine
&lt;li&gt;nine
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;mat
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;lesson
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;keen
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;gate
&lt;li&gt;forgive
&lt;li&gt;fold
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;examine
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;club
&lt;li&gt;chairperson
&lt;li&gt;bunch
&lt;li&gt;bone
&lt;li&gt;blood
&lt;li&gt;bathe
&lt;li&gt;at
&lt;li&gt;alike
&lt;li&gt;advance
&lt;li&gt;acid
&lt;li&gt;yes
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;willing
&lt;li&gt;wet
&lt;li&gt;warm
&lt;li&gt;voyage
&lt;li&gt;vehicle
&lt;li&gt;variety
&lt;li&gt;universal
&lt;li&gt;true
&lt;li&gt;toe
&lt;li&gt;talk
&lt;li&gt;suitable
&lt;li&gt;substance
&lt;li&gt;student
&lt;li&gt;stone
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;stair
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;shake
&lt;li&gt;sew
&lt;li&gt;room
&lt;li&gt;reasonable
&lt;li&gt;reason
&lt;li&gt;punishment
&lt;li&gt;pronunciation
&lt;li&gt;profit
&lt;li&gt;plain
&lt;li&gt;piano
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;partner
&lt;li&gt;nervous
&lt;li&gt;moral
&lt;li&gt;lot
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;leg
&lt;li&gt;journey
&lt;li&gt;intention
&lt;li&gt;helpful
&lt;li&gt;generous
&lt;li&gt;fly
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;finger
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;explode
&lt;li&gt;exact
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;dust
&lt;li&gt;doctor
&lt;li&gt;dish
&lt;li&gt;detail
&lt;li&gt;deliver
&lt;li&gt;degree
&lt;li&gt;crime
&lt;li&gt;copper
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;charm
&lt;li&gt;careless
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;box
&lt;li&gt;bone
&lt;li&gt;beak
&lt;li&gt;bank
&lt;li&gt;bag
&lt;li&gt;away
&lt;li&gt;admire
&lt;li&gt;add
&lt;li&gt;zero
&lt;li&gt;worse
&lt;li&gt;work
&lt;li&gt;win
&lt;li&gt;wake
&lt;li&gt;useless
&lt;li&gt;trick
&lt;li&gt;tiger
&lt;li&gt;the
&lt;li&gt;sugar
&lt;li&gt;structure
&lt;li&gt;stem
&lt;li&gt;stage
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;spade
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;single
&lt;li&gt;shore
&lt;li&gt;screw
&lt;li&gt;scale
&lt;li&gt;rent
&lt;li&gt;real
&lt;li&gt;real
&lt;li&gt;property
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;particular
&lt;li&gt;over
&lt;li&gt;outer
&lt;li&gt;one
&lt;li&gt;network
&lt;li&gt;messenger
&lt;li&gt;knock
&lt;li&gt;heel
&lt;li&gt;hate
&lt;li&gt;hammer
&lt;li&gt;hammer
&lt;li&gt;gun
&lt;li&gt;guilt
&lt;li&gt;formerly
&lt;li&gt;fellow
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;decoration
&lt;li&gt;curve
&lt;li&gt;curse
&lt;li&gt;crop
&lt;li&gt;control
&lt;li&gt;complaint
&lt;li&gt;collar
&lt;li&gt;coal
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;choice
&lt;li&gt;case
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;bottle
&lt;li&gt;blow
&lt;li&gt;bee
&lt;li&gt;become
&lt;li&gt;basket
&lt;li&gt;appoint
&lt;li&gt;anxious
&lt;li&gt;animal
&lt;li&gt;advantage
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;worth
&lt;li&gt;woman
&lt;li&gt;while
&lt;li&gt;welcome
&lt;li&gt;wages
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;trick
&lt;li&gt;thumb
&lt;li&gt;test
&lt;li&gt;sun
&lt;li&gt;sticky
&lt;li&gt;steam
&lt;li&gt;steal
&lt;li&gt;stage
&lt;li&gt;split
&lt;li&gt;snake
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;sit
&lt;li&gt;shout
&lt;li&gt;settle
&lt;li&gt;post
&lt;li&gt;pool
&lt;li&gt;poison
&lt;li&gt;poem
&lt;li&gt;pocket
&lt;li&gt;plate
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;period
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;order
&lt;li&gt;old
&lt;li&gt;offend
&lt;li&gt;noise
&lt;li&gt;nest
&lt;li&gt;navy
&lt;li&gt;moon
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;money
&lt;li&gt;model
&lt;li&gt;mist
&lt;li&gt;member
&lt;li&gt;match
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;limb
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;juice
&lt;li&gt;jewelry
&lt;li&gt;interrupt
&lt;li&gt;if
&lt;li&gt;humor
&lt;li&gt;hollow
&lt;li&gt;history
&lt;li&gt;habit
&lt;li&gt;gray
&lt;li&gt;grass
&lt;li&gt;grace
&lt;li&gt;goat
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;foolish
&lt;li&gt;firm
&lt;li&gt;fast
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;excuse
&lt;li&gt;drum
&lt;li&gt;drown
&lt;li&gt;doubt
&lt;li&gt;ditch
&lt;li&gt;ditch
&lt;li&gt;descriptive
&lt;li&gt;deceit
&lt;li&gt;crush
&lt;li&gt;copper
&lt;li&gt;civilization
&lt;li&gt;chocolate
&lt;li&gt;chimney
&lt;li&gt;cheek
&lt;li&gt;care
&lt;li&gt;bunch
&lt;li&gt;breast
&lt;li&gt;brave
&lt;li&gt;beard
&lt;li&gt;basket
&lt;li&gt;ant
&lt;li&gt;adventure
&lt;li&gt;addition
&lt;li&gt;actress
&lt;li&gt;according
&lt;li&gt;word
&lt;li&gt;wheel
&lt;li&gt;war
&lt;li&gt;verb
&lt;li&gt;surface
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;steep
&lt;li&gt;spell
&lt;li&gt;sore
&lt;li&gt;shop
&lt;li&gt;shock
&lt;li&gt;shirt
&lt;li&gt;shelf
&lt;li&gt;sheet
&lt;li&gt;pupil
&lt;li&gt;protective
&lt;li&gt;protection
&lt;li&gt;proof
&lt;li&gt;process
&lt;li&gt;physical
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;passenger
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;painful
&lt;li&gt;of
&lt;li&gt;now
&lt;li&gt;nose
&lt;li&gt;mystery
&lt;li&gt;musician
&lt;li&gt;monkey
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;lay
&lt;li&gt;inquire
&lt;li&gt;inquire
&lt;li&gt;image
&lt;li&gt;habit
&lt;li&gt;guide
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;fun
&lt;li&gt;forgive
&lt;li&gt;flower
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;feather
&lt;li&gt;faint
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;employer
&lt;li&gt;employ
&lt;li&gt;eight
&lt;li&gt;debt
&lt;li&gt;curtain
&lt;li&gt;cupboard
&lt;li&gt;corn
&lt;li&gt;cord
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;cool
&lt;li&gt;conscious
&lt;li&gt;compound
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;cold
&lt;li&gt;child
&lt;li&gt;chance
&lt;li&gt;chain
&lt;li&gt;chain
&lt;li&gt;cart
&lt;li&gt;butter
&lt;li&gt;breathe
&lt;li&gt;bomb
&lt;li&gt;birthday
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;beam
&lt;li&gt;bathe
&lt;li&gt;and
&lt;li&gt;age
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;would
&lt;li&gt;word
&lt;li&gt;whip
&lt;li&gt;want
&lt;li&gt;violent
&lt;li&gt;us
&lt;li&gt;universe
&lt;li&gt;trunk
&lt;li&gt;tree
&lt;li&gt;tourist
&lt;li&gt;tooth
&lt;li&gt;tire
&lt;li&gt;though
&lt;li&gt;thin
&lt;li&gt;swing
&lt;li&gt;sweet
&lt;li&gt;summer
&lt;li&gt;structure
&lt;li&gt;steal
&lt;li&gt;spoon
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;soul
&lt;li&gt;shame
&lt;li&gt;shade
&lt;li&gt;seven
&lt;li&gt;scientist
&lt;li&gt;scenery
&lt;li&gt;run
&lt;li&gt;rice
&lt;li&gt;race
&lt;li&gt;rabbit
&lt;li&gt;profession
&lt;li&gt;production
&lt;li&gt;print
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;phrase
&lt;li&gt;petrol
&lt;li&gt;pattern
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;offend
&lt;li&gt;noise
&lt;li&gt;noble
&lt;li&gt;net
&lt;li&gt;mountain
&lt;li&gt;letter
&lt;li&gt;joke
&lt;li&gt;invitation
&lt;li&gt;hurt
&lt;li&gt;horse
&lt;li&gt;hollow
&lt;li&gt;helpful
&lt;li&gt;hair
&lt;li&gt;growth
&lt;li&gt;group
&lt;li&gt;grieve
&lt;li&gt;glass
&lt;li&gt;garment
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;four
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;entrance
&lt;li&gt;employment
&lt;li&gt;educate
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;drug
&lt;li&gt;drink
&lt;li&gt;down
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;cup
&lt;li&gt;confuse
&lt;li&gt;condition
&lt;li&gt;clock
&lt;li&gt;church
&lt;li&gt;chimney
&lt;li&gt;chemistry
&lt;li&gt;cheerful
&lt;li&gt;calculate
&lt;li&gt;brush
&lt;li&gt;bread
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;beyond
&lt;li&gt;band
&lt;li&gt;ash
&lt;li&gt;alphabet
&lt;li&gt;alphabet
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;wrong
&lt;li&gt;wreck
&lt;li&gt;worm
&lt;li&gt;word
&lt;li&gt;wire
&lt;li&gt;wheel
&lt;li&gt;water
&lt;li&gt;wash
&lt;li&gt;voice
&lt;li&gt;voice
&lt;li&gt;tube
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;title
&lt;li&gt;tin
&lt;li&gt;teach
&lt;li&gt;sweep
&lt;li&gt;subject
&lt;li&gt;still
&lt;li&gt;star
&lt;li&gt;spirit
&lt;li&gt;space
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;signal
&lt;li&gt;shoulder
&lt;li&gt;shopkeeper
&lt;li&gt;shell
&lt;li&gt;shelf
&lt;li&gt;sheep
&lt;li&gt;sex
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;salt
&lt;li&gt;safe
&lt;li&gt;ruler
&lt;li&gt;root
&lt;li&gt;return
&lt;li&gt;restaurant
&lt;li&gt;quick
&lt;li&gt;prison
&lt;li&gt;pretend
&lt;li&gt;pour
&lt;li&gt;possibility
&lt;li&gt;police
&lt;li&gt;poem
&lt;li&gt;pilot
&lt;li&gt;patient
&lt;li&gt;pale
&lt;li&gt;on
&lt;li&gt;nut
&lt;li&gt;not
&lt;li&gt;needle
&lt;li&gt;nasty
&lt;li&gt;muscle
&lt;li&gt;milk
&lt;li&gt;medical
&lt;li&gt;male
&lt;li&gt;magician
&lt;li&gt;machine
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;lately
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;increase
&lt;li&gt;grass
&lt;li&gt;gas
&lt;li&gt;game
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;fox
&lt;li&gt;flour
&lt;li&gt;fever
&lt;li&gt;ever
&lt;li&gt;equality
&lt;li&gt;enclosure
&lt;li&gt;do
&lt;li&gt;disappoint
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;decay
&lt;li&gt;cricket
&lt;li&gt;creep
&lt;li&gt;cream
&lt;li&gt;cow
&lt;li&gt;course
&lt;li&gt;contents
&lt;li&gt;collect
&lt;li&gt;collar
&lt;li&gt;clockwork
&lt;li&gt;clock
&lt;li&gt;cheek
&lt;li&gt;cardboard
&lt;li&gt;cardboard
&lt;li&gt;can
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;button
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;boat
&lt;li&gt;ash
&lt;li&gt;value
&lt;li&gt;up
&lt;li&gt;trunk
&lt;li&gt;toy
&lt;li&gt;toe
&lt;li&gt;thunder
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;this
&lt;li&gt;thirst
&lt;li&gt;thief
&lt;li&gt;terror
&lt;li&gt;take
&lt;li&gt;support
&lt;li&gt;stone
&lt;li&gt;stiff
&lt;li&gt;spear
&lt;li&gt;sour
&lt;li&gt;soldier
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;slide
&lt;li&gt;skirt
&lt;li&gt;sit
&lt;li&gt;silence
&lt;li&gt;shoe
&lt;li&gt;shelf
&lt;li&gt;shape
&lt;li&gt;sell
&lt;li&gt;scientist
&lt;li&gt;save
&lt;li&gt;sand
&lt;li&gt;salt
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;quiet
&lt;li&gt;quarter
&lt;li&gt;pupil
&lt;li&gt;profession
&lt;li&gt;process
&lt;li&gt;prize
&lt;li&gt;port
&lt;li&gt;poetry
&lt;li&gt;period
&lt;li&gt;pay
&lt;li&gt;part
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;packet
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;offense
&lt;li&gt;obedience
&lt;li&gt;number
&lt;li&gt;number
&lt;li&gt;nose
&lt;li&gt;night
&lt;li&gt;nearly
&lt;li&gt;mysterious
&lt;li&gt;mineral
&lt;li&gt;mat
&lt;li&gt;mark
&lt;li&gt;man
&lt;li&gt;look
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;laugh
&lt;li&gt;last
&lt;li&gt;lamp
&lt;li&gt;kilometer
&lt;li&gt;kick
&lt;li&gt;joint
&lt;li&gt;jewel
&lt;li&gt;jaw
&lt;li&gt;invite
&lt;li&gt;ink
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;ice
&lt;li&gt;hunger
&lt;li&gt;hot
&lt;li&gt;hit
&lt;li&gt;heavy
&lt;li&gt;hardship
&lt;li&gt;habit
&lt;li&gt;guard
&lt;li&gt;gift
&lt;li&gt;future
&lt;li&gt;fulfill
&lt;li&gt;fort
&lt;li&gt;fork
&lt;li&gt;flame
&lt;li&gt;favour
&lt;li&gt;favorite
&lt;li&gt;fashion
&lt;li&gt;farmyard
&lt;li&gt;fall
&lt;li&gt;entrance
&lt;li&gt;enjoyment
&lt;li&gt;election
&lt;li&gt;ear
&lt;li&gt;drunk
&lt;li&gt;drag
&lt;li&gt;distant
&lt;li&gt;discovery
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;discover
&lt;li&gt;dirt
&lt;li&gt;deceit
&lt;li&gt;daring
&lt;li&gt;custom
&lt;li&gt;cupboard
&lt;li&gt;court
&lt;li&gt;cost
&lt;li&gt;corner
&lt;li&gt;copy
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;camp
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;bright
&lt;li&gt;breadth
&lt;li&gt;black
&lt;li&gt;beside
&lt;li&gt;bend
&lt;li&gt;belt
&lt;li&gt;bed
&lt;li&gt;barrel
&lt;li&gt;baby
&lt;li&gt;attack
&lt;li&gt;arrive
&lt;li&gt;angle
&lt;li&gt;aim
&lt;li&gt;after
&lt;li&gt;a
&lt;li&gt;youth
&lt;li&gt;wound
&lt;li&gt;weather
&lt;li&gt;walk
&lt;li&gt;waiter
&lt;li&gt;voyage
&lt;li&gt;use
&lt;li&gt;tonight
&lt;li&gt;tidy
&lt;li&gt;thumb
&lt;li&gt;throw
&lt;li&gt;sun
&lt;li&gt;suck
&lt;li&gt;success
&lt;li&gt;string
&lt;li&gt;stomach
&lt;li&gt;steel
&lt;li&gt;smell
&lt;li&gt;skill
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;sheet
&lt;li&gt;sensation
&lt;li&gt;see
&lt;li&gt;sand
&lt;li&gt;same
&lt;li&gt;rough
&lt;li&gt;rapid
&lt;li&gt;raise
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;pot
&lt;li&gt;plane
&lt;li&gt;pet
&lt;li&gt;pen
&lt;li&gt;passenger
&lt;li&gt;paper
&lt;li&gt;paint
&lt;li&gt;out
&lt;li&gt;organization
&lt;li&gt;organ
&lt;li&gt;one
&lt;li&gt;newspaper
&lt;li&gt;new
&lt;li&gt;neck
&lt;li&gt;nation
&lt;li&gt;my
&lt;li&gt;monthly
&lt;li&gt;mixture
&lt;li&gt;melt
&lt;li&gt;meet
&lt;li&gt;measure
&lt;li&gt;manage
&lt;li&gt;lung
&lt;li&gt;loyalty
&lt;li&gt;log
&lt;li&gt;limb
&lt;li&gt;light
&lt;li&gt;lend
&lt;li&gt;leather
&lt;li&gt;language
&lt;li&gt;kneel
&lt;li&gt;knee
&lt;li&gt;keep
&lt;li&gt;judgment
&lt;li&gt;jaw
&lt;li&gt;invent
&lt;li&gt;interest
&lt;li&gt;insurance
&lt;li&gt;inform
&lt;li&gt;infection
&lt;li&gt;hut
&lt;li&gt;human
&lt;li&gt;harmless
&lt;li&gt;harm
&lt;li&gt;guilt
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;goods
&lt;li&gt;fur
&lt;li&gt;fox
&lt;li&gt;forest
&lt;li&gt;football
&lt;li&gt;food
&lt;li&gt;floor
&lt;li&gt;float
&lt;li&gt;fight
&lt;li&gt;favorite
&lt;li&gt;fashion
&lt;li&gt;even
&lt;li&gt;engine
&lt;li&gt;enclose
&lt;li&gt;egg
&lt;li&gt;egg
&lt;li&gt;earn
&lt;li&gt;dream
&lt;li&gt;draw
&lt;li&gt;dip
&lt;li&gt;dig
&lt;li&gt;decorate
&lt;li&gt;declare
&lt;li&gt;declaration
&lt;li&gt;dear
&lt;li&gt;curtain
&lt;li&gt;concern
&lt;li&gt;compare
&lt;li&gt;coin
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;chicken
&lt;li&gt;call
&lt;li&gt;cage
&lt;li&gt;button
&lt;li&gt;bush
&lt;li&gt;brown
&lt;li&gt;brick
&lt;li&gt;brass
&lt;li&gt;bottom
&lt;li&gt;block
&lt;li&gt;blade
&lt;li&gt;birthday
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;bake
&lt;li&gt;apple
&lt;li&gt;anger
&lt;li&gt;amuse
&lt;li&gt;airforce
&lt;li&gt;airforce
&lt;li&gt;adverb
&lt;li&gt;adventure
&lt;li&gt;admiration
&lt;li&gt;yes
&lt;li&gt;wing
&lt;li&gt;window
&lt;li&gt;western
&lt;li&gt;wealth
&lt;li&gt;voyage
&lt;li&gt;valuable
&lt;li&gt;truth
&lt;li&gt;trip
&lt;li&gt;treatment
&lt;li&gt;travel
&lt;li&gt;total
&lt;li&gt;tongue
&lt;li&gt;tin
&lt;li&gt;thumb
&lt;li&gt;threat
&lt;li&gt;thirst
&lt;li&gt;thing
&lt;li&gt;subtract
&lt;li&gt;square
&lt;li&gt;soap
&lt;li&gt;slope
&lt;li&gt;silver
&lt;li&gt;shadow
&lt;li&gt;set
&lt;li&gt;rose
&lt;li&gt;rest
&lt;li&gt;recognition
&lt;li&gt;recent
&lt;li&gt;reach
&lt;li&gt;rat
&lt;li&gt;rain
&lt;li&gt;question
&lt;li&gt;quantity
&lt;li&gt;punishment
&lt;li&gt;provisions
&lt;li&gt;protect
&lt;li&gt;price
&lt;li&gt;pretend
&lt;li&gt;present
&lt;li&gt;practice
&lt;li&gt;power
&lt;li&gt;potato
&lt;li&gt;politics
&lt;li&gt;pleasure
&lt;li&gt;plan
&lt;li&gt;pin
&lt;li&gt;pick
&lt;li&gt;petrol
&lt;li&gt;payment
&lt;li&gt;parcel
&lt;li&gt;oxygen
&lt;li&gt;opinion
&lt;li&gt;object
&lt;li&gt;motor
&lt;li&gt;mother
&lt;li&gt;moon
&lt;li&gt;modern
&lt;li&gt;metal
&lt;li&gt;marry
&lt;li&gt;magazine
&lt;li&gt;loaf
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;lip
&lt;li&gt;like
&lt;li&gt;let
&lt;li&gt;lean
&lt;li&gt;lean
&lt;li&gt;lamp
&lt;li&gt;jewel
&lt;li&gt;its
&lt;li&gt;inside
&lt;li&gt;inquire
&lt;li&gt;ink
&lt;li&gt;infect
&lt;li&gt;image
&lt;li&gt;head
&lt;li&gt;have
&lt;li&gt;happen
&lt;li&gt;ground
&lt;li&gt;grief
&lt;li&gt;garage
&lt;li&gt;full
&lt;li&gt;freeze
&lt;li&gt;freedom
&lt;li&gt;foot
&lt;li&gt;fashionable
&lt;li&gt;farm
&lt;li&gt;far
&lt;li&gt;factory
&lt;li&gt;entertainment
&lt;li&gt;encourage
&lt;li&gt;drum
&lt;li&gt;divide
&lt;li&gt;dependent
&lt;li&gt;decision
&lt;li&gt;deal
&lt;li&gt;cross
&lt;li&gt;creature
&lt;li&gt;crack
&lt;li&gt;complaint
&lt;li&gt;come
&lt;li&gt;comb
&lt;li&gt;colour
&lt;li&gt;class
&lt;li&gt;claim
&lt;li&gt;cheese
&lt;li&gt;cap
&lt;li&gt;camera
&lt;li&gt;calculator
&lt;li&gt;by
&lt;li&gt;bus
&lt;li&gt;burst
&lt;li&gt;bunch
&lt;li&gt;brain
&lt;li&gt;bottle
&lt;li&gt;blue
&lt;li&gt;blind
&lt;li&gt;between
&lt;li&gt;beg
&lt;li&gt;beard
&lt;li&gt;bathe
&lt;li&gt;bath
&lt;li&gt;back
&lt;li&gt;aunt
&lt;li&gt;ask
&lt;li&gt;aside
&lt;li&gt;article
&lt;li&gt;arm
&lt;li&gt;argument
&lt;li&gt;another
&lt;li&gt;ancient
&lt;li&gt;alphabet
&lt;li&gt;all
&lt;li&gt;age
&lt;li&gt;advice
&lt;/ol&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class</title>
    <id>3553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T11:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class]] moved to [[Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class (1)]]: Page needs splitting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class (1)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class (2)</title>
    <id>3555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21415</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:34:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

:film: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:find: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:fine: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, nn1, vvb, av0'';
:finger: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:finish: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:fire: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:fireplace: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:firm: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-vvb'';
:fish: ''nn0, np0, vvi, vvb'';
:fisherman: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:fit: ''vvi, aj0, aj0-nn1, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:fix: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:flag: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:flame: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:flash: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:flat: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:flight: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:float: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:flood: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:floor: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:flour: ''nn1, np0'';
:flow: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:flower: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:fly: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, np0, aj0'';
:fold: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:follow: ''vvi, vvb'';
:food: ''nn1, np0'';
:fool: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:foolish: ''aj0, vvb, vvi'';
:foot: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn0, unc'';
:football: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:footpath: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:for: ''prp, cjs-prp, avp-prp, cjs, unc, avp'';
:forbid: ''vvb, vvi'';
:force: ''nn1, nn0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:forest: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:forget: ''vvi, vvb'';
:forgive: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:fork: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:form: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:formerly: ''av0, aj0-av0, np0'';
:fort: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, unc'';
:fortune: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:forward: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:forwards: ''av0, nn2'';
:four: ''crd, unc'';
:fox: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:frame: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:free: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:freedom: ''nn1, np0'';
:freeze: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:frequent: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:friend: ''nn1, np0'';
:friendly: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:frighten: ''vvi, vvb'';
:frightening: ''aj0, aj0-vvg, vvg'';
:front: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:fulfill: ''vvi, vvb'';
:full: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, vvb, av0, np0'';
:fun: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, np0'';
:funeral: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:fur: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, unc, np0, vvi'';
:furnish: ''vvi, vvb, aj0'';
:further: ''av0, ajc'';
:future: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:gain: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:game: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:garage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:garden: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:garment: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:gas: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:gate: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi'';
:gather: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:general: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:generous: ''aj0, np0'';
:gentleman: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:get: ''vvi, vvb, unc'';
:gift: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0, nn0'';
:give: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:glass: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:glory: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:glue: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, nn1-np0'';
:go: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:goat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:god: ''np0, nn1-np0, nn1'';
:gold: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1-np0, aj0'';
:golden: ''aj0, np0'';
:good: ''aj0, aj0-av0, np0, aj0-nn1, av0, nn1'';
:good-bye: ''itj, nn1'';
:goods: ''nn2, np0'';
:govern: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:government: ''nn0, np0'';
:grace: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:grand: ''aj0, np0, nn0'';
:grandfather: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:grandmother: ''nn1, np0'';
:grass: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:grave: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:gray: ''np0, aj0, nn1-np0, aj0-nn1'';
:great: ''aj0, np0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:green: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:greet: ''vvi, vvb'';
:greeting: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg'';
:grief: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:grieve: ''vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:ground: ''nn1, vvd, vvn, vvd-vvn, aj0-nn1, aj0-vvn, np0'';
:group: ''nn0, nn1, vvb, np0, vvi'';
:grow: ''vvi, vvb'';
:growth: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:guard: ''nn1, nn0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:guess: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:guest: ''nn1, np0'';
:guidance: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:guide: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:guilt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:gun: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:habit: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:hair: ''nn1, np0'';
:half: ''dt0, nn0, av0, np0'';
:hall: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:hammer: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:hand: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:handle: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:hang: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:happen: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:happy: ''aj0, np0'';
:hard: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0'';
:harden: ''vvi, vvb'';
:hardly: ''av0, np0'';
:hardship: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:harm: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:harmless: ''aj0, np0'';
:hate: ''vvb, vvi, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0, nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:have: ''vhb, vhi, unc'';
:he: ''pnp, unc'';
:head: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, aj0, vvb, unc'';
:health: ''nn1, np0'';
:healthy: ''aj0, np0'';
:hear: ''vvi, vvb, itj'';
:heat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:heaven: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:heavy: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, av0'';
:heel: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:height: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:help: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, itj'';
:helpful: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:her: ''dps, pnp, np0'';
:hide: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:high: ''aj0, aj0-av0, np0, aj0-nn1, av0, nn1'';
:hill: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:hire: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:his: ''dps, pnp, np0'';
:historical: ''aj0, np0'';
:history: ''nn1, np0'';
:hit: ''vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd, vvi, nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, aj0-vvd, vvb, aj0-vvn, nn1-vvb'';
:hold: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:holiday: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:hollow: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:home: ''nn1, av0, np0'';
:honesty: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:honour: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:honourable: ''aj0, np0'';
:hook: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:hope: ''vvb, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:hopeless: ''aj0, np0'';
:horizon: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:horn: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:horse: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:hospital: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:host: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:hot: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:hotel: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:hourly: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:house: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:human: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:hunger: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:hunt: ''np0, nn1, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:hurry: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:hurt: ''vvi, vvn, vvd, vvd-vvn, aj0-vvn, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvb, aj0, aj0-vvd, nn1-vvb'';
:husband: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:hut: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, nn0, vvb, np0, vvi'';
:i: ''pnp, crd, zz0, unc, np0'';
:ice: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb'';
:if: ''cjs, unc'';
:ill: ''aj0-av0, aj0, av0, np0'';
:image: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:imagine: ''vvi, vvb'';
:improve: ''vvi, vvb'';
:in: ''prp, avp, avp-prp, vbz, unc'';
:include: ''vvb, vvi'';
:including: ''prp, vvg'';
:increase: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:industry: ''nn1, np0'';
:infect: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:infection: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:influence: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:inform: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:information: ''nn1, np0'';
:ink: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:inner: ''aj0, np0'';
:inquire: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:inside: ''prp, av0, nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, aj0-av0, np0'';
:instruct: ''vvi, vvb'';
:instrument: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:insurance: ''nn1, np0'';
:insure: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:intend: ''vvb, vvi'';
:intention: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:interest: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:interesting: ''aj0, aj0-vvg'';
:international: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:interrupt: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:interruption: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:introduce: ''vvi, vvb'';
:invent: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:invention: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:invitation: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:invite: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:iron: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:island: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:it: ''pnp, nn1, unc, np0'';
:its: ''dps, nn2, unc'';
:jaw: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:jealous: ''aj0, np0'';
:jewel: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:job: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:join: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:joint: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:joke: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:journey: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:joy: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:judge: ''nn1, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:judgment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:juice: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:jump: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:just: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:justice: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:keen: ''aj0, np0'';
:keep: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn0'';
:key: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:kick: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:kill: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:kind: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:king: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:kingdom: ''nn1, np0'';
:kiss: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:knee: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:kneel: ''vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1'';
:knock: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:knot: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:know: ''vvb, vvi'';
:labour: ''aj0, nn1, nn0, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, aj0-nn1, vvb'';
:lack: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:lady: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:lake: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:lamb: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:lamp: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:land: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:language: ''nn1, np0'';
:last: ''ord, vvi, vvb, nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, av0'';
:late: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:lately: ''av0, np0'';
:laugh: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:laughter: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:law: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:lay: ''vvd, vvi, vvb, aj0, aj0-vvd, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvn, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:lazy: ''aj0, np0'';
:lead: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:leaf: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:lean: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:learn: ''vvi, vvb'';
:least: ''dt0, av0'';
:leather: ''nn1, np0'';
:leave: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:left: ''vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd, aj0, aj0-vvn, nn0, aj0-vvd, av0, np0, aj0-av0'';
:leg: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:lend: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0'';
:less: ''av0, dt0'';
:lesson: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:let: ''vvb, vvi, vvn, vvd, nn1-vvb, nn1, vvd-vvn, unc, np0'';
:letter: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:level: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, aj0-av0'';
:library: ''nn1, np0'';
:lie: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:life: ''nn1, np0'';
:lift: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:light: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0-av0, np0, av0'';
:lightning: ''nn1, nn1-vvg'';
:like: ''prp, vvi, vvb, av0, aj0, cjs-prp, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, cjs, nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:likely: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:limb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:limit: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:line: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, vvb'';
:lion: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:lip: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi, np0, nn0'';
:liquid: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:list: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:listen: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:little: ''aj0, dt0, av0, aj0-av0, np0'';
:live: ''vvi, vvb, aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:load: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:loaf: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:local: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:lock: ''nn1, vvi, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:lodging: ''vvg, nn1-vvg, nn1'';
:log: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn0'';
:long: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0, np0, vvi, vvb'';
:look: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:loose: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, vvi, av0, vvb, nn1'';
:lord: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:lose: ''vvi, vvb'';
:lot: ''nn0, nn1, np0, pni, av0'';
:loud: ''aj0-av0, av0, aj0'';
:love: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:low: ''aj0, aj0-av0, np0, av0, aj0-nn1'';
:lower: ''ajc, vvi, vvb, av0, np0'';
:loyal: ''aj0, np0'';
:loyalty: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:luck: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0'';
:lump: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:lung: ''nn1, np0'';
:machine: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:machinery: ''nn1, np0'';
:magazine: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:magic: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, np0'';
:magician: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:mail: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:main: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:make: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:male: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:man: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, unc, vvb, vvi'';
:manage: ''vvi, vvb, unc'';
:manager: ''nn1, np0'';
:map: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:march: ''np0, nn1-np0, nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:mark: ''np0, nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:market: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:marry: ''vvi, vvb, itj'';
:mass: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-np0, np0'';
:master: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:mat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, unc, np0'';
:match: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:material: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:matter: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:may: ''vm0, np0, nn1, unc'';
:me: ''pnp, dps, nn1, unc'';
:mean: ''vvb, vvi, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:meaning: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg'';
:means: ''vvz, nn0'';
:measure: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:medical: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:medicine: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb'';
:meet: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:meeting: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg, np0'';
:melt: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:member: ''nn1, np0'';
:memory: ''nn1, np0'';
:mend: ''vvi, vvb'';
:mention: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:merry: ''aj0, np0'';
:messenger: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:metal: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:microscope: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:middle: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:might: ''vm0, nn1'';
:mile: ''nn1, np0'';
:military: ''aj0, nn0, np0'';
:milk: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi'';
:mind: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:mine: ''pnp, nn1, dps'';
:mineral: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:minister: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:minute: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:mirror: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:miss: ''np0, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:mist: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:mistake: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:mix: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:mixture: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:model: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, aj0, np0'';
:modern: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:money: ''nn1, np0'';
:monkey: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:monthly: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:moon: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:moral: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:morals: ''nn2, np0'';
:more: ''av0, dt0, np0'';
:morning: ''nn1, np0'';
:most: ''av0, dt0'';
:mother: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:motor: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:mountain: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, prp'';
:mouse: ''nn1, np0'';
:mouth: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:move: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:much: ''av0, dt0, np0'';
:multiply: ''vvb, vvi, av0'';
:murder: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:muscle: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:music: ''nn1, np0'';
:musician: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:must: ''vm0, nn1'';
:my: ''dps, unc'';
:myself: ''pnx, np0'';
:mysterious: ''aj0, np0'';
:mystery: ''nn1, np0'';
:nail: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:name: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:narrow: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:nasty: ''aj0, np0'';
:nation: ''nn1, np0'';
:national: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:nature: ''nn1, np0'';
:navy: ''nn0, aj0, np0'';
:near: ''prp, av0, aj0-av0, aj0, vvi, np0'';
:nearly: ''av0, np0'';
:neck: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0'';
:need: ''vvb, nn1, vvi, vm0, nn1-vvb'';
:needle: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:neighbourhood: ''nn0, nn1'';
:neither: ''av0, dt0'';
:nerve: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:nervous: ''aj0, np0'';
:nest: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:net: ''aj0, nn1, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:network: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:new: ''aj0, np0, unc'';
:news: ''nn1, np0'';
:newspaper: ''nn1, np0'';
:nice: ''aj0, np0'';
:night: ''nn1, np0'';
:nine: ''crd, unc, np0'';
:no: ''at0, itj, av0, vvi, nn1, unc, np0'';
:noble: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:noise: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi'';
:nor: ''cjc, unc'';
:north: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:northern: ''np0, aj0'';
:nose: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:not: ''xx0, av0, unc'';
:notice: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:noun: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:now: ''av0, cjs'';
:number: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:nurse: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:nut: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:nylon: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:obedience: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:obey: ''vvi, vvb'';
:object: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:obtain: ''vvi, vvb'';
:occasion: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:ocean: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:of: ''prf, prp, unc, av0, cjc'';
:off: ''avp, avp-prp, prp, aj0, unc'';
:offend: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:offensive: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:offer: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:office: ''nn1, np0'';
:officer: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:official: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:oil: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:old: ''aj0, np0'';
:on: ''prp, avp, avp-prp, unc, av0'';
:once: ''av0, cjs'';
:one: ''crd, crd-pni, pni, nn1, unc'';
:onion: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:only: ''av0, aj0, aj0-av0'';
:open: ''aj0, vvb, vvi, aj0-av0, av0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:operate: ''vvi, vvb'';
:operation: ''nn1, np0'';
:opinion: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:opponent: ''nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:oppose: ''vvi, vvb'';
:opposite: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, av0, prp, nn1'';
:opposition: ''nn1, nn0'';
:or: ''cjc, unc'';
:orange: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1, np0'';
:order: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, av0'';
:ordinary: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:organ: ''nn1, np0'';
:organization: ''nn1, nn0, np0'';
:origin: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:other: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, pnx, np0'';
:out: ''avp, avp-prp, prp, vvb, vvi, unc, np0'';
:outdoors: ''av0, nn1'';
:outer: ''aj0, np0'';
:outside: ''prp, av0, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0-av0'';
:over: ''prp, avp-prp, av0, avp, nn1, aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, np0, unc'';
:owe: ''vvb, vvi'';
:own: ''dt0, vvi, vvb'';
:oxygen: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:pack: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:packet: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:page: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:pain: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:painful: ''aj0, np0'';
:paint: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:painting: ''nn1, nn1-vvg, vvg'';
:pair: ''nn0, vvb'';
:palace: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:pale: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:pan: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:paper: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi'';
:parallel: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, av0, aj0-av0, vvi'';
:parcel: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:park: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:parliament: ''nn1, np0'';
:part: ''nn1, av0, nn1-vvb, vvi, unc, vvb'';
:particular: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, av0'';
:partner: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:party: ''nn0, nn1, np0'';
:pass: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:passage: ''nn1, np0'';
:passenger: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi'';
:past: ''prp, nn1, aj0, aj0-nn1, av0, aj0-av0'';
:pastry: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:patience: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:patient: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0'';
:pattern: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:pause: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:pay: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, unc, np0'';
:payment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:peace: ''nn1, np0'';
:peaceful: ''aj0, np0'';
:pen: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, unc, vvb'';
:pence: ''nn0, nn2'';
:pencil: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:people: ''nn0, vvb, np0, vvi'';
:pepper: ''nn1, np0'';
:per: ''prp, unc'';
:perfect: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:perform: ''vvi, vvb'';
:period: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, av0'';
:permission: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:permit: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:persuade: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:pet: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, unc'';
:petrol: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:photograph: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:photography: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:phrase: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:physical: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:piano: ''nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:pick: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:picture: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:piece: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:pig: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:pile: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:pilot: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:pin: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:pink: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:pipe: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, nn1-np0, vvi'';
:pity: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:place: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:plain: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, nn1, np0, av0, nn1-np0'';
:plan: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, unc'';
:plane: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:plant: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:plate: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, nn0'';
:play: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:please: ''av0, vvi, vvb'';
:pleased: ''aj0, aj0-vvn, vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd, aj0-vvd'';
:pleasure: ''nn1, np0'';
:plenty: ''pni, nn1, av0'';
:plural: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1'';
:pocket: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:poem: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:poetry: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:point: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:pointed: ''vvd, vvd-vvn, vvn, aj0, aj0-vvn, aj0-vvd'';
:poison: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:pole: ''nn1, np0'';
:police: ''nn2, np0, vvb, vvz, vvi'';
:polish: ''aj0, nn1, vvi, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:political: ''aj0, np0'';
:politics: ''nn0, nn2'';
:pool: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:port: ''nn1, np0, vvi'';
:position: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:possess: ''vvi, vvb'';
:possession: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:possibility: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:possibly: ''av0, np0'';
:post: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, prp'';
:pot: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:potato: ''nn1, np0'';
:pound: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:pour: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, unc, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:powder: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0'';
:power: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:practical: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:practice: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:praise: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:pray: ''vvb, vvi, av0'';
:precious: ''aj0, np0'';
:prepare: ''vvi, vvb'';
:present: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, av0'';</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/more than one word class (3)</title>
    <id>3556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21416</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-24T18:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{:Longman Defining Vocabulary/index}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

:preserve: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:president: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:press: ''nn0, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:pressure: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:pretend: ''vvi, vvb, aj0, np0'';
:pretty: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:prevent: ''vvi, vvb'';
:price: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:pride: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, vvi'';
:priest: ''nn1, np0'';
:prince: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:print: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:prison: ''nn1, np0'';
:prisoner: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:private: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:prize: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, aj0-nn1, vvb'';
:probability: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:process: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn2, vvb'';
:procession: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:produce: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:production: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:profession: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:profit: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:promise: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:pronounce: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:pronunciation: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:proof: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:property: ''nn1, np0'';
:protect: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:protection: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0, np0'';
:protective: ''aj0, np0'';
:proud: ''aj0, aj0-av0'';
:prove: ''vvi, vvb'';
:provide: ''vvi, vvb'';
:provision: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:provisions: ''nn2, nn2-vvz'';
:public: ''aj0, nn0, aj0-av0, av0, np0'';
:pull: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:pump: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:punish: ''vvi, vvb, aj0'';
:punishment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:pupil: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:purple: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:purpose: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:push: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:put: ''vvi, vvd, vvn, vvb, vvd-vvn, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:quality: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:quantity: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:quarrel: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:quarter: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:queen: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:question: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:quick: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:quiet: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvb, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:rabbit: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, vvi'';
:race: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:radio: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:railway: ''nn1, np0'';
:rain: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:raise: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:range: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:rank: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0'';
:rapid: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:rat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb, vvi'';
:rate: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:reach: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:read: ''vvi, vvb, vvd, vvn, vvd-vvn, np0, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:ready: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0, vvb'';
:real: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, unc, av0'';
:really: ''av0, np0'';
:reason: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:reasonable: ''aj0, np0'';
:receive: ''vvi, vvb'';
:recent: ''aj0, np0, nn0'';
:recently: ''av0, np0'';
:recognition: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:recognize: ''vvi, vvb'';
:record: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:red: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:reduce: ''vvi, vvb'';
:reduction: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:refusal: ''nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:refuse: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:regard: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:regular: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:related: ''vvd-vvn, vvn, aj0, aj0-vvd, aj0-vvn, vvd'';
:relative: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:religion: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:religious: ''aj0, np0'';
:remain: ''vvi, vvb'';
:remark: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:remember: ''vvi, vvb'';
:remind: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:remove: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:rent: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, vvn, np0'';
:repair: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:repeat: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:reply: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:report: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:represent: ''vvi, vvb'';
:representative: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-np0, np0'';
:republic: ''nn1, np0'';
:request: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:respect: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:rest: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:restaurant: ''nn1, np0'';
:result: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:return: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:reward: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:rice: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:rich: ''aj0, np0'';
:rid: ''vvn, vvi, vvd-vvn, vvb, vvd'';
:ride: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:right: ''av0, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0-av0, nn0, itj, np0'';
:ring: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:rise: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:risk: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:river: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:road: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:rob: ''np0, vvi, vvb'';
:rock: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb'';
:rod: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:roll: ''nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:room: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:root: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:rose: ''vvd, np0, nn1, nn1-np0, aj0-nn1, vvn, aj0-vvd, aj0'';
:rough: ''aj0, aj0-av0, vvi, np0, vvb, aj0-nn1, av0'';
:round: ''avp, avp-prp, prp, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:row: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi'';
:royal: ''aj0, np0'';
:rub: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:rubber: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1'';
:ruin: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:rule: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:ruler: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:run: ''vvi, vvn, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, vvd, np0'';
:rush: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:safe: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, nn1, av0'';
:sail: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:sale: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:salt: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, aj0'';
:same: ''dt0, av0'';
:sand: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:satisfaction: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:satisfy: ''vvi, vvb'';
:save: ''vvi, vvb, prp, nn1-vvb, nn1, cjs-prp'';
:say: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, unc'';
:scale: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:scatter: ''vvb, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:scenery: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:school: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:science: ''nn1, np0'';
:scientific: ''aj0, np0'';
:scientist: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:screw: ''nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:sea: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:search: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:season: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:seat: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:second: ''ord, nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:secrecy: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:secret: ''aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1'';
:secretary: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:see: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, unc, np0'';
:seed: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:seem: ''vvi, vvb'';
:seize: ''vvi, vvb'';
:sell: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:send: ''vvi, vvb'';
:sensation: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:sense: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:sensible: ''aj0, np0'';
:sentence: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:separate: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:serious: ''aj0, np0'';
:serve: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:service: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:set: ''vvn, nn1, vvd, vvi, vvd-vvn, vvb, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb, aj0-vvn, aj0, aj0-vvd'';
:settle: ''vvi, vvb, np0, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:seven: ''crd, np0, unc'';
:seventh: ''ord, np0'';
:sew: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:sex: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:shade: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:shadow: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb, vvi, nn0'';
:shake: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:shame: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:shape: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:share: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:sharp: ''aj0, aj0-av0, np0, av0'';
:she: ''pnp, unc'';
:sheep: ''nn0, np0'';
:sheet: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:shelf: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:shell: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:shelter: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:shield: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:shine: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:ship: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:shirt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:shock: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:shoe: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, np0'';
:shoot: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:shop: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:shopkeeper: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:shore: ''nn1, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:short: ''aj0, aj0-av0, np0, av0, aj0-nn1'';
:shot: ''nn1, vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd'';
:shoulder: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:shout: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:show: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:shut: ''vvb, vvd-vvn, vvd, vvn, vvi, aj0-vvn, aj0'';
:sick: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:side: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:sideways: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:sight: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:sign: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:signal: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:silence: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:silk: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:silver: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, np0, nn1-np0, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:simple: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:since: ''cjs, cjs-prp, prp, av0'';
:sing: ''vvi, vvb'';
:single: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, vvb'';
:singular: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:sink: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:sister: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:sit: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, unc'';
:six: ''crd, unc'';
:size: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:skill: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0'';
:skin: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:skirt: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:sky: ''nn1, np0'';
:slave: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:sleep: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:slide: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:slight: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:slip: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:slope: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, vvi, nn1-np0'';
:slow: ''aj0, aj0-av0, vvi, vvb, av0'';
:small: ''aj0, np0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:smell: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:smile: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:smoke: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:smooth: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:snake: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvi, vvb'';
:snow: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:so: ''av0, cjs, crd, unc'';
:soap: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:social: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:society: ''nn0, np0'';
:sock: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:soil: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:soldier: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:solid: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:some: ''dt0, av0, unc'';
:son: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:sore: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:sorrow: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:sort: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:soul: ''nn1, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:sound: ''nn1, vvi, aj0-nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, aj0, np0, nn1-np0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:sour: ''aj0, vvi, vvb'';
:south: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:southern: ''aj0, np0'';
:space: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:spacecraft: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:spade: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:speak: ''vvi, vvb'';
:spear: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:special: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:specialist: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:speed: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:spell: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:spend: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:spin: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:spirit: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:split: ''vvn, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvd, nn1, vvd-vvn, aj0, aj0-vvn, vvb, aj0-vvd, nn1-vvb'';
:spoil: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:spoon: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:sport: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:spot: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:spread: ''nn1, vvn, vvd-vvn, vvd, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:spring: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:square: ''np0, aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb, av0'';
:stage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:stair: ''nn1, np0'';
:stamp: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:stand: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:standard: ''aj0, nn1, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:star: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, aj0, unc'';
:start: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:state: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:station: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:stay: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:steady: ''aj0, aj0-av0, vvi, vvb, av0'';
:steal: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:steam: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0, vvb, nn0'';
:steel: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, nn1-np0, np0, aj0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:steep: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, vvb'';
:stem: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:step: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:stick: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:sticky: ''aj0, np0'';
:stiff: ''aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, av0, nn1'';
:still: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0, nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:sting: ''nn1, np0, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:stitch: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:stomach: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:stone: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:stop: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:store: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:storm: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:story: ''nn1, np0'';
:straight: ''av0, aj0, aj0-av0'';
:strange: ''aj0, np0'';
:stranger: ''nn1, ajc'';
:stream: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:street: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:strength: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:stretch: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:strike: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:string: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:stroke: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:strong: ''aj0, np0'';
:structure: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvi, vvb'';
:struggle: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:student: ''nn1, np0'';
:study: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:stupid: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:style: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:subject: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:substance: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:subtract: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:succeed: ''vvi, vvb'';
:success: ''nn1, np0'';
:suck: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:suffer: ''vvi, vvb'';
:sugar: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:suggest: ''vvi, vvb'';
:suit: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:suitable: ''aj0, np0'';
:sum: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:summer: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:sun: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, unc, nn1-vvb'';
:supply: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:support: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:suppose: ''vvb, vvi, np0'';
:sure: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:surface: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:surprise: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:surround: ''vvb, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:swallow: ''vvi, np0, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:swear: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:sweep: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:sweet: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:swell: ''nn1, vvi, aj0-nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, aj0'';
:swim: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:swing: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:sword: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:sympathetic: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:sympathy: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:system: ''nn1, np0'';
:table: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:tail: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:take: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0'';
:talk: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, unc'';
:taste: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:tax: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:tea: ''nn1, np0'';
:teach: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:team: ''nn0, vvb, np0'';
:tear: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:telephone: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:television: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:tell: ''vvi, vvb, np0'';
:temper: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:temple: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:tend: ''vvb, vvi'';
:tendency: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:tender: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1, vvb'';
:tennis: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:tense: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:terrible: ''aj0, np0'';
:terror: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:test: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:than: ''cjs, prp, av0'';
:thank: ''vvb, vvi'';
:that: ''cjt, dt0, cjt-dt0, av0, cjs, unc'';
:the: ''at0, unc, np0'';
:theater: ''nn1-np0, nn1'';
:then: ''av0, cjs'';
:there: ''ex0, av0, unc'';
:they: ''pnp, unc'';
:thick: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:thief: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:thin: ''aj0, vvb, vvi, aj0-av0, unc'';
:thing: ''nn1, np0'';
:think: ''vvb, vvi, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:thirst: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:this: ''dt0, av0, nn2'';
:though: ''cjs, av0, prp'';
:thought: ''vvd, vvn, nn1, vvd-vvn'';
:thread: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:threat: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi'';
:threaten: ''vvi, vvb'';
:three: ''crd, np0'';
:through: ''prp, avp, avp-prp, aj0'';
:throw: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:thumb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:thunder: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:ticket: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:tidy: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:tie: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:tiger: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:tight: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:time: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:tin: ''nn1, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:tire: ''vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1'';
:title: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:to: ''to0, prp, avp-prp, avp, unc'';
:tobacco: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:today: ''av0, nn1, np0'';
:toe: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:tomorrow: ''av0, nn1'';
:tongue: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:tonight: ''av0, nn1'';
:tooth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:top: ''aj0-nn1, nn1, aj0, vvi, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:total: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:touch: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:tour: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0, vvb, nn0'';
:tourist: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, np0, nn1-np0'';
:tower: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:town: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:toy: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, aj0'';
:track: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:trade: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:traffic: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:train: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:translate: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:trap: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:travel: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:treat: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:treatment: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:tree: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb'';
:tremble: ''vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:trick: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0'';
:trip: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:tropical: ''aj0, np0'';
:trouble: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:true: ''aj0, aj0-av0, vvb, aj0-nn1, av0'';
:trunk: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, vvb'';
:trust: ''nn1, nn0, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:truth: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:try: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:tube: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0, vvb'';
:tune: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:turn: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:twist: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:type: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:typical: ''aj0, np0'';
:tyre: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:uncle: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:under: ''prp, av0, avp, avp-prp, np0, unc'';
:understand: ''vvi, vvb'';
:undo: ''vvi, vvb'';
:uniform: ''nn1, aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:union: ''nn0, np0'';
:unit: ''nn1, np0'';
:unite: ''vvi, vvb'';
:universal: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:universe: ''nn1, np0'';
:university: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:until: ''cjs, cjs-prp, prp'';
:up: ''avp, avp-prp, prp, vvb, nn0, vvi, unc, aj0'';
:upper: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:upright: ''av0, aj0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1'';
:upset: ''vvn, aj0-vvn, vvi, aj0, vvb, aj0-nn1, vvd, vvd-vvn, nn1'';
:upside_down: ''av0, aj0'';
:upstairs: ''av0, nn1'';
:urge: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:us: ''pnp, np0, unc, nn2'';
:use: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, unc, np0'';
:useless: ''aj0, np0'';
:valley: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:valuable: ''aj0, aj0-nn1'';
:value: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvb, vvi, np0'';
:variety: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:vary: ''vvi, vvb'';
:vegetable: ''nn1, aj0-nn1'';
:vehicle: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:verb: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:very: ''av0, aj0-av0, aj0'';
:victory: ''nn1, np0'';
:view: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:village: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:violence: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:violent: ''aj0, np0'';
:visit: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:voice: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb, np0'';
:vote: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:voyage: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:wages: ''nn2, nn2-vvz'';
:wait: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:waiter: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:wake: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, np0, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:walk: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0, nn1-np0, unc'';
:wall: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:wander: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:want: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:war: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, unc'';
:warm: ''aj0, vvi, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:warmth: ''nn1, nn1-np0'';
:warn: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:wash: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, np0'';
:waste: ''nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:watch: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:water: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:wave: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:way: ''nn1, np0, av0'';
:we: ''pnp, unc'';
:wealth: ''nn1, nn1-np0, nn0'';
:wear: ''vvi, vvb, np0, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:weather: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:weave: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:wedding: ''nn1, nn1-vvg'';
:weekly: ''aj0, av0, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, np0, nn1'';
:weigh: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1'';
:weight: ''nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:welcome: ''aj0, vvb, vvi, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-vvb, itj'';
:well: ''av0, itj, aj0, nn1, aj0-av0, aj0-nn1, np0'';
:west: ''np0, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:western: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:wet: ''aj0, aj0-vvn, vvn, vvi, aj0-vvd, vvd, vvd-vvn, vvb, aj0-nn1'';
:what: ''dtq, unc'';
:wheel: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:when: ''avq-cjs, cjs, avq'';
:where: ''avq-cjs, avq, cjs'';
:while: ''cjs, nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb'';
:whip: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:whisper: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:whistle: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0, nn1-np0'';
:white: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1, nn1, nn1-np0'';
:who: ''pnq, np0, unc'';
:whole: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1'';
:wide: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0, aj0-nn1'';
:wild: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0, aj0-nn1'';
:will: ''vm0, nn1, np0, vvb, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb, vvi'';
:willing: ''aj0, aj0-vvg, vvg, aj0-nn1'';
:win: ''vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1, np0, unc'';
:wind: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, np0'';
:window: ''nn1, np0'';
:wine: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0'';
:wing: ''nn1, np0, nn1-vvb, vvi, vvb'';
:winter: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0, nn1-vvb'';
:wire: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1-np0, vvb, np0'';
:wisdom: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0'';
:wise: ''aj0, np0, aj0-nn1'';
:wish: ''vvb, vvi, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:with: ''prp, unc'';
:within: ''prp, av0'';
:without: ''prp, av0'';
:witness: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:woman: ''nn1, np0'';
:wonder: ''vvb, nn1-vvb, vvi, nn1, aj0-nn1, aj0'';
:wood: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:word: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, np0, vvb, vvi'';
:work: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb, unc'';
:world: ''nn1, np0'';
:worm: ''nn1, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0, vvi, np0, vvb'';
:worry: ''vvi, nn1, vvb, nn1-vvb'';
:worse: ''ajc, av0, nn1'';
:worship: ''nn1, vvi, nn1-vvb, vvb'';
:worst: ''ajs, av0, nn1'';
:worth: ''prp, nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:worthy: ''aj0, np0'';
:would: ''vm0, unc'';
:wound: ''nn1, vvd-vvn, vvn, vvd, vvi, nn1-vvb'';
:wrap: ''vvi, vvb, nn1, nn1-vvb'';
:wreck: ''nn1, vvi, vvb, nn1-vvb, nn1-np0'';
:write: ''vvi, vvb'';
:wrong: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, aj0-av0, av0, vvb, nn1, vvi, np0'';
:yard: ''nn1, np0, nn1-np0'';
:year: ''nn1, np0'';
:yearly: ''aj0, aj0-av0, av0'';
:yellow: ''aj0, aj0-nn1, nn1, np0'';
:yes: ''itj, nn2, unc'';
:yesterday: ''av0, nn1'';
:yet: ''av0, cjs'';
:you: ''pnp, unc'';
:young: ''aj0, np0, nn0'';
:youth: ''nn1, nn1-np0, np0, nn0'';
:zero: ''crd, nn1, vvi, vvb''.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency</title>
    <id>3557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T11:17:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency]] moved to [[Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency (1)]]: Naming consistency</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Longman Defining Vocabulary/by frequency (1)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Awenkara remis</title>
    <id>3560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-05T03:39:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Site and Situation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Awenkara remis''', literally &quot;Bay-West Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of [[Isana]]. As its name suggests it is situated along the west coast of [[Gardaus Bay]], and thus contains the main commercial districts of the city; it has sometmies been called &quot;The Shopping Centre of the World&quot;.

This district of the city began as simply the &quot;West City&quot;, and in its early history was a far grittier place, being both the port district until the late 19th century, and the centre of transportation for the immense wave of industrial development that would take over the formerly rural areas to its west, and incorporate them all within Isana city. Presently it retains its role, in a sense, as the centre of the western city, though its modernity stands in stark contrast to the much more traditional feel of [[Zaumir remis]] just to its north.

==Site and Situation==

Awenkara remis is bounded by the mouth of the Rushalya to the north, and stretches along the length of [[Gardaus Bay]], being linked by the three great bay bridges (namely [[Nikemi Bridge]], [[Soruta Bridge]] and [[Horesen Bridge]]) to [[Awenhine remis]] across the bay. Heavily urbanised and almost completely built up, Awenkara nonetheless retains large areas of artificially grown forest in its north, where many of its famous municipal buildings and sites are also situated.

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

Awenkara remis is subdivided into four large districts that are then farther subdivided into different precincts or neighbourhoods. From north to south, the districts are:

*[[Ainosdunikara-dego]], West of the Rivermouth (that is, the mouth of the [[Rushalya river]]

*[[Taiberseimi-dego]], Above (ie. north of) [[Soruta Bridge]]

*[[Taibergute-dego]], Below, or south of, Soruta Bridge

*[[Horesen-dego]], the area around the newer [[Horesen Bridge]] near the mouth of Gardaus Bay

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basic Vocabulary</title>
    <id>3561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>46946</id>
      <timestamp>2009-07-03T07:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melroch</username>
        <id>31</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Lexica]]
[[Category:Source material]]
[[Category:Defining Vocabulary]]

This wordlist was originally devised by [http://cinduworld.tripod.com/contents.htm Roger Mills] for comparative research in Indonesia. Any questions may be addressed to Roger by [mailto:&amp;#114;&amp;#102;&amp;#109;&amp;#32;&amp;#105;&amp;#108;&amp;#108;&amp;#121;&amp;#64;&amp;#109;&amp;#115;&amp;#110;&amp;#46;&amp;#99;&amp;#111;&amp;#109; email].

It was digitalized by [[User:Melroch|Benct Philip Jonsson]].  Questions about the English-only version should be addressed to him.

A plaintext version is [[Basic Vocabulary/plaintext|here]].

If you want a more modern vocabulary you may want to have a look at the [[Longman Defining Vocabulary]].
__NOTOC__

{| id=&quot;toc&quot;
| '''Table of contents'''
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#I. Numbers|I. Numbers]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#II. Body parts|II. Body parts]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#III. Kinship terms|III. Kinship terms]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#IV. Animals|IV. Animals]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#V. Nature|V. Nature]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#VI. Everyday life|VI. Everyday life]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#VII. Verbs|VII. Verbs]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#VIII. Adjectives|VIII. Adjectives]]
|-
|[[Basic Vocabulary#IX. Pronouns etc.|IX. Pronouns etc.]]
|}

== The Vocabulary ==

=== I. Numbers ===
:1. one
:2. two
:3. three
:4. four
:5. five
:6. six
:7. seven
:8. eight
:9. nine
:10. ten
:11. eleven
:12. twelve
:13. twenty
:14. thirty
:15. forty
:16. fifty
:17. sixty
:18. seventy
:19. eighty
:20. ninety
:21. one hundred
:22. two hundred
:23. one thousand
:24. two thousand
:25. ten thousand
:26. first
:27. second
:28. third
:29. once
:30. twice
:31. single
:32. many
:33. few
:34. big
:35. little
:36. more
:37. less
:38. each
:39. every
:40. half
:41. middle
:42. all
:43. some
:44. several
:45. another
:46. enough
:47. even
:48. odd

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== II. Body parts ===
:49. skull
:50. head
:51. brain
:52. hair
:53. bald
:54. grey-haired
:55. forehead
:56. eye
:57. eyebrow
:58. nose
:59. ear
:60. cheek
:61. mouth
:62. lips
:63. chin
:64. tongue
:65. tooth
:66. beard
:67. voice
:68. neck
:69. shoulder
:70. chest
:71. breast
:72. waist
:73. stomach
:74. navel
:75. ribs
:76. arm
:77. hand
:78. left (hand)
:79. right (hand)
:80. fathom
:81. fist
:82. elbow
:83. finger
:84. fingernail
:85. palm of hand
:86. leg
:87. foot
:88. thigh
:89. knee
:90. calf
:91. back
:92. buttocks
:93. body
:94. skin
:95. naked
:96. body-hair
:97. bone
:98. lap
:99. heart
:100. guts
:101. liver
:102. gall
:103. bile
:104. womb
:105. blood
:106. vein
:107. excrement
:108. urine
:109. corpse
:110. soul
:111. breath
:112. life
:113. ghost
:114. pain (head or body)
:115. dirt on the skin
:116. fester
:117. sore
:118. boil
:119. wound
:120. pus
:121. sprain
:122. swollen
:123. dropsy
:124. bruise
:125. penis
:126. scrotum
:127. vulva
:128. circumcized
:129. uncircumcized
:130. flatulence
:131. dysentery

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== III. Kinship terms ===
:132. person
:133. man
:134. husband
:135. woman
:136. wife
:137. father
:138. mother
:139. name
:140. child
:141. son
:142. daughter
:143. uncle
:144. aunt
:145. cousin
:146. nephew
:147. niece
:148. grandfather
:149. grandmother
:150. grandchild
:151. brother
:152. sister
:153. younger brother
:154. older brother
:155. young girl
:156. virgin
:157. family
:158. friend
:159. associate
:160. partner
:161. enemy
:162. twins
:163. widow
:164. parents-in-law
:165. son-in-law
:166. brother-in-law
:167. king
:168. nobility
:169. common people

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== IV. Animals ===
:170. animal
:171. horse
:172. pig
:173. cow
:174. buffalo
:175. goat
:176. deer
:177. hide
:178. horn
:179. snout
:180. tail
:181. dog
:182. cat
:183. mouse
:184. rat
:185. bird
:186. chicken
:187. wing
:188. cockfight
:189. cock's spur
:190. feather
:191. rice-bird
:192. sparrow
:193. pigeon
:194. dove
:195. duck
:196. fish
:197. scales
:198. oyster
:199. shrimp
:200. octopus
:201. squid
:202. crab. kepiting
:203. shark
:204. ray
:205. crocodile
:206. bat
:207. small lizzard
:208. snake
:209. sea-turtle
:210. land-turtle
:211. insect
:212. ant
:213. termite
:214. wasp
:215. bee
:216. worm
:217. snail
:218. millipede
:219. butterfly
:220. spider
:221. louse
:222. fly
:223. mosquito
:224. firefly
:225. plant
:226. rice
:227. seed-rice
:228. ear (of grain)
:229. grain
:230. hulled rice
:231. rice-straw
:232. tree
:233. wood kayu
:234. sap
:235. leaf
:236. branch
:237. tree-trunk
:238. root
:239. bare
:240. stick
:241. plank
:242. board
:243. shell
:244. coconut
:245. banyan tree
:246. ficus
:247. sago palm
:248. pandanus
:249. sago
:250. palm-wine
:251. bamboo
:252. grass
:253. moss
:254. thorn
:255. nettle
:256. fish poison
:257. poison
:258. banana
:259. bunch (of fruits)
:260. onion
:261. cucumber
:262. tuber
:263. fruit
:264. sugarcane
:265. pineapple
:266. eggplant
:267. pumpkin
:268. corn
:269. flower

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== V. Nature ===
:270. land
:271. water
:272. fire
:273. wind
:274. mud
:275. dust
:276. stone
:277. mountain
:278. cave
:279. hill
:280. inland
:281. interior
:282. surface
:283. flat
:284. plain
:285. field
:286. ditch
:287. garden
:288. earthquake
:289. wet ricefield
:290. dry ricefield
:291. desert
:292. woods
:293. clearing in the forest
:294. village
:295. gold
:296. silver
:297. iron
:298. copper
:299. sea
:300. shore
:301. beach
:302. sand
:303. gravel
:304. wave
:305. foam
:306. fluid
:307. liquid
:308. straits
:309. cape
:310. tip
:311. island
:312. coral
:313. bay
:314. river mouth
:315. lake
:316. river
:317. stream
:318. channel saluran
:319. irrigation canal
:320. flood
:321. current
:322. north
:323. south
:324. east
:325. west
:326. smoke
:327. flame
:328. glowing coals
:329. spark
:330. ashes
:331. charcoal
:332. sky
:333. sun
:334. light
:335. moon
:336. star
:337. full moon
:338. shadow
:339. shade
:340. cloud
:341. rain
:342. drizzle
:343. thunder
:344. noise
:345. sound
:346. lightning
:347. storm
:348. tempest
:349. fog
:350. mist
:351. haze
:352. dew
:353. whirlwind
:354. typhoon
:355. year
:356. day
:357. morning
:358. midday
:359. afternoon
:360. dusk
:361. night
:362. late night
:363. yesterday
:364. yesterday -1
:365. tomorrow
:366. tomorrow +1
:367. today

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== VI. Everyday life ===
:368. village
:369. road
:370. bridge
:371. crossroads
:372. house
:373. wall
:374. a hole in the wall
:375. ceiling
:376. floor
:377. window
:378. glass
:379. door
:380. hinge
:381. hook
:382. ladder (to the house)
:383. ladder (in general)
:384. roof
:385. thatch
:386. split bamboo
:387. fence
:388. stable
:389. room
:390. bed
:391. toilet
:392. garbage heap
:393. kitchen
:394. stove
:395. pan
:396. pot
:397. (water)jar
:398. (cooking)pot
:399. cooking vessel
:400. rice-pounder
:401. rice-mortar
:402. basket
:403. spoon
:404. scoop
:405. ladle
:406. knife
:407. funnel
:408. plate
:409. cup
:410. bowl
:411. dipper
:412. scissors
:413. needle
:414. thread
:415. color
:416. shirt
:417. shoes
:418. sarong
:419. loincloth
:420. fringe
:421. scarf
:422. plant fiber
:423. cotton
:424. bark cloth
:425. loom
:426. loom part
:427. the woof
:428. the warp
:429. ring
:430. bracelet
:431. umbrella
:432. earring
:433. ornament
:434. brush
:435. comb
:436. table
:437. chair
:438. pillow
:439. blanket
:440. mosquito net
:441. curtain
:442. rafters
:443. house-poles
:444. roof-peak
:445. leak
:446. whitewash
:447. morter
:448. chalk
:449. paint
:450. lamp
:451. torch
:452. wick
:453. oil
:454. coconut oil
:455. egg
:456. meat
:457. sauce
:458. gravy
:459. spices
:460. side-dishes
:461. porrige
:462. mush
:463. salt
:464. dregs
:465. remains
:466. smell
:467. honey
:468. sugar
:469. vinegar
:470. pepper
:471. red pepper
:472. bamboo shot
:473. heart-of-palm
:474. caraway
:475. cumin
:476. ginger
:477. turmeric
:478. sesame
:479. boat
:480. canoe
:481. paddle
:482. oar
:483. mast
:484. sail
:485. rudder
:486. outrigger
:487. fishing net
:488. fish-trap
:489. fish-hook
:490. keris
:491. dagger
:492. machete
:493. gun
:494. archer's bow
:495. arrow
:496. hunting net
:497. sharp bamboo stakes
:498. saw
:499. hammer
:500. nail
:501. peg
:502. axe
:503. hatchet
:504. wedge
:505. chisel
:506. carpenter's plane
:507. rope
:508. string
:509. skewer
:510. wire
:511. chain
:512. solder
:513. lathe
:514. hoe
:515. bucket
:516. work
:517. job
:518. extra work
:519. second job
:520. profit
:521. loss
:522. edge
:523. space between
:524. interval
:525. side
:526. line
:527. sheath

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== VII. Verbs ===
:528. be born
:529. die
:530. live
:531. kill
:532. grow
:533. inherit
:534. hit
:535. fight
:536. kick
:537. stab
:538. jerk
:539. jump
:540. rub
:541. massage
:542. scratch
:543. rasp
:544. scrape
:545. drill
:546. file
:547. sharpen
:548. cut
:549. chop
:550. cut open
:551. cut into
:552. prune
:553. trim
:554. cut off
:555. amputate
:556. rip
:557. tear
:558. break off
:559. slice
:560. hack
:561. cut unevenly
:562. cut up
:563. shave
:564. slash
:565. split
:566. carve
:567. inlay
:568. move
:569. change
:570. substitute
:571. exchange
:572. move something
:573. walk
:574. run
:575. go
:576. come
:577. arrive
:578. approach
:579. depart
:580. enter
:581. go out
:582. return
:583. return something
:584. turn around
:585. return home
:586. trip
:587. step in a hole
:588. sink in the mud
:589. push
:590. pull
:591. point
:592. accuse
:593. throw
:594. meet
:595. pick up
:596. appear
:597. disappear
:598. stop by
:599. visit
:600. move something away
:601. move something closer
:602. to face
:603. send
:604. receive
:605. swim
:606. dive
:607. sink
:608. drown
:609. shake
:610. drift
:611. float
:612. flow
:613. go sail along the coast
:614. think
:615. know
:616. know (a person)
:617. feel
:618. suffer
:619. regret
:620. say
:621. speak
:622. sing
:623. chant
:624. recite
:625. laugh
:626. shout
:627. cry out
:628. call
:629. teach
:630. study
:631. learn
:632. praise
:633. inform
:634. communicate
:635. tell
:636. narrate
:637. read
:638. write
:639. compose
:640. arrange
:641. hear
:642. see
:643. wink
:644. blink
:645. look up
:646. look at
:647. stare
:648. feel something
:649. touch
:650. handle
:651. taste
:652. drink
:653. sip
:654. suck
:655. suckle
:656. bite (into something)
:657. bite (of animals)
:658. chew
:659. swallow
:660. eat
:661. feed
:662. lick
:663. hiccough
:664. cry
:665. cry over
:666. lament
:667. cough
:668. sneeze
0 smell
:669. smell something
:670. breathe
:671. gasp
:672. pant
:673. wheeze
:674. hold the breath
:675. to blow
:676. squeeze
:677. press
:678. press out
:679. choke (on food)
:680. vomit
:681. spit
:682. love
:683. hate
:684. kiss
:685. leer
:686. ogle
:687. have sexual intercourse
:688. mate
:689. itch
:690. kill by squashing
:691. embrace
:692. dance
:693. sleep
:694. close the eyes
:695. deny
:696. remember
:697. forget
:698. help
:699. pity
:700. console
:701. promise
:702. endure
:703. trust
:704. believe
:705. ask
:706. answer
:707. repay
:708. requite
:709. order
:710. command
:711. like
:712. tell a lie
:713. win
:714. defeat
:715. defeated
:716. hope
:717. make
:718. dig
:719. scatter
:720. sow
:721. build
:722. clear land
:723. hunt
:724. chase
:725. shoot a gun
:726. peel
:727. flay
:728. strip (leaves)
:729. slaughter
:730. plow
:731. harrow
:732. pull out
:733. uproot
:734. draw a sword
:735. side by side
:736. next to
:737. in a row/line
:738. lean on
:739. lean something against
:740. sit with legs crossed
:741. squat
:742. sit with legs stretched out
:743. stretch out
:744. fall down
:745. collapse
:746. break
:747. break open
:748. burst
:749. to pry
:750. gouge
:751. mix
:752. assemble
:753. poke
:754. gather (things) together
:755. measure
:756. knock
:757. heat
:758. cook
:759. fry
:760. roast
:761. bake
:762. burn
:763. boil
:764. steam
:765. spatter
:766. settle
:767. stir
:768. remove pot from the fire
:769. divide into portions
:770. drip
:771. winnow
:772. filter
:773. weigh
:774. pour
:775. spill
:776. polish. mengupam
:777. chop fine
:778. knead
:779. wash
:780. wash clothes ... mis.pakaian
:781. wash dishes ... mis.piring2
:782. bathe
:783. spray
:784. rinse
:785. wipe
:786. sweep
:787. cross
:788. deviate
:789. go to the side
:790. turn
:791. &quot;tack&quot;
:792. sail into the wind
:793. rotate
:794. revolve
:795. twist
:796. wind/roll up
:797. wrap
:798. tie
:799. make nets
:800. splice
:801. stretch
:802. extend
:803. tighten
:804. wind up
:805. bandage
:806. wrap (a corpse)
:807. sway
:808. unsteady
:809. place
:810. bet
:811. carry
:812. bring
:813. hang
:814. take
:815. steal
:816. use
:817. wear
:818. deliver
:819. carry on the shoulder
:820. buy
:821. sell
:822. rent
:823. give
:824. borrow
:825. lend
:826. owe
:827. pay
:828. bargain
:829. choose
:830. get
:831. obtain
:832. restore
:833. there is
:834. there is not
:835. have
:836. want
:837. wish
:838. will
:839. not yet
:840. already
:841. all gone
:842. yes
:843. no
:844. do not...
:845. be ...ing
:846. be
:847. become
:848. have to
:849. must
:850. can
:851. may
:852. permit
:853. allow
:854. forbid
:855. forbidden
:856. ever
:857. never
:858. formerly
:859. before
:860. happen
:861. cause
:862. count
:863. add
:864. divide
:865. reduce
:866. increase
:867. make smaller
:868. sew
:869. weave
:870. decorate
:871. embroider
:872. repair
:873. fade
:874. dream
:875. daydream
:876. wake up
:877. get up (from bed)
:878. sit
:879. get up (from sitting)
:880. rise (sun)
:881. sit side by side
:882. sit next to
:883. stand
:884. kneel
:885. fall
:886. rise up
:887. go up
:888. raise
:889. climb
:890. climb a mountain
:891. stay
:892. descend
:893. lower
:894. let down (rope)
:895. pay out rope
:896. recede
:897. open
:898. bloom
:899. cover
:900. spread out
:901. separate
:902. pile up
:903. close
:904. hide
:905. hold
:906. shelter
:907. slip
:908. slide
:909. carry - hand. menjinjing
:910. carry - head
:911. carry - hip
:912. play
:913. bark (dog)

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== VIII. Adjectives ===
:914. white
:915. black
:916. red
:917. yellow
:918. green
:919. blue
:920. grey
:921. spotted
:922. tall
:923. short
:924. long
:925. high
:926. low
:927. great
:928. small
:929. round
:930. smooth
:931. jagged
:932. hard (especially of wood)
:933. hard
:934. soft
:935. ripe
:936. unripe
:937. hot
:938. cold
:939. sharp
:940. dull
:941. sweet
:942. sour
:943. bitter
:944. salty
:945. spicy hot
:946. tasteless
:947. old
:948. young
:949. new
:950. heavy
:951. light
:952. bright
:953. shiny
:954. glittering
:955. dark
:956. clear
:957. vague
:958. narrow
:959. wide
:960. full
:961. empty
:962. tight
:963. loose
:964. sleepy
:965. tired
:966. deep
:967. shallow
:968. wet
:969. dry
:970. far
:971. near
:972. downstream
:973. upstream
:974. good
:975. bad
:976. true
:977. false
:978. certain
:979. beautiful
:980. ugly
:981. good tasting
:982. bad tasting
:983. fresh
:984. rotten
:985. difficult. susah
:986. easy
:987. expensive
:988. cheap
:989. coarse
:990. fine
:991. invulnerable
:992. rich
:993. poor
:994. stingy
:995. greedy
:996. thin
:997. thick
:998. fat
:999. viscous
:1000. sick
:1001. well
:1002. hungry
:1003. sated
:1004. thirsty
:1005. pregnant
:1006. barren
:1007. strong
:1008. weak
:1009. brave
:1010. afraid
:1011. ashamed
:1012. painful
:1013. smarting
:1014. dirty
:1015. mouldy
:1016. muddy
:1017. clean
:1018. straight
:1019. direct
:1020. askew
:1021. curving
:1022. sloping
:1023. athwart
:1024. transverse
:1025. across
:1026. curly (hair)
:1027. urine smell
:1028. rancid smell
:1029. burnt smell
:1030. fragrant
:1031. noisy
:1032. quiet
:1033. lonely
:1034. peaceful
:1035. calm (water)
:1036. clear (water)
:1037. wild
:1038. tame
:1039. free
:1040. loud
:1041. hard (blow)
:1042. hoarse
:1043. crazy
:1044. confused
:1045. dizzy
:1046. nervous
:1047. angry
:1048. happy
:1049. sad
:1050. disappointed
:1051. crippled
:1052. blind
:1053. deaf
:1054. stupid
:1055. clever
:1056. capable
:1057. willing
:1058. fast
:1059. slow
:1060. broken
:1061. damaged
:1062. torn
:1063. perfect
:1064. very
:1065. rare
:1066. usual
:1067. common
:1068. everyday
:1069. popular
:1070. slippery
:1071. sticky
:1072. excessively decorated

&lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://wiki.frath.net/Basic_Vocabulary &amp;#91;Up&amp;#93;]&lt;/span&gt;

=== IX. PRONOUNS ETC. ===
:1073. me - I
:1074. you sg. (thou)
:1075. he
:1076. she
:1077. we excl.
:1078. we incl.
:1079. you pl.
:1080. they
:1081. my
:1082. your (thy)
:1083. his
:1084. her
:1085. our excl.
:1086. our incl.
:1087. your
:1088. their
:1089. mine
:1090. yours
:1091. his
:1092. ours
:1093. theirs
:1094. who? siapa
:1095. what? apa
:1096. how much/many? berapa
:1097. when? kapan
:1098. which? yg.mana
:1099. where? dimana
:1100. why?
:1101. self (reflexive)
:1102. -self (intensifier)
:1103. each other
:1104. respectively
:1105. thing
:1106. indefinite
:1107. any
:1108. goods
:1109. this
:1110. that (nearby)
:1111. that (far)
:1112. here
:1113. there (near)
:1114. there (far)
:1115. now
:1116. often
:1117. just in case
:1118. at
:1119. in
:1120. from
:1121. to
:1122. inside
:1123. on top
:1124. under
:1125. outside
:1126. with
:1127. by means of
:1128. and
:1129. or
:1130. but
:1131. if
:1132. when
:1133. because
:1134. perhaps
:1135. although
:1136. before
:1137. after
:1138. during
:1139. since
:1140. in vain
:1141. pretending
:1142. in front
:1143. in back
:1144. how?</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zaumir remis</title>
    <id>3562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T14:05:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Zaumir remis''', literally &quot;Palace Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] in [[Isana]], in the northwest of the modern day city along the west bank of the [[Rushalya river]]. Along with [[Waranyebara remis]], it is one of the oldest districts of Isana, forming the historical city centre.

Severely damaged by bombing during the [[Fourth Global War]], the area was later painstakingly restored rather than deliberately redeveloped; under the [[Izanosan Plans]] the surviving architecture was ingeniously blended with new constructions, under regulations limiting the place to mostly residential usage. In modern days Zaumir is a mostly high-class district, even more so than eastern [[Garnoye remis]] or [[Karagose remis]], and a centre of high-class establishments for such things as fashion and food.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Arithide poetry</title>
    <id>3563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21326</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-21T08:19:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Classical Arithide poetry''' can serve as either a catch-all term for all poetry written in the [[Classical Arithide]] language, or as a more specific referent denoting only the later, more polished, stylised verse of [[Daldaian the Younger]] ''et secuutus''. Almost the entire corpus of what is considered by academia &quot;Classical Arithide poetry&quot; was written in the 600 years from the middle Aphoiros to the late Equora dynasties (see [[Lazeian Empire]] for information on the dynasties).

==Earlier Classical Arithide poetry==

{{main|Earlier Classical Arithide poetry}}

==Later Classical Arithide poetry==

{{main|Later Classical Arithide poetry}}

The later poetry of the [[Lazeian Empire]] was characterised by the development of more regular, more stress-based meters and the shift away from the tendency of the [[Earlier Classical Arithide poetry|earlier poets]] to natural imagery to more abstract sorts, and a new willingness to engage in previously avoided subjects such as deprivation, death, eroticism and politics. This shift paralleled a sudden jump in the availability of education, owing to an increasingly affluent society and a rising middle class, which was the first of its kind in documented history.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Culture of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Western civilisation (Ilethes)</title>
    <id>3564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T14:43:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the world of [[Ilethes]], '''Western civilisation''' refers to human civilisation in the west of the planet, according to the [[Gathenic depiction]], that have been to a greater or lesser degree influenced by the [[Areth]] civilisation. It stands in contrast to [[Eastern civilisation (Ilethes)|Eastern civilisation]], which refers to civilisation in the east, influenced by the dominant cultures of the [[Karyāba]] and the [[Nosphera]]. The two cultures overlap in northern [[Marcasia]], where the Nosphera were first predominant but later declined and were subsumed by the Karyāba; the area then came under Areth influence in later years.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: Ethnography of Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sanle (language)</title>
    <id>3565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31754</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-26T21:01:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sanle''' is a major language of [[West Odirá]].

*[[Classical Sanle]]

[[Category:Galhafan languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs|Sanle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template talk:Swadesh</title>
    <id>3566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-28T22:50:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Why are there links to the words? [[User:Nik|Nik]] 14:50, 28 November 2006 (PST)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galhafan Swadesh lists</title>
    <id>3567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T07:01:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a page of [[Swadesh list]]s of [[Galhaf]]an languages.

All words are given in their standard citation forms.  For Common Kasshi that means absolutive singular for nouns, and infinitive for verbs.  For Classical Kasshian, that means absolutive singular for nouns and adjectives, gender I absolutive singular for adjectives, and 3rd person singular rational present non-punctual for verbs.  For Ivetsian, that means nominative singular for nouns, gender VI nominative singular for adjectives, and imperative for verbs.  Classical Sanle did not inflect.

{| border=1
|i=No|  №
!c=en|  [[English]]
!c=01|  [[Common Kasshian]]
!c=02|  [[Classical Kasshian]]
!c=03|  [[Ivetsian]]
!c=04|  [[Classical Sanle]]
|-
|i=No| 1
|c=en| I
|c=01| qó
|c=02| trii (feminine)&lt;br&gt;nrii (masculine)
|c=03| 
|c=04| nok
|-
|i=No| 2
|c=en| thou&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(singular)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| gél
|c=02| chaa (feminine)&lt;br&gt;naa (masculine)
|c=03| 
|c=04| tab
|-
|i=No| 3
|c=en| he
|c=01| na
|c=02| neshna (human)
|c=03| 
|c=04| khav (also she)
|-
|i=No| 4
|c=en| we
|c=01| sá (dual)&lt;br&gt;ëná (paucal)&lt;br&gt;tí (plural)
|c=02| chelleshpi/nalleshpi/solleshpi (dual)&lt;br&gt;chellesshi/nallesshi/sollesshi (paucal)&lt;br&gt;chempi/nampi/sompi (plural)
|c=03| 
|c=04| noknok
|-
|i=No| 5
|c=en| you&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(plural)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| dré (dual)&lt;br&gt;gélna (plural)
|c=02| chevvaibi/navvaibi/sovvaibi (dual)&lt;br&gt;chempaa/nampaa/sompaa (plural)
|c=03| 
|c=04| tabtab
|-
|i=No| 6
|c=en| they
|c=01| tel/nal/sol (dual)&lt;br&gt;ten/nan/son (plural)
|c=02| solleshni (gender III)
|c=03| 
|c=04| khavkhav
|-
|i=No| 7
|c=en| this
|c=01| rés
|c=02| trii
|c=03| 
|c=04| gep
|-
|i=No| 8
|c=en| that
|c=01| vahá/hélu/
|c=02| chivaa/chuu/chifunu
|c=03| 
|c=04| posh
|-
|i=No| 9
|c=en| here
|c=01| 
|c=02| blii
|c=03| 
|c=04| gep gel
|-
|i=No| 10
|c=en| there
|c=01| 
|c=02| baa/byuu/bunu
|c=03| 
|c=04| posh gel
|-
|i=No| 11
|c=en| who?
|c=01| so-báha (singular)&lt;br&gt;sol-báha
|c=02| subaa (singular)&lt;br&gt;sobbai (plural)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 12
|c=en| what?
|c=01| pi-báha (singular)&lt;br&gt;pif-báha (plural)
|c=02| pibaa (singular)&lt;br&gt;pevbai (plural)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 13
|c=en| where?
|c=01| béhe-báha
|c=02| biibaa
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 14
|c=en| when?
|c=01| inékë-báha
|c=02| niibaa
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 15
|c=en| how?
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 16
|c=en| not
|c=01| fél
|c=02| fel
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 17
|c=en| all
|c=01| metú
|c=02| mesh-/mit- (of a mass noun)&lt;br&gt;chemmitui
|c=03| 
|c=04| ol-
|-
|i=No| 18
|c=en| many
|c=01| rohá
|c=02| lua
|c=03| 
|c=04| lázh
|-
|i=No| 19
|c=en| some
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 20
|c=en| few
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 21
|c=en| other
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 22
|c=en| one
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 23
|c=en| two
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 24
|c=en| three
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 25
|c=en| four
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 26
|c=en| five
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 27
|c=en| big
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 28
|c=en| long
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 29
|c=en| wide
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 30
|c=en| thick
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 31
|c=en| heavy
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 32
|c=en| small
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 33
|c=en| short
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 34
|c=en| narrow
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 35
|c=en| thin
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 36
|c=en| woman
|c=01| t'-uqetá
|c=02| chipita
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 37
|c=en| man&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (male)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| na-rakósë
|c=02| nrakos
|c=03| drago
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 38
|c=en| person
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 39
|c=en| child&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a youth)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 40
|c=en| wife
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 41
|c=en| husband
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 42
|c=en| mother
|c=01| te-naní
|c=02| chinani
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 43
|c=en| father
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 44
|c=en| animal
|c=01| 
|c=02| çenklai ([[Classical Kasshian#Meanings of Genders|gender IV]])&lt;br&gt;lanklai (gender V)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 45
|c=en| fish
|c=01| ke-héka/rë-héka
|c=02| çika/lika
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 46
|c=en| bird
|c=01| ke-rástë/rë-rástë
|c=02| klasta/lalasta (any flying animal)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 47
|c=en| dog
|c=01| N/A
|c=02| N/A
|c=03| N/A
|c=04| N/A
|-
|i=No| 48
|c=en| louse
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 49
|c=en| snake
|c=01| 
|c=02| lasossu
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 50
|c=en| worm
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 51
|c=en| tree
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 52
|c=en| forest
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 53
|c=en| stick&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of wood)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 54
|c=en| fruit
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 55
|c=en| seed
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 56
|c=en| leaf
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 57
|c=en| root
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 58
|c=en| bark&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of tree)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 59
|c=en| flower
|c=01| 
|c=02| Uyalana
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 60
|c=en| grass
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 61
|c=en| rope
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 62
|c=en| skin&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (of a person)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 63
|c=en| meat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in flesh)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 64
|c=en| blood
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 65
|c=en| bone
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 66
|c=en| fat&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (noun)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 67
|c=en| egg
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 68
|c=en| horn
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 69
|c=en| tail
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 70
|c=en| feather&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not down)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 71
|c=en| hair
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 72
|c=en| head
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 73
|c=en| ear
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 74
|c=en| eye
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 75
|c=en| nose
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 76
|c=en| mouth
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 77
|c=en| tooth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (rather not molar)
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 78
|c=en| tongue
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 79
|c=en| fingernail
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 80
|c=en| foot
|c=01|
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 81
|c=en| leg
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 82
|c=en| knee
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 83
|c=en| hand
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 84
|c=en| wing
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 85
|c=en| belly
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 86
|c=en| guts
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 87
|c=en| neck
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 88
|c=en| back
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 89
|c=en| breast
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 90
|c=en| heart
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 91
|c=en| liver
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 92
|c=en| to drink
|c=01| 
|c=02| laau (with others)&lt;br&gt;kafchi (alone)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 93
|c=en| to eat
|c=01| 
|c=02| laau (with others)&lt;br&gt;kafchi (alone)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 94
|c=en| to bite
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 95
|c=en| to suck
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 96
|c=en| to spit
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 97
|c=en| to vomit
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 98
|c=en| to blow&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as wind)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 99
|c=en| to breathe
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 100
|c=en| to laugh
|c=01| 
|c=02| çata
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 101
|c=en| to see
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 102
|c=en| to hear
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 103
|c=en| to know&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (a fact)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 104
|c=en| to think
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 105
|c=en| to smell&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (sense odor)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 106
|c=en| to fear
|c=01| 
|c=02| çita
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 107
|c=en| to sleep
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 108
|c=en| to live
|c=01| 
|c=02| klai
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 109
|c=en| to die
|c=01| 
|c=02| iwen
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 110
|c=en| to kill
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 111
|c=en| to fight
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 112
|c=en| to hunt&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (transitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 113
|c=en| to hit
|c=01| 
|c=02| kapa
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 114
|c=en| to cut
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 115
|c=en| to split
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 116
|c=en| to stab&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (or stick)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| klos
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 117
|c=en| to scratch&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (an itch)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 118
|c=en| to dig
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 119
|c=en| to swim
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 120
|c=en| to fly
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 121
|c=en| to walk
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 122
|c=en| to come
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 123
|c=en| to lie&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as on one's side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 124
|c=en| to sit
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 125
|c=en| to stand
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 126
|c=en| to turn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (change direction)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 127
|c=en| to fall&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in drop)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 128
|c=en| to give
|c=01| 
|c=02| Labi
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 129
|c=en| to hold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (in one's hand)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 130
|c=en| to squeeze
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 131
|c=en| to rub
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 132
|c=en| to wash
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 133
|c=en| to wipe
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 134
|c=en| to pull
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 135
|c=en| to push
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 136
|c=en| to throw
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 137
|c=en| to tie
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 138
|c=en| to sew
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 139
|c=en| to count
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 140
|c=en| to say
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 141
|c=en| to sing
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 142
|c=en| to play
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 143
|c=en| to float
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 144
|c=en| to flow
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 145
|c=en| to freeze
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 146
|c=en| to swell
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 147
|c=en| sun
|c=01|
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 148
|c=en| moon
|c=01| 
|c=02| wasaklas
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 149
|c=en| star
|c=01| 
|c=02| wila
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 150
|c=en| water
|c=01| 
|c=02| wanipa
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 151
|c=en| to rain
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 152
|c=en| river
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 153
|c=en| lake
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 154
|c=en| sea&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in ocean)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| fant
|-
|i=No| 155
|c=en| salt
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 156
|c=en| stone
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 157
|c=en| sand
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 158
|c=en| dust
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 159
|c=en| earth&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in soil)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 160
|c=en| cloud
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 161
|c=en| fog
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 162
|c=en| sky
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 163
|c=en| wind&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in breeze)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 164
|c=en| snow
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 165
|c=en| ice
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 166
|c=en| smoke
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 167
|c=en| fire
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 168
|c=en| ashes
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 169
|c=en| to burn&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (intransitive)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 170
|c=en| road
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 171
|c=en| mountain
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 172
|c=en| red
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 173
|c=en| green
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 174
|c=en| yellow
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 175
|c=en| white
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 176
|c=en| black
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 177
|c=en| night
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 178
|c=en| day&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (daytime)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 179
|c=en| year
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 180
|c=en| warm&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 181
|c=en| cold&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as in weather)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 182
|c=en| full
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 183
|c=en| new
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 184
|c=en| old
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 185
|c=en| good
|c=01| 
|c=02| bita
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 186
|c=en| bad
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 187
|c=en| rotten&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as, a log)
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 188
|c=en| dirty
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 189
|c=en| straight
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 190
|c=en| round
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 191
|c=en| sharp&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 192
|c=en| dull&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (as a knife)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 193
|c=en| smooth
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 194
|c=en| wet
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 195
|c=en| dry&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (adjective)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 196
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (correct)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 197
|c=en| near
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 198
|c=en| far
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 199
|c=en| right&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 200
|c=en| left&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (side)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 201
|c=en| at
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 202
|c=en| in
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 203
|c=en| with&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt; (accompanying)&lt;/small&gt;
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 204
|c=en| and
|c=01| 
|c=02| ku (for nouns)&lt;br&gt;kuku (for sentences)
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 205
|c=en| if
|c=01| 
|c=02| venchel, vi-
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 206
|c=en| because
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|-
|i=No| 207
|c=en| name
|c=01| 
|c=02| 
|c=03| 
|c=04| 
|}

[[Category:Galhafan languages|Swadesh lists|]]
[[Category:Swadesh lists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Kasshian</title>
    <id>3570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31756</id>
      <timestamp>2008-05-26T21:02:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Common Kasshi''' is the partially-reconstructed, partially-recorded ancestor of [[Classical Kasshian]] and [[Kasshian languages|several other]] related (mostly extinct) languages.  It is, in turn, descended from [[Kasshi-Oppai Family|Proto-Kasshi-Oppai]]

= Phonology =
== Consonants ==
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=17 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Consonants
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Bilabial ||colspan=2| Labiod. ||colspan=2| Dental ||colspan=2| Palatal ||colspan=2| Velar ||colspan=2| Uvular ||colspan=2| Glottal
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Stop || p || b || || || t || d || || || k || g || q
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Nasal || || m || || || || n || || || || || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Fricative || || || f || v || s || z || || || || || || || h
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Approximants || || w || || || || r || || y
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Lateral Approximant || || || || || || l
|}

&lt;/div&gt;
== Vowels ==
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;

{| style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1pt solid #c0c0c0;&quot;
!colspan=11 style=&quot;text-align:center; background: #efefef;&quot;| Vowels
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| ||colspan=2| Front ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Central ||colspan=2| ||colspan=2| Back
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| High || i || || || || || || || || || u
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Mid || || || e || || ë || || o || ||
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;| Low || || || || || a
|}

&lt;/div&gt;

== Syllables ==
Syllables were more restricted in Common Kasshi than in the Classical language.  Syllables could start with:
*Any vowel
*Any consonant
*A stop followed by an l or r
Syllables could end with
*Any nasal
*Any voiceless fricative
*L or R
== Stress ==
Any syllable could be stressed.  The stressed syllable is indicated with an acute.

= Grammar =
== Nouns ==
=== Genders ===
The &quot;gender&quot; system of Common Kasshi (more a classifier system, but Kasshi linguistics has traditionally used the same term), the ancestor of the gender systems of the Kassan branch, had considerably more distinctions than the [[Classical Kasshian#Gender|gender system]] of Classical Kasshian, but also fewer morphological alternations.

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|'''Singular'''
|'''Dual'''
|'''Paucal'''
|'''Plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender I'''
|te
|tel
|tef
|ten
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender II'''
|na
|nal
|naf
|nan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender III'''
|so
|sol
|sof
|son
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender IV'''
|ki
|kil
|kif
|kin
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender V'''
|rë
|rël
|rëf
|rën
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender VI'''
|wa
|wal
|waf
|wan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender VII'''
|pi
|pil
|pif
|pin
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender VIII'''
|hon
|hol
|hof
|hona
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender IX'''
|la
|lal
|laf
|lan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender X'''
|qira
|qiral
|qiraf
|qiran
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender XI'''
|tama
|tamal
|tamaf
|taman
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender XII'''
|toka
|tokal
|tokaf
|tokan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender XIII'''
|tokan
|tokanli
|tokanëf
|tokanna
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender XIV'''
|kula
|kulal
|kulaf
|kulan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Gender XV'''
|mani
|manil
|manif
|manin
|}

These markers functioned as both pronouns and a sort of article, being placed before the ''noun phrase''.  Adjectives were unmarked in Common Kasshi except, optionally, in the predicate.  The classifiers agreed with their head in number and case.

Genders I-VII were very similar to their counterparts in the Classical language.  Several additional genders existed:
*Gender VIII was for instruments and tools
*Gender IX was for weather phenomena, celestial bodies, and divinities
*Gender X was for round objects
*Gender XI was for long, narrow objects
*Gender XII was for most plants
*Gender XIII was for sacred things
*Gender XIV was for groups of humans, houses, items used in the context of trading, and other cultural artifacts not included in the above genders
*Gender XV was for body parts

Gender VI was considerably smaller in Common Kasshi than it was in the Classical language, consisting primarily of liquids and fire.  Genders VIII-XV have been merged into the other genders, mostly VI and VII.

Genders IV and V were also somewhat different in Common Kasshi.  The distinction there was one of &quot;useful&quot; vs. &quot;non-useful&quot; animals.

=== Inflections ===
==== Number ====
Common Kasshian had four numbers, singular, dual, paucal, and plural, with the following suffixes:
*Dual: -ri
*Paucal: -(ë)f
*Plural: -na

==== Case ====
*Absolutive: No suffix
*Ergative: -arë, -ka
**-arë was used on nouns and adjectives, -ka on pronouns and articles
*Genetive: -afë
*Dative: -azë
*Postpositional: -ë
==== Postpositions ====
These postpositions had case-like functions.  In the earliest form of the language, they were placed at the end of the entire noun-phrase (which was typically in the postpositional case).  In later forms, they became clitics on the head noun, eventually evolving into full-blown cases, being duplicated on dependent adjectives
*Instrumental: li
*Benefactive: na
*Commitative: ran
*Locative: qavë
*Ablative: ta
*Allative: së
*Perlative: ne
*Inessive: ka
*Elative: do
*Illative: ba
*Perillative: baba
*Circumlocative: de
*Circumablative: gos
*Circumallative: ma
*Circumperlative: mama
== Verbs ==
=== Personal Clitics ===
These were prefixed either to verb or the auxilary, if any.
{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
| '''Singular'''
| '''Dual'''
| '''Paucal'''
| '''Plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| hë&lt;br&gt;(later qo-)
| lofë
| taqe
| ne
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| fen
| feni
| fenëf
| fana
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; rational'''
| tasë
| tehi
| taf
| tan
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; non-rational'''
| lë
| li
| lëf
| lëna
|}
=== Voice ===
*Passive: që-
**Passive was a vestige of an earlier accusative stage
*Reflexive: ko-
=== Applicatives ===
Applicatives transform an intransitive verb into a transitive one, or a transitive verb into a ditransitive verb.  They have the effect of adding an additional argument to the verb phrase, as an absolutive, with the original absolutive being incorporated into the verb.
*Dative: pë-
*Commitative: ran-
*Instrumental: so-
=== Tense ===
*Past: fa-
*Future: naqe-
=== Conditional ===
*If: ve(h)-
*Counter-factual: gula-
*Then: hos-
=== Aspectual Auxilaries ===
These could occur either in pre-verbal position, in which case the personal clitics were attached to them, or in post-verbal position.
*Prospective më
*Inceptive to
*Progressive ke
*Habitual vë
*Cessative rë
*Perfective no

== Pronouns ==
{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
| '''Singular'''
| '''Dual'''
| '''Paucal'''
| '''Plural'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| Qo
| Sa
| Ëná
| Ti
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;
| Gel
| Dre
| Gélëf?
| Gélna
|}
In addition, the gender-markers listed earlier were used as 3rd person pronouns
These pronouns took the following cases
*Nominative: no suffix
*Accusative: -he
*Genetive: -wa
*Dative: ?
*Postpositional: ?
Third person pronouns took null for absolutive and -ka for ergative

= Syntax =
Common Kasshian was strictly verb-final, with modifiers generally preceding their head, though they could also occur after.

[[Category:Kasshian languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs|Kasshian, Common]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>S.A.R.P, Pokingadjikastan</title>
    <id>3571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27598</id>
      <timestamp>2007-12-16T12:34:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pisceesumsprecan</username>
        <id>729</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>[[Pôkingaadjikastaan]] moved to [[S.A.R.P, Pokingadjikastan]]: The English name fits a planned series of articles better. S.A.R.P - Special Administrative Region (governed by) Piscea</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Pôkingaadjikastaan'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Name:'''
|| Daamokrhaatedj Rupub'lik i Pôkingaajikastaan (Democratic Republic of Pokingajikastan)
|-
|valign=top|'''Population:'''
|| 1.3 million
|-
|valign=top|'''Official Languages:'''
|| [[Hloterb]], [[Piscean_language|Piscean]], Arabic, Chinese, Pashtu
|-
|valign=top|'''Neighboring States:'''
|| Kazakhastan, China, Russia, Mongolia
|-
|valign=top|'''Government Type:'''
|| Formerly: Dictatorship; now as in [[New Pisces]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Capital:'''
|| Pokingadji (English); Pôkingaadji (Hloterb); Pocingascgi (Piscean)
|-
|valign=top|'''Administrative Divisions:'''
|| State Department, Agricultural Department, Military Department
|-
|valign=top|'''Constitution:'''
|| Formerly: None; now as in [[New Pisces]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Suffrage:'''
|| Formerly: 20 years, men (polltax, however); now as in [[New Pisces]]
|-
|valign=top|'''Executive Branch:'''
|| Formerly: Dictator Pthaadjurh; the state is now governed by New Piscean Representative S.C. Anderson
|-
|valign=top|'''Legislative Branch:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''Judicial Branch:'''
|| There were once a few local court systems that could not overrule or disobey the dictator's fiats; all law now rests upon the Judiciary of New Pisces.
|-
|valign=top|'''Political Parties and Leaders:'''
|| Pthaadjurhedj Dzehd (Pthaadjuhr-ian Party); now as in [[New Pisces]]
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP (PPP):'''
|| $32 million (2037 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''GDP per capita:'''
|| $10 (2036 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Labour Force:'''
|| .3 million (excludes pastoral nomads and other &quot;off-net&quot; people) (2002 estimate)
|-
|valign=top|'''Unemployment Rate:'''
|| N/A
|-
|valign=top|'''Population below poverty line:'''
|| 79% (2037 estimate); 
|-
|valign=top|'''Major Industries:'''
|| Wool, Oil, Coal, Cotton, Nitrates, Lapis Lazuli, Copper
|}

The following documentation was previously found among Voyages International (an intelligence branch of the Piscea organisation that wishes to establish a new communist republic) records. Its purpose is now unclear; it speaks in future tense as in the other Piscea proposals. Yet because it is such a radical description, it could be assumed to be either a story to glorify Piscea, a scare tactic to achieve notice or even a conspiracy. If the latter were true, a Voyages International agent could be dispatched to the region in question, aiming to become a 'dictator', paving the way for Piscea to seize new resources. 

Pokingadjikastan (Hloterb: Pôkingaadjikastaan) was formed in 2036 after the infamous 2024 Battle of the Three Borders, fought between Russia, China and Kazakhstan when the Pokingadjikastani ethnic minority pressured them for a country to call their own. After a five-year stalemate, terms were eventually negotiated, breaking an equal amount of land from Russia, China and Kazakhstan to create the new state of Pokingadjikastan.

However, the transition was not harmonious. The supposedly stable government was rocked when infiltrated by Pthaadjurh, who used various loopholes in new rushed laws to position himself as president and enforce his extremist views. The Pokingadjikastani army rebelled by forming a military coup, which surrounded the presidential palace with heavy artillery, cutting off food supplies. Nonetheless, Pthaddjurh managed to flee through an underground tunnel that he himself had built; only he ever knew of its existence. To this day, Pthaadjurh is believed to be in hiding.

Since the oppressive Dictator Pthaadjurh escaped the siege of rebel military forces, the nation of Pokingadjikastan became a lawless gangsters' paradise with rebels patrolling every street and menacing innocent bystanders. Before America could intervene, the New Piscean Workers' Nation saw the chance it had been looking for. 

Though endeavering to maintain self-suffiency to retain its communist status, the manmade island of New Pisces - off the coast of southern France - did not have any of its own natural resources. This problem would be partially solved by the aquisition of Pokingadjikastan. In 2039, troops from New Pisces stormed the lawless country, entering combat with the rebels who were easily beaten and consequently imprisoned.

Only three years after its creation, Pokingadjikastan was no longer a country, becoming an overseas territory. On 2nd August, the intimidating statue of Pthaadjurh was toppled and the flag of New Pisces was raised in its place. Anderson's government repaired most of the damage and refurbished the poorly equipped public facilities; Pokingadjikastan's failing currency, the Gurhjad, was replaced by the thriving Piscean dollar and, most importantly, the inhabitants began to receive the same wages and conditions as those on the island of New Pisces in return for their work. The Pokingaadjijikastaani people collect and export wool, oil, coal, cotton, nitrates, lapis lazuli and copper around Pokingadjikastan as well as the New Piscean mainland in Europe.

Anderson does not enforce the [[Piscean language]] on the locals, stating that he was more than happy for them to keep their own. The majority language of Pokingadjikastan is Hloterb, which has now become the second official language of the New Piscean Workers' Nation, but Arabic, Pashtu and Chinese are also spoken. Piscean, however, is the only tongue used for government purposes. 

It is hoped and expected that by 2040, 100% of the Pokingadjikastani population will be significantly above the poverty line, with the same GDP per capita as that of the mainland New Pisces in Europe.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nimegose remis</title>
    <id>3573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T09:18:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Nimegose remis''', literally &quot;South coast Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of [[Isana]]. It is situated in the western half of Isana, along the southern coast west of [[Gardaus Bay]].

A major industrial area and port during the days of the [[Ibakizaro]], Nimegose fell into relative decline as the port moved east of the Bay, but remained an important industrial centre with its many port harbours converted into shipbuilding wharves. During the [[Third Global War]] it was an important construction centre for ships, but during the [[Fourth Global War]] the shipyards were devastated by firebombing, and eventually most facilities were moved away. Presently Nimegose has become a mostly residential area, though there are still many industrial regions along the coast and inland.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karagose remis</title>
    <id>3574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T09:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Karagose remis''', literally &quot;West Coast Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is the westernmost [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of [[Isana]], situated along the west coast facing the [[Elaspegian Ocean]].

The western coast of the sea is one of the most scenic areas of the Isana region, and during the era of the [[First Kingdom of Risevne|old kingdom]] and the [[Committee of Guardians]] it was famous as a leisure area for the officials who lived within the city. Later on it was heavily affected by industrial development, especially by pollution from the east. In modern days the northern third of the remis forms the [[Antagan Cliffs National Park]], one of the few national parks within city areas in the whole world.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Risevani Statesmen</title>
    <id>3575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T11:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomi Osorza</title>
    <id>3576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-29T12:14:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anome Osorza, Osorza ta Gurya''' (20 January 1890 - 15 October 1963) was a [[Risevani]] statesman and politician who served as [[Deguruganize|Minister of Armaments]] from 1942 to 1947 and [[Naruganize]] from 1948 to 1958. His tenure in office presided over the beginning of the [[Durosirase]], and he is widely seen as one of the chief architects of the nation's swift recovery from the costly victory of the war.

==Childhood and Youth==

Born in [[Isana]] to a family which had migrated from [[Agalmare]] to set up a small workshop in the city, Anomi Osorza's early life was a story of continuous economic hardship; after the compulsory and free primary education he was nearly suspended from high school twice due to his being unable to pay his fees.

==Early Careers==

==Political Career==

==The 1934 Elections==

==Onset of War==

==Naruganize of Risevne==

===Durosirase policies===

==Later Life==

==Family and Relations==

==Legacy and Impact==

[[category:Risevani Statesmen]]
[[category:Famous Persons of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basetimena remis</title>
    <id>3577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T14:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Constituent Districts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Basetimena remis''', literally &quot;Baseti plains Area&quot; in [[Mirselec]], is an [[Areas and Districts of Isana|area]] of [[Isana]], occupying the Baseti plain that stretches westward from [[Gardaus Bay]] to the coast. It is the largest, and the most populated, remis within the city.

Along with [[Nimegose]], [[Karagose]] and [[Garnoye]] remis, Basetimena is one of the mainly residential districts of the city, and was once a thriving agricultural district occupied mostly by relatively rich landowners who resided in nearby Isana city. The purging of these elements during the [[Committee of Guardians]] paved the way for the whole area to be redeveloped as an industrial district, complete with a new port in modern day [[Nimegose remis]]; Basetimena then became a focus of the [[Ibakizaro]] and a powerful symbol of growth for the nation, albeit at a terrible price of human deprivation and pollution. 

Under the [[Izanosan Plans]], the area became one of the centres of the planners' attention, and was redrawn completely and redeveloped extensively. Now it is one of the main residential areas in the city, divided into 11 districts.

==Site and Situation==

The concept in the Izanosan plan of the &quot;District-City&quot; was first implemented in the western remis, including Basetimena; even now the plan survives largely unchanged, with constant additions (3 new town districts have been added to the original 8). The 11 districts of Basetimena remis were designed to be partially self-contained towns, many with their own local schools, hospitals, transport networks in the form of light overhead rail and buses, while being linked to each other via a highly efficient network of trunk road and rail links. Having been proven successful in the west, this concept of residential new towns would later be adopted throughout the city and in other cities as well. 

For the high population densities of the remis it is surprisingly green, with large tracts of space set aside under the [[Isana Parks and Public Spaces Department]], as either parks or park connectors. The old system of irrigation canals that criss-cross the remis, in particular, have been used ingeniously to link different parks up along so-called Canal Paths.

==History==

==Administration==

==Transport==

==Constituent Districts==

Basetimena is divided into a total of eleven Dego, or Districts:

*Kemorigan

*Nairigan

*Sultagasya

==Significant buildings and sites==

==Notes==

[[category:Areas of Isana]]
[[category:Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hloterb</title>
    <id>3578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-30T05:15:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humancadaver101</username>
        <id>212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Hloterb]] moved to [[Hlotderb]]: Mispelling of title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hlotderb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aunidanizon Crisis</title>
    <id>3579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T09:58:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <comment>formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Aunidanizon Crisis''' or '''Aunidanizon Incident''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Aunidanizon hilaze'') was an incident and subsequent diplomatic crisis between the nations of [[Risevne]] and [[Kavena]], occurring between 12 May and 3 July 1957 in the city of [[Nimzon]] in Kavena. 

Sparked off by a dispute over the demolition of a building adjacent to the Risevan Embassy in Nimzon, in order to provide for its expansion, the crisis can be divided into several parts: the initial riots and local resistance to the demolition which killed five Risevani, the subsequent withdrawal of agreement by the Kavenain government, and finally [[Aribume Nashan|Operation Firecloud]] and [[Nisoratebume Nashan|Operation Blessed Cloud]], two operations launched by the Risevan armed forces; one aimed at evacuating the surviving Risevani, and one as a show of force to the Kavenain government.

==Background==

==The Crisis==

===Dispute over 203 Aunidanizon Road===

===Riots===

===Kavenain Government Reaction===

===Risevani Govenment Reaction===

===Escalation===

===Aribume Nashan===

{{main|Aribume Nashan}}

==Nisoratebume Nashan==

{{main|Nisoratebume Nashan}}

===Subsequent Reactions===

==Aftermath==

[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Diplomatic Crises]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aribume Nashan</title>
    <id>3580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-11-30T14:30:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aribume Nashan''', literally &quot;Operation Firecloud&quot; in [[Mirselec]], was the codename of a military operation undertaken during the [[Aunidanizon Crisis]] in 1957 by the [[Risevan]] armed forces. Its goal was to demolish 203 Aunidanizon Road, the building which was at the centre of the crisis, as well as to constitute a show of force, following the riots within [[Nimzon]] that had taken the lives of 7 Risevani in all. 

==Description==

By 8 June, with chaos in the city continuing and the Kavenain government still recalcitrant in its position, the Risevani government decided finally to activate the armed forces and demolish the building; later reports show that the armed forces had in fact been preparing for an operation from the beginning of the crisis, originally aimed at rescuing the embassy workers in case of an emergency. 

Over the next four days extensive preparations were undertaken for the operation. All in all a team of 42 engineers were detailed to carry out the controlled demolition, which was highly risky given the building was only 30 metres away from the Embassy walls; at the same time two infantry companies of 270 men in all, as well as a group of 80 riot police from the Risevan army, were detailed to guard all entrances to the Embassy and set up barricades to prevent entry into the area of the demolition. At the same time 6 large armoured cars, armed with heavy machine guns, were transported in by contained truck and assembled in situ; and one helicopter was dispatched to the Embassy roof, with another two on standby on board the carrier [[KV Ismade|''Ismade'']]. Besides the aircraft carrier, two cruisers and five destroyers were also diverted to patrol the area, just off Kavenain territorial waters.

On the night of 12-13 June actions first commenced; barricades were set up and manned outside all the Embassy entrances, as well as to block the roads around the building for safety reasons, while the engineers got to work preparing the building for demolition. In order to avoid disputes, the barricades which were not immediately adjacent to the Embassy were quickly turned over to the Kavenain police by next morning, though significant numbers of armed men remained in and around the embassy compound. 

Next morning, angry crowds of Kavenain immediately began to gather around the Embassy and harass the Risevani troops, throwing eggs and rocks; on a 15 a hastily organised march on the Embassy was estimated to contain around 40,000 marchers, who then surrounded the compound. Despite the constant harrassment, which resulted in 11 men wounded over the next five days, the Risevani troops did not open fire with live rounds, though nearly 400 warning shots - all blanks - were fired from the rifles and the heavy machine guns. While the Kavenain government dithered, the Risevani government sent a request on 15 June for demolishing 203 Aunidanizon Road on 19 June, while implying that if any more Risevani soldiers or civilians were to be killed in the rioting the Kavenain would face farther escalation. In the face of this threat, the government reversed its stance held since mid-May and again granted agreement to demolish the building; at the same time nearly 300 Kavenain riot police were finally dispatched to control the crowds. 

With the approval, the preparations for demolition went on, and at 1735 on 19 June as another march on the Embassy was stopped at the barricades by Risevani and Kavenain personnel the charges were detonated and the building successfully demolished. 

[[category:History of Risevne]]
[[category:Armed Forces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arihikas Nashan</title>
    <id>3581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T04:04:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arihikas Nashan''', literally meaning &quot;Operation Fire Spell&quot; or &quot;Operation Fire Magic&quot; in [[Mirselec]], was an operation undertaken by the [[Kenote Nashan Igunimi]], or Special Operations Command, of the [[Risevan Royal Army]] on 12 April 1959, in response to a hostage crisis in [[Kavena]] where a hotel in the coastal city of [[Nimkanil]] had been taken over by Kavenain nationalist extremists.

==Background==

==Planning and Execution==

===Negotiations===

===The Kavenain Raid===

On 11 April, the Kavenain police launched an operation at 2320 hrs with the intention of rescuing the hostages. The plan of the police had been to lure the hostages out by acceding to their demands; the three cars that would ferry them to the airport were driven in, but instead of stopped outside the hotel entrance they stopped a distance away, in the hope that as the terrorists emerged they would present a clear shot to Kavenain snipers, five of whom had been positioned around the area. However, the terrorists suspected a trap, and pushed several of the hostages out to form a human shield so as to cover their approach to the vehicles.

===Operation Fire Magic===

==Aftermath==

Arihikas Nashan was the first operation undertaken by the RKNI in the world after the [[Global Wars]], and its complete success laid the foundation for their fearsome reputation. 

[[category:Armed Forces of Risevne]]
[[category:Famous Operations of the Risevan Armed Forces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Denihilonihil/Semeioseis</title>
    <id>3582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21300</id>
      <timestamp>2007-04-19T06:01:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Arithide==

'''meste''' to sell. ''mest'' sale.

{| style=&quot;width: 400; background: #efefef; border: 1pt solid #dfdfdf&quot;
| width=&quot;100&quot; | '''CASE'''
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; | ''sg.''
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; | ''pl.''
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | TOP
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | ACC
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | GEN
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | DAT
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | LOC
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | ABL
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | INS
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | VOC
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; | CON/ESS
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
| style=&quot;width: 150; text-align: center&quot; |
|}

====Hm====

*2 groups: consonant-root (C-verbs) and vowel-root (V-verbs)
*V-verbs have two stems: basic &amp; derivative (add -t to basic)
   **Basic stem used with normal conjugation, to which are appended aspects, moods &amp; tenses
   **Derivative stems used to form further derivative verbs, verbal nouns etc.

===Nouveaux mots===

*kulos
*sinting

==Geography==
*Earth: land area distribution among the continents
**Asia - 29.4%
**Africa - 20.4%
**N. Am. - 16.4%
**S. Am. - 12%
**Europe - 6.8%
**Australia - 5.7%
*[[Ilethes]]: land area distribution among the continents?
**[[Istheusia]] - 31.2%
**[[Marcasia]] - 30.2%
**[[Arophania]] - 16.4%
**[[Eresphria]] - 13.6%
**[[Canthres]] - 8.6%

*'''Dhramak''' country, '''Dhramakis''' language
*[[Arithia]] stats (av. USA/China):
**pop. 808,137,500 (2006 [[CIE]] est.)
**area 9,614,190 sq km (3,713,647 sq mi)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Albaville</title>
    <id>3583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T11:17:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Albaville</username>
        <id>278</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Herevashkian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herevashkian</title>
    <id>3584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T13:56:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Albaville</username>
        <id>278</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Herevashkian ==


Herevashkian is a language of the Germanic Language Family created for a project of alternate Earth. It is spoken in an Europen country called Herevashky.

Its grammar consists of five noun cases (nominative, accusatie, dative, genitive, locative), with three different declensions. It has a verb system very similar to that of English, but with fewer irregular verbs. Its lexicon has plenty of loanwords from French, but most of it resembles German. It has complex syntax and agreement rules regarding pronouns, but it's still a language that could be easty for most native English speakers to learn with no big trouble.


== Sounds ==

Herevashkian consists of the following vowel system:
*[a]: a
*[æ]: ä, ae
*[ɛ]: eth
*[ɪ]: eh, y
*[ɔ]: oth, o
*[ø]: eu, ue
*[œ]: ö
*[i]: ie, y
*[e]: e, y
*[o]: o, au
*[u]: oh
*[y]: u

With the following diphthongs allowed:
*[aɪ]: i, ei, ij
*[ɔɪ]: ai
*[aʊ]: ou


The phonemic consonants are:
*[ʀ]: r
*[t]: t
*[p]: p
*[s]: ss, sj, c+(front vowel)
*[ʃ]: sch, s+(front vowel)
*[tʃ]: tts, schtts
*[d]: d
*[ð]: x
*[f]: f
*[g]: g
*[h]: h, th
*[j]: j, i+[a, o]
*[k]: k, c+(back/mid vowel)
*[x]: ch
*[l]: l
*[z]: s, z
*[ʒ]: g+(front vowel), z+(front vowel)
*[v]: v
*[vʷ]: w
*[b]: b
*[n]: n
*[m]: m


Maximum syllable structure allowed is:

([s, z])(C)([r, l])V([s, z, ch, n, m])(C)([r])([s, z]), where V stands for any vowel or allowed diphthong.


Allophony:
* final, unstressed &lt;i&gt; ([aɪ]) tends to become [e].
* [s] and [z] change to [ʃ] and [ʒ], respectively, before a consonant (except for [t] and [d]).
* the cluster [st] becomes [s] and the clusters [zt], [zd] and [sd] become [z].
* [ʀ], [x] and [h] aren't pronounced syllable-finally.
* [ng] and [nk] tends to become [ŋ].
* in some dialects [ch] is pronounced [kx] before back vowels.
* all vowels tend to nasalize before [n] or [m]. [i] and [ɪ] don't, though.
* final unstressed [e] becomes a schwa ([ə]).
* unstressed [u] becomes [ʌ].
* final [g] always becomes [ʒ].
* [e] followed by [ʀ] (even if silent) becomes [a].

Stress, which is usually in the second-to-last syllable, can be achieved by means of:
* addition of an accute accent ´;
* insertion of th after the stressed vowel, which changes certain vowels' into others, such as &lt;e&gt;[e] &gt; &lt;eth&gt;[ɛ].

Other than that, stress is unpredictable, like English.


== Grammar ==

'''Verbal Morphology'''

Verbs in Herevashkian conjugate in three tenses (present, past and future) and have one gerund, two participles (singular and plural) and two imperatives (singular and plural).

There is only one conjugation pattern in Herevashkian. There are, however, irregular verbs and verbs which take orthographic adjustments (such as verb stems that end with e, ie, s or ss).

The verb '''oden voln''' ('''oden''' is the infinitive marker, such as English 'to'), meaning 'to see'.


Present Indicative

'''Ij voln''' [voln]

'''Zu volnnst''' [&quot;vol.n̥s]

'''Thie/Rie voln'''

'''Vie volne''' [&quot;vol.nə]

'''Jier volnest''' [&quot;vol.nəs]

'''Thien/Rien volne'''


Past Indicative

'''Ij volnijch''' [&quot;vol.naɪ]

'''Zu volnijchst''' [&quot;vol.naɪs]

'''Thie/Rie volnijch'''

'''Vie volneich''' [&quot;vol.naɪ]

'''Jier volneichst''' [&quot;vol.naɪs]

'''Thien/Rien volneich'''


Future Indicative

'''Ij volnáth''' [vol&quot;na]

'''Zu volnáthst''' [vol&quot;nas]

'''Thie/Rie volnáth'''

'''Vie volnáthe''' [vol&quot;na]

'''Jier volnáthest''' [vol&quot;nas]

'''Thien/Rien volnáthe'''


'''Gerund''': '''volns'''

'''Participe''': singular: '''volnen'''; plural: '''volnä'''

'''Imperative''': singular: '''volne'''; plural: '''volnes'''.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Karagose</title>
    <id>3585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T14:04:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Karagose remis]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karagose remis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nimegose</title>
    <id>3586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-01T14:04:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Nimegose remis]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nimegose remis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Kasshian languages</title>
    <id>3587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16923</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T06:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Galhafan languages]]
[[Category:Kasshi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kasshian languages</title>
    <id>3589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>48651</id>
      <timestamp>2009-08-28T05:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirected page to [[Kasshi-Oppai Family]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kasshi-Oppai Family]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:D-2 dual-planet system</title>
    <id>3590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33047</id>
      <timestamp>2008-06-17T06:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nik</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This page links articles relating to the dual-planet system involving the planets of [[Ilethes]] and [[Valmante]].
[[Category:Planets]]
[[Category:Ilethes]]
[[Category:Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>D-2 dual-planet system</title>
    <id>3591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T16:30:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''D-2 dual-planet system''' is an orbital system involving the planets [[Ilethes]] and [[Valmante]], which are engaged simultaneously in mutual orbit, and orbit the star [[Dephelis]].

{{stub}}

[[Category: D-2 dual-planet system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Valmante</title>
    <id>3592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16942</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T18:22:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Valmante''' is one of the outermost planets in the orbit of the star [[Dephelis]], and is engaged in mutual orbit in the [[D-2 dual-planet system]] with [[Ilethes]]. It is believed to be 6.482 billion years old. On Ilethes, the planet used to be called ''[[Maguera]]'' until the 352nd annual meeting of the [[Iletheride Conference of Astronomy]] where the name was dropped in favour of the Valmantean autonym.

==Name==

The name Valmante, being the name for the planet in the [[International Form]], is actually derived from an amalgam of three words for &quot;world&quot; in three major languages: ''Valonden'' in [[Ugeruzebe]], ''Manasir'' in [[Heironam]], and ''Tenarse'' in [[Mirselec]]. 

==Formation==

In the astronomical timescale Valmante is considered to be the &quot;elder planet&quot; of the D-2 system.

==Physical characteristics==

===Position in orbit===

==Geography==
===Terrain===
===Climate===
===Resources===
===Natural hazards===

==Human influence==

==See also==

*[[D-2 dual-planet system]]
*[[Ilethes]]
*[[Maguera]]

[[Category: Conworlds]]
[[Category: D-2 dual-planet system]]
[[Category: Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maguera</title>
    <id>3593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29431</id>
      <timestamp>2008-03-01T10:13:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor/>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Maguera''' {{IPA|[mə'gɛɹə]}} ([[Dethric language|Dethric]] {{IPA|[mə'gɛrə]}}) is the old [[Ilethes|Iletheride]] name for the planet of [[Valmante]], prior to the [[Ilethes in the Space Age|Space Age]] when interplanetary contact was made possible with the advent of space technology. ''Post hoc'', the [[Iletheride Conference of Astronomy]] decided at its 352nd annual meeting in 2226 [[CIE]] to adopt the Valmantean [[International Form]] autonym in lieu of the old traditional name of Maguera.

[[Category: Conworlds]]
[[Category: D-2 dual-planet system]]
[[Category: Valmante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroye</title>
    <id>3594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16946</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-02T18:42:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Baroye]] moved to [[Baroye-dego]]: In order to better clarify the title of the district, and to bring it in line with other naming practices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baroye-dego]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iselniragan-dego</title>
    <id>3595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T10:33:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Iselniragan-dego''', also known by its numerical designation as District E1-1, is one of the districts of [[Isana]], situated within [[Awenhine remis]]. It is the northernmost district of the remis, situated on the eastern side of the mouth of the [[Rushalya river]], and is a relatively quiet district of the east bay area.

The name ''Iselniragan'' literally means &quot;Third Prince's Residence&quot;; the name comes from the late 17th century, when a royal prince established a major house in the area. While the residence itself is no longer existent, the site (also called Iselniragan) is now the centre of a park wherein an 18th century residence, built by royal decree, still stands.

==Site and Situation==

Iselniragan occupies one of the most scenic spots of the city, the Rushalya rivermouth; its relative greenery, as well as that of [[Ainosdunikara-dego]] which lies across the river, was however not natural but achieved through planning and great effort, as with most of the parkland areas within modern Isana. Having a large number of old buildings, many of which have been converted to artistic or other cultural uses, it is one of the more quiet areas of Awenkara, quite free from the bustle of the south.

Most commercial development takes place on the Gardaus coast, rather than around the Rushalya rivermouth; with only a few large malls the area consists mostly of specialty shops, supplying the workers in the area. At the same time Giregaus Road which stretches from the coast northeast into northern [[Garnoye remis]] has a reputation for famous high schools, with no less than three famous junior high and two senior high schools along it. 

==History==

==Iselniragan Today==

==Neighbourhoods==

==Famous Buildings==

==Notes==

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taiberseimi</title>
    <id>3596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16951</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T04:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Taiberseimi]] moved to [[Taiberseimi-dego]]: In order to better clarify the title of the district, and to bring it in line with naming practices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Taiberseimi-dego]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taibergute</title>
    <id>3597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T04:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Taibergute]] moved to [[Taibergute-dego]]: In order to better clarify the title of the district, and to bring it in line with other naming practices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Taibergute-dego]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duke of Andebrea</title>
    <id>3599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T06:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Duke of Andebrea''' was a noble rank in the pre-imperial [[Areth]] kingdom of [[Lazeia (kingdom)|Lazeia]], conferred on the second-born son of the king, or later, as primogeniture gave way to discretionary bequest, on the eldest child of the king other than the Crown Prince.

{{stub}}

[[Category: Ilethes]]
[[Category: History of Ilethes]]
[[Category: Politics of Ilethes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duke of Andebra</title>
    <id>3600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T06:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denihilonihil</username>
        <id>119</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bastenal-dego</title>
    <id>3601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T10:23:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bastenal-dego''', numerical designation E1-3, is one of the districts of [[Isana]], located within [[Awenhine remis]]. It is most famously known as being one of the major economic areas of the city, as well as housing the new [[Isana Stock Exchange]] building and the headquarters of the [[Risevan Central Bank]].

The word ''Bastenal'' refers to a certain large pavillion, and contains a fair amount of historical irony; being a word from classical [[Mirselec]] it carries a strong connotation of education and refinement, and in this context it referred to the many pavillions erected within this area, ostensibly for hard-working labourers to rest, and built by money donated by wealthy industrialists and the noveau-riche of Isana during the [[Ibakizaro]]. That they are built on the east side of the bay, instead of the west where the vast majority of the labourers were housed, gives the lie to these acts of charity; nonetheless these days some of the old surviving pavillions have become important historical locations within the city.

==Site and Situation==

==History==

==Bastenal Today==

==Neighbourhoods==

==Famous Buildings==

==Notes==

[[category:Neighbourhoods of Isana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Proto-Thesomalchellean</title>
    <id>3602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-09T12:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ebilein</username>
        <id>219</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Phonology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Proto-Thesom-Alchellean language''' is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Thesom-Alchellean languages. Although the existence of such a language has been accepted by linguists of the different realms for a long time, there has been debate about many specific details.

== Phonology ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Proto-Thesomalchellean Phonolgy - Consonants (traditional transcription)'''
|-
!
!Bilabials
!Dentals
!Palatals
!Velars
!Uvulars
|-
!Plosives
|p b
|t d
|c j
|k g
|q y
|-
!Aspiratae
|pʰ bʰ
|tʰ dʰ
|cʰ jʰ
|kʰ gʰ
|qʰ yʰ
|-
!Nasals
|m
|n
|
|ŋ
|
|-
!Sonorants
|
|s l r
|
|
|
|}

The Palatal and Uvular rows lack phonetic nasals.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Proto-Thesomalchellean Phonolgy - Vowels (traditional transcription)'''
|-
!Ablaut
!Front High
!Central Low
!Back High
|-
!Normal
!i
!a
!u
|-
!Long
!ī
!ā
!ū
|-
!Weak
!ĭ
!ă
!ŭ
|-
!A-Infixion
!aĭ
!aă
!aŭ
|}


== Roots ==

All scholars of Proto-Thesom-Alchellean have finally agreed that even ''before'' Proto-Thesom-Alchellean some basic language existed. This ante-Proto language is called '''The Root System'''. Roots are the most basic source of vocabulary, something that could be called “the bones of any language”.

Roots consist of characteristic consonants (one to four) and characteristic vowels (only one per root).

√BH-N-TH(A)
√TH-S(I)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lyonaske Province</title>
    <id>3603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>16999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T14:41:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lyonaske Province''' ([[Mirselec]] ''Lyonaske denai''), also known as Province 15, is a [[subdivisions of Risevne|province]] of [[Risevne]], situated in western central [[Masalne]] along [[Uniwa Bay]]. It borders [[Naguse Province]] to the south, [[Besurgana Province]] to the east, and [[Pires Province]] on the north. The provincial capital is the city of [[Eoyaza]].

Lyonaske was historically one of the more populated centres in the north, and has a rich history of settlement. Most notable is its history of settlement by foreigners, a tradition started when in 537 the [[Kingdom of Uriwana]] invited 60 distinguished scholars from what is modern-day [[Kavena]], beseeching them to help him compile a history of the area (a compendium that would later be called the [[Uriwana ta Keinoser]]). 

==Geography==

The geography of the province is dominated by two rivers, the [[Uremas river|Uremas]] and the [[Galagis river|Galagis]]; while they enter the province fron the northeast and east respectively they converge until, by the time they reach the sea, their mouths are only 11 kilometres away from each other. In certain years the smaller Uremas may even divert into the Galagis. Mostly hilly country with valleys, the main areas of settlement are along the valleys of these two rivers.

==History==

==Economy and Demography==

==Society and Culture==

==Constituent Counties==

==Towns and Cities==

*[[Eoyaza]], the provincial capital

*[[Isaheri]], often called &quot;the greatest fishing town of the west&quot;

==Famous Locations==

[[category:Provinces of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>King of Risevne</title>
    <id>3604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17002</id>
      <timestamp>2006-12-03T15:35:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirica</username>
        <id>257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[Monarch of Risevne]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Monarch of Risevne]]</text>
    </revision>